‘‘’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’’

GE 3451 ENVIRONMENT SCIENCES & SUSTAINABILITY

Unit - I
Environment and Biodiversity
INTRODUCTION
The word environment is coined form the French word "Environ" meaning”
surround or surroundings" i.e., each and everything surrounding us. E.g. Lion in a
jungle surrounded by living and non-living things like air, water, trees, other animals
etc.
Environment
Environment is defined as "the sum of total of all the living and the non-living
things around us influencing one another.
Environmental Science
The study of the environment, living and non-living components and their
interrelationship is called environmental science. It includes the basic concepts of
physics, chemistry, geography, geology etc., which is used in understanding the
structure, function and physical characteristics of environment.

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENT
The scope of the term ‘Environment’ has been changing and widening by the passage of
time. In the primitive age, the environment consisted of only physical aspects of the
planet earth i.e., land, water and air as biological communities. As of now, it includes
social, economic and political conditions also.

Douglas and Holland defined that ‘The term environment is used to describe, in
aggregate, all the external forces, influences and conditions, which affect the life, nature,
behaviour and the growth, development and maturity of living organisms’.

The environment consists of four segments of the earth namely atmosphere, hydrosphere,
lithosphere and biosphere:

1. Atmosphere:   A blanket of gases called the atmosphere surrounds the earth and
protects the surface of earth from the Sun’s harmful, ultraviolet rays.  It regulates
temperature, preventing the earth from becoming too hot or too cold. It saves it from the
hostile environment of outer space.

2. Hydrosphere: The Hydrosphere comprises all types of water resources oceans, seas,
lakes, rivers, streams, reservoirs, polar icecaps, glaciers, and ground water.
3. Lithosphere: Lithosphere is the outer mantle of the solid earth. It consists of minerals
occurring in the earth’s crusts and the soil e.g. minerals, organic matter, air and water.

4. Biosphere: Biosphere indicates the realm of living organisms and their interactions
with environment, viz atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere.

The scope of environmental studies is very wide and it deals with many areas like i)
Conservation of natural resources, ii) ecological aspects, iii) pollution of the surrounding
natural resources, iv) controlling the pollution, v) social issues connected to it, and vi)
impacts of human population on the environment.

Importance of Environment

Environment plays an important role in healthy living and the existence of life on planet
earth. Earth is a home for different living species and we all are dependent on the
environment for food, air, water, and other needs. Therefore, it is important for every
individual to save and protect our environment.

NEED FOR PUBLIC AWARENESS:

Increasing population, Urbanization and poverty have generated pressure on the natural
resources and lead to a degradation of the environment.
 To prevent the environment from further degradation, the Supreme Court has
ordered and initiated environmental protection awareness through government and
non-government agencies to take part in protecting our environment.
Environmental pollution cannot be prevented by laws alone. Public participation is
equally important with regard to environmental protection.
 Environmental Education (EE) is a process of learning by giving an overall
perspective of knowledge and awareness of the environment. It sensitizes the
society about environmental issues and challenges interested individuals to
develop skills and expertise thereby providing appropriate solutions.
 Climate change, loss of biodiversity, declining fisheries, ozone layer depletion,
illegal trade of endangered species, destruction of habitats, land degradation,
depleting ground water supplies, introduction of alien species, environmental
pollution, solid waste disposal, storm water and sewage disposal pose a serious
threat to ecosystems in forest, rural, urban and marine ecosystems.
 Both formal and informal education on the environment will give the interested
individual the knowledge, values, skills and tools needed to face the
environmental challenges on a local and global level.
 ECOSYSTEM
Ecology
Ecology is the study of various ecosystems which is the relationship
between organisms and their surroundings (living and non-living).
Ecosystem
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. It is derived from Greek word
"study of home". Ecosystem is a group of organisms interacting among
themselves and with the environment exchanging its energy and matter. E.g,
forest, desert etc.
Biome
Biome is a small ecosystem within another ecosystem having dominant species
with similar lifestyle, climatic conditions and physical structure etc.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM

STRUCTURE OR COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

The ecosystem has two major components (a) abiotic and (b) biotic.
(a) Abiotic Components
Non-living components of ecosystem).
(i) Physical components: Air, water, soil, sunlight
(ii) Chemical components:
1. Organic substances E.g. proteins, lipids, carbohydrates
2. Inorganic substances E.g. (C, N, O, P, K, H) and (Al, Co, Cu, Zn).
(b) Biotic Components
Living things form the biotic components.
Classification/members of biotic components
Based on their source of food
1. Autotrophs/ Producers: Prepare their food through photosynthesis using chlorophyll,
CO2and sunlight.
6CO2 + 12H2O C6H12O6+ 6O2 + 6H2O
2. Heterotrophs/Consumers: They do not make their food but depend on producers
for their food.
- Primary consumers/Herbivores: Depend on plants for their food. E.g. Insects, rats.
- Secondary consumers/Primary carnivores: They feed on primary consumers.
E.g. Frogs, cat, snakes.
-Tertiary consumers/Secondary carnivores: They feed on secondary
consumers e.g. lions, tigers

Grass Rat Cat Tiger

3. Decomposers: They feed on dead plants and animals and decompose them into
simpler compounds releasing inorganic nutrients. These are again utilized by plants
with other organic substances for the synthesis of food.e.g. Bacteria, fungi.

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
Its main function is to allow the flow of energy and nutrients.
Types of function
1. Primary function/ production: It is manufacturing of food by photosynthesis.
2. Secondary function/distribution: It is the distribution of energy to all consumers in
the form of food which is stored by them.
3. Tertiary function/decomposing: The dead systems (plants and animals) are
decomposed by decomposers thereby initiating the third function called "nutrient
cycling".
Nutrients Cycling (Biogeochemical cycle)
 The producers use nutrients and prepare food, the consumers consume it and the
decomposers recover the nutrients flowing between biotic & abiotic components, known as
biogeochemical cycle.

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

 The Sun is the source of energy in the ecosystems and plants (producers) create chemical
(food) energy from solar energy.
 The food energy is passed to consumers and decomposers.
 Each step of the food chain is called the tropic level.
 Energy is passed from one trophic level to the next trophic level. 
 The flow of energy from producer level to top consumer level is called energy flow.
 The flow of energy in an ecosystem is unidirectional and never in reverse direction.
 As energy is transferred from one tropic level to another, 90% of energy is lost.
 If the food chain is long, the energy reaching the final stage will be too less.

Energy flow through an atmosphere in an ecosystem is governed by laws of

thermodynamics –
I Law of thermodynamics - Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but it can
only be converted from one form to another.
II Law of thermodynamics - Whenever there is transformation of energy, there is loss
of energy in the form of heat.
Nutrient Cycle or Biogeochemical Cycle
The producers use nutrients for preparing food which is consumed by consumers and
then the decomposers recover the nutrients from the consumers after they are dead and
decomposed. Thus, nutrient flows between biotic and abiotic components repeatedly. This is
called nutrient cycle or biogeochemical cycle.
The biogeochemical involves,
1. Hydrological cycle (WATER CYCLE)
2. Oxygen cycle
3. Nitrogen cycle
4. Carbon cycle
5. Phosphorous cycle.

1. Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle or the hydrological cycle, describes
the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth.
Water Cycle Diagram
During this process, water changes its state from one phase to another, but the total
number of water particles remains the same. In other words, if it were possible to collect
and boil 100 gms of water, it will still retain a mass of 100 gms as steam. Likewise, if 100
gms of steam is collected and condensed, the resultant water would still weight 100 gms.
Stages of Water Cycle
Water changes its state through a variety of processes from evaporation, melting and
freezing, to sublimation, condensation, and deposition. All these changes require the
application of energy.
1. Evaporation
The sun is the ultimate source of energy. Evaporation generally happens when water
molecules at the surface of water bodies become excited and rise into the air. These
molecules with the highest kinetic energy accumulate into water vapour clouds. Another
process called evapotranspiration occurs when evaporation occurs through the leaves of
plants. This process contributes to a large percentage of water in the atmosphere.

2. Sublimation
Sublimation occurs when snow or ice changes directly into water vapour without
becoming water. It usually occurs as a result of dry winds and low humidity. Sublimation
can be observed on mountain peaks, where the air pressure is quite low. The low air
pressure helps to sublimate the snow into water vapour as less energy is utilised in the
process. Another example of sublimation is the phase where fog bellows from dry ice. On
earth, the primary source of sublimation is from the ice sheets covering the poles of the
earth.
3. Condensation
The water vapour that accumulated in the atmosphere eventually cools down due to the
low temperatures found at high altitudes. These vapours become tiny droplets of water
and ice, eventually coming together to form clouds.
4. Precipitation
Above 0 degrees centigrade, the vapours will condense into water droplets. However, it
cannot condense without dust or other impurities. Hence, water vapours attach itself on to
the particle’s surface. When enough droplets merge, it falls out of the clouds and on to
the ground below. This process is called precipitation (or rainfall). In particularly cold
weather or extremely low air pressure, the water droplets freeze and fall as snow or hail.
5. Infiltration
Rainwater gets absorbed into the ground through the process of infiltration. The level of
absorption varies based on the material the water has seeped into. For instance, rocks will
retain comparatively less water than soil. Groundwater can either follows streams or
rivers. But sometimes, it might just sink deeper, forming aquifers.
6. Runoff
If the water from rainfall does not form aquifers, it follows gravity, often flowing down
the sides of mountains and hills; eventually forming rivers. This process is called runoff.
In colder regions, icecaps form when the amount of snowfall is faster than the rate of
evaporation or sublimation. The biggest icecaps on earth are found at the poles.

Implications of Water Cycle

 The water cycle has a tremendous impact on the climate. For instance, the
greenhouse effect will cause a rise in temperature. Without the evaporative cooling
effect of the water cycle, the temperature on earth would rise drastically.
 The water cycle is also an integral part of other biogeochemical cycles.
 Water cycle affects all life processes on earth.
 The water cycle is also known the clean the air. For instance, during the process of
precipitation, water vapours have to attach themselves on to particles of dust. In
polluted cities, the raindrops, apart from picking up dust, also pick up water-
soluble gas and pollutants as they fall from the clouds. Raindrops are also known
to pick up biological agents such as bacteria and industrial soot particles and
smoke.

