Title: Music emotions and associations in film music listening: the example of

leitmotifs from the “Lord of the Rings” movies

Author: Maria Chełkowska-Zacharewicz, Mateusz Paliga

Citation style: Chełkowska-Zacharewicz Maria, Paliga Mateusz. (2019).

Music emotions and associations in film music listening: the example of
leitmotifs from the “Lord of the Rings” movies. “Roczniki Psychologiczne”
(T. 22, z. 2 (2019), s. 151-175), doi 10.18290/rpsych.2019.22.2-4
 ROCZNIKI PSYCHOLOGICZNE /ANNALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
2019, XXII, 2, 151–175
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18290/rpsych.2019.22.2-4

MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ
MATEUSZ PALIGA
University of Silesia in Katowice, Institute of Psychology, Poland

MUSIC EMOTIONS AND ASSOCIATIONS

IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING:
THE EXAMPLE OF LEITMOTIFS
FROM THE LORD OF THE RINGS MOVIES8

The aim of the present study was to investigate which musical emotions and associations appeared
while listening to leitmotifs in film music. A sample of 157 participants took part in the study, in
which musical associations and emotions were analysed in relation to seven groups of musical
themes from The Lord of the Rings films (LOTR). The LOTR soundtrack is a good example of the
use of symbols in music to represent ideas, characters, etc. The results show that both the respon-
dents’ associations and the musical emotions they experienced were related to the characteristics of
musical motifs. The results are discussed in relation to the assumed features of musical motifs
composed by Howard Shore.

Keywords: film music; leitmotif; music-induced emotions; affect; The Lord of the Rings.

INTRODUCTION

Music is a kind of language that represents different feelings and emotions

(Davies, 2010). It relates our experience of and familiarity with music to its
structure and elements, which leads to finding meaning (Meyer, 1974). The

Corresponding author: MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ—University of Silesia, Institute

of Psychology, ul. Grażyńskiego 53, 40–126 Katowice, Poland; e-mail: maria.chelkowska-zachare
[email protected]
Funding: This research was conducted with no funding.
We wish to thank Nikolas Wojtas for his support in the process of preparing the musical
excerpts for the study.
152 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

symbols encompassed in music are strongly related to certain emotions (Juslin &
Sloboda, 2013). The emotional aspect of music seems indisputable. Music has
been used to induce moods (Västfjäll, 2001), express emotions (Juslin, 2013a),
and regulate emotional state (Saarikallio, 2011).
Research on music emotions has a strong and broad tradition (Juslin &
Sloboda, 2010), which has led to numerous studies in the last 20 years.
Simultaneously with music emotion research, attention was devoted to film
music, a fine example of emotionally strong music genre. Although the analysis
of the emotional aspect of film music was somehow neglected, it has been
implied that this genre is supposed to evoke strong emotions. The available
literature attests to an interest in how music influences the perception of movies
or the absorption of the viewer, etc. (for more, see: Cohen, 2010, 2014) rather
than in what kind of emotions are felt when listening to film music.
The assumption that music has a strong effect on film perception is the basic
reason for the presence of music motifs in movies (Green, 2010). However, to
our knowledge, it has scarcely been tested in music emotion research if certain
emotions indeed appear in listeners of film music themes.

Emotional reactions to music

When listening to music we may consider music emotions as either per-

ceived or felt (Gabrielsson, 2001). While we can perceive the emotional expres-
sion of a music piece, the emotional reactions that are evoked by music and
therefore subjectively experienced may appear different from the perceived ones
in type or strength (Kallinen & Ravaja, 2006). As music emotions tend to differ
from real-life emotions (Juslin, Liljeström, Västfjäll, Barradas, & Silva, 2008),
dedicated tools have been developed for their measurement. Such tools include
the Geneva Emotional Music Scale (Zentner, Grandjean & Scherer, 2008) or the
Geneva Emotional Music Affective Scale (Coutinho & Scherer, 2017).
The emotional reactions that are experienced in music listening may be
a result of various mechanisms that are described in the music emotion literature.
Juslin (2013b) established the BRECVEMA model that comprehensively covers
emotional variability and its correlates in music emotions. BRECVEMA stands
for eight mechanisms: brain stem reflex, rhythmic entrainment, evaluative condi-
tioning, emotional contagion, visual imagery, episodic memory, musical expec-
tancy, and aesthetic judgement (Juslin & Västfjäll, 2008; Juslin, 2013b). These
mechanisms are types of mediators between music and emotional reactions and
lead to the elicitation of music emotions in different ways (Juslin, Harmat, &
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 153

Eerola, 2014). Brain stem reflex, rhythmic entrainment, and emotional contagion
relate to reactions that occur with low cultural influence (Juslin, 2013b). By con-
trast, visual imagery, episodic memory, and evaluative conditioning involve ele-
ments that are not directly related to music, such as associations, past events, or
expectations that are results of subjects’ knowledge and experience and are there-
fore strongly influenced by culture (Juslin, 2013b). Musical expectancy and aes-
thetic judgement are also related to subjects’ knowledge and cultural background.
An indication that associations may be a possible mediator in the induction
of emotional reactions by music (Konečni, 2008) and that they may be respon-
sible for interpersonal differences in the emotional experience of music appears
not only in the BRECVEMA model. Personal stories including a situational con-
text, memories, and knowledge may be triggered by music and lead to different
emotional reactions that change according to these factors (Gabrielsson, 2010).

