NEW ERA UNIVERSITY
College of Nursing
CONAPL 18 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY LABORATORY
First Semester, AY 2020-2021
LABORATORY EXERCISE 11: THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
STRUCTURE & IMMUNE FUNCTION
Name of Student: ________________________
Alexandra T. Chavenia Score: ________
Section: ______________________ Group No. _______________
CON 1A 2
Learning Outcomes:
After completing this exercise, you should be able to:
1. List the functions of the lymphatic system.
2. Name the organs and tissues of the lymphatic system
and list their functions.
3. Describe lymph formation.
4. Describe the lymphatic vessels and the flow of lymph
through the body.
5. Describe the gross anatomy and histology of the
lymph nodes and spleen.
Materials:
Chart with lymphatic organs
Recommended Anatomy & Physiology Textbook
Wifi-connected Laptop with PDF Acrobat Reader
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Introduction
The components of the lymphatic system are lymphatic organs
and tissues, lymphatic vessels, and lymph. The lymphatic system is
the structural location where much of the immune response takes
place. The lymphatic system also collects excess interstitial fluid and
returns this fluid to the bloodstream. In addition, it delivers dietary lipids
and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K) absorbed from the small
intestine to the bloodstream. This laboratory exercise will focus on the
basic structures of the lymphatic system with emphasis on it primary
function of immune response.
A. Lymphatic Organs and Tissues
Lymphatic organs and tissues are located throughout the body.
Lymphatic organs are surrounded by a capsule and include the
thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen. Lymphatic tissues are not
surrounded by a capsule and are called lymphatic nodules. Because
their functions differ, lymphatic organs and tissues are divided into two
categories based on function: primary lymphatic organs, and
secondary lymphatic organs and tissues.
Primary lymphatic organs contain stem cells that produce
lymphocytes and are the site where these lymphocytes become
immunocompetent (recognize and mount immune system response).
The two primary lymphatic organs are red bone marrow and the
thymus. The thymus, which is located in the mediastinum just superior
to the heart, is much larger in children and decreases considerably
in size as they get older. Secondary lymphatic organs and tissues are
sites for defense against invading agents and cancer cells and include
the lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphatic nodules (follicles). Lymph
nodes are named for their location in the body. Single lymphatic
nodules located in the connective tissue of mucous membranes of the
gastrointestinal, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts are called
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mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). Aggregations of large
nodules (follicles) include Peyer’s patches in the small intestine,
lymphoid follicles in the appendix, five tonsils (one pharyngeal tonsil
and paired palatine and lingual tonsils), and bronchial nodules located
in the walls of the respiratory tract. The pharyngeal tonsil is located in
the posterior nasopharynx, while the palatine tonsils are in the
posterior portion of the oral cavity. The lingual tonsils are located under
the tongue. All of these nodules protect the body from foreign
substances that are ingested, inhaled, or otherwise enter body
openings.
Activity 1
1. Label the structures in Figure 11.1 and 11.2.
2. Identify these structures on a chart or any reference book in anatomy
& physiology.
Figure 11.1 Lymphatic organs and tissues
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• lingual tonsil 1. __________________________
pharyngeal tonsil
• palatine tonsil 2. __________________________
palatine tonsil
• pharyngeal tonsil 3. __________________________
lingual tonsil
Figure 11.2 Lymphatic organs and tissues
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• appendix (vermiform) intestinal node
4. ____________________
• axillary node appendix (vermiform)
5. ____________________
• cervical node red bone marrow
6. ____________________
• iliac node axillary node
7. ____________________
• inguinal node mammary node
8. ____________________
• intestinal node thoracic node
9. ____________________
• mammary node spleen
10. ___________________
• Peyer’s patches (aggregated Peyer’s patches
11. ___________________
lymphatic follicles)
• red bone marrow iliac node
12. ___________________
• spleen inguinal node
13. ___________________
• submandibular node 14. ___________________
• thoracic node 15. ___________________
• thymus 16. ___________________
B. Lymph and Lymphatic Vessels
Lymph, the fluid found within lymphatic vessels, is formed from
blood plasma. As blood flows through blood capillaries, hydrostatic and
osmotic pressures force more plasma out of the blood capillary and
into the interstitial spaces than is drawn back inside. The excess fluid
in the interstitial spaces (between blood capillaries and tissues) is now
called interstitial fluid. When the interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic
capillaries, which lie near blood capillaries and are closed at one end,
it is called lymph. Interstitial fluid and lymph are identical in composition
but different in location. Blood plasma, however, differs from both of
these fluids in that plasma contains large plasma proteins (albumin)
that are too large to cross the blood capillary endothelium into the
interstitial fluid.