2. Oxygen cycle
 A Diagrammatic Representation of the Oxygen Cycle

Oxygen cycle, along with the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle plays an essential role in
the existence of life on the earth. The oxygen cycle is a biological process which helps in
maintaining the oxygen level by moving through three main spheres of the earth which
are:

 Atmosphere
 Lithosphere
 Biosphere
 This biogeochemical cycle explains the movement of oxygen gas within the atmosphere,
the ecosystem, biosphere and the lithosphere. The oxygen cycle is interconnected with
the carbon cycle.
The atmosphere is the layer of gases presents above the earth’s surface. The sum of
Earth’s ecosystems makes a biosphere. Lithosphere is the solid outer section along with
the earth’s crust and it is the largest reservoir of oxygen.
Stages of the Oxygen Cycle
The steps involved in the oxygen cycle are:
Stage-1: All green plants during the process of photosynthesis, release oxygen back into
the atmosphere as a by-product.
Stage-2: All aerobic organisms use free oxygen for respiration.
Stage-3: Animals exhale Carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere which is again used
by the plants during photosynthesis. Now oxygen is balanced within the atmosphere.
Importance of Oxygen Cycle
As we all know, oxygen is one of the most essential components of the earth’s
atmosphere. It is mainly required for:

 Breathing
 Combustion
 Supporting aquatic life
 Decomposition of organic waste.
Oxygen is an important element required for life; however, it can be toxic to some
anaerobic bacteria (especially obligate anaerobes).
The oxygen cycle is mainly involved in maintaining the level of oxygen in the
atmosphere. The entire cycle can be summarized as, the oxygen cycle begins with the
process of photosynthesis in the presence of sunlight, releases oxygen back into the
atmosphere, which humans and animals breathe in oxygen and breathe out carbon
dioxide, and again linking back to the plants. This also proves that both the oxygen
and carbon cycle occur independently and are interconnected to each other.
3. CARBON CYCLE
Carbon cycle is the process where carbon compounds  are interchanged among the
biosphere, geosphere, pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of the earth.
Carbon Cycle Steps
Following are the major steps involved in the process of the carbon cycle:

1. Carbon present in the atmosphere is absorbed by plants for photosynthesis.

2. These plants are then consumed by animals and carbon gets bio accumulated into
their bodies.
3. These animals and plants eventually die, and upon decomposing, carbon is
released back into the atmosphere.
4. Some of the carbon that is not released back into the atmosphere eventually
becomes fossil fuels.
5. These fossil fuels are then used for man-made activities, which pump more carbon
back into the atmosphere.
 Carbon Cycle diagram showing the flow of carbon, its sources and paths.
Carbon Cycle on Land
Carbon in the atmosphere is present in the form of carbon dioxide. Carbon enters the
atmosphere through natural processes such as respiration and industrial applications such
as burning fossil fuels. The process of photosynthesis involves the absorption of CO2 by
plants to produce carbohydrates. The equation is as follows:
CO2 + H2O + energy → (CH2O)n +O2
Carbon compounds are passed along the food chain from the producers to consumers.
The majority of the carbon exists in the body in the form of carbon dioxide through
respiration. The role of decomposers is to eat the dead organism and return the carbon
from their body back into the atmosphere. The equation for this process is:
(CH2O)n +O2 → CO2 + H2O

Importance of Carbon Cycle

Even though carbon dioxide is found in small traces in the atmosphere, it plays a vital role in
balancing the energy and traps the long-wave radiations from the sun. Therefore, it acts like a
blanket over the planet. If the carbon cycle is disturbed it will result in serious consequences
such as climatic changes and global warming.
Carbon is an integral component of every life form on earth. From proteins and lipids to even our
DNA. Furthermore, all known life on earth is based on carbon. Hence, the carbon cycle, along
with the nitrogen cycle and oxygen cycle, plays a vital role in the existence of life on earth.
4. Nitrogen cycle

“Nitrogen Cycle is a biogeochemical process which transforms the inert nitrogen

present in the atmosphere to a more usable form for living organisms.”
It involves several processes such as nitrogen fixation, nitrification, denitrification, decay
and putrefaction.
Nitrogen gas exists in both organic and inorganic forms. Organic nitrogen exists in living
organisms, and they get passed through the food chain by the consumption of other living
organisms.
Inorganic forms of nitrogen are found in abundance in the atmosphere. This nitrogen is
made available to plants by symbiotic bacteria which can convert the inert nitrogen into a
usable form – such as nitrites and nitrates.
Stages of Nitrogen Cycle
Process of the Nitrogen Cycle consists of the following steps – Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification,
Assimilation, Ammonification and Denitrification.

1. Nitrogen Fixation Process

It is the initial step of the nitrogen cycle. Here, Atmospheric nitrogen (N2) which is primarily
available in an inert form, is converted into the usable form -ammonia (NH3).
During the process of Nitrogen fixation, the inert form of nitrogen gas is deposited into soils
from the atmosphere and surface waters, mainly through precipitation.
Nitrogen fixation can occur either by atmospheric fixation- which involves lightening, or
industrial fixation by manufacturing ammonia under high temperature and pressure
conditions. This can also be fixed through man-made processes, primarily industrial
processes that create ammonia and nitrogen-rich fertilisers.

2. Nitrification
In this process, the ammonia is converted into nitrate by the presence of bacteria in the
soil. Nitrites are formed by the oxidation of ammonia with the help
of Nitrosomonas bacteria species. Later, the produced nitrites are converted into nitrates
by Nitrobacter. This conversion is very important as ammonia gas is toxic for plants.
The reaction involved in the process of Nitrification is as follows:
2NH3 + 3O2 → 2NO2– + 2H+ + 2H2O
2NO2– + O2 → 2NO3–

3. Assimilation
Primary producers – plants take in the nitrogen compounds from the soil with the help of
their roots, which are available in the form of ammonia, nitrite ions, nitrate ions or
ammonium ions and are used in the formation of the plant and animal proteins. This way,
it enters the food web when the primary consumers eat the plants.

4. Ammonification
When plants or animals die, the nitrogen present in the organic matter is released back
into the soil. The decomposers, namely bacteria or fungi present in the soil, convert the
organic matter back into ammonium. This process of decomposition produces ammonia,
which is further used for other biological processes.

5. Denitrification
Denitrification is the process in which the nitrogen compounds make their way back into
the atmosphere by converting nitrate (NO3-) into gaseous nitrogen (N). This process of
the nitrogen cycle is the final stage and occurs in the absence of oxygen.
De-nitrification is carried out by the denitrifying bacterial
species- Clostridium and Pseudomonas, which will process nitrate to gain oxygen and
gives out free nitrogen gas as a by-product.
5. Phosphorous cycle
 The phosphorus cycle is slow compared to other biogeochemical cycles such as
the water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles.
 In nature, phosphorus is found mostly in the form of phosphate ions PO43−.
 Phosphate compounds are found in sedimentary rocks, and as the rocks wear down
over long time periods—the phosphorus they contain slowly leaches into surface
water and soils. Volcanic ash, aerosols, and mineral dust can also be significant
phosphate sources, though phosphorus has no real gas phase, unlike other
elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
 Phosphate compounds in the soil can be taken up by plants and, from there,
transferred to animals that eat the plants.
 When plants and animals excrete wastes or die, phosphates may be taken up by
detritivores or returned to the soil. Phosphorus-containing compounds may also be
carried in surface runoff to rivers, lakes, and oceans, where they are taken up by
aquatic organisms.
 When phosphorus-containing compounds from the bodies or wastes of marine
organisms sink to the floor of the ocean, they form new sedimentary layers. Over
long periods of time, phosphorus-containing sedimentary rock may be moved
from the ocean to the land by a geological process called uplift. However, this
process is very slow, and the average phosphate ion has an oceanic residence time
—time in the ocean—of 20,000 to 100,000 years.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of
a stable community in a particular area is called ecological succession.
Community: Group of plants or animals living in an area.
Stages of Ecological succession
1. Pioneer Community:
The first group of organisms which establish their community in an
area is called pioneer community.
2. Seres or Seral Stage:
The various developmental stages of a community are called 'seres'.
Types of ecological succession
1. Primary succession: Involves gradual establishment of biotic communities on a
lifeless ground.
(a) Hydrarch: Establishment starts in a watery area (lake, pond)
(b) Xerarch: Establishment starts in a dry land (desert, rocks)
 2. Secondary succession: Involves the establishment of biotic communities in an
area, where some type of biotic community is already present.
Process of ecological succession
1. Nudation: It is the development of bare land without any life form.
2. Invasion: It is the establishment of one/more species on a bare land through
migration.
3. Competition: The species compete among themselves for space, water &
nutrition.
4. Reaction: The living organisms grow and modify the environment.
This modification leads to replacement of existing species.
5. Stabilization: This finally reaches a more or less stable community called the
Climax.
Significance of Ecological succession

The primary function of ecological succession is the achievement of stability

rather than a more increased productivity.

TYPES OF ECOSYSTEMS
1. FOREST ECOSYTEM

Forest consists of densely growing trees which cover 40% of world's land and
19% of Indian land.
Characteristics of forests ecosystem
1. They have warm climate and adequate rainfall.
2. Forests maintain rainfall and climate.
3. Forests support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
4. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter which support the growth of trees.
5. As sunlight penetration is poor, conversion of organic matter into nutrients is very
fast.
Structure and function of forest ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: e.g., Temperature, light, rain and minerals.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Trees, shrubs
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Insects
(ii) Secondary consumers: Birds, snakes
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Tiger, lion
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.
 2. GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM
Grasslands are large areas of grass with scattered trees which occupies about
20% of world's land.
Characteristics of grassland ecosystem
1. Grassland ecosystem is plain land occupied by grasses.
2. Soil is rich in nutrients and organic matter.
3. Since there are tall grasses, it is an ideal place for grazing animals.
4. It is characterized by low or even rainfall.
Structure and function of grassland ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: e.g., Nutrients (C, H, O ,N ,P , S) supplied by CO 2, H2O,
nitrates, phosphates and sulphates.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Grasses, shrubs
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Cows, deer
(ii) Secondary consumers: Snakes, lizards
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Eagles
(c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria.