The role of emotions in film music

Film music adds an emotional dimension to the two-dimensional image

(Cohen, 2010; Hagen, 1971), thus playing important functions in movies (Cohen,
1998). A growing body of research on film music in the past two decades shows
academics’ great interest (see: Neumeyer, 2013) in investigating the impact that
film music has on viewers’ mood, perception, interpretation, and memory of film
information (e.g., Boltz, 2004; Cohen, 1998, 2010).
Film music can evoke and enhance spectators’ emotions, as well as create
a more convincing atmosphere of the presented time and place (Prendergast,
1992). When played parallelly with a scene from a movie, music can highlight its
emotional aspects (Boltz, 2001). For example, the emotion of joy experienced
while watching a scene of old friends reuniting after years of separation can
be accentuated by music that conveys a sense of happiness and rejoicing. The
soundtracks from Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho or Steven Spielberg’s Jaws are
among the most vivid examples of film music evoking emotions of fear in the
viewers. Music may also change the electrodermal responses (Thayer &
Levenson, 1983), which can serve as an objective indicator of its emotional
impact on spectators. Certain emotions can also be evoked or expressed by music
with the use of music cues. For example, by means of falling pitch contour, fast
tempo/speaking rate, and rising pitch contour in the music themes of Nazgûl in
The Fellowship of the Ring Howard Shore conveyed threat, danger, and fear
(Reymore, 2018).
154 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

Due to the relations, learned in ontogenetic development, between elements

of music and emotions, music can shape the perception and interpretation of
a movie scene and characters’ actions (Bordwell & Thompson, 2008; Tan,
Spackman, & Wakefield, 2017; Marshall & Cohen, 1988; Bolivar, Cohen, &
Fentress, 1994; Cohen, 1993). Melodies in minor key with syncopated rhythm
and sudden rhythm changes bring to mind an emotional reaction of anger,
whereas constant pitch and slow melodies may be perceived as sad and melodies
in a major key with simple consonant harmony are associated with the
expression of joy (Juslin & Sloboda, 2013).
Different emotional cues in music can influence the comprehension of events
occurring in the film; this may take place a result of music accompanying
a particular scene (Boltz, 2001) or as a result of music foreshadowing or
presented before a scene (Tan, Spackman, & Bezdek, 2007). Film music can also
affect the interpretation of characters’ behaviors (Bolivar et al., 1994) as well as
the memory of events or characters depicted in the film (Cohen, 1998). Music
emotionally congruent with the film can accentuate its emotional aspects, while
incongruent music may attenuate whatever emotional situations are displayed
(Boltz, 2001; Boltz, Schulkind, & Kantra, 1991). Music can serve as a cue that
encourages spectators to develop expectations about what is going to happen in
the film and to anticipate it to happen (Boltz, 2001). This conclusion corresponds
with Meyer’s (1974) point that music expectations lead to affective states, as
well as with Huron’s (2003) theory of musical expectation and the musical
expectancy mechanism in the BRECVEMA model (Juslin, 2013b).
In film music, designed to engage the audience, composers often use associa-
tions such as situational and context factors to elicit emotions. As an example of
evaluative conditioning mechanism, Juslin (2013b) mentioned a situation when
the experienced emotion is a result of an earlier exposure to a given musical
fragment, which co-occurred many times with a specific situation or person. In
this way, the affective meaning is transferred from the latter stimulus to the
music fragment. This mechanism, under the name of leitmotif, was utilized by
Wagner in his music dramas (Juslin, 2013b), where certain themes occur together
with specific characters, places, or situational contexts.

Leitmotif

To thoroughly understand the meaning of leitmotif, it is important to embed

the presented idea in a wider, semiotic context. As a science, semiotics studies
the relation that exists between the signifier (something physical, such as
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 155

a gesture or sound) and the signified (an image or concept the signifier refers to).
Among six types of signs, namely: symptoms, signals, icons, indexes, names,
and symbols, the last one is of particular interest in explaining the concept of
musical leitmotif. A symbol is a sign that stands for its referent in an arbitrary,
conventional way. Many signifiers can be symbolic—words, objects, figures, or
sounds, to name a few (Sebeok, 2001). Music, including film music, can also
serve as a symbol, and the musical leitmotif seems to be a paramount example.
The primary role of a leitmotif is, in essence, to stand for the character, object,
or place it represents (i.e., a sign function). A leitmotif is therefore established by
the composer through signifier–signified proximity (Chattah, 2006).
Leitmotif (Ger. “leading motif”) is a recurring short musical theme (Green,
2010) or idea (Hanning, 2002; Whittall, 2001). As a music-based signifier, it can
be identified as a simple melody, usually only a few measures in length (Green,
2010; Nagari, 2015). It refers to a signified, which can be a person, an object,
a place, idea, a state of mind, a supernatural force, or any other ingredient in
a dramatic work, including an emotion, plot development, or recurring dramatic
themes (DePree, 2017; Provenzano, 2008). Musical leitmotifs that signify
symbolic reality, such as certain characters, places, ideas, etc., subsequently
appear every time that the symbolic reality is shown or is about to be shown on
the screen (Walus, 2012). To establish the connection of a leitmotif with its
referent, the former needs to be repeated a few times for the audience to
understand the association (Green, 2010). Once the basic identifications are
made, leitmotifs can undergo various changes, including rhythmic, intervallic, or
harmonic changes, due to the development of storyline or characters in the film
(Hanning, 2002; Walus, 2012). However, the changes cannot be major ones, so
that leitmotifs retain their identity (Vilaro & Orero, 2013), remain recognizable
for the audience (Green, 2010), and play particular roles in the films they are part
of. Musical leitmotifs provide the signified objects with a new narrative
dimension (Otero, 2015), by using music in the objects’ stories (Nagari, 2015).
Serving as a signifier of changes happening to the character, the motif reappears
throughout the film, generating meaning and evoking emotions. Being a musical
representation of a character or idea, a leitmotif can symbolize that character
even if he or she appears in disguise (Green, 2010). Finally, a leitmotif can work
as a metonymy, having the power to fully replace the element it signifies (Vilaro
& Orero, 2013) if the signified is absent in the visuals or dialogue (Chattah,
2006). The overall significance of leitmotifs was noted by Richards (2016, p. 1),
who pointed out that musical themes “can become part of an entire film’s
156 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

identity, to the point where they are often referred to as ‘the theme from’ the film
in question.”

