INTRODUCTION

Hotel management is the process of running and managing a hotel or any other lodging-related

business. It involves overseeing and coordinating all aspects of hotel operations, including

guest services, housekeeping, maintenance, food and beverage service, marketing and sales,

and administration. Effective hotel management requires a combination of skills, including

leadership, communication, financial management, problem-solving, and customer service.

Hotel managers are responsible for ensuring that guests have a comfortable and enjoyable stay,

while also maximizing revenue and profitability for the hotel. This involves developing and

implementing strategies to attract and retain guests, managing staff and resources, maintaining

and upgrading facilities, and monitoring financial performance.

In addition to managing the daily operations of a hotel, hotel managers also play a crucial role

in ensuring compliance with regulations and industry standards related to safety, health, and

environmental sustainability. They must stay up to date with trends in the hospitality industry

and constantly adapt to changing guest preferences and expectations.

Overall, hotel management is a complex and challenging field that requires a wide range of

skills and knowledge. Successful hotel managers must be able to balance the needs of guests,

staff, and the business to provide a high-quality guest experience while also achieving financial

goals.

As a hotel manager, the role in housekeeping and restaurants can involve overseeing the daily

operations of these departments and ensuring that they run smoothly to provide a positive

experience for guests.

In housekeeping, the hotel manager may be responsible for setting cleanliness and maintenance

standards for guest rooms, public areas, and back-of-house spaces. They may also oversee the

hiring, training, and scheduling of housekeeping staff and the procurement of supplies and

equipment. The hotel manager should ensure that rooms are cleaned and maintained to a high
standard, and that any guest complaints or requests are addressed in a timely and satisfactory

manner.

In restaurants, the hotel manager may be responsible for the overall management of the

restaurant, including menu planning, food preparation, service, and staff management. They

may also be responsible for maintaining the restaurant's inventory, equipment, and facilities,

and ensuring that all legal and safety requirements are met. Additionally, they may work with

the chef and food and beverage director to create new menus and promotions to attract guests

and increase revenue.

Overall, the hotel manager plays a crucial role in ensuring that the hotel's housekeeping and

restaurant departments operate smoothly and provide excellent service to guests.

JOB SATISFACTION:

Job satisfaction is a term used to describe an individual's overall attitude towards their job. It

encompasses the contentment an employee feels about their job as a whole, as well as

specific aspects such as the nature of their work and supervision. Hoppock (1935) defined job

satisfaction as a combination of psychological, physiological, and environmental factors that

lead an individual to declare that they are satisfied with their job. According to this definition,

while external factors can influence job satisfaction, it ultimately comes down to how the

employee feels internally. In other words, job satisfaction is a set of factors that contribute to

a feeling of contentment. Vroom (1964) focused on the employee's role in the workplace and

defined job satisfaction as an individual's affective orientation towards their current work role.

It is a combination of positive or negative emotions that workers have towards their job.

When an individual is employed in an organization, they bring their needs, desires, and

experiences with them, which shapes their expectations. Job satisfaction reflects the degree

to which those expectations align with the actual rewards received. Davis et al. (1985) stated

that job satisfaction is closely linked to an individual's behavior in the workplace. The

importance of job satisfaction becomes evident when considering the negative consequences

of job dissatisfaction, such as lack of loyalty, increased absenteeism, and accidents. Spector

(1997) identified three key features of job satisfaction. Firstly, organizations should prioritize

human values and treat workers with fairness and respect. Job satisfaction can serve as an

indicator of employee effectiveness in such cases. Secondly, workers' behavior, which is

influenced by their level of job satisfaction, affects an organization's functioning and activities.

Thus, job satisfaction leads to positive behavior, while dissatisfaction leads to negative

behavior. Thirdly, job satisfaction can serve as an indicator of organizational performance. By

evaluating job satisfaction levels across different organizational units, it is possible to identify

areas where changes could be made to improve performance.

In summary, job satisfaction refers to an individual's overall attitude towards their job, and it

has important implications for both the employee and the organization they work for.

Factors of Job Satisfaction -

Job satisfaction of an employee is dependent upon various interrelated factors, these factors

are broadly divided into two categories that are personal factors and organisational factors

(Abraham Korman, 1968), they are follows:

Personal factors - It refers to those factors that an inherent to person itself and that affect the

job satisfaction of the employees that are follows:

• Age - Research conducted in the field of job satisfaction has identified age as a

significant factor that impacts it. Several studies have shown that job satisfaction tends

to increase with age, with older employees reporting higher levels of satisfaction

compared to younger employees who report the lowest job satisfaction rates. For

instance, a study conducted on 234 accountants found that individuals belonging to the

Baby Boomer generation reported higher job satisfaction scores than those born later

(Westerman & Yamamora, 2007).