3. DESERT ECOSYSTEM
Deserts occupy about 35% of world's land. The atmosphere is dry and hence a
poor insulator.
Characteristic features of desert ecosystem
The desert air is dry and climate is hot.
1. Annual rainfall is less than 25cm.
2. The soil is poor in nutrients and organic matter.
3. Vegetation is poor.
Structure and function of desert ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, rainfall, sunlight
The temperature is very high and rainfall and nutrient cycling are very low.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Shrubs, bushes, some grass
In desert there are succulent plants like cacti which have water inside them and
waxy outer coating to protect form sun.
(b) Consumers: Squirrels, mice, reptiles.
These animals dig holes in the ground to live and come out at night for food. Most of
the desert animals can extract water from seeds.
 (c) Decomposers: Fungi and bacteria
Desert has poor vegetation with low amount of dead organic matter. They are
decomposed by few bacteria and fungi.

4. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Types of aquatic ecosystems: Based on the salinity it is classified into 2 types as

(i) Fresh water ecosystem: Ponds, lakes, rivers, streams
(ii) Marine/ salt water ecosystem: Oceans, estuaries

1. Fresh water ecosystem:

a) POND ECOSYSTEM

Characteristic features of pond ecosystem

1. Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
2. It is stagnant fresh water body.
3. Pond gets polluted easily due to limited amount of water.
Structure and function of Pond ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, water, organic and inorganic
compounds.
2. Biotic components:
(a)Producers: They are of 2 types
(i) Phytoplankton: These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on
the water surface. e.g., Algae, pandorina.
(ii) Microphytes: These are large floating plants and submerged plants. e.g.,
Hydrilla, wolfia.
(b) Consumers: (i) Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are
microscopic animals which float freely on the water surface. e.g., Protozoa, very
small fish, ciliates.
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects like water beetles and small fish.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish.
(c) Decomposers: Fungi, bacteria, flagellates.

b) LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Lakes are supplied water by rainfall, melting snow and streams.
Types of lakes
1. Oligotrophic lakes: They have low nutrient concentrations.
2. Eutrophic lakes: They are over nourished by nutrients like N and P.
3. Dystrophic lakes: They have low pH, high humic content and brown waters.
4. Volcanic lakes: They receive water from magma after volcanic eruptions.
5. Meromictic lakes: They are rich in salts.
6. Artificial lakes: They are created due to construction of dams.
Zones of lake
Depending upon their distance from the shore, a lake consists of 4 distinct zones.
1. Littoral zone: It is the top layer of the lake. It has shallow water.
2. Limnetic zone: It lies below the littoral zone, where effective penetration of
sunlight takes place.
3. Profundal zone: This is the deep open water, where it is too dark.
4. Benthic zone: This layer is the bottom most layer of the lake.

Characteristic feature of Lake Ecosystem

1. Lake is shallow fresh water body.
2. It is a permanent water body with large water resources.
3. It is useful for irrigation and drinking purpose.
Structure and function of Lake Ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, proteins and lipids.
2. Biotic components:
 (a) Producers: These are the green plants which may be submerged, free floating
and amphibious plants. e.g., Phytoplankton, algae
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers (Zooplankton): Ciliates, protozoans.
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Insects and small fishes.
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Large fish like game fish.
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria and fungi

c) RIVER/STREAM ECOSYSTEM
The running water of a river or stream is well oxygenated, because it absorbs
oxygen from air. The numbers of animals are low in river or stream.
Characteristic features of river or stream ecosystem
1. It is fresh water and free flowing water system.
2. Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is more.
3. River deposits large amount of nutrients.
Structure and function of river ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, pH, nutrients.

2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses.
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers: Water insects, snails
(ii) Secondary consumers: Birds and mammals
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi

d) MARINE/OCEAN ECOSYSTEM
Oceans cover more than two thirds of earth's surface. It supplies a vast variety
of sea products and drugs. It has high concentration of salts and minerals.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
(i) Coastal zone: It is relatively nutrient rich, shallow water and has high
productivity because of high nutrients and sunlight.
(ii) Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean and is vertically divided into 3
regions. (a) Euphotic zone: It receives abundant light and shows high
photosynthetric activity. (b) Bathyal zone: It receives dim light and is geologically
active.
(c) Abyssal zone: It is the dark zone and is very deep (2000 to 5000 m).
Characteristic features of marine ecosystem
 1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.
2. Since, ships, submarines can sail in ocean a large number of commercial activities
are carried out.
3. It is rich in biodiversity.
4. It moderates the temperature of earth.
Structure and function of marine ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, light, NaCl, KCl.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Phytoplankton and marine plants
(b) Consumers:
(i) Primary consumers (Herbivores): Crustaceans, molluscs
(ii) Secondary consumers (Carnivores): Herring, mackerel
(iii) Tertiary consumers: Cod
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.

e)ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
"An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the mouth of a river which joins
the sea".
They are rich in nutrients and have high food potential.

Characteristics of estuarine ecosystem

1. Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly affected by tides of sea.
2. Water characteristics are periodically changed.
3. The living organisms here have wide tolerance.
4. Salinity in estuaries is highest in summer and lowest in winter.
Structure and function of estuarine ecosystem
1. Abiotic components: Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts.
2. Biotic components:
(a) Producers: Marsh grasses, sea weeds, sea grasses.
(b) Consumers: Oysters, Crabs, small fishes.
(c) Decomposers: Bacteria, fungi.

KEYSTONE SPECIES
Within a habitat each species connects to and depends on other species. But,
some species do more than others in the overall scheme of things. Without the
work of these key species, the habitat changes significantly. These species are
called “keystone species". When a keystone species disappears from its
habitat, that habitat changes dramatically.
Illustration
Elephants as keystone species in Grasslands
Elephants are keystone species in African grasslands. When elephants are
taken away from grasslands, it is converted into forest or shrub areas by
overgrowth of woody plants. As keystone species, elephants prevent this
conversion.
INTRODUCTION TO BIODIVERSITY

BIODIVERSITY
Bio means ‘life' and diversity means ‘variety’. Biodiversity is defined as, “the
variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the
ecosystem in which they occur”.
TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY:
A. GENETIC BIODIVERSITY
Gene is the basic unit of all life on earth. They are responsible for both the
similarities and the difference between organisms. “Genetic diversity is the
variation of genes within species”. For example rice belongs to the species
Oryzasativa which has many varieties that differ in size, shape, aroma etc.
B. SPECIES BIODIVERSITY
Species is a group of plants, animals, fungi and microbes. Species diversity is
the number of different species of living things available in an area.

C. ECOSYSTEM BIODIVERSITY
The existence of different ecosystems results as Ecosystem biodiversity. The
ecosystem also shows variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture,
temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
1. CONSUMPTIVE USE VALUE
The resources from biodiversity are consumed by human beings as food, drugs,
medicines and fuel.
High consumptive use values on resources may lead to the following problems:
1. Over-exploitation of wildlife in developing countries
2. Loss of traditional controls on hunting and
3. Loss of wildlife populations at productive levels.
2. PRODUCTIVE USE VALUE
 This value includes the products that are marketed and sold. It includes
animal products like tusk of elephants, musk deer, silk from silk worm, wool
from sheep, etc.
3. SOCIAL VALUE
Many plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like tulsi, peepal,
Mango, Lotus,etc. Many animals like cow, snake, peacock, bull, owl etc also
have significant place in social importance.
4. ETHICAL VALUE
It is otherwise called existence value. It involves ethical concepts like “all life
must be preserved” and “live and let live”. The ethical value tells that any
species may or may not be useful but its presence in ecosystem is a must.
5. AESTHETIC VALUE
People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to enjoy the beauty
of biodiversity and this type of tourism is known as eco –tourism. Neem and
mango leaves are used for decoration during festivals. Elephants, horses and
camels are used for ceremonial purposes.
6. OPTION VALUE
It is the value that any species may prove to be a miracle species someday.
Any species of biodiversity may be found very useful for any particular
purpose: if it is preserved and exists.

INDIA AS A MEGA BIODIVERSITY NATION

India is one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries in the world. The Ministry of
environmental and forests, Government of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and
81,000 species of animals which is about 7% and 6.5% respectively of the global flora and
fauna.

1. Endemism: Species which are restricted to only to a particular area are known as
endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62% of amphibians and
50% of lizards are endemic.

2. Centre of origin: A large number of species have known to originate in India.

Nearly 5000 flowering species, 166 species of crop plants and 320 species of wild
relatives of cultivated crops origin in India.
 3. Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country is the mangroves,
estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340 species
of corals of the world are found here.
o About 62% of amphibians and 50% of lizards are endemic in India
o Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism.
o A number of rare species such as the royal Bengal tiger, the Indian elephant, the
Asian lion of Gir, the wild Ass of Kutch, the white tiger of Rewa, the golden
Langur of Assam, Long tail Macaque, the Gaur and the Sambar are exclusively
found in the sub-continent.
o Among the flowering plants 5000 species are there India. Thus from agro
diversity point of view, our country is quite rich.
o India has been the centre of origin of 166 species of crop plants and 320 species
of cultivated crops.
o The agro species present in India are rice, sugarcane, banana, tea, cucumber, jute,
jackfruit, black pepper, ginger, turmeric, bamboo etc.
o Human population further contributes to make India a mega diversity nation
o India, reached the population of one billion people in 2000 comprising about 16%
of the world populations.
o Presently it is more than 1.2 billion and increasing in the ration of 1.92%
o All these views say that India is a mega diversity nation.

HOTSPOTS OF BIODIVERSITY
The hot spots of biodiversity are the geographic areas which possess the high
endemic species. At the global level these are the areas of high conservation priority,
if these species are lost they can never be replaced or regenerated.

Criteria for recognizing Hotspots: The richness of the endemic species is the primary
criterion; they should have a significant percentage of specialized species; the site should be
under threat and should contain important gene pools of plants of potential use.
Two hot spots in India are:
1. Eastern Himalayas (Indo-Burma region) and
2. Western Ghats (Srilanka region).
Eastern Himalayas:
 Comprises of Nepal, Bhutan and neighboring states of Northern India.
 35,000 plant species are found here and 30 % are endemic – also rich in wild
plants of economic value.
 Huge wealth of plants, fungi, insects, mammals, birds have been found in the
region.
  These areas are particularly rich in floral wealth and endemism, not only on
flowering plants but also in reptiles, amphibians, swallows, tailed butterflies and
some mammals.
 It is estimated that the Eastern Himalayas consist of about 9000 plant species, with
3500 endemic plants.
Among that,
 55 endemic flowering plants of this area are recognized as rare.
 This area is also rich in plants of economic significance such as banana, citrus,
rice, ginger, chillies, sugarcane and jute.
 It also contains five palms of commercial importance namely coconut, arecanut,
palmyra, palm, sugar palm and wild date palm.
 Also tea is reported to be in cultivation in this region for the last 400 years.
 Regarding animals about 63% mammals are found in Eastern Himalayas and 60%
of Indian birds are recorded in the Eastern region.
 The golden Langur of Assam and the flying squirrel of Arunachal Pradesh are
present in this region.