Lymph flows from lymphatic capillaries into many lymphatic
vessels that take lymph toward the neck region. Lymphatic vessels
follow the pathway of veins in the body and also have a similar
structure, but they have thinner walls and more valves than veins. Just
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as a body massage is helpful for moving blood through the veins and
toward the heart, a light massage is also helpful for moving lymph
through the lymphatic vessels and nodes to cleanse the lymph.
Lymphatic vessels flow into a series or chain of lymph nodes where
lymph is filtered. Within a body region, the lymph vessels exiting the
last lymph nodes in each chain of nodes merge to form lymph trunks.
Lymph trunks merge to form two main ducts, the thoracic duct (left
lymphatic duct) and the right lymphatic duct. In the abdominal area,
lymph trunks merge to form a sac-like reservoir called the cysterna
chyli. The long thoracic duct begins at the cysterna chyli and continues
superiorly to drain the lymph from the legs, abdomen, left arm, and left
side of the thorax, neck, and head into the left subclavian vein. The
right lymphatic duct is the lesser and very short duct that drains lymph
from the right arm via the right jugular trunk and right side of the thorax,
neck, and head via the right subclavian trunk. Each duct enters the
subclavian vein at its juncture with an internal jugular vein to drain
lymph into venous blood.
Activity 2
1. Label the structures in Figures 11.3 (a) and (b).
2. Examine the lymphatic vessel with valve in Figure 11.4 (a) &
(b).
FIGURE 11.3 Lymphatic capillaries.
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(a)
• blood capillary tissue cell
1. ___________________
• interstitial fluid interstitial fluid
2. ___________________
• lymphatic capillary blood capillary
3. ___________________
• tissue cell lymphatic capillary
4. ___________________
(b)
• interstitial fluid interstitial fluid
5. ___________________
• lymph in lymphatic capillary tissue cell
6. ___________________
• tissue cell 7. ___________________
lymph in lymphatic capillary
For Figure 11.4:
(a)
• cisterna chyli right lymphatic duct
1. ______________________
• lymphatic vessel in arm lymphatic vessel in arm
2. ______________________
• lymphatic vessel in leg thoracic duct in thorax
3. ______________________
• right lymphatic duct cisterna chyli
4. ______________________
lymphatic vessel in leg
• thoracic duct draining into 5. ______________________
subclavian vein
• thoracic duct in thorax 6. ______________________
thoracic duct draining into subclavian vein
(b)
• area drained by right 7. ______________________
area drained by right lymphatic duct
lymphatic duct
• area drained by thoracic duct 8. _________________
area drained by thoracic duct
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FIGURE 11.4 Lymphatic vessels.