• Gender - Most of the investigators in their study found that women are more satisfied

with their job than men. In a study Morse (1953) found that 55% of the men and 35%

of women are dissatisfied with their jobs. But psychologists have also found that it may

not be gender as such that relates to job satisfaction, as much as the group of factors

that vary with gender that affect the job satisfaction. Schultz and Schultz (1994) claimed

that there were no clear pattern of difference between males and females on job

satisfaction. However, Clark (1997) investigated the differences in the levels of job

satisfaction of both genders in Britain and found that female workers have a greater

level of satisfaction as compared to male workers (as cited in Kifle & Kler, 2010).
• Level of Education - Several studies have indicated that there is a slight negative

correlation between education level and job satisfaction. Howard and Frink (1996)

argued that higher levels of education could lead to greater potential and career

opportunities for employees, compared to those with lower education levels. However,

there have been relatively few studies examining the impact of education on job

satisfaction. Tiengtrakarnsuk (2008) investigated the job satisfaction of employees in

the Customer Support Department of CS LoxInfo Public Company Limited and found

that those with a Bachelor's Degree were moderately satisfied with their job, while those

with a Master's Degree were highly satisfied. Studies conducted in India have generally

shown that workers with higher education levels report lower levels of job satisfaction,

while those with lower education levels report higher levels of job satisfaction.

• Cognitive ability - Research suggests that cognitive ability may not be a major factor

in determining job satisfaction, but it is connected to the type of job that an individual

selects. Those with higher cognitive ability may prefer more intellectually challenging

tasks compared to those with lower cognitive ability. However, for certain occupations,

optimal performance and job satisfaction are associated with a range of cognitive

abilities. Individuals who are excessively intelligent for their work may experience

insufficient challenge, resulting in dissatisfaction and boredom (Schultz, 2010).

• Personality - Research suggests that personality plays a significant role in job

satisfaction, with neurotic behavior being one factor that affects it. However, studies

have shown that neurotic tendencies only lead to job dissatisfaction when the job is

stressful. Other factors related to job satisfaction include alienation and locus of control.

A meta-analysis of 135 studies on job satisfaction confirmed a positive correlation

between internal locus of control and job satisfaction (Judge & Bono, 2000). In terms

of Type A personality, two dimensions are related to job satisfaction. Achievement

 striving is positively related to job satisfaction, while impatience/irritability is

negatively related to job satisfaction.

• Job experience - Job satisfaction appears to increase after a number of years of

experience to improve steadily thereafter. The relationship between job satisfaction and

length of work experience parallels relationship with age (Schultz, 2010).

• Job congruence - Job congruence refers to the match between the demands of a job

and the ability of the employee. higher the congruence - closer fit between a person's

skills and the job requirements- the greater the job satisfaction. Conversely low job

congruence leads to job dissatisfaction (Schultz, 2010).

Organisational Factors - refers to those characteristics of job and the workplace that affect

the job satisfaction, which are follows:

• Nature of Work - Research has suggested that the type of work can impact an

individual's job satisfaction. Studies conducted by Morse have found that jobs that offer

variety tend to result in higher job satisfaction compared to routine work. Jobs that lack

challenge can lead to boredom while jobs that are too challenging can lead to frustration

and feelings of failure. Recent studies have also shown that job characteristics and

complexity can mediate the relationship between personality and job satisfaction. If

employees are given creative and fulfilling work, they tend to be more satisfied with

their jobs.

• Working Condition - Creating a work environment that promotes employees' overall

growth and well-being is crucial. The environment should be safe, healthy, comfortable,

and supportive of job performance. Favorable working conditions enable personnel to

carry out their tasks with greater ease, while poor conditions can impede their ability to

accomplish tasks effectively.

• Responsibilities - Research suggests that when an employee is given a larger

responsibility, it creates a sense of awareness that they are considered a capable and

trustworthy candidate by their peers. Jobs that involve responsibility tend to provide a

higher level of satisfaction. The feeling of accomplishment that comes with fulfilling a

responsibility is invaluable and cannot be compared to anything else in the world.

• Pay - Wages and salaries are considered to be a crucial and multifaceted aspect of job

satisfaction, as it involves both cognitive complexity and multiple dimensions

(Carraher & Buckley, 1996). Money plays a vital role in fulfilling not only the basic

needs but also higher-level needs. Various studies have shown a positive correlation

between pay and job satisfaction. For instance, a study revealed that hospitals that paid

their staff members well resulted in positive patient care outcomes and financial

performance for the hospitals (Brown, Sturman & Simmering, 2003).

• Promotion - Promotional opportunities have a significant impact on job satisfaction as

they come with various rewards and can take different forms. The type of promotion

also matters, with those based on performance being more satisfying than those based

on seniority.