Western Ghats:
 Comprises of parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Kerala – nearly
1500 endemic species are found here. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are
endemic here.
 Western Ghats extends along 17,000 km2.
 It covers the forest area of Maharashtra, Karnataka, TamilNadu and Kerala.
 The south Western Ghats is called Malabar which is the major genetic estate with
an enormous biodiversity.
 Also in this Western Ghats about dozens of rivers are flowing towards the east.
 Western Ghats region is considered as one of the most important geographic zones
of India and one of the richest centres of endemic.
 Due to varied topography and micro-climate condition, some areas within the
region are considered to be active zones.
 This region is a home to a diverse and endemic assemblage of plants, reptiles and
amphibians and it has more important population of Asian Elephants, Indian
Tigers endangered Lion tailed Macaque.
 Thus these two regions Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats are rich and
diverse in species and they are called Hotspots of Biodiversity.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY:
 Any disturbance in a natural ecosystem that tends to reduce its biodiversity is
known as a threat. Waste generated due to increase in human population and
industrialization spoils the environment and leads to decreased diversity in biological
species. Any change in the system leads to a major imbalance and threatens the normal
ecological cycle.

Causes for loss of biodiversity are:

1. Habitat loss
2. Poaching of wildlife and
3. Man-wildlife conflicts
Habitat loss:
The loss of living place of an organism is called habitat loss. Hence the loss of
populations of interbreeding organisms is caused by habitat loss.

Factors influencing habitat loss are:

1. Deforestation: Loss of habitat is mainly caused by deforestation activities. Forests

and grasslands are cleared for conversion into agriculture lands or settlement areas
or developmental projects. Forests and grasslands are natural home to thousands of
species which disintegrate due to loss of their natural habitat.
2. Destruction of wetlands: Wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are destroyed due to
farming, filling and pollution that cause loss of biodiversity.
3. Habitat fragmentation: When the habitat is divided into small and scattered
patches the phenomenon is called habitat fragmentation. This leads to the
disappearance of most wildlife.
4. Raw material: To produce hybrid seeds, wild plants are used as raw materials
leading to extinction of many wild plant species.
5. Production of drugs: Pharmaceutical companies collect wild plants for the
production of drugs leading to extinction of several medicinal plant species.
6. Illegal trade: Illegal trade of wildlife reduces biodiversity leading to habitat loss.
7. Developmental activities: Construction of dams in forest areas coupled with the
discharge of industrial effluents kills birds and other aquatic life.
Poaching of wildlife:
Poaching refers to killing animals. It contributes to loss of biodiversity.

Poaching can be of two types listed below:

 1. Subsistence poaching: This refers to killing animals for survival.
2. Commercial poaching: This refers to hunting animals in order to sell their
products.
Factors influencing poaching
1. Human population: Increased human population in India has led to pressure on
forest resources, leading to degradation of wildlife habitats.
2. Commercial activities: Since trading of animal products is highly profitable,
poachers continue to hunt endangered animals and smuggle their fur, skin, horns,
live specimens,herbal products and tusks to other countries.
MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS

CAUSES OF MAN WILDLIFE CONFLICT

1. Due to forest shrinkage the wild animals are forced to move outside forest.
2. Usually ill, weak, and injured animals have a tendency to attack the
humans.

3. Earlier Forest department used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane within the

sanctuaries, due to lack of such practices the animals move out of forest
food.
4. Villagers put electric wiring around their crop field which injures the
elephants and turn them violent.
5. Wildlife corridors have been disrupted which makes the animals attack
human beings during their migration.
Examples:

1. In Sambalpur, Orissa, several people were killed by elephants. In retaliation, the

villagers killed and injured several elephants.
2. In Mysore, elephants were killed by farmers in retaliation to the damage done by
elephants to their cotton and sugarcane fields.
3. Villagers sometimes hide explosives in their fields to ward-off animals which
explode when the elephants enter the fields.
4. Several people were killed when leopards attacked them in Sanjay Gandhi
National Park, Mumbai
Factors influencing man-animal conflicts
1. Shrinking forest cover compels wildlife to move outside the forest.
2. Human encroachment into forest area induces a man-wildlife conflict.
3. Injured animals have a tendency to attack man.
 4. Wild animals venture out of the forest area in search of food.
5. Villagers’ set-up electric wiring around their fields. This injures animals
(Elephants) who suffer pain and get violent.
6. Cash compensation paid by the government is not enough.
7. Garbage near human settlements or food crops attracts wild animals.
REMEDIAL MEASURES TO CURB THE CONFLICT
1. Tiger conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available
vehicles, tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc., to tactfully deal with any
imminent danger.
2. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started.
3. Solar powered fencing should be provided to prevent animals from straying into
fields.
4. Cropping pattern should be changed near the border.
5. Wildlife corridors should be provided.

ENDANGERED AND ENDEMIC SPECIES OF INDIA

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of biological extinction is
called endangered species or threatened species.
In India, 450 plant species have been identified as endangered species. 100 mammals and
150 birds are estimated to be endangered.
India's biodiversity is threatened primarily due to:

1. Habitat destruction
2. Degradation and
3. Over exploitation of resources
The RED-data book contains a list of endangered species of plants and animals. It
contains a list of species of that are endangered but might become extinct in the near
future if not protected.
Some of the rarest animals found in India are:
1. Asiatic cheetah
2. Asiatic Lion
3. Asiatic Wild Ass
4. Bengal Fox
5. Gaur
6. Indian Elephant
 7. Indian Rhinocerous
8. Marbled  Cat
9. Markhor
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical
number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat
destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive
area. Such species are not endangered or vulnerable.
Other important endangered species are: 
1. Tortoise, Green sea Turtle , Gharial, Python (Reptiles)
2. Peacock, Siberian White Crane, Pelican, Indian Bustard (Birds)
3. Hoolock gibbin, Lion-tailed Macaque, Capped mokey, Golden monkey (Primates)
4. Rauvol fia serpentina (medicinal plant), Sandal wood tree, etc
FACTORS AFFECTING ENDANGERED SPECIES
1. Human beings dispose wastes indiscriminately in nature thereby polluting the air,
land and water. These pollutants enter the food chain and accumulate in living
creatures resulting in death.
2. Over-exploitation of natural resources and poaching of wild animals also leads to
their extinction.
3. Climate change brought about by accumulation of greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere. Climate change threatens organisms and ecosystems and they cannot
adjust to the changing environmental conditions leading to their death and
extinction.
An international treaty to help protect endangered wildlife is, "Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species 1975" (CITES). This treaty is now signed by
160 countries.
1. CITES lists 900 species that cannot be commercially traded as live specimens or
wildlife products as they are in danger of extinction.
2. CITES restricts trade of 2900 other species as they are endangered.
DRAWBACKS OF CITES
1. This treaty is limited as enforcement is difficult and convicted violators get away
by paying only a small fine.
2. Member countries can exempt themselves from protecting any listed species.
Endemic species of India
Species that are found only in a particular region are known as endemic species. Almost
60% the endemic species in India are found in Himalayas and the Western Ghats.
Endemic species are mainly concentrated in:
1. North-East India
2.  North-West Himalayas
3. Western Ghats and
4. Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
Examples of endemic Flora species are
1. Sapria Himalayana
2. Ovaria Lurida
3. Nepenthis khasiana etc
Endemic fauna of significance in the western ghats are:
1. Lion tailed macaque
2. Nilgiri langur
3. Brown palm civet and
4. Nilgiri tahr
Factors affecting endemic species: 
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation due to draining and filling of inland wetlands.
2. Pollution also plays an important role.
Examples:
1. Frog eggs, tadpoles and adults are extremely sensitive to pollutants especially
pesticides.
2. Over-hunting and
3. Populations can be adversely affected by introduction of non active predators and
competitors. Disease producing organisms also play an important adversary in
reducing populations of endemic species.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity is one of the important tools for sustainable development. The commercial,
medical, genetic, aesthetic, and ecological importance of biodiversity emphasizes the
need for its conservation.
FACTORS AFFECTING BIODIVERSITY:
1. Biodiversity is disturbed by human activity
 2. Poaching of animals, over-exploitation of natural sources and degradation of
habitats affect biodiversity.
3. Marine ecosystems are disturbed due to oil spills and discharge of effluents.
4. Climatic factors like global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain also affect
biodiversity.
IMPORTANCE OF BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
1. It provides recreation and tourism.
2. Drugs, herbs, food and other important raw materials are derived from plants and
animals.
3. It preserves the genetic diversity of plants and animals.
4. It ensures sustainable utilization of life supporting systems on earth.
5. It needs to conservation of essential ecological diversity and life supporting
systems.
6. Loss of biodiversity leads to ecological and environmental deterioration.
The following measures should be taken to conserve biodiversity

1. Illegal hunting and trade of animals and animal products should be stopped
immediately.
2. People-at-large should boycott purchasing coats, purse or bags made of animal
skin.
3. Bio-diversity laws should be strengthened.
4. Adequate crop and cattle compensation schemes must be started.
5. Solar powered fencing must be provided with electric current proof trenches to
prevent animals from entering fields.
6. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders.
7. Adequate food and water should be made available for wild animals within forest
zones.
8. Development and construction work in and around forest region must be stopped.
There are two types of biodiversity conservation:
1. In-situ conservation and
2. Ex-situ conservation
IN-SITUCONSERVATION
In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The
natural habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".
 1. Biosphere reserves
2. National parks
3. Wildlife sanctuaries
4. Gene sanctuaries
1. Biosphere reserves cover large areas (>5000 sq.km.) They are normally used to
protect species for a long time. The roles of biosphere reserves are listed below:
 Long-term survival of evolving ecosystem.
 Protect endangered species.
 Protect maximum number of species and communities.
 Serve as site of recreation and tourism.
 May also be used for educational and research purposes.
 Biosphere reserves function as an open system and changes in land use are not allowed.
No tourism and explosive activities are allowed in biosphere reserves.