Leitmotifs in The Lord of the Rings movies

One of the most prominent examples of musical leitmotifs used in

cinematography is Howard Shore’s score for Peter Jackson’s The Lord of the
Rings (LOTR) trilogy. Shore won two Academy Awards (in 2002 and 2004) for
the best film score for the music composed for Jackson’s movies (Young, 2007),
as well as a Grammy Award; he was also nominated for a BAFTA Film Award
and a Golden Globe. The music he composed for the film adaptation of John
Ronald Reuel Tolkien’s novel has expanded from the initially released
soundtrack to include a limited edition of Complete Recordings, rare archived
recordings, symphonic concerts, and live cinematic performances (White, 2016),
becoming one of the significant factors in the film’s success (Marchwica, 2018).
In the LOTR movies, Howard Shore created an almost 9-hour-long
symphonic poem (Marchwica, 2018) with over ninety specific musical themes
(Adams, 2010). Using characteristic instruments and sound effects, he was able
to coin an intricate collection of leitmotifs that enabled him to use music to
illustrate the reality of Jackson’s film adaptation of Tolkien’s fictional world
called the Middle-earth, in which the action of The Lord of the Rings takes place.
The abundance of leitmotifs encompasses the main characters (Marchwica,
2018) and the entire races of Men, Elves, Orcs, and Hobbits (Tolkien, 2002), as
well as lands, key props (Young, 2007) such as the One Ring (a fictional artifact
that once belonged to the title character and the main antagonist), and the general
ideas of good and evil. Shore constructed the themes in such a way that subtle
connections may be seen between the motifs (Adams, 2010), which makes the
music even more illustrative of Tolkien’s world. For all the aforementioned
reasons and due to the use of similar thematic material throughout all three
instalments of The Lord of the Rings movies, Howard Shore’s work provides
excellent material for musematic analysis (Young, 2007).

Aim of the study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the emotions and associations that
appear while listening to film music, with motifs from the LOTR soundtrack as
the music material. Although there is some literature on leitmotifs and their
function in film and dramatic music, film music studies relate more broadly to
the functions of film music as such (Cohen, 2010, 2014). To our knowledge,
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 157

there has been little focus in research on how emotions and associations are
related to leitmotifs. Therefore, this study is an exploratory one.
Leitmotifs in the LOTR soundtrack can be organized into groups that relate
to certain characters or contexts. For example, there is a group of musical motifs
connected with the artefact called the ring of power, or with the fictional race of
hobbits (Tolkien, 2002). Each motif may be recognized as a symbol of some
ideas, features, and emotions. The first aim of this study was to find out what
kind of music-induced emotions emerge when listening to motifs from each
group. To address this problem, the first question was formulated: Q1: What
music emotions are felt when listening to groups of motifs from the LOTR
soundtrack?
The musical motif groups mentioned above are different in their character
and in the message that they are supposed to deliver. These differences can be
observed in music structure (Adams, 2010; Marchwica, 2018) and in the inter-
pretation of music itself (see Table 1). However, there remains the question of
whether these differences can translate into feelings that appear while listening
to music. The second question concerned this matter and read as follows: Q2: Do
the music-induced emotions that appear while listening to musical motif groups
differ across these groups?
To deepen this exploratory study, our aim was also to analyze what kind of
thoughts, ideas, and associations appear when listening to the music themes from
the motif groups. In order to supplement the analysis of emotional reactions to
film music and to investigate if Shore’s leitmotifs are interpreted in accordance
with his intention, we formulated the third question: Q3: What associations occur
when listening to the motif groups from the LOTR soundtrack?

METHOD

Sample and procedure

The study was conducted via Concerto v4, a platform for online testing. The
participants were recruited via convenience sampling from February to August
2017. The link to the study website was distributed among the LOTR forum
users, on Facebook, and on the website of a Polish film music radio RMF
Classic. The survey started with a consent form, followed by the explanation of
the study timeline. Each subject: (1) listened to one randomly chosen musical
motif from the LOTR for 24 to 59 seconds (the listening time depended on the
158 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

musical theme); (2) assessed the emotions felt while the music was being played
in a loop for the second time; (3) responded to the question about associations
while the music was being played in a loop for the third time; and (4) filled the
sociodemographic data and familiarity with the LOTR music. Stages 2 and 3
were repeated twice, which means each participant listened to two random music
pieces. However, some of the participants chose to listen to only one music
excerpt.
The participants in the study were 95 women, 31 men, and 31 subjects who
did not indicate their sex; they ranged in age from 16 to 56 (M = 26.83, SD =
= 6.61). Familiarity with the LOTR films was average in the sample (Me = 5.00
on a scale of 1 to 10) and familiarity with the LOTR soundtrack was low (Me =
= 2.00 on a scale of 1 to 10). The participants provided 219 to 230 answers on
felt emotions and 203 sets of answers on associations.

Measures and material

Measurement of music-induced emotions. The broad array of possible

emotional reactions to music should not be reduced to a short list of basic emo-
tions (Chełkowska-Zacharewicz & Janowski, in review). It is therefore advisable
to use dedicated measures in music emotion studies. One of the most popular and
comprehensive music emotion scales is the Geneva Emotional Music Scale
(GEMS; Zentner et al., 2008) which has been used in a number of music emotion
studies since its inception (Coutinho & Scherer, 2017). It encompasses diverse
emotional reactions that appear while listening to music. Therefore, to measure
emotional reactions to film music we chose the Polish adaptation of GEMS
(GEMS-PL; Chełkowska-Zacharewicz & Janowski, 2016; Chełkowska-Zacha-
rewicz & Janowski, in review). GEMS (Zentner et al., 2008) consists of nine
scales that represent emotional reactions to music, which can be reduced to three
dimensions (vitality, unease, and sublimity). The Polish version did not replicate
the second-order factor structure of GEMS and has one additional scale, Being
Moved (Pol. Wzruszenie),1 which was included in the final version of the
adaptation procedure. Thus, GEMS-PL consists of 10 scales (three items each):
Peacefulness, Tenderness, Joyful Activation, Tension, Power, Wonder, Transcen-
dence, Sadness, Nostalgia, and Being Moved with Cronbach’s alpha ranging