● Relationship with Supervisor - The behaviour of one’s supervisor is also a major

determinant of job satisfaction. Studies generally find that employee satisfaction is

increased when the immediate supervisor is understanding and friendly.

● Supportive colleagues - Employees seek to be treated with respect by those they work

with. Again, most employees also feel the need for social interaction. Therefore, having

friendly, supportive and respectful relations among co-workers leads to job satisfaction.

• Organizational justice - According to Schultz (2010), employees who believe that

promotion decisions are made fairly and justly are more likely to experience job

satisfaction. Unfair policies and practices at the workplace often lead to employee
 demotivation and dissatisfaction. Hence, it is crucial for organizations to establish fair

and equal systems for their practices and policies to prevent discrimination and

frustration among their employees.

There are different factors that influence the level of job satisfaction. Beside these factors there

are various theories which corroborate with the above-mentioned facts. They are especially

useful in giving order to the vast amount of information psychologists have accumulated above

job satisfaction, they are as follows:

Needs Hierarchy Theory:

One of the most prominent theoretical attempts to explain human motivation is given by

Abraham Maslow (1967). According to Maslow, individuals would move to satisfy their needs

in a hierarchical manner. Once a need is satisfied, it no longer has the ability to motivate. Once

people have satisfied their lower-level needs, they can pay attention to higher order needs. the

needs from lower level to higher level are as follows -

• Psychological needs - The most fundamental needs are those that address the

psychological well-being of an individual. These needs are considered to be the most

important as they form the basis for other higher-level needs. Among these are the need

for basic necessities such as food, water, air, and rest, which are often referred to as

biological needs due to their essential role in sustaining life.

• Safety and security needs - Safety needs manifest themselves in things such as

preference for job security, security against illness, health hazards, economic security,

old age and natural catastrophes etc.

• Social needs - Once an individual's psychological and safety needs are met, the next

level of Maslow's hierarchy involves the pursuit of emotionally based relationships,

 such as friendships, intimacy, and family. These needs are focused on seeking

companionship, acceptance from others, the desire to be loved, and the sense of

belonging to a group.

• Esteem needs - Esteem needs refer to the desire of individuals to be respected and

valued by others. When these needs are met, individuals feel a sense of self-worth,

confidence, and achievement. This includes recognition from others for their

accomplishments and capabilities, as well as a sense of prestige and respect. However,

when these needs are not fulfilled, individuals may experience feelings of inadequacy,

inferiority, and unhelpfulness.

• Sales actualization needs - This refers to the aspiration to reach one's full potential and

to achieve personal growth. Maslow's hierarchy of needs is based on the assumption

that lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs can become

motivating factors. Therefore, individuals typically strive to fulfill their psychological

needs first, followed by safety, belongingness, esteem, and finally, self-actualization.

As one need is met, the next level of need arises and motivates further action. People

are constantly striving to meet emerging needs in order to reach their fullest potential.
Motivator-Hygiene Theory:

According to Frederick Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory (1966), job satisfaction and

dissatisfaction are not two ends of the same continuum but separate and sometimes unrelated

concepts. For employees to be satisfied with their work, they need to have their 'motivating'

factors fulfilled, such as pay and benefits, recognition, and achievement. On the other hand,

in the absence of 'hygiene' factors like working conditions, company policies, job security,

interaction with colleagues, and quality of management, employees will be dissatisfied with

their jobs.

Herzberg proposed that job satisfaction is related to job content, while job dissatisfaction is

related to job context. Since both hygiene and motivational factors are viewed as independent,

employees can be neither satisfied nor dissatisfied. The presence of hygiene factors does not

cause satisfaction, but their absence causes dissatisfaction. This theory suggests that when

hygiene factors are low, the employee is dissatisfied. However, when these factors are high,

it means the employee is not dissatisfied but not necessarily satisfied. Employee satisfaction

is dependent on the presence of motivator factors.

Equity Theory:

Stacy Adams' Equity Theory (1965) proposes that employees compare their input-to-output

ratio with that of others. If a person perceives that their ratio of outcomes to inputs is unequal

to that of a relevant other, they experience a sense of inequity. Inputs include factors such as

age, gender, education, social status, organizational position, qualification, and hard work,

while outputs refer to rewards, pay, status, promotion, and other job-related benefits. The

perception of equity generates job satisfaction, whereas the perception of inequity leads to

dissatisfaction. According to Adams, workers desire fair payment that is neither too low nor

too high. In cases where inequity exists, employees may strike to alter inputs or outcomes to

restore equity, cognitively distort inputs or outcomes, leave the job, act on the other, or change

the other.
Affect theory:

Edwin A. Locke's Range of Affect Theory (1976) is one of the most popular job satisfaction

models. According to this theory, job satisfaction is determined by the difference between an

individual's desired job characteristics and the job characteristics they actually have. The

theory also suggests that the importance an individual places on a particular job facet (such

as the level of autonomy in a role) will influence how satisfied or dissatisfied they feel when

their expectations are or are not met. If a person highly values a certain aspect of their job,

their level of satisfaction will be greatly affected both positively when their expectations are

met and negatively when they are not met, compared to someone who doesn't value that

aspect as much.