2. A national park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It covers an area ranging from 100 to 500 sq.km. One or more national
parks may exist within a biosphere reserve.
A national park is used for enjoyment through tourism, without affecting the
environment.

It is used to protect, propagate and develop wildlife.

Grazing domestic animals inside national parks is prohibited.

All private rights and forestry activities are prohibited inside a national park.

3. Wildlife sanctuary is an area that is reserved for the conservation of animals only.

1. It protects animals only

2. It allows operations such as harvesting of timber, collection of forest products,
private ownership rights and forestry operations, provided it does not affect
animals adversely
4. Gene sanctuary is an area where plants are conserved.
5. Other projects for the conservation of animals are Project Tiger, Gir Lion
Project, Crocodile breeding project, project elephant etc.

 Advantages of in-situ conservation

 1. It is cheap and convenient.
2. Species get adjusted to natural disasters like drought, floods, forest fires etc.
Disadvantages of in-situ conservation
1. A large surface area of earth is required to preserve biodiversity.
2. Maintenance is not proper due to shortage of staff and pollution.
Ex-situ conservation
Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats.
This type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild
relatives of crops.

1. Ex-situ conservation involves maintenance and breeding of endangered plant and

animal species under controlled conditions.
2. It identifies those species that are at a high risk of extinction.
3. It prefers species that are important for man in the near future among the
endangered species.
Important centers of ex-situ conservation:
1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens
Methods of ex-situ conservation
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NPBGR) It is located in New Delhi and
uses the Cryopreservation Technique to preserve agricultural and horticultural crops.
Cryopreservation technique involves using liquid nitrogen at -196 C. Varieties of rice,
turnip, radish, tomato, onion, carrot, chilli, tobacco have been successfully preserved for
years using this technique.

 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NPAGR) It is located in Karnal,

Haryana and preserves the semen of domesticated bovine animals.

 National Facility for Plant Tissue Culture Repository (NFPTCR) In this facility,

conservation of varieties of crop plants or trees is done using tissue culture. This facility
has been created within the NPBGR.

 Advantages of Ex-situ conservation

 1. Survival of endangered species is increasing due to special care and attention
2. In captive breeding the animals are assured of food, water, shelter and security
thereby have a longer life span
3. It is carried-out in cases of endangered species that do not have any chance of
survival in the wild
Disadvantages of Ex-situ conservation
1. It is an expensive method
2. Freedom of wildlife is lost
3. Animals cannot survive in the natural environment
’
PART A
1. What is the importance of environment?
Environment plays an important role in healthy living and the existence of life on planet
earth. Earth is a home for different living species and we all are dependent on the environment
for food, air, water, and other needs. Therefore, it is important for every individual to save and
protect our environment.

2. What is an Ecosystem?
Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. It is derived from Greek word "study
of home". Ecosystem is a group of organisms interacting among themselves and with the
environment exchanging its energy and matter.

3. State the functions of an ecosystem.

1. Primary function/ production: It is manufacturing of food by photosynthesis.
2. Secondary function/distribution: It is the distribution of energy to all consumers in
the form of food which is stored by them.
3. Tertiary function/decomposing: The dead systems (plants and animals) are
decomposed by decomposers thereby initiating the third function called "nutrient
cycling".

4. What is Nutrients Cycling (Biogeochemical cycle)?

The producers use nutrients and prepare food, the consumers consume it and the
decomposers recover the nutrients flowing between biotic & abiotic components, known
as biogeochemical cycle.

5. What is ecological succession?

The progressive replacement of one community by another till the development of a
stable community in a particular area is called ecological succession.
6. What are keystone species? Give an example.
Within a habitat each species connects to and depends on other species. But, some species
do more than others in the overall scheme of things. Without the work of these key
species, the habitat changes significantly. These species are called “keystone species".
When a keystone species disappears from its habitat, that habitat changes dramatically.
Example: Elephants as keystone species in Grasslands.

7. What is biodiversity?
Bio means ‘life' and diversity means ‘variety’. Biodiversity is defined as, “the variety and
variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem in which they occur”.

8. What are hotspots of biodiversity?

The hot spots of biodiversity are the geographic areas which possess the high endemic
species. At the global level these are the areas of high conservation priority, if these species
are lost they can never be replaced or regenerated.

9. What are the Criteria for recognizing hotspots?

The richness of the endemic species is the primary criterion; they should have a significant
percentage of specialized species; the site should be under threat and should contain important
gene pools of plants of potential use.

10. Mention the two hot spots in India?

1. Eastern Himalayas (Indo-Burma region) and
2. Western Ghats (Srilanka region).
3.
11. What are endangered species?
A plant, animal or microorganism that is in immediate risk of biological extinction is
called endangered species or threatened species.

12. Define the terms: a. Extinct species b. Endangered or threatened species c.

Vulnerable species d. Rare species 
Extinct species is no longer found in the world.
Endangered or threatened species is one whose number has been reduced to a critical
number. Unless it is protected and conserved, it is in immediate danger of extinction.
Vulnerable species is one whose population is facing continuous decline due to habitat
destruction or over exploitation. However, it is still abundant.
Rare species is localized within a restricted area or is thinly scattered over an extensive
area. Such species are not endangered or vulnerable.

13. What do you mean by in-situ conservation of biodiversity?

In-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna within its natural habitat. The natural
habitats or ecosystems under in-situ conservation are called "protected areas".

14. What is meant by ex-situ conservation of biodiversity?

Ex-situ conservation involves protection of flora and fauna outside their natural habitats. This
type of conservation is mainly done for conservation of crop varieties and wild relatives of crops.

15. Mention few important centers of ex-situ conservation.

1. Botanical gardens
2. Seed banks
3. Microbial culture collections
4. Tissue and cell cultures
5. Museums and
6. Zoological gardens

UNIT II
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Definitions:
1. Environmental pollution:
It is defined as any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause
harmful effects on the life and property of humans.
2. Pollutant:
The toxic substance that harms the environment is known as a pollutant.
Types of pollutants:
a) Biodegradable pollutants:
- These pollutants rapidly decompose by natural processes. (eg) Animal and plant
matter.
b) Non-degradable pollutants:
- These pollutants do not decompose rapidly by natural processes. (eg) Plastic wastes.
3. TYPES OF POLLUTION:
a) Air Pollution
b) Water Pollution
c) Soil Pollution
d) Marine Pollution
e) Noise Pollution
f) Thermal Pollution
 g) Nuclear Hazards.
4. Reasons for Pollution:
 Pollution explosion
 Unplanned urbanization
 Deforestation
 Excessive heat, noise, light or radiation from industrial area.
AIR POLLUTION
What is Air Pollution?
Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and
humans drastically.
Types of Air Pollutants
There are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-
dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known
as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a
secondary pollutant.
Causes of Air Pollution
Burning of Fossil Fuels
The combustion of fossil fuels emits a large amount of sulphur dioxide. Carbon
monoxide released by incomplete combustion of fossil fuels also results in air pollution.
Automobiles
The gases emitted from vehicles such as jeeps, trucks, cars, buses, etc. pollute the
environment. These are the major sources of greenhouse gases and also result in diseases
among individuals.
Agricultural Activities
Ammonia is one of the most hazardous gases emitted during agricultural activities. The
insecticides, pesticides and fertilisers emit harmful chemicals in the atmosphere and
contaminate it.
Factories and Industries
Factories and industries are the main source of carbon monoxide, organic compounds,
hydrocarbons and chemicals. These are released into the air, degrading its quality.
Mining Activities
In the mining process, the minerals below the earth are extracted using large pieces of
equipment. The dust and chemicals released during the process not only pollute the air,
but also deteriorate the health of the workers and people living in the nearby areas.
Domestic Sources
The household cleaning products and paints contain toxic chemicals that are released in
the air. The smell from the newly painted walls is the smell of the chemicals present in
the paints. It not only pollutes the air but also affects breathing.
Effects of Air Pollution
Diseases
Air pollution has resulted in several respiratory disorders and heart diseases among
humans. The cases of lung cancer have increased in the last few decades. Children living
near polluted areas are more prone to pneumonia and asthma. Many people die every
year due to the direct or indirect effects of air pollution.
Global Warming
Due to the emission of greenhouse gases, there is an imbalance in the gaseous
composition of the air. This has led to an increase in the temperature of the earth. This
increase in earth’s temperature is known as global warming. This has resulted in the
melting of glaciers and an increase in sea levels. Many areas are submerged underwater.
Acid Rain
The burning of fossil fuels releases harmful gases such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur
oxides in the air. The water droplets combine with these pollutants, become acidic and
fall as acid rain which damages human, animal and plant life.
Ozone Layer Depletion
The release of chlorofluorocarbons, halons, and hydrochlorofluorocarbons in the
atmosphere is the major cause of depletion of the ozone layer. The depleting ozone layer
does not prevent the harmful ultraviolet rays coming from the sun and causes skin
diseases and eye problems among individuals.
Effect on Animals
The air pollutants suspend in the water bodies and affect aquatic life. Pollution also
compels the animals to leave their habitat and shift to a new place. This renders them
stray and has also led to the extinction of a large number of animal species.
Air Pollution Control
Avoid Using Vehicles
People should avoid using vehicles for shorter distances. Rather, they should prefer
public modes of transport to travel from one place to another. This not only prevents
pollution, but also conserves energy.
Energy Conservation
A large number of fossil fuels are burnt to generate electricity. Therefore, do not forget to
switch off the electrical appliances when not in use. Thus, you can save the environment
at the individual level. Use of energy-efficient devices such as CFLs also controls
pollution to a greater level.
Use of Clean Energy Resources
The use of solar, wind and geothermal energies reduce air pollution at a larger level.
Various countries, including India, have implemented the use of these resources as a step
towards a cleaner environment.
Other air pollution control measures include:
1. By minimising and reducing the use of fire and fire products.
2. Since industrial emissions are one of the major causes of air pollution, the
pollutants can be controlled or treated at the source itself to reduce its effects. For
example, if the reactions of a certain raw material yield a pollutant, then the raw
materials can be substituted with other less polluting materials.
3. Fuel substitution is another way of controlling air pollution. In many parts of
India, petrol and diesel are being replaced by CNG – Compressed Natural Gas
fueled vehicles. These are mostly adopted by vehicles that aren’t fully operating
with ideal emission engines.
4. Although there are many practices in India, which focus on repairing the quality of
air, most of them are either forgotten or not being enforced properly. There are
still a lot of vehicles on roads which haven’t been tested for vehicle emissions.
5. Another way of controlling air pollution caused by industries is to modify and
maintain existing pieces of equipment so that the emission of pollutants is
minimised.
6. Sometimes controlling pollutants at the source is not possible. In that case, we can
have process control equipment to control the pollution.
7. A very effective way of controlling air pollution is by diluting the air pollutants.
8. The last and the best way of reducing the ill effects of air pollution is tree
plantation. Plants and trees reduce a large number of pollutants in the air. Ideally,
planting trees in areas of high pollution levels will be extremely effective.

WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is defined as the contamination of water due to the addition of un-
wanted toxic substances to it.
Causes of water pollution:-
Untreated sewage and effluent waste.
Population explosion.
Agricultural activities like using of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
Mining activities.
Industrialization
Algae, organic acids in water bodies. (Eutrophication)
Effects of water pollution:-
1. Human and animal wastes create water borne diseases like cholera, typhoid,
jaundice, diarrhea, dysentery, malaria etc.
2. The sewage wastes deplete O2 and causes death of aquatic life.
3. The presence of inorganic chemicals makes water unsuitable for drinking.
4. The inorganic chemicals also causes skin cancer, neck damage, damage to
nervous system, liver and kidneys.
5. They also corrode metals.
6. The radioactive materials cause genetic defects and certain types of cancer.
7. Excessive heat lowers dissolved oxygen and affects the aquatic life.
8. The contaminated water used in agricultural field causes soil degradation or
pollution.
Control measures of water pollution:-
1. The administration of water pollution control should be in the hands of state or
central government.
2. Scientific techniques must be adopted for control of water pollution.
3. All industries must be enclosed by recycling plants.
4. More plants and trees must be grown as they act as natural air conditioners.
5. Afforestation programs must be encouraged.
6. Public awareness should be given mass media for preventing water pollution.
7. Laws, standards and research practices should be framed and modified
accordingly.
9. The use of treated water or recycled water should be emphasized.
10. Surface water contact with the disposal site should be avoided.
SOIL POLLUTION
Definition:
 Soil pollution is defined as the contamination of soil by human and natural activities,
which may cause harmful effects on living beings.
Causes of soil pollution:
 Urbanization
 Population explosion
 Changing of forest area into agricultural fields.
 Laying of roads in the hilly slopes.
 Construction of massive dams by power generation affects the fertile land by
impounding water.
 Mining and ore processing activities spoil the land
 The dumping of industrial wastes in soil affects soil fertility.
 The bio-medical wastes.
 The modern agricultural practices like spraying of insecticides, pesticides etc.,
 The radioactive pollutants from the explosion of nuclear bombs and nuclear wastes
from nuclear reactors.
Effects of soil pollution:
 The urban wastes like garbage, plastics & glasses, paper, rubber, fuel
residue reduce the soil quality and make it unfit for plant growth.
 The industrial wastes affect the chemical and biological properties of soil.
 The metallic contaminants destroy the beneficial bacteria and micro
organisms in soil.
 The pesticides like DDT, polychlorinated biphenyls etc. causes’ nervous
disorder, gene mutation etc.
 The radioactive pollutants get contaminated in the fruits and vegetables
causes cancer and genetic disorders.
 The biological wastes bring viral infections due to the pathogens that live in
polluted soil.
 The long term use of pesticides affects the earthworms that are considered
to the friends of the farmers.

Control of soil pollution:-

1. Agro-forestry programme can be adapted to reclaim the degraded soil/land.
2. Open dumping should be avoided.
3. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers and insecticides should be avoided.
4. Bio pesticides can be used.
5. People should be trained regarding sanitary habits.
6. Recycling reuse and reduce (3 R’s) rule can be adapted.
 7. The use of toxic chemicals and pesticides must be banned.
8. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive wastes should be banned.
9. The hospitals and medical institutions should set up biomedical waste treatment
facilities like incinerator, autoclave etc. as per the bio-medical waste Rules 1998.
10. To reduce soil pollution – green manuaring should be encouraged.
NOISE POLLUTION
The unpleasant and unwanted sound that causes discomfort to all living beings is
called noise pollution .
Sound is expressed in decibel units. Decibel unit’s scale is the measure of loudness.
Causes of Noise Pollution:-
1. Thunder is a natural cause of noise pollution.
2. The noise developed from the machines in the industries, cause noise pollution.
3. The increase in number of vehicles is one of the major causes for noise pollution.
4. Bursting of crackers cause noise pollution.
5. The noise from musical instruments, TV, radio, telephones and loud speakers also
cause noise pollution.
6. Aircraft taking off causes noise pollution.
Based upon the above reasons the sources of noise can be classified as,
1. Noise from natural sources.
2. Industrial Noise.
3. Transportation noise.
4. Domestic or community noise.
Effects of Noise Pollution:-
1. Interferes with man’s Communication
2. Hearing damage
3. Physiological and Psychological changes:-
Continuous exposure to noise causes,
 Hypertension.
 Insomnia (Sleeplessness).
 Digestive disorders.
 Blood pressure changes.
 Emotional changes.
 Disturbance in work.
 Behavioral changes.
 Birth defects.
 The pale colouration of skin.
  Heart attack.
 Break down of nervous system.
 Peptic ulcers etc.
Control measures of Noise Pollution:-
1. Reduction of noise at source:
 Selection of properly designed machineries, proper handling of equipments,
tight fixing of machineries helps to reduce noise at the source.
 Resilient materials like rubber, springs, etc. can be used to reduce noise.
 Proper maintenance and greasing of machines also help to reduce noise at
the source.

2. Control at transmission path

The noise making machines must be kept in containers with sound absorbing media. So
the noise path will be interrupted and will not reach the workers.
3. Controlling at the receiving end
In case where source control and path control is not possible, the individual
protection devices like ear defenders, ear muffs etc can be used.
4. Control through law
 Strict laws can be enforced to ensure that sound production is minimized at the
 social functions.
 Unnecessary blowing of horns should be restricted in crowded areas.
5. Other methods of controlling noise pollution
They are,
 Planting more trees having broad leaves.
 Annual audiometric checkup is needed for persons in all types of factories.
 People must be made aware of the ill effects of excess sound.
 Public awareness can be created by using newspaper, TV, radio etc.
Hospitals, schools, colleges etc. should be built in quiet places far away from
crowded areas.

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid Waste
Any material that is thrown away as unwanted is considered as solid waste.
Classification of solid waste
1. Municipal Waste
2. Industrial Waste
 3. Agricultural waste
4. Medical waste
5. Mining waste
6. Sewage sludge
Sources of solid waste (causes)
I. Urban wastes
Urban wastes consists of medical waste from hospitals, municipal solid wastes
form homes, offices, markets, horticulture wastes from parks, gardens, orchards etc.
II. Industrial wastes
 It includes materials including factory rubbish, packaging materials, organic
wastes, acids, alkalis and metals etc.
 Nuclear power plants generate radioactive wastes.
 Thermal power plants produce fly ash in large quantities.
 Chemical industries produce large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.

Effects of solid wastes

 The domestic wastes from houses produce foul smell and breeds various types of
insects.
 Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which
affect the productivity of soils.
 The toxic wastes percolate into the ground and contaminate ground water.
 Burning of wastes containing cans, pesticides batteries etc. produces dioxins,
furans and polychlorinated biphenyls which are cancerous in nature.

Management of solid wastes (Control Measures)

I.Stress is made on “three R’s” – reduce, reuse and recycle.

The process of reducing, reusing and recycling saves money, energy, raw
materials, land scape and also reduces pollution.
(i) Reduction in use of raw materials: (REDUCE)
Reduction in the use of raw materials will decrease the production of waste.
(ii) Reuse of waste material:- (REUSE)
The refillable containers discarded after use can be reused.
Making of rubber rings from discarded cycle tubes.
(iii) Recycling of materials:- (RECYCLE)
Recycling is the reprocessing of discarded materials into new useful products.
E.g: Glass bottles are melted to recast into new bottles.
Preparation of automobiles and construction materials from steel cans.
II. Methods for discarding waste
a) Sanitary Landfill
b) Composting
c) Incineration
a) Sanitary Landfill
Solid wastes are placed in sanitary landfill system in alternate layers of 80cm thick
refuse, covered with selected earth fill of 20cm thickness. After two or three years,
solid waste volume shrinks by 25-30% and the land is used for parks, roads and
small buildings.
Advantages of landfill
1. Simple & Economical
2. Segregation of waste not required.
3. Land filled areas can be reclaimed and used for other purposes.
Disadvantages
1. Large area is required.
2. Bad odour arises, if landfills are not properly dealt with.
3. It may become a source of mosquitoes and flies if not properly done.
 4. It may cause fire hazards due to the formation of methane during wet weather.
b) Composting
In the process, the solid wastes are decomposed by bio chemical bacteriological
process under controlled conditions.
1. Aerobic decomposition – decomposition in the presence of air.
2. Anaerobic decomposition - decomposition in the absence of air.
The end product is known as humus. Humus is a good quality, nutrient rich,
environmental friendly manure which improves soil conditions and fertility.
Advantages
1. No harm to the environment.
2. Manure obtained can be sold and the cost of disposing is reduced.
Disadvantages
1. The non-degradable wastes have to be disposed separately.
2. Use of compost manure has not yet caught up with farmers and hence no assured
market.
c) Incineration
“It involves the burning of solid waste at high temperature between 850ºC – 100ºC”
 It is a hygienic way of disposing solid wastes.
 The combustible substances are separated from non-combustible substances
before incineration.
 Only 10-20% of ash is obtained.
 The heat produced during burning is converted to electrical energy.
 The solid wastes should be dried up before burning.
Advantages
1. Requires little space.
2. It is a hygienic and safe method.
3. Power is generated.
4. It occupies less space.
Disadvantages
1. The initial cost is very high.
2. Leads to air pollution due to the emission of smoke, dust and ash.