C. Structure of the Lymph Node
Lymph nodes are bean-shaped structures that filter lymph and
are usually found in groups. Clusters of these nodes are generally
found in different body regions (i.e., the cervical, axillary, and inguinal
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areas) and are named for their location. Each node has a capsule with
extensions called trabeculae (trabecula = little beam) that
compartmentalize the node. The nodes are composed of reticular
tissue, with reticular fibers forming the net-like support for reticulocytes
(specialized fibroblasts). Two main regions of lymph nodes are the
cortex (superficial region) and medulla (deep region). There are many
lighter colored oval lymphatic nodules in the outer cortex that contain
many immune system cells. Lymph enters each node via many afferent
vessels and travels through the following spaces, subcapsular sinus,
trabecular sinuses, and medullary sinuses, and exits the node via
fewer efferent vessels. The hilus is the indented area of the node where
the efferent vessels leave the node. This design causes the lymph to
move slowly through the lymph nodes, allowing time for immune
system cells (lymphocytes and macrophages) to attack pathogens,
cancer cells, and foreign molecules. Enlarged lymph nodes could be
caused by, but not limited to, infection, cancer, or scarring from a
chronic lesion.
Activity 3
1. Label the structures in Figure 11.5.
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FIGURE 11.5 Lymph node.
• afferent vessels trabecular sinus
1. ____________________
• capsule afferent vessels
2. ____________________
• cortex valve
3. ____________________
• efferent vessels subcapsular sinus
4. ____________________
• hilus cortex
5. ____________________
• medulla medullary sinus
6. ____________________
• medullary sinus medulla
7. ____________________
• subcapsular sinus efferent vessels
8. ____________________
• trabecular sinus hilus
9. ____________________
• valve capsule
10. ___________________
D. Structure of the Spleen
The largest lymphatic organ, the spleen, filters blood of foreign
organisms and particles, eliminates aged erythrocytes, and is a blood
reservoir. The spleen is the main organ that filters blood, similar to the
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lymph nodes being the main organs that filter the lymph. This highly
vascular organ lies posterior and lateral to the stomach in the left upper
quadrant (LUQ). The splenic artery enters the spleen and the splenic
vein and efferent lymphatic vessels exit the spleen at the hilus. The
spleen is an encapsulated organ with extensions of the capsule
forming trabeculae. Histologically, the spleen has regions of white pulp
and red pulp that are named for their appearance in fresh specimens.
On prepared slides you will see stained specimens with different
colors. White pulp resembles nodules with many lymphocytes and
macrophages and appears dark purple when stained. Lymphocytes
carry out immune function here, and macrophages engulf any aged
blood cells, foreign material, or debris. Red pulp stores platelets and
contains reticular fibers that cannot be seen at this magnification. It
stains a lighter color because its many red blood cells are anucleate.
Many macrophages can also be found here to phagocytize foreign
substances in the blood.
Activity 4
1. Label the structures in Figure 11.5.
(a)
• hilus splenic artery
1. _________________________
• splenic artery splenic vein
2. _________________________
• splenic vein hilus
3. _________________________
(b)
• capsule capsule
4. _________________________
• trabecula trabecula
5. _________________________
• white pulp white pulp
6. _________________________
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FIGURE 11.6 The spleen.
E. Immune Cells Involved in Body Defense
The cells involved in body defense are the T cells (lymphocytes), B
cells (lymphocytes), and macrophages (macro- = big; phago- = to eat).
T and B cells are originally produced in red bone marrow from
pluripotent stem cells, which are immature stem cells that can develop
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into various mature blood cells. B cells complete their maturation and
become immunocompetent in the red bone marrow. T cells migrate to
the thymus through the bloodstream to complete maturation and
become immunocompetent there. After being instructed and
programmed for their work, both T and B cells are released into the
bloodstream and travel to secondary lymphatic organs and tissue to be
activated and cloned in the immune response. Secondary lymphatic
organs include the lymph nodes and the spleen. Lymphatic tissue
(nodules) includes MALT, Peyer’s patches, appendix, tonsils, and
bronchial nodules.
Activity 5
1. Identify where T and B cells are produced and programmed, and
where active T and B cells are located in Figure 11.7(a).
2. Observe a macrophage phagocytizing a bacterium in Figure
11.7 (b).