Job Characteristics Model:

The job characteristics model (JCM) was developed by Richard Hackman and G.R Oldham

(1975) based on their research findings regarding job factors that correlated with employee

satisfaction and attendance. According to this theory, job satisfaction is more likely to occur

when the work environment fosters intrinsically motivating characteristics. The JCM identifies

five key job characteristics that influence job satisfaction: skill variety, task identity, task

significance, autonomy, and feedback. Organizations can improve the work environment and

increase job satisfaction by enhancing these five core job dimensions.

Dispositional Approach:

Timothy A. Judge's dispositional approach to job satisfaction (1998) proposes that an

individual's personality is closely linked to their job satisfaction. The model suggests that a

person has an inherent tendency towards a certain level of job satisfaction that remains

relatively stable over time. The model identifies four core self-evaluations that determine one's

disposition towards job satisfaction: self-esteem, general self-efficacy, locus of control, and

neuroticism. The model predicts that higher levels of self-esteem (the value one places on
oneself) and general self-efficacy (belief in one's competence) are associated with higher job

satisfaction. Having an internal locus of control (believing in one's own ability to control one's

life, rather than external factors controlling it) is also associated with higher job satisfaction.

Finally, lower levels of neuroticism are associated with higher job satisfaction.
OCCUPATIONAL STRESS:

Stress is the state of physical, mental, or emotional tension that occurs when an individual

perceives a lack of balance between the demands placed upon them and their ability to cope

with those demands. These demands can be either external or internal in nature. Although the

concept of stress originates from the physical sciences, it has become an important topic in

the behavioral sciences (Hinkel, 1977). According to S. Palmer (1989), prolonged exposure to

stress can lead to various health issues, including physical and psychological problems. Beehr

and Newman (1978) define organizational stress as the result of the interaction between

individuals and their job environments, which can cause changes in the individual's normal

functioning.

Sources of Stress:

1. Environmental stressors - Environmental stressors such as weather, noise,

crowding pollution, traffic and housing.

2. Social stressors - Sushil stressors such as deadlines, financial problems, job

interview, presentation, disagreements, demands for your time and attention, loss of

loved one’s divorce and coping parenting.

3. Psychological stressors - Psychological stressor include rapid growth of

adolescence, menopause, illness, ageing, giving birth, accidents, lack of exercise,

poor nutrition and sleep disturbance.

Types of Stress:

There are 3 types of major stress that people experience in their daily life -

1. Eustress - This term ‘Eu-stress' was coined by the pioneer of stress research from the

Greek ‘Eu’ which means good. Eu-stress is a type of stress that provides immediate
 strength and rises at points of increased physical activity, creativity and enthusiasm. It

is a positive stress that arises when motivation and inspiration are needed.

2. Neustress - Stress that is neutral neither particularly helpful nor harmful is referred to

as new stress by Morse and Furst (1979). This kind of stress occurs when one is

exposed to situations that have no direct effect on an individual.

3. Distress - It is a negative stress, brought about by constant readjustment or alteration

in a routine. It creates feeling of discomfort and unfamiliarity.

Symptoms of Distress:

● Poor concentration

● Irritability

● Anxiety

● Depression

● Fuzzy thinking

There are two types of distress -

● Acute stress - It is an intense stress that arises and disappears quickly.

● Chronic stress - It is a prolonged stress that exists for weeks, months or even

years.

Some other types of stresses:

1. Hyperstress - It occurs when an individual is pushed beyond what he or she can

handle. Hyper stress results from being overloaded or overworked.

2. Hypostress - It is the opposite of hyper stress. It occurs when an individual is bold or

unchallenged.

3. Anticipatory stress - Mind and body prefer in advance to change crisis or challenge.

4. Residual stress - During residual stress the body remains in a state of arousal after

the event has passed. It may be positive or negative.

Hans Selye (1936) proposed the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS), which consists of

three stages that the body goes through in response to stressors. The first stage is the alarm

stage, where the body releases energy. The second stage is the resistant stage, where the

body tries to resist or adapt to the stressor. In the final stage, the exhaustion stage, the body's

energy is depleted.

Richard Lazarus (1966) believed that stress is a two-way process that involves the production

of stressors by the environment and the response of an individual to these stressors. His

theory of cognitive appraisal states that the mental process of appraisal influences the

experience of stress.

Cognitive Appraisal Theory of Stress: The model “Theory of Cognitive Appraisal” was first

coined by Lazarus and Folkman in 1984, the mental process which influences the stressors.