1 The Being Moved (Pol. Wzruszenie) scale consists of items related to tearfulness in GEMS,

and might be interpreted in GEMS-PL as a feeling similar to but not the same as being
moved / touched.
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 159

from .75 to .92. The respondent evaluates the intensity of feelings when listening
to a music excerpt on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very strongly).
Measurement of associations. We measured the associations occurring
while listening to the LOTR music motifs by asking the participants an open-
ended question: “What comes to your mind when you are listening to this music
fragment? What associations do you have with it?”. No specific number of
associations was required.
Musical excerpts. The musical excerpts contained audio material only and
were cut out of the original the LOTR soundtrack in Audacity 2.1.2 software.
The length of each piece varied from 24 to 59 seconds (see Table 1) depending
on the motif length. To assure that the most important symbols of the LOTR
story were represented, we chose seven groups according to the analysis
presented by Adams (2010) with a total of 15 the LOTR musical motifs as their
representations (see Table 1). Table 1 includes the information about musical
symbols and the symbolized reality represented in each group, which was used in
further analysis to compare the target emotions and associations with the actual
music-induced emotions and associations that occurred when listening to LOTR
music motifs.

Table 1. Musical Motif Groups With Encompassing Musical Motifs, Their Music Symbols, and
Symbolized Reality
Musical motifs
No. Motif group Music symbols (sign) Symbolized reality (referent)
(Adams, 2010)
1 Good / Nature Nature’s Reclamation —soprano theme; rising —power, purity
(38) (28’’, 17), The White melody —hope of the good
Rider (27’’, 21) —clear orchestral colors
(Adams, 2010); links with
Nature’s Reclamation theme

2 Evil (43) Orc Theme (24’’, 18), —harsh; low brass melody —the instruments used by
The Five Beat Pattern (Young, 2007) Orcs (Young, 2007)
(37’’, 8), Ring Wrights —strong metric and rhyth- —the power and terror of
(59’’, 17) mic patterns; low register; those who want to destroy
lower brass instruments the world
(Marchwica, 2018) —fear-evoking
—percussion instruments —the threat of incoming war
(anvils, metal bell plates, —dread and malice (Adams,
bass drum etc.; Adams, 2010; Reymore, 2018)
2010)
—choral, mono-rhythmic,
contourless in structure
(Adams, 2010)
—falling and rising pitch
contour (Reymore, 2018)
160 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

3 The Ring The Evil of the Ring —Eastern-tinted —aesthetics of prior age
(26) (36’’, 12), History of harmonics, augmented (Adams, 2010)
the Ring (49’’, 14) second (Adames, 2010) —lore and lie that is the
—Moroccan double reed Ring’s nature, villainous
instrument (Adams, 2010) inclinations represented in
the Ring (Adams, 2010)

4 Hobbits (42) Shire Pensive Setting —folk leading instruments —home recollection; folksy,
(24’’, 22), Shire Rural (the fiddle, the whistle, the serene life (Adams, 2010),
Setting (36’’, 20) flute, strings, or wood- —interest in worldly goods:
winds) food and drink; safety and
—light orchestration creat- friendship (Tolkien, 2002)
ing simple, dance-like —unconstrained joy,
melodies in major mode carefree fun (Marchwica,
(Marchwica, 2018; Young, 2018)
2007)

5 Men (32) The Rohan Fanfare —French horns (Young, —the former glory and the
(48’’, 15), The Realm 2007) coming of the re-established
of Gondor (41’’, 17) —brass instruments kingdom
(Adams, 2010) —Tolkien’s description of
—Nordic influences (i.e., the blowing of the horns of
Hardanger fiddle) in the Rohan (Adams, 2010)
Rohan Fanfare (Adams,
2010)

6 Elves (35) Lothlórien (44’’, 12), —chromatic harmonies —unreal, dehumanized

Rivendell (40’’, 9), (Adams, 2010), world, beyond time and
Evenstar (31’’, 14) —minor mode reality (Marchwica, 2018)
—use of exotic East Indian – nostalgia for the bygone
and African instruments greatness
(ney flute and sarangi) —“neither sad, happy,
—echo effect aggressive nor passive, but
—women’s choir singing in aloof” (Adams, 2010, p. 51),
an antiphonal manner therefore uneasy, with
(Marchwica, 2018) a touch of threat and mystery
—arpeggiated viola melody
line imitating a harp part
(Young, 2007)

7 The The Fellowship of the —melody in minor mode —the stoutheartedness and
Fellowship Ring (30’’, 14) —harmonization in major kindness of the members of
(14) mode the Fellowship
—orchestration that —heroic and triumphant
evolves along with the plot (DePree, 2017)
(Adams, 2010)

Note. The numbers in parentheses indicate (1) the frequency of occurrence of a given musical motif in the study
and (2) the length of the music piece (in seconds) encompassing the motif.
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 161

RESULTS

Each question was analyzed separately. The first and second questions are
analyzed in the Felt music-induced emotions section, and the third question is
analyzed in the Associations section.