Hazardous Waste Management

Hazardous waste
Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or the
environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, sludge’s, discarded
commercial products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or the by-products of
manufacturing processes.
Characteristics of hazardous waste
1. Ignitability
A waste is considered to be an ignitable hazardous waste if its flash point is less than
60°C. Ex: Naphtha, lacquer thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives, and oil based paints etc.
2. Corrosivity
Any type of liquid waste whose pH is less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to
12.5 is considered to be corrosive hazardous waste. Sodium hydroxide (High pH) and
hydrochloric acid (Low pH) is often used in many industries to clean or degrease metal
parts..
3. Reactivity
A material is considered as reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently
with water, and generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive materials, or
explodes when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples of reactive wastes would be waste
gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or sulphides.
4. Toxicity
Toxicity of a hazardous waste can be determined by taking a representative sample of the
material and subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory and toxic
characteristics can be determined.
Categories of hazardous wastes
1. Radioactive substance
Radioactive waste is the type of hazardous waste that contains radioactive material.
Radioactive waste is a by-product of various nuclear technology processes, industries
based on nuclear medicine, nuclear research, nuclear power, manufacturing, construction,
coal and rare-earth mining and nuclear weapons reprocessing.
2. Chemicals
The hazardous chemical wastes can be categorized into five group’s namely synthetic
organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives.
3. Bio-medical wastes
The main sources of hazardous biological wastes are from hospitals and biological
research facilities. The biological waste has the capability of infecting other living
organisms and has the ability to produce toxins.
4. Flammable wastes
Examples of flammable waste include organic solvents, oils, plasticizers and organic
sludge’s.
5. Explosives
Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials. Explosives also
involve high potential for hazard in case of storage, collection and disposal. These types
of wastes may exist in solid, liquid or gaseous form.

Methods of hazardous waste management

Steps involved in hazardous waste disposal.

Handling of hazardous wastes

Persons handling hazardous wastes are advised to have protective precautions to protect
themselves from health effects. Exposure of hazardous waste leads to dermatitis in the
skin, asthma on long exposure, eye irritation and also tightening of the chest.
Transport of hazardous waste
Hazardous waste generated often requires transport to a particular site for an approved
treatment, storage, or disposal facility (TSDF). Because of potential threats to public
safety and the environment, transport is given special attention by governmental agencies
to avoid any occasional accidental spill.
Disposal
Disposal of hazardous waste is the final stage of a hazardous waste management system.
The different waste disposal methods includes secure landfill, deep well and bedrock
disposal.

Secure land fill method.

Deep well disposal method.
 Bedrock disposal method.

E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
What is e-waste?
E-waste or Electronic waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been
discarded. This includes working and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or
donated to a charity reseller, their components, consumables, parts, and spares.
E-waste is particularly dangerous due to toxic chemicals that naturally leach from the
metals inside when buried.
It is divided two broad categories:
1. Information technology and communication equipment. Examples: Cell phones,
Smartphones, Desktop Computers, Computer Monitors, Laptops. Circuit boards,
Hard Drives
2. Consumer electrical and electronics. Examples: microwaves, heaters, remote
controls, television remotes, electrical cords, lamps, smart lights, treadmills,
smartwatches, heart monitors, etc.
Harmful effects of e-waste:
1. Effects on Air quality:
Contamination in the air occurs when e-waste is informally disposed of by dismantling,
shredding, or melting the materials, releasing dust particles or toxins, such as dioxins,
into the environment that cause air pollution and damage respiratory health.
Chronic diseases and cancers are at a higher risk to occur when burning e-waste because
it also releases fine particles, which can travel thousands of miles, creating numerous
negative health risks to humans and animals.
2. Effects on Soil
When the improper disposal of e-waste in regular landfills or in places where it is
dumped illegally, both heavy metals and flame retardants can seep directly from the e-
waste into the soil, causing contamination of underlying groundwater or contamination of
crops that may be planted nearby or in the area in the future.
3. Effects on Water
After soil contamination, heavy metals from e-waste, such as mercury, lithium, lead, and
barium, then leak through the earth even further to reach groundwater.
When these heavy metals reach groundwater, they eventually make their way into ponds,
streams, rivers, and lakes.
4. Effects on Humans
Electronic waste contains toxic components that are dangerous to human health, such as
mercury, lead, cadmium, polybrominated flame retardants, barium, and lithium.
The negative health effects of these toxins on humans include brain, heart, liver, kidney,
and skeletal system damage. It can also considerably affect the nervous and reproductive
systems of the human body, leading to disease and birth defects.
E-waste Management Rules in India
The Environment, Forest, and Climate Change Ministry (MoEF&CC) have announced
the E-Waste Management Rules 2016. These new rules replaced the earlier E-Waste
(Management and Handling) Rules of 2011.
Key Points of E-waste Management Rules 2016:
 Local bodies with a population of one lakh or above were supposed to establish
solid waste processing facilities within two years,
 Census towns below a lakh would be given three years to establish solid waste
processing facilities
 Old and discarded dump sites would have to be shut-down or bio-remedied within
five years.
 The rules on solid waste management have been amended after 16 years.
 Garbage management is the responsibility of municipal bodies, they would have
the rights to charge user fees and levy spot fines for littering and non-segregation.
 A transition period of two to five years would be in place beyond which fines
would be imposed as per the country’s Environment Minister.
Handling of E-waste
To avoid these toxic effects of e-waste, it is crucial to properly re-cycle, so that items can
be recycled, refurbished, resold, or reused.
To separately collect, effectively treat, and dispose of e-waste, as well as divert it from
conventional landfills and open burning, it is essential to integrate the informal sector
with the formal sector.
The competent authorities in developing countries need to establish mechanisms for
handling and treatment of e-waste safely and sustainably.
Increasing information campaigns, capacity building, and awareness are critical to
promoting environment-friendly e-waste management programs.
More efforts are required on the improvement of the current practices such as collection
schemes and management practices to reduce the illegal trade of e-waste.
Reducing the number of hazardous substances in e-products will also have a positive
effect in dealing with the specific e-waste streams since it will support the prevention
process.

OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

 An Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) is a fundamental
part of an organization's risk management strategy to protect its workforce and others
under its control.
It aims at providing a method to assess and improve performance in the prevention
of workplace incidents and accidents via the effective management of hazards and
risks in the workplace.

 According to the National Safety Council, an effective safety management program

should:

 Reduce the risk of workplace incidents, injuries, and fatalities through data-driven
measurements and improvements
 Involve people from different parts of the organization to make safety a shared
responsibility
 Be well organized and structured to ensure consistent growth and performance
 Be proactive, preventive and integrated into the culture of the entire organization

The 8 key components of occupational health and safety (OHS) management systems are.
1. Planning
2. Incident reporting
3. User-friendly interface
4. Training
5. Risk assessments
6. Certification
7. Convenience
8. Performance
ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by
individuals, organizations and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural
resources and the existing natural environment and, where possible, to repair damage and
reverse trends.
Due to the pressures of overconsumption, population growth and technology,
the biophysical environment is being degraded, sometimes permanently. This has been
recognized, and governments have begun placing restraints on activities that
cause environmental degradation. Since the 1960s, environmental movements have
created more awareness of the multiple environmental problems. There is disagreement
on the extent of the environmental impact of human activity, so protection measures are
occasionally debated.
 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION ACTS
INTRODUCTION
India is the first country to have made provision for the protection and
conservation of environment in its constitution. On June 5th, 1972 environment was
taken for discussion in the U.N conference on Human Environment. So June 5th of every
year is celebrated as “World Environment Day.”
Wildlife Act -1972
Salient features
 It was enacted in the year 1972-Sept-9th.
 It gives power to the central government regarding the protection of
wildlife, animals and plants.
 After this act only wildlife National parks and sanctuaries were set up.
 Wildlife Advisory Board was setup and their powers and duties were
designed.
 Endangered species were listed and prohibition of huting of these species
was put into action.
 Endangered plants were also protected.
 Trade is possible only on trade on certain schedule animals.
 It imposed ban on trade on certain schedule animals.
 It provides powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
Draw Backs
1. Mild penalty to offenders.
2. Illegal wildlife trade in Jammu and Kashmir.
3. Only little effort to protect plant genetic resources.
4. Personal ownership certificates for animal articles like tiger and leopard skin in a
major drawback.

WaterAct, 1974
Salient Features
 It was enacted on 23rd March 1974.
 It paved way for the establishment of pollution control Boards at the centre
and state.
 This was the first law enacted to prevent pollution.
 Maintainence and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground
water.
 The pollution control boards, have definite powers.
  Punishment and penalities are designated for the offenders.
Powers of Central Pollution Board (CPCB):
 Provides advises to central government regarding issues related to water
pollution.
 Provides technical assistance and guidance to state pollution control board.
 Organize training programs related to prevention of water pollution.
 Creates awareness through mass media regarding pollutions.
 Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
Powers of State Pollution Board (SPCB):
 It advises the state government regarding pollution issues during the setting
up of an industry.
 Every industry must get the permission from SPCB before starting works.
 It has the right to test any effluent sample and refuse the consent of a
particular unit in an industry.
Forest Act, 1980
Salient features
 It was enacted on 27th December 1980.
 State government is given the fully power to use the forests only for
forestry purposes.
 For any other purpose usage of state government must get the permission
from central government.
 Any illegal activity within the forest can be stopped under this act.
 All types of forests can be conserved by this act.
 In 1992, this act was amended.
 Some non-forest activities like setting up of transmission lines, seismic
surveys, exploration, etc can be allowed in forests without cutting of trees.

The Air Act - (1981)

Salient features
 It was enacted on 29th March 1981.
 It provides for prevention, control and abatement of air pollution.
 It gives powers to the central pollution control board and state pollution
control board to prevent air pollution.
 The boards have to check whether the industry strictly follows the norms or
standards laid down by the boards.
  It gives power to the state government to declare any areas as “Air pollution
control area”.
 This act also empowers the SPCB to inspect factory premises, so as to take
necessary steps to prevent air pollution.
Functions of central pollution control Board
1. To improve the quality of air.
2. Advise the central government regarding air pollution issues.
3. Coordinate the activities of the state Boards and resolve dispute among them.
4. Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards.
5. Plan and organize training programs for the prevention and control of air pollution.
6. Lay down standards for the quality o air.
7. Prepare manuals, codes or guides relating to prevention and control of air
pollution.
Functions of State pollution control Board
1. To advise the state government on any matter concerning the prevention, control
of air pollution.
2. To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution.
3. To collaborate with central Board in organizing training programs for persons.
4. To organize mass-education programs.
5. To inspect any industry regarding pollution analysis.
The Environment Protection Act (1986)
Salient features
 It was enacted on May 23 1986, and made effective on 9th November,
1986.
 It is otherwise known as umbrella Act.
 Define the terms Environment, Environmental pollution and Hazardous
substances.
 It gives powers to the central government to take measures to protect and
improve environment.
 The state government has to co-ordinate with the central government in this
regard.
Functions of Central government
Setting up of,
 Standards of quality of air, water.
 Permissible limits of pollutants.
 Procedures and safeguards for handling hazardous substances.
 Restrictions on handling hazardous substances.
Functions of State Government
 To advise the industries for treating waste water and gases, with the best
available technology.
 To encourage the industries for recycling and reusing wastes.
 To emphasize implementation of clean technology to increase fuel
efficiency and reduce environmental pollution.