In general, cognitive appraisal is divided into two types or stages: primary and secondary

appraisal.

1. Primary Appraisal: In the stage of primary appraisal, an individual tends to ask

questions like, “What does this stressor and/ or situation mean?”, and, “How can it

influence me?” According to psychologists, the three typical answers to these questions

are:

● "this is not important

● "this is good"

● "this is stressful

2. Secondary Appraisal

Secondary appraisals involve those feelings related to dealing with the stressor or the stress

it produces. Uttering statements like, “I can do it if I do my best”, “I will try whether my

chances of success are high or not”, and “If this way fails, I can always try another method”

indicates positive secondary appraisal. In contrast to these, statements like, “I can’t do it; I

know I will fail”, “I will not do it because no one believes I can” and, “I won’t try because

my chances are low” indicate negative secondary appraisal.

Occupational stress refers to the psychological stress caused by one's job and is typically a

chronic condition. To manage occupational stress, it is important to identify and address

the stressful conditions at work. Workers may experience occupational stress when they

feel unsupported by supervisors or co-workers, lack control over their work, or feel that

their efforts are not properly rewarded. This is a concern for both employees and employers,

as stressful job conditions can affect emotional well-being, physical health, and job

performance. In fact, a significant study conducted by the World Health Organization and

the International Labour Organization found that exposure to long working hours, which

can lead to increased psycho-social occupational stress, is the largest occupational risk

factor for disease, causing an estimated 745,000 workers to die from ischemic heart disease

and stroke events in 2016.

Factors of Occupational Stress:

● Role Conflict - Involves incompatible demands or the person can induce negative

emotional reactions due to perceived inability to be effective on the job. Several studies

have confirmed this detrimental effect of loan conflict on both self-reported strain

(O’Driscoll and Bechr, 1994) and physiological indicators of strain.

● Role Ambiguity - Kahu et. al (1964), refers to the unproductivity of the consequences

of one's performance. A lack of informational clarity with regards to the duties of

 workers role in an organization requires. Like role conflict, rolling ambiguity is a source

of strain.

● Organizational Climate - refers to the employees collective or consensus appraisal of

the organizational work environment. Organizational climate takes into account many

dimensions of the work environment.

Causes of Occupational Stress:

Factors that are responsible for causing stress are called stressors. the main cause of stress

in workplace -

1. Workload - Workload is also a cause of occupational stress. This model suggests that

jobs with high demands can be stressful, especially when the individual has low control

over the job. In an occupational setting dealing with workload can be stressful and

severe as a stressor for employees there are three aspects of workload that can be

stressful.

● Quantitative work overload: It is a result of many activities performed in a perceived

time.

● Qualitative work overload: It implies performing a job that is complicated or beyond

the employee’s capacity.

● Work under load: Doing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to

monotony and boredom which can lead to stress.

2. Working Hours - The physical environment of an organization can also contributes to

the general working conditions that induce occupational stress. Factors such as

temperature, lighting, and noise can have a significant impact on the stress levels of
 employees. Inadequate conditions can lead to changes in mood and arousal, which can

create additional difficulties in successfully performing one's job. This can have serious

consequences, including severe depression and an increased risk of heart attacks.

3. Status and salary - Occupational stress is closely linked to a person's status in the

workplace. Jobs that are associated with lower socioeconomic status often provide

workers with less control and greater job insecurity, which can lead to reduced mental

and physical health. Salary is also an important factor that contributes to occupational

stress. When employees feel that they are not adequately compensated for the amount

of work they do, they may experience dissatisfaction and stress. This can be particularly

true when employees perceive that they are working more than what their salary

compensates for.

4. Workplace - The workplace can be a significant source of stress for individuals, as it

is a place where workplace bullying, workplace conflict, and occupational factors can

all contribute to occupational stress. Workplace bullying occurs when an individual in

a position of power uses their influence to intimidate and harm a target who has less

power within the organization, often through tactics such as verbal, psychological, and

physical abuse. Interpersonal conflict among co-workers is also a common stressor for

employees, which can be exacerbated by workplace harassment. This conflict has

been linked to negative outcomes such as anxiety, depression, physical symptoms,

and low job satisfaction.

Additionally, individuals in lower-status occupational groups are at a higher risk of

experiencing work-related ill health compared to those in higher occupational groups,

due in part to adverse work and employment conditions. Overall, the workplace

environment and the relationships and dynamics within it can significantly impact an

individual's mental and physical well-being.

 5. Lack of group cohesiveness - Every group is characterised by its cohesiveness,

although they differ widely in its degree. Individuals experience stress when there is

no unity among the group members.

6. Organizational changes - When the changes occur in any organization, people have

to adopt those changes and these may cause stress.