Felt music-induced emotions

To identify the music-induced emotions felt while listening to the LOTR
music (Q1), we calculated the descriptive statistics. As music-induced emotions
tend to have skewed distribution (Chełkowska-Zacharewicz, 2017), we used
medians in the description below. The box-plots presented in Figure 1 confirm
this tendency, showing the skewed distribution of the data. In the group listening
to Good/ Nature themes (the Good/ Nature group) the scores were the lowest on
the Being Moved and Sadness scales (Me = 3.00) and the highest on the Power
scale (Me = 12.00). In the group listening to Evil themes (the Evil group)
participants scored the lowest in Being Moved and Tenderness (Me = 3.00) and
the highest in Wonder (Me = 10.00). The group listening to Ring motifs (the Ring
group) had the lowest Joyful Activation, Tenderness, Being Moved, and Tension
scores (Me = 4.00) and, similarly to the Evil group, the highest Wonder scores
(Me = 10.00). The group listening to the Fellowship theme had similar scores as
the Good/ Nature group: the lowest on emotions such as Sadness, Being Moved,
and Tension (in each case, Me = 3.00) and the highest on the Power and Wonder
scales (Me = 12.00). Score patterns for the motifs associated with characters
from the Middle-earth differed slightly. While for the groups listening to Men
and Hobbits themes (the Men group and the Hobbit group) the lowest scores
were obtained on the Tension scale (Me = 3.00)—for Hobbits, Sadness scores
were low as well (Me = 3.00); the group listening to Elves themes (the Elves
group) scored low on Being Moved (Me = 3.50). The highest scores for Elves
and Men were obtained on Wonder (Me = 11.50 and Me = 11.00, respectively)
and Nostalgia (Me = 11.00 in both motif groups), while for Hobbits the scores
were the highest on Tenderness (Me = 11.00) and Peacefulness (Me = 12.00).
To verify whether emotions experienced while listening to music differ
across motif groups (Q2), we used the Kruskal-Wallis rank test with multiple
comparisons of mean ranks. The results along with the indication of significant
differences between the motif groups are presented in Table 2. Due to the online
design of the study, some of the participants did not respond to several GEMS-
PL items. This resulted in different numbers of participants for particular motifs
in different scales. Therefore, in Table 2, presenting the results of the test, the
number of participants is given for each motif group in each scale.
162 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

Figure 1. Box plots with median and 5-95 percentiles for GEMS-PL in 7 motif groups.
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 163

Table 2. Results of the Kruskal-Wallis Rank Test for Seven Motif Groups

Mean ranks
H
(df = 6) Good / The
Elves Hobbits Ring Men Evil
Nature Fellowship

Peacefulness 63.113*** 108.73 121.39 255.53 75.86 129.23 53.42 104.46

(N = 37) (N = 33) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 37) (N = 14)
c, f f a, d c, e d, f a, b, c, e

Tenderness 76.91*** 109.17 124.02 162.31 73.04 122.40 49.08 95.71

(N = 36) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 37) (N = 14)
c d, f a, d, f, g b, c f a, b, c, d, e c

Tension 50.48*** 95.99 115.31 66.51 119.96 94.79 156.07 91.89

(N = 35) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 24) (N = 31) (N = 36) (N = 14)
f c b, d, f c f a, c, e, g f

Joyful Activation 41.65*** 115.89 73.88 154.49 84.72 96.61 97.37 139.00
(N = 37) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 38) (N = 14)
c, g b, d, e, f c c c b

Power 34.03*** 131.49 84.64 83.00 83.54 135.48 107.66 156.15

(N = 37) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 38) (N = 13)
b, c e, g a, e, g e, g b, c, d b, c, d

Wonder 13.13* 116.03 116.28 89.14 96.88 129.53 91.11 124.11

(N = 36) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 30) (N = 37) (N = 14)

Transcendence 27.41*** 117.72 139.56 76.58 99.44 131.92 90.30 106.82

(N = 37) (N = 32) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 37) (N = 14)
c, f b, e c b

Nostalgia 51.59*** 120.84 139.31 103.71 94.64 142.43 54.89 79.85

(N = 37) (N = 32) (N = 38) (N = 25) (N = 30) (N = 37) (N = 13)
f f f f, g a, b, c, e e

Sadness 31.97*** 93.69 123.50 77.99 147.94 116.08 111.92 80.61

(N = 37) (N = 31) (N = 39) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 36) (N = 14)
d c b, d a, c, g d

Being Moved 17.29** 100.01 118.88 106.03 124.50 122.40 78.68 109.96
(N = 36) (N = 32) (N = 38) (N = 25) (N = 31) (N = 37) (N = 14)

Column name A B C D E F G

Note. H—Kruskal-Wallis test, df—degrees of freedom, N—number of observations, a-g—significant differences

in multiple comparisons tests of mean ranks (p < .05). * p < .05, ** p < .01, *** p < .001.
164 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

The Kruskal-Wallis test showed significant differences in all GEMS-PL

scales. The multiple comparisons tests of mean ranks performed for each scale
showed differences between the compared groups for all scales except Being
Moved and Wonder.
While listening to the Evil group of motifs, the subjects felt a lower level of
Peacefulness in comparison to the Ring and the Fellowship groups, and while
listening to Hobbits themes they reported a higher level of Peacefulness than in
the case of Evil, the Ring, and Good/Nature themes. Tenderness was lower in the
Evil group in all comparisons except the Ring and the Fellowship groups.
Subjects from the Hobbits group scored higher on Tenderness compared to the
Good/ Nature, Ring, Evil, and Fellowship groups. The Ring group scored lower
on Tenderness in comparison with the Elves and Hobbits groups. Tension scores
were higher in the Evil group in comparison to all others except the Elves and
the Ring groups. In the Hobbits group, Tension was lower than in the Elves,
Ring, and Evil groups. Joyful Activation was higher in the Hobbits group in
comparison with all other groups but Good/Nature and the Fellowship. The
Elves group had a lower level of Joyful Activation in comparison with the
Hobbits and Fellowship groups. In the Fellowship group, Power was higher than
in the Hobbits, Ring, and Men groups. A lower level of Power was found in the
Elves group compared to the Good/ Nature, Men, and Fellowship groups; Power
was also lower in the Hobbits group than in the Good/Nature, Men, and
Fellowship groups, and lower in the Ring group than in the Men and Fellowship
groups. For Transcendence, higher scores were obtained in the Elves group in
comparison with Hobbits and Evil; Transcendence scores in the Men group were
higher than in the Hobbits group. Sadness scores were higher in the Ring group
than in the Good/ Nature, Hobbits, and Fellowship groups. Sadness was lower in
the Hobbits group compared to the Ring and Elves groups. In the case of the
Nostalgia scale, lower scores were obtained in the Evil group compared to all the
other groups except those that listened to the Ring and the Fellowship motifs.
The Men group scored higher in Nostalgia than the Fellowship group.

