Subject: Chemistry

Teacher: Dr. Gustave

Chemistry is interconnected to a vast array of other STEM disciplines.

Chemistry is a science based on observation and experimentation.

Chemists often formulate a hypothesis - a tentative explanation of observations.

The laws of a science summarize a vast number of experimental observations, and describe or predict
some facet of the natural world.

Theory - A well-substantiated, comprehensive, testable explanation of a particular aspect of nature.

Hypothesis becomes a theory and then a theory can become a law.

THE DOMAINS OF CHEMISTRY

Chemists study and describe the behavior of matter and energy in three different domains.

1) The macroscopic domain is familiar to us: It is the realm of everyday things that are large enough to
be sensed directly by human sight or touch.

2) The microscopic domain of chemistry is almost always visited in the imagination. Micro also comes
from Greek and means "small". Some aspects of the microscopic domains are visible through a
microscope.

3) The symbolic domain contains the specialized language used to represent components of the
macroscopic and microscopic domains, such as chemical symbols.
PHASES AND CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Matter - anything that occupies space and has mass.

The three most common states or phases of matter:

1) A solid is rigid and posses a definite shape.

2) A liquid flows and takes the space of its container.

3) A gas takes both the shape and volume of its container.

Plasma: A fourth state of matter

Plasma - A gaseous state of matter that contains an appreciable amount of electrically charged particles.

Plasma has unique properties distinct from ordinary gases

Plasma is found in certain high temperature environments.

Naturally: Stars, Lightning.

Man-made: Television screens.

Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object

Weight refers to the force that gravity exerts on an object

An object's mass is the same on the earth and the moon but its weight is different.

Law of conservation of matter

This is true for both chemical and physical changes

Elements

An element is a type of pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler subtances by chemical
changes.

The known elements are displayed in the periodic table.

There are more than 100 known elements.

90 of these occur naturally

Two dozen or so have been created in laboratories

Atoms and molecules

Atom - The smallest particle of an element that has the properties of that element and can center into a
chemical combination.

Molecule - Consists of two or more atoms connected by strong forces known as chemical bonds.

Only a few elements exist as individual atoms.

Most elements exist as molecules where two or more atoms of the same element are bonded together.

The elements hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur form molecules consisting of two or more
atoms of the same element.

Many molecules consist of two or more atoms of different elements.

The compounds water, carbon dioxide, and glucose consist of combinations of atoms of different
elements.

Red - Hydrogen

White - Oxygen

Black - Carbon

Pure Substances And Mixtures

Pure substances have constant composition,

Elements - pure substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substance by chemical changes.

Consists of one type of element

Compounds - pure substances that can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical changes.

Consists of two or more types of elements chemically bonded.

The properties of compounds are different from the uncombined elements making up the compound.

Breaking Down A Compound

Upon heating, the compound, mercury(II) oxide, is broken down into its elements, mercury and oxygen

Mercury(II) Oxide

2HgO > 2Hg + O2

Evaporation is an exmaple of a physical change.

There are two types of mixtures: Homogenous mixture and Heterogeneous mixtures.

Homogenous - exhibits a uniform composition and appears visually completely mixed

Another name is a solution

Heterogeneous - not completely mixed

Physical And Chemical Properties

The characteristics that enables us to disthinguish one substance from another are called properties.

A physical property is a characteristic of matter that is not associated with a change in its chemical
composition.

A physical change is a change in the state or properties of matter without any accompanying change in
its chemical composition.

The change of one type of matter into another type(or the inability to change) is a chemical property

Extensive Properties And Intensive Properties

Extensive property

Depends on the amount of matter present

Examples: Mass, Volume, Heat

Intensive property
Does not depend on the amount of matter present

Examples: Density, Temperature

Measurements

Measurements provide the information that is the basis of most of the hypotheses, theories and laws in
chemistry

Units

Without units a number can be meaningless or confusing!

In chemistry we use an updated version of the metric system known as the International System of Units

Early Ideas In Atomic Theory

In 1807, English schoolteacher, John Dalton, proposed his atomic theory.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

Dalton's atomic theory can be summarized in five postulates.

1)Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an
element that can participate in a chemical change.

2)An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a mass that is characteristic of the element
and is the same for all atoms of that element.

3)Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all other elements.
4)A Compound consists of atoms of two or more elements combined in a small, whole-number ratio. In
a given compound, the number of atoms of each of its elements are always present in the same ratio.

5)Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a chemical change, but instead rearrange to yield a
different type(s) of matter.

Law Of Conservation Of Matter

Dalton's atomic theory provides a microscopic explanation of the many macroscopic properties of
matter that you're learned about.

If atoms are neither creates nor destroyed during a chemical change, then the total mass of matter
present when matter changes from one type to another will remain constant(the law of conservation of
matter).

Law Of Definite Proportions

Law of definite proportions or the law of constant composition - All samples of a pure compound
contain the same elements in the same proportion by mass.

Illustrated by experiments performed by French chemist, Joseph Proust.

Law of Multiple Proportions

The law of multiple proportions states that when two elements react to form more than one compound,
a fixed mass of one element will react with masses of the other element in a ratio of small, whole
numbers.

For examples: compounds containing chlorine and copper.

A green solid contains 0.558g Cl to 1 g Cu.

A brown solid contains 1.116g Cl to 1 g Cu.

1g Cu =2

0.558g Cl 1

1g Cu

Evolution Of Atomic Theory

In the two centuries since Dalton developed his ideas, scientists have made significant progress in
furthering our understanding of atomic theory.

Discovery of the Electron

J.J Thomson experimented with cathode ray tubes.

Cathode ray tube:

A sealed glass tube from which almost all the air had been removed.

Contained two metal electrodes.

When a high voltage was applied across the electrodes, a visible beam called a cathode ray appeared
between them.

Regardless of the metals used, this beam was always deflected toward the positive charge and away
from the negative charge.

Thompson was able to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio of the cathode ray particles.

Thompson's results:
The cathode ray particles were much lighter than atoms.

These particles are negatively charged

These particles are indistinguishable, regardless of the soure material.

This cathode ray particle is what we now call an electron - a negatively charged, subatomic particle with
a mass more than one thousand times less than that of an atom.

Robert A. Millikan's Oil Drop Experiment(1909)

Millikan created microscopic oil droplets, which were electrically charged.

These drops could be slowed or reversed by an electric field.

Millikan was able to determine the charge on individual drops.

Discovery of the Nucleus

Ernest Rutherford's Gold Foil Scattering Experiment:

Aimed a beam o alpha particles(a particles) at a very thin piece of gold foil.

A particles are positively charged.

The scattering of these a particles was examined using a luminescent screen that would glow briefly
when hit.

Rutherford's results:
The volume occupied by an atom must consist of a large amount of empty space.

A small, relatively heavy, positively charged body, the nucleus, must be at the center of each atom.

The nucleus contains most of the atom's mass

Other Important Discoveries Of The 20th Century

Isotopes - atoms of the same element that differ in mass.

Frederick Soddy Of England. Noble Prize in 1921.

Neutrons - uncharged, subatomic particles with a mass approximately the same as that of protons.

Discovered by James Chadwick in 1932.

Neutrons are also found in the nucleus.

Atomic Structure and Symbolism

The nucleus contains the majority of an atom's mass.

Protons and neutrons are much heavier than electrons.

Electrons occupy almost all of an atom's volume.