7. Low job satisfaction

8. Working under dangerous conditions

Effects of Occupational Stress:

Stressful working conditions can lead to three types of strains in the workers -

● Behavioural strengths such as absenteeism, poor performance.

● Physical strength such as headache or coronary heart disease, muscular aches, sleep

disturbances, fatigue, headache and chronic mild illness.

● Psychological strains such as anxiety or depressed mood.

Models of Occupational Stress:

1. Person Environment Fit Model

As per this model, an individual experiences stress when the requirements of their job are

not in harmony with their aptitudes, skills, abilities, and resources. The job responsibilities

should align with their knowledge, skill sets, and personal requirements. When these needs

are not fulfilled, the employees feel out of place, leading to subpar performance and failing

to meet management expectations. These employees struggle with productivity, feel

isolated, and often resort to denial as a coping mechanism.

2. Job Characteristics Model

This model proposes that for an employee to be successful in any job, he needs to have

some degree of autonomy and he should be able to give feedback which is heard. Such

conditions result in job enrichment and employee loyalty. The absence of these factors can

cause work disassociation and drops in productivity.

This model also specifies that numerous talented professionals lose their aptitude towards

the same work that they had once been very interested in, and were good at. The main

reason behind this was the attitude of the management.

3. Diathesis-Stress Model

This model makes a distinction between stressful job conditions and individual strains.

Strains can be mental, physical or emotional and most of the time, these strains change

from person to person.

The significant strains among them are –

● Excessive Workload
● Disagreeable Workplace Environments

● Lack of Autonomy

● Difficult Relationships with Co-workers

● Lack of Career Growth

● Low Chances of Personal Growth while Working and

● Harassment from Management.

4. Jobs-Demand Resources Model

This model posits that workplace stress can be associated with the difference of job

demands and resources. Experienced at managerial levels, it is caused when a bully

management expects managers to deliver high results with low resources.

5. Effort-Reward Imbalance Model

This model focuses on the relation between efforts and rewards. When employees put

in hard work, they expect management to reward their efforts. In absence of any such

reward program, the employees get demotivated and underperform.

PERCEIVED ORGANISATIONAL SUPPORT:

Perception is a multifaceted process that involves selecting sensory stimuli and organizing

them to create a coherent and meaningful understanding of a particular phenomenon. These

perceptions give rise to attitudes and relationships, as individuals' opinions and viewpoints are

influenced by their perceptions. Goulder (1960, cited in Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002) argues

that employees are likely to perceive their organizations as supportive if they feel a sense of

attachment and acknowledgement from their employers. Eisenberger et al. (1986) suggest that

organizational support helps employees determine whether their organization will satisfy their

socio-emotional needs for affiliation, approval, and esteem, as well as whether the organization

will reward them for increased work effort and performance. It's important to note that these

beliefs are subjective and informal, according to Aselage and Eisenberger (2003), as they stem

from the employee's personal perceptions. Perceived organizational support is seen as an

individual-level concept, as it relates to employee attitudes, well-being, job satisfaction,

affective commitment, job performance, positive mood, fairness, organizational rewards,

morale, and motivation, according to Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002). Additionally, they

argue that perceived organizational support creates a better environment and a more

manageable and healthier culture. Furthermore, perceived organizational support helps to

fulfill employees' need for stability and commitment, making them more aware of the

importance of remaining loyal and dedicated to the organization.

Perceived organisational support began in 1986 and the original leading pioneer behind the

study of perceived organisational support is Eisenberger. Eisenberger and colleagues’ (1986)

define perceived organisational support as the perception that the organisation cares about

employee wellbeing and values employee contributions. This definition incorporates two

dimensions: (i) a sense that the organisation values employees’ contributions is underpinned
by performance-reward expectancies and (ii) a perception that the organisation cares about

employee well-being is underpinned by the need for fulfilment of socio-emotional needs at

work (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Accordingly, organisational researchers argue that

within the employer-employee relationship, not only are impersonal resources such as money,

services, and information exchanged, but also socio-emotional resources such as approval,

respect and support (Eisenberger, Armeli, Rexwinkel, Lynch, & Rhoades, 2001) which

contributes towards employees’ perception of organisational support (Eisenberger et al., 1986).

Theories of Perceived Organizational Support:

The underlying, contemporary theories used to explain perceived organisational support are

the social exchange theory and the organisational support theory which will be briefly

discussed below.

1. The Social Exchange Theory:

The Social Exchange Theory has been widely applied in organisational research to better

understand the reciprocal relationship that exists between employees and their employer

(Baran, Shanock & Miller, 2012; Dawley, Andrews & Bucklew, 2008). This theory

suggests that when employers treat their employees fairly and value their contributions and

well-being, employees are likely to perceive high levels of support from the organisation

and feel obliged to reciprocate (Dawley et al., 2008; Shoss, Eisenberger, Restubog, &

Zagenczyk, 2013).