Associations

We obtained 388 associations, ranging from 1 to 4 between subjects

(M = 1.46). To investigate Q3, 388 subjects’ answers were assessed by two peer
judges—psychologists. To ensure objectivity and avoid bias, the judges followed
a three-step procedure: (1) independently creating categories encompassing
participants’ responses and assigning each answer to the appropriate category,
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 165

(2) discussing any differences between the created categories and the assignment
of responses, and (3) creating the final categories and establishing response
assignments upon mutual agreement. The categories encompass associations
with films (LOTR, The Hobbit, and others; see Table A1 in Appendix) and non-
-film associations (see Table A2 in Appendix).
Out of 56 associations with films, the most popular ones were those with the
LOTR trilogy (Table A1 in Appendix). The association appeared mostly in
the Hobbits theme group. The category “other movies” included both general
answers such as “movie about the Middle Ages,” “Irish movie,” “historical film,”
or “a good movie,” and specific responses with titles such as Braveheart,
Pocahontas, Avatar, or Star Trek. The third group of film associations were those
with The Hobbit movie.
The 332 non-film associations reported by the participants (Table A2 in
Appendix) included ideas (131 answers, 39%), objects (99 answers, 30%),
emotions (52 answers, 16%), states of mind (27 answers, 8%), space or place
(14 answers, 4%), supernatural elements (6 answers, 2%), and characters
(3 answers, 1%). Table A2 in Appendix presents all general associations (ideas,
objects, states of mind, emotions, space, characters, and supernatural elements)
and the respective specific associations (i.e., victory, nature, hope, and positive
emotions), as well as subjects’ sample answers.
Some differences could be observed among participants presented with
music themes from different groups. Subjects listening to Good/Nature themes
were likely to report associations with ideas (28 answers, 55%), objects (10 an-
swers, 20%), states of mind (5 answers, 10%), emotions (5 answers, 10%), and
space (3 answers, 6%). Listening to Elves theme music came with connotations
of ideas (27 answers, 44%), objects (12 answers, 20%), emotions (7 answers,
11%), space (5 answers, 8%), supernatural elements (5 answers, 8%), characters
(3 answers, 5%), and state of mind (2 answers, 3%). In the case of Hobbits music
themes, the most frequent associations were objects (21 answers, 45%) and
emotions (16 answers, 34%). The Ring themes were mostly associated with ideas
(16 answers, 41%) and emotions (9 answers, 23%). Evil music themes were
generally associated with ideas (20 answers, 34%), objects (24 answers, 41%),
and emotions (10 answers, 17%). For the themes of Men, the most frequent
associations were ideas (23 answers, 40%) and objects (21 answers, 37%).
The Fellowship of the Ring motifs correlated mostly with thoughts of ideas
(13 answers, 68%).
166 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

DISCUSSION

The LOTR soundtrack is an excellent example of leitmotif use in film music.

Music symbols that included certain instruments, scales, timbres, etc. were used
by Howard Shore to vividly paint the whole movie scenery. Our study set out to
analyze the emotional reactions and associations that may appear while listening
to the LOTR music.
Regarding music-induced emotions and associations that appeared while
listening to the LOTR soundtrack, we observed that participants felt music-
induced emotions and had associations that were related to the symbolic
characteristics of music themes.
The most distinctive differences in music-induced emotions appeared in the
group listening to Hobbits motifs than in other groups. The subjects in this group
scored high on Peacefulness, Tenderness, and Joyful Activation, which may
relate to the carefree joy (Marchwica, 2018) and the feeling of safety (Adams,
2010) that characterized the movie characters in question. The low Tension and
Sadness scores also seem to be in line with Hobbits’ lifestyle (Tolkien, 2002)
and their serene nature (Adams, 2010). The lower Transcendence scores may
mirror the rustic life with the praise of worldly goods (Adams, 2010). The
associations that came to subjects’ minds included mostly object of nature and
positive emotions (see Table A2 in Appendix). This shows the vividness of
Shore’s hobbits leitmotifs, which were created not only to musically describe
hobbits life and unconstrained joy (Marchwica, 2018), but also their habitat in
a very natural land of meadows, fields, and gardens (Tolkien, 2002).
A number of significant differences were observed also for subjects listening
to Evil motifs in comparison to other groups. Their higher Tension and lower
Peacefulness and Tenderness may relate to the fear, terror, and threat that are
illustrated in the music. The dread and threat of Evil music motifs (Reymore,
2018), as well as the illustration of incoming war (Adams, 2010), were also
mirrored in associations, as participants listening to them had thoughts of
negative emotions, danger, battle, and something explicitly evil (see Table A2 in
Appendix). However, other associations such as power, victory, and majesty, or
nature were also noted and did not relate to Shore’s or Adams’s (2010) direct
description. These associations were not mirrored in music-induced emotions, as
the feeling of Power was not strong in this group.
Subjects’ answers on associations while listening to the Ring group of motifs
were related to majesty, power, and danger, as well as to negative emotions and
states of mind such as reflection or anticipation (see Table A2 in Appendix).
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 167