T Cell
1. __________________________
T Cell
2. __________________________
B Cell
3. __________________________
T Cell
4. __________________________
T Cell
5. __________________________
6. __________________________
T Cell
7. __________________________
8. __________________________
T Cell
9. __________________________
B Cell
10. _________________________
T Cell
11. _________________________
T Cell
12. __________________________
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FIGURE 11.7 Cells of the lymphatic and immune system.
Review your Knowledge
A. Structure of Lymphatic Organs and Tissues
Write the name of the organ or tissue that matches the description.
Terms may be used more than once.
Thymus
________________1. Regresses considerably with age
Spleen
________________2. Largest lymphatic organ; red and white pulp
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Lymph nodes
_________________3. Bean-shaped; has efferent and afferent
vessels
Bone Marrow
_________________4. Primary lymphatic organs
Thymus
_________________5.
Lymph nodes
_________________6. Secondary lymphatic organs
Spleen
_________________7.
Tonsils
_________________8. Secondary lymphatic nodules associated with
the nasal and oral cavities
_________________9. Secondary lymphatic nodules located in
mucosa‐associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
connective tissue of mucous membranes
Peyer's Patches
_________________10. Secondary lymphatic nodules located in the
small intestine.
B. Physiology of Lymphatic Tissues and Organs
Write the name of the organ or tissue that matches the description.
Terms may be used more than once.
Peyer’s patches
appendix (vermiform)
lymph nodes
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
red bone marrow
spleen
thymus
tonsils
lymph nodes
____________________1. Filters lymph
Peyer's patches
____________________2.
appendix
____________________3.
____________________4.
mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
Sites for the immune response
tonsils
____________________5.
thymus
____________________6.
lymph nodes
____________________7.
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Spleen
__________________8. Filters blood and contains red and white
pulp
Thymus
__________________9. Programs T cells for immunocompetence
red bone marrow
__________________10. Programs B cells for immunocompetence
C. Formation of Lymph
Write the name of the term that matches the phrase.
blood
interstitial fluid
plasma
plasma
____________________1. Fluid that becomes interstitial fluid
interstitial fluid
____________________2. Fluid that becomes lymph
blood
____________________3. Interstitial fluid plus blood cells and large
proteins
D. Lymphatic Vessels
Write the name of the vessel that matches the description. Terms
may be used more than once.
cisterna chyli
lymphatic vessels
right lymphatic duct
thoracic duct
lymphatic trunks
cisterna chyli
________________1. Sac-like vessel
________________2. Left lymphatic duct
lymphatic vessels Merge to form lymphatic trunks
________________3.
lymphatic trunks
________________4. Merge to form lymphatic ducts
cisterna chyli
________________5. The thoracic duct begins here
thoracic duct
________________6. Drains the legs, abdominal area, and left side
of the body
right lymphatic duct Drains the right side of thorax, arm, head, and
________________7.
neck
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thoracic duct
_________________8. The longer lymphatic duct
E. Immune Cells Involved in Body Defense
Write the name of the immune cells that matches the description.
Terms may be used more than once.
T Cells
_________________1. Maturation and immunocompetency in red
bone marrow
B Cells
_________________2. Maturation and immunocompetency in the
thymus gland
lymphocytes
_________________3.Located in secondary organs and tissues
macrophages
_________________4.
F. Lymphatic and Immune Systems
1. If you look into a child’s mouth, there are “golf balls” puffing
from each side of the oral cavity. What are these structures?
These structures are called palastine tonsils.
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
2. How do lymphatic capillaries differ from blood capillaries?
_______________________________________________________
Blood is the red-colored fluid that circulates throughout the entire body which is the circulatory system, whereas lymph is the white
_______________________________________________________
fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system, which is known to give immunity and transport nutrients from tissues to the blood.
3. Bacteria and viruses in infected tissues easily enter lymph
vessels. Explain why.
_______________________________________________________
The endothelium of lymphatic capillaries and collecting lymphatic arteries are both tiny enough for viruses and bacteria to get through