Issues involved in enforcement of environmental Legislation

We have a number of laws to safeguard our environment. But still we are not able
to achieve the target protecting out earth’s biodiversity. This shows that there are some
drawbacks in environmental legislations and implementation of these laws.
1. Drawbacks of wildlife protection act (1972)
 The act does not include any locally evolved conservation measures.
 The ownership certificate issue is a flaw, that causes illegal trading of
forests products and animal articles.
 Jammu and Kashmir has it own wildlife act, and it does not abide to laws of
central government.
 The punishment for the offender is just 3 year imprisonment or a fine of Rs
25,000 or both, which is not harsh.
1. Drawbacks of forest conservation Act, 1980
 The law is centralized but the local communities have been completely kept
out from decision making process.
 Tribals are stopped from using forest resources, so they indulge in
smuggling and killing.
 It gives importance to animals, birds and trees and treats poor people as
marginal.
 Role of community participation is very poor, so proper execution is not
possible.
 The knowledge of tribal of communication is not considered or honored.

3. Drawbacks of pollution related acts

 The rule is centralized, so this hinders the execution of the laws.
 The punishment is very insignificant, compared to the damage caused by
the industries.
 The state government lacks adequate funds to satisfy the objectives.
  The positions of chairman of two pollution control boards are occupied by
political appointees.
 The role of public in decision making is remaining only as a paper work,
but not in action.
 A person cannot directly file a petition in the court; he has to give a notice
to the central government before 60 days.

Part A

1.What is environmental pollution?

It is defined as any undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil), which can cause
harmful effects on the life and property of humans.
2. Define a pollutant.
The toxic substance that harms the environment is known as a pollutant.
3. How are pollutants classified?:
a) Biodegradable pollutants:
- These pollutants rapidly decompose by natural processes. (eg) Animal and plant
matter.
b) Non-degradable pollutants:
- These pollutants do not decompose rapidly by natural processes. (eg) Plastic wastes.
4. What are different types of pollutions?
a) Air Pollution
b) Water Pollution
c) Soil Pollution
d) Marine Pollution
e) Noise Pollution
f) Thermal Pollution
g) Nuclear Hazards.
5. Give reasons for Pollution.
 Pollution explosion
 Unplanned urbanization
 Deforestation
 Excessive heat, noise, light or radiation from industrial area.

6. What is Air Pollution?

Air pollution refers to any physical, chemical or biological change in the air. It is the
contamination of air by harmful gases, dust and smoke which affects plants, animals and
humans drastically.
7. Mention the types of air pollutants?
There are two types of air pollutants:
Primary Pollutants
The pollutants that directly cause air pollution are known as primary pollutants. Sulphur-
dioxide emitted from factories is a primary pollutant.
Secondary Pollutants
The pollutants formed by the intermingling and reaction of primary pollutants are known
as secondary pollutants. Smog, formed by the intermingling of smoke and fog, is a
secondary pollutant.
8. What is water pollution?
Water pollution is defined as the contamination of water due to the addition of un-
wanted toxic substances to it.
9. Mention the causes of water pollution.
Untreated sewage and effluent waste.
Population explosion.
Agricultural activities like using of fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides.
Mining activities.
Industrialization
Algae, organic acids in water bodies. (Eutrophication)
10. What are hazardous wastes?
Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or
the environment. Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, sludge’s, discarded
commercial products (e.g., cleaning fluids or pesticides), or the by-products of
manufacturing processes.
11. What is E-waste?
E-waste or Electronic waste is any electrical or electronic equipment that’s been
discarded. This includes working and broken items that are thrown in the garbage or
donated to a charity reseller, their components, consumables, parts, and spares.
12. What is OHASMS?
Occupational Health and Safety Management System (OHSMS) is a fundamental part
of an organization's risk management strategy to protect its workforce and others
under its control.
It aims at providing a method to assess and improve performance in the prevention
of workplace incidents and accidents via the effective management of hazards and
risks in the workplace.
13. What are the 8 key components of occupational health and safety (OHS) management
systems?
 Planning
 Incident reporting
 User-friendly interface
 Training
 Risk assessments
 Certification
 Convenience
 Performance

14. Name some of the acts enacted by the Indian government to protect the environment.
1. The water Act 1974
2. The Air Act 1981
3. The environment Protection Act 1986
4. The wild life protection Act 1972
15. Mention the drawbacks of forest conservation Act, 1980.
 The law is centralized but the local communities have been completely kept
out from decision making process.
 Tribals are stopped from using forest resources, so they indulge in
smuggling and killing.
 It gives importance to animals, birds and trees and treats poor people as
marginal.
 Role of community participation is very poor, so proper execution is not
possible.
 The knowledge of tribal of communication is not considered or honored.

UNIT III
RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
Definition
Energy is defined as, “the capacity to do work”. All the developmental activities in
the world are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. Energy production and energy
utilization are the indicators of a country’s progress.

Growing energy Needs

(i) Energy is essential to all human societies.

(ii) All industrial process like, mining, transport, living, heating and cooling in buildings,
all require energy.
(iii) With the demands of growing population, the world is facing further energy deficit.
Our life style is also changing from al simple way of life to luxurious life style. At
present 95% of the commercial energy is available only from the fossil fuels like coal, oil
and natural gas, and are not going to last for many years. It would be really ironic if fuel
becomes more expensive than food.

Energy Distribution –World Scenario

 Developed countries like USA and Canada constitute about 5% of the world’s
population but consume one fourth of global energy sources.
 A person in a rich country consumes almost as much energy in a single day as one
much energy in a single day as one person does in a whole year is a poor country.
Need for alternate energy sources
Why Alternate (Renewable) Energy Sources are required?
1. To meet the energy requirements for the increasing population.
2. To reduce the environmental pollution.
3. To conserve energy instead of using petrol, diesel, coal and other
conventional energy.
4. Renewable energy resources can be used in remote areas like deserts and
forests.

1. Renewable energy resources (or) non-conventional energy resources

 The resources that can be regenerated continuously and are inexhaustible. They
can be used again and again in an endless manner. Example: Wood, solar energy, wind
energy, hydropower energy etc.
Merits of renewable energy resources
 Unlimited supply.
 Provides energy security.
 Fits into sustainable development concept.

2. Non- Renewable energy resources (or) Conventional energy resources

Natural resources which cannot be regenerated once they are exhausted. They
cannot be used again. Example: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear fuels.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

1. SOLAR ENERGY

The energy that we get directly from the sun is called solar energy. The nuclear
fusion reactions occurring inside the sun release enormous amount of energy in the form
of heat and light.
Methods of Harvesting Solar Energy
(i) Solar cells (or) photovoltaic cells (or) PV cells

Solar cells consist of a p-type semiconductor (such as Si doped with B) and n-type
semi-conductor (Si doped with P). They are in close contact with each other. When the
solar rays fall on the top layer of p-type semi-conductor, the electrons from the valence
band get promoted to the conduction band and cross the p-n junction into n-type semi-
conductor. There by potential difference between two layers is created, which causes
flow of electrons (ie.,an electric current)

Uses
 Used in calculators, electronic watches. Street lights, water pumps to run radios
and TVs.
 Other methods of harvesting solar energy are solar cookers, solar water heaters,
solar dryers, etc,
2. WIND ENERGY
Definition: Moving air is called wind. Energy recovered from the force of the
wind is called wind energy. The energy possessed by wind is because of its high speed.
The wind energy is harnessed by making use of wind mills.

Harvesting of wind energy

(i) Wind Mills: The strike of blowing wind on the blades of the wind mill makes it
rotating continuously. The rotational motion of the blade drives a number of machines
like water pump, flour mills and electric generators.

(ii) Wind farms: When a large number of wind mills are installed and joined together in
a definite pattern it forms a wind farm. The wind farms produce a large amount of
electricity. The minimum speed required for satisfactory working of a wind generator is
15 km/hr.
Advantages
 It does not cause any air pollution.
 It is very cheap.

3. OCEAN ENERGY

Tidal energy (or) Tidal power: Ocean tides, produced by gravitational forces of sun and
moon, contain enormous amount of energy. The “high tide” and “low tide” refer to the
rise and fall of water in the oceans. The tidal energy can be harnessed by constructing a
tidal barrage.
During high tide, the sea-water is allowed to flow into the reservoir of the barrage
and rotates the turbine, which intern produces electricity by rotating the generators.
During low tide, when the sea level is low, the sea water stored in the barrage
reservoir is allowed to flow into the sea and again rotates the turbine.

Fig. Tidal energy

Significance of Tidal energy
 Tidal power plants do not require large areas.
 As the sea water is inexhaustible, it is completely independent of the
uncertainty of precipitation.
  It is pollution free energy source, it does not use any energy fuel and
also produced any wastes.

4) Geo-thermal Energy
1. Temperature of the earth increases at a rate of 20-750C per km, when we move down
the earth surface.
2. The energy harnessed from the high temperature present inside the earth is called
geothermal energy.
3. Thus, the hot water (or) steam coming out from the natural (or) artificial geysers is
allowed to rotate the turbine of a generator to produce electricity.

Fig. Geothermal energy

5. BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass is the organic matter, produced by plants or animals, used as sources of

energy. Most of the biomass is burned directly for heating, cooling and industrial
purposes. Eg: Wood, crop residues, seeds, cattle dung, sewage, agricultural wastes.

Limitations of non- renewable energy Sources

 Fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear fuels are formed by the
decomposition of the plants and animals buried under the earth millions of years
 ago.
 It takes a long time to regenerate, so if we exhaust these resources, we will lose
them forever.