They were in line with Shore’s idea of musically illustrating the Ring’s
mysterious character, the ability to control minds of others, its association with
evil (Young, 2007), and villainous inclinations (Adams, 2010). However, the
listeners’ music emotions were somehow contradictory to these associations, as
their Sadness score was higher and the Power score was lower than in other
music groups. Power in GEMS (Zentner et al., 2008) relates to victory and
triumph, while in the Ring motifs the power was rather related to danger and evil
strength (Adams, 2010). Therefore, another possible explanation involves
sadness as the listener’s complementary reaction to the power perceived in music
rather than as a reflection of his or her feelings of power.
While listening to the Elves motifs, participants indicated that they thought
of ideas such as mystery, majesty, beauty, and good, objects connected with
nature, mostly positive emotions, space and places such as a castle, and super-
natural elements of magic and fantasy (see Table A2 in Appendix). Participants
also explicitly reported an association with the elf characters. These unique
associations, different than others because they involve supernatural elements
and the notion of elves, reflect Shore’s idea of musically painting the unreal,
dehumanized elvish world, beyond time and reality (Marchwica, 2018). At the
same time, there were strong emotional reactions in the case of Transcendence
and weak ones in the case of Joyful Activation, which is consistent with the
characteristics of elves, bringing to mind nostalgia, threat, and the mystery of the
wise and dignified race from Tolkien’s Middle-earth (Adams, 2010).
The last three groups scored similarly high on Power compared to other
groups. Men, Fellowship, and Good/Nature music listeners did not obtain other
strong or distinctive results regarding music-induced emotions. Although in all
these groups there appeared thoughts connected with victory, the subjects asso-
ciated music motifs from these groups differently. The listeners of Good/Nature
motifs reported associations with ideas such as victory, majesty, and power, as
well as objects connected with nature. They also thought of space, hope, and
positive emotions (see Table A2 in Appendix). Such associations are in line with
the plot of the LOTR, where Eagles or Ents join the fight in the battle scenes
(Adams, 2010) and help to eventually defeat the evil (Tolkien, 2002).
Participants listening to the Men group of motifs indicated thoughts such as
ideas of victory and journey, objects connected with nature and battle, and states
of mind such as reflection and positive emotions (see Table A2 in Appendix).
The results show strong relations to the intentions of the race of Men in The Lord
of the Rings (Tolkien, 2002) and to their deeds that led to the post-battle re-estab-
168 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

lishment of the once fallen kingdom—something that Shore illustrated in his

music (Adams, 2010).
The associations reported by participants listening to the Fellowship group
of motifs encompassed mostly ideas of victory, power, and journey, as well
as nature and battle-related objects, hope, and positive emotions (see Table A2 in
Appendix). Thus, they reflected Shore’s illustration of the Fellowship, its
mission of changing the fate of Middle-earth (Tolkien, 2002), its power
in the union of Middle-earth’s stouthearted people, and their journey that ended
in the defeat of the title Lord of the Rings (Adams, 2010).
As presented, while listening to the chosen music motifs, participants felt
emotions and associations mostly consistent with Howard Shore’s intentions
(Adams, 2010). The results obtained in this study show how much of an impact
the music from The Lord of the Rings has on listeners, being a very good
example of the possibilities that music offers to film works.
However, it must be noted that some of the symbols utilized in the LOTR
music may be more vivid for Polish listeners (as representatives of Western
music listeners). For example, rhythmic, lively music in major mode indicates
joy and happiness (Juslin & Sloboda 2012), which may have resulted in
a stronger distinctiveness of listeners’ emotions and associations in the case of
the Hobbits motif group in comparison to other groups. Similarly, the minor
mode and dissonances or lower pitch may bring to mind the expression of fear
(Juslin & Sloboda, 2013), which might have resulted in quite distinctive
emotional responses in the case of the Evil music motifs listeners. Possibly, the
music-induced emotions that the subjects felt were not as strong as the emotions
that they perceived in LOTR music. The latter, however, were not measured in
this study. This suggests an interesting future direction for research where a clear
distinction between felt and perceived emotions would be made; the two types of
music emotions could be compared and measured.

Limitations and future research

The sample in the study was not very large, and the study design did not
allow us to ensure an equal number of participants in all motif groups. As the
music was selected randomly by the software, different motif groups were
presented unevenly, the number of listeners in a group ranging from 14 to 42.
The results are therefore limited and should be interpreted carefully; further
analysis is needed, with a larger sample and an equal count of participants in
motif groups.
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 169

For the purpose of the study, we included the rating of familiarity with the
LOTR music and movies. The question about the familiarity was asked at the
very end of the procedure in order to avoid bias among participants. Familiarity
level was average in the case of the movies and low in the case of the music.
These results, along with the fact that the music evoked relatively few
associations strictly related to the LOTR movies, allowed us to assume that the
results were not mainly influenced by the participants’ knowledge of the plot.
Nevertheless, the results for emotion scales as well as for associations may have
been biased by this knowledge and should be interpreted with caution. Therefore,
future research should control for the familiarity of the LOTR movies.
Unfortunately, due to the small sample size, this kind of analysis would not be
robust for the data set collected in the present study.

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172 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

APPENDIX

Table A1. Film Associations with the LOTR Soundtrack

Motif group
Film
association Good / Fellowship
Elves Hobbits Ring Men Evil Total
Nature of the Ring

The Lord
2 4 10 4 04 5 3 32
of the Rings
Other
4 2 02 2 05 1 2 18
movies
The Hobbit 0 0 05 0 01 0 0 06
Total 6 6 17 6 10 6 5 56

Table A2. Non-Film Associations with the LOTR Soundtrack

Categorization level
Motif group
General Specific Detailed (Sample answers)
Glory / victory „glory,” “victory,” “overcoming
(7; 25%) obstacles”
Majesty “sublime moment,” “sublimity,”
(10; 36%) “something sublime, solemn”
“power and greatness,” “power and
Power (4; 14%)
energy”
“journey,” “exploring new territories,”
Journey (4; 14%)
“discovering a hidden land”
Adventure
“adventure”
(1; 4%)
Beauty (1; 4%) “something beautiful”
“people saying goodbye to a departing
Parting (1; 4%)
Idea (28; 51%) ship”
“horses galloping in boundless green
Nature (8; 80%)
valleys,”, “mountains,” “clouds”
Battle / battle “a song before the battle,” “war is over,”
Object (10; 10%) objects (2; 20%) getting ready for a battle”
Hope (2; 40%) “hope,” “someone finds hope”
Reflection
“reflection”
(2; 40%)
State of mind Anticipation
“waiting for something important”
(5; 10%) (1; 20%)
Positive emotion “a very positive moment,” “serenity,”
(3; 60%) “relaxation”
Emotion Negative emotion “anxiety,” “sad life events,” “hivers and
(5; 10%) (2; 40%) nervousness”
Good / Nature “space,” “the world from a bird’s-eye
Space (3; 100%)
(51, 100%) Space (3; 6%) view”
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 173