Based on these principles, it can be argued that employees who receive greater support

from their organisations are more likely to exhibit higher levels of organisational

commitment and loyalty, resulting in a decreased intention to leave the organisation (Allen
 et al., 2003). Conversely, employees who perceive low levels of organisational support may

have an increased intention to leave the organisation (Allen et al., 2003).

This suggests that organisations can influence employees' perception of organisational

support, and as a result, influence employee attitudes. Even when job conditions are

difficult, organisations can positively influence employee attitudes by making employees

aware of what can and cannot be readily changed (Eisenberger et al., 2004). Organisations

can achieve this by legitimising their actions and appealing to higher-order values so that

employees attribute work difficulties to the nature of the role or industry rather than the

organisation itself. For example, organisations can link working conditions to a

superordinate goal or value and reframe employee perceptions so that they select a new

standard of comparison (Eisenberger et al., 2004).

Consequences Of Perceived Organisational Support:

To an organisation, it is crucial to enhance employees' perception of support to ensure that

positive treatment of employees is reciprocated (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). When

employees believe that their organisation values their contributions and well-being, they are

more likely to reciprocate these positive feelings (Rhoades et al., 2001). Rhoades and

Eisenberger (2002) have outlined various consequences of organisational support, such as

organisational commitment, job-related affect, job involvement, performance, retention,

strains, and job satisfaction. These outcomes ultimately indicate the reciprocation of support

by employees. However, for the purpose of this review, the consequences of organisational

support are classified into psychological and behavioural outcomes to provide a clear context

for the concept of organisational support.

1. Psychological Consequences of Perceived Organisational Support

Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002) highlight three psychological processes underlying the

consequences of perceived organisational support, namely -

(i) On the basis of reciprocity, perceived organisational support should produce a felt

obligation to care about the organisation and the meeting of its objectives.

(ii) the caring, approval and respect connoted by perceived organisational support should

fulfil socio-emotional needs leading employees to incorporate organisational membership

and role status into their social identity.

(iii) perceived organisational support should strengthen employers’ beliefs that the

organisation recognises and rewards increased performance. These processes should lead

to positive outcomes for both employees (example, job satisfaction) and the organisation

(example, affective commitment) (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002).

2. Behavioural Consequences of Perceived Organisational Support -

● Intention to quit: The relationship between perceived organisational support and

intention to quit has been well researched. In their study, Allen et al. (2003) tested two

individual samples and found that perceived organisational support was significantly

negatively related to intention to quit in both samples. The findings however, were

mediated by commitment and job satisfaction. These findings are consistent with those

of other researchers (Cole, Schaninger, & Harris 2002). Eisenberger et al. (2001) found

a strong negative relationship between perceived organisational support and intention

to quit. Organisational support towards employees’ welfare has proven to be a strong

predictor of employees’ turnover intention (Hussain & Asif, 2012). Since employees

often respond positively to the support they receive from their organisations (Sherony
 & Green, 2002), it is expected that perceived organisational support will encourage a

strong longing to stay with the organisation.

● Job Satisfaction: Perceived organisational support has been hypothesised to influence

employees' general affective reactions to their jobs, including job satisfaction and

positive mood. Perceived organisational support should contribute to job satisfaction

by meeting socio-economic needs, increasing performance reward expectations and

signalling availability of aid when needed (Eisenberger et al., 2001). In their studies

Eisenberger et al., (2001) and Eisenberger et al. (1997) found a strong positive

relationship between perceived organisational support and job satisfaction. Perceived

organisational support and overall job satisfaction are strongly related but are distinct

constructs; an employee may believe that the organisation strongly values his/her

contributions and cares about his/her well-being yet have a low overall job satisfaction,

because the employer does not have the resources to prevent unfavourable treatment.

The employee’s recognition of these resource restrictions may prevent a decline in

perceived organisational support but not stop a decline in job satisfaction (Eisenberger

et al., 1997).

● Organisational Commitment: Perceived organisational support is assumed to

increase the employee’s affective attachment to the organisation and his or her

expectancy that greater work effort will be rewarded (Eisenberger et al., 1986). On the

basis of the reciprocity norm, perceived organisational support should create a felt

obligation to care about the organisation’s welfare and increase affective commitment

by fulfilling socio-economic needs (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Perceived organisational

support strengthens effective commitment through the process of reciprocation.

Perceived organisational support would elicit employees' felt obligation towards the

organisation and this indebtedness could be satisfied through an increase in affective

 commitment (Eisenberger et al., 2001). In their review of literature, Eisenberger et al.

(2001) found organisational support to have a consistently strong positive relationship

with affective commitment.

● Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: According to Eisenberger et al. (2001),

perceived organisational support should increase performance of standard job activities

and actions favourable to the organisation that go beyond assigned responsibilities

namely, organisational citizenship behaviour. Perceived organisational support should

therefore be positively related to organisational citizenship behaviour. Rhoades and

Eisenberger (2002) assert that the Organisational Support Theory assumes that felt

obligation, fulfilment of socio-emotional needs, affective commitment and

performance-reward expectancies all contribute to increased performance and

decreased withdrawal behaviour. Accordingly, Rhoades and Eisenberger’s (2002)

meta-analysis reported that perceived organisational support had highly reliable effects

on in-role performance, extra-role performance, and turnover.

QUALITY OF LIFE:

The quality of life is determined by the interaction of various factors such as social, health,

economic, and environmental conditions that influence human and social development. It

encompasses both positive and negative aspects of life and reflects the general well-being of

individuals and societies. Quality of life is a broad concept that includes various elements, such

as physical health, family, education, employment, finance, religious beliefs, and environment.

Quality of life is relevant in several fields, including international development, healthcare,

politics, and employment. However, it should not be confused with health-related quality of

life (HRQOL), which evaluates quality of life concerning health. Standard of living, which

mainly focuses on income, should also not be confused with quality of life.

Quality of life refers to the extent to which a person enjoys the essential possibilities of their

life. These possibilities arise from the opportunities and limitations in each person's life and

are influenced by personal and environmental factors. Enjoyment of life has two dimensions:

the experience of satisfaction and the possession or attainment of certain characteristics. Three

significant domains of quality of life are identified, namely Being, Belonging, and Becoming.

Although the concept of quality of life originated in medicine, it extends beyond the patient's

disease. In medicine, quality of life often relates to the effects of the disease and treatment on

somatic symptoms, which is referred to as health-related quality of life (HR-QOL). However,

HR-QOL does not consider how other factors such as freedom, social support, and economic

resources affect quality of life.

The World Health Organization (WHO) adopted a more theoretical definition of quality of life

proposed by Harper and Power (1998). According to this definition, quality of life is an
individual's perception of their position in life concerning cultural and value systems in which

they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards, and concerns.

Subjective and Objective Components of Quality of Life:

Researchers work hard to define and measure their constructs in order to clearly identify the

phenomenon of interest and its characteristics. In quality of life (QOL) research, researchers

define objective measures as those scales that contain items that can be measured by someone

other than the research participant. Objective measures refer to variables like income, objective

features of physical functioning, and number of social relationships. In contrast, researchers

define subjective measures as those scales that contain items that refer to cognitive judgments

such as satisfaction with different areas of life. These kinds of items can only be answered by

the participant (Zissi & Barry, 2006).

Models of Quality of Life:

Engaged Theory -

One approach called “Engaged Theory” outlined in the journal of applied research in the

Quality of Life, posits for domains in assessing quality of life - ecology, economics, politics

and culture. In the domain of culture for example, it includes the following sub-domains of

quality of life:

● Identity and engagement

● Creativity and recreation

● Memory and projection

● Beliefs and ideas

● Gender and generations

● Inquiry and learning

 ● Wellbeing and health

Quality of life is a complex issue. It means different things depending on the perspective from

which it is looked at. One might examine the subject from a psychological point of view and

thereby look at the meaning of the two prime words Quality and Life. The word “Life” provides

a context of overall human experience and should neither be restricted to economic well-being,

“Quality” of Physical environment not be assumed only as the effectiveness of social services

and political freedom or the quality of work life.

Philosophical Theories of Quality of Life:

A philosophical theory of quality of life is an account of what makes human life worth living

and an attempt to single out those fundamental elements of human experience or the human

condition that provides the content for such an account. Most of these theories fall into the 3

following categories -

1. Hedonic Theories - Hedonic theories identify quality of life with states of awareness,

consequences or experience of the individual. This allows for considerable individual

variation in accessing good quality of life because different things make different

people happy, but it also follows for some kind of common metric (At least one the

negative side) because there are seemingly universal negative states of pain or suffering

or unhappiness that all (normal) people avoid.

2. Rational Preference Theories - Rational preference theory, the second type of theory,

defines quality of life as the fulfilment or satisfaction of a person's rational preferences

or desires. The attraction of this theory lies in the idea that individuals experience a

good life when their rational desires are reflected in the actual state of the world.
3. Theories of Human Flourishing - Theories of human flourishing aim to define a good

life based on an understanding of the functions, capacities, and excellence that are most

essential and inherent to human nature. Human flourishing occurs when individuals

develop and master these capacities, and avoid circumstances that hinder or weaken

them. These theories also typically incorporate a developmental aspect, as the most

significant human capacities are not innate and require education, social interaction,

and practice throughout an individual's lifetime.