Glory / victory
“victory”
(2; 7%)
Majesty (5; 19%) “sublimity,” “grandeur”
Power (3; 11%) “power,” “feeling of inner power”
Journey (1; 4%) “journey beyond the horizon”
Danger (3; 11%) “danger and threat”
Beauty (4; 15%) “beauty,” “beauty of the world”
Mystery (5; 19%) “mystery,” “something mysterious”
Idea (27; 44%) Good (4, 15%) “triumph of the good”
Elves (3; 5%) Elves (3; 100%) “Elf,” “elves”
“sailing on a ship in the far sea,”
Nature (9; 75%) “blooming flowers,” “green mountains,”
“flying birds”
Battle / battle
“battle with oneself”
Object (12; 20%) objects (3; 25%)
Reflection
“reflection that one needs to be strong”
(1; 50%)
State of mind Anticipation
“sort of anticipation”
(2; 3%) (1; 50%)
Positive emotion “happiness,” “endless happiness,”
(5; 71%) “excitement”
Emotion Negative emotion
“a sad moment”
(7; 11%) (2; 29%)

Supernatural Magic (3; 60%) “magic,” “dark magic practice”

(5; 8%) Fantasy (2; 40%) “fantasy,” “unreal world”
“gliding in the vast sky", “great space,
Space (2; 40%)
void”
Elves (61, 100%) Space (5; 8%) Castle (3; 60%) “castle,” “castle in the mountains”
Journey (1; 25%) “journey”
Adventure
“adventure”
Idea (4; 9%) (3; 75%)
“meadows,” “flower-smelling meadows,”
Nature (19; 90%)
“great meadows,” “nature,” “mountains”
Object (21; 45%) Orchestra (2; 10%) “instruments”
Hope (1; 20%) “hope”
State of mind Reflection “encourages me to reflect on some
(5; 11%) (4; 80%) issues,” “reflection”
Emotion Positive emotion “general peace,” “cheerful moments,”
(16; 34%) (16; 100%) “optimism,” “sheer joy,” “relaxation”
Hobbits Supernatural
Magic (1; 100%) “magic”
(47, 100%) (1; 2%)
174 MARIA CHEŁKOWSKA-ZACHAREWICZ, MATEUSZ PALIGA

Glory / victory “victorious battle”

(2; 13%)
Majesty (4; 25%) “majesty”
Power (3; 19%) “power”
Danger (3; 19%) “something dangerous approaching”
Parting (2; 13%) “parting”
Idea (16; 41%) Evil (2; 13%) “evil general at war”
“a ship swimming in a turbulent ocean,”
Nature (4; 57%)
“desert lands”
Battle / battle
“cruel battle”
objects (2; 29%)
Orchestra
“orchestral concert”
Object (7; 18%) (1; 14%)
Hope (1; 17%) “ray of hope”
Reflection
“reflective music”
(3; 50%)
State of mind Anticipation
“anticipating something big”
(6; 15%) (2; 33%)
Positive emotion
“peace,” “calmness”
(2; 22%)
Emotion Negative emotion “private matter that is very unpleasant to
(9; 23%) (7; 78%) me,” “fear,” “tension”
Ring (39, 100%) Space (1; 3%) Space (1; 100%) “big, wide spaces in nature”
Glory / victory
“victory”
(8; 35%)
Majesty (2; 9%) “majestic music”
Power (3; 13%) “power”
“journey with companions,” “end of
Journey (5; 22%)
a journey”
Adventure (2; 9%) “heading for adventure”
Mystery (1; 4%) “mysterious landscapes”
Idea (23; 40%) Parting (2; 9%) “parting and farewell”
“mustang herd in full gallop,” “meadow,”
Nature (9; 43%)
“nature,” “sea”
Battle / battle
“battle,” “warriors,” “fighting in a battle”
objects (11; 52%)
Object (21; 37%) Orchestra (1; 5%) “playing in an orchestra”
Reflection
“reflection”
(3; 60%)
State of mind Anticipation
“anticipation of facing something hard”
(5; 9%) (2; 40%)
Positive emotion “satisfaction when something hard has
(3; 75%); been achieved”
Negative emotion
“grief,” “sadness”
Emotion (4; 7%) (1; 25%)
Space (1; 25%) “free space”
Men (57, 100%) Space (4; 7%) Castle (3; 75%) “reminds me of a castle”
 EMOTIONS IN FILM MUSIC LISTENING 175

Glory / victory “I fell but I’ve gotten up and won,”

(3; 15%) “victory”
Majesty (3; 15%) “greatness of a man”
Power (7; 35%) “power,” “force”
Danger (5; 25%) “terror”
Idea (20; 34%) Evil (2; 10%) “something evil”
Nature (3; 13%) “some kind of a meadow”
Battle / battle
“battle atmosphere,” “battle,” “getting
objects
ready for a battle,” “a view after a battle”
(20; 83%)
Orchestra
“orchestral music”
Object (24; 41%) (1; 4%)
Reflection
„thinking about final matters”
(1; 33%)
State of mind Anticipation “something is about to happen, what will
(3; 5%) (2; 67%) happen next?”
Positive emotion
“idyll”
(1; 10%)
Emotion Negative emotion
“stress,” “tension,” “anxiety”
(10; 17%) (9; 90%)
Evil (58, 100%) Space (1; 2%) Space (1; 100%) “great spaces”
Glory / victory
“victory”
(5; 38%)
Majesty (1; 8%) “sublimity”
Power (3; 23%) “power,” “force”
“group of friends embarking on
Journey (2; 15%)
a journey,” “journeys”
Adventure
“adventure”
(1; 8%)
Idea (13; 68%) Beauty (1; 8%) “beauty of nature”
Nature (1; 25%) “beauty of nature”
Battle / battle
“triumph after a battle”
objects (2; 50%)
Orchestra “great orchestra in a beautiful concert
Object (4; 21%) (1;25%) hall”
State of mind
Hope (1; 100%) “hope”
(1; 5%)
Fellowship of the Positive emotion
“happiness”
Ring (19, 100%) Emotion (1; 5%) (1; 100%)
Total (332)
Note. The numbers and percentages in parentheses show the frequency of indication of the association at the
respective categorization level for each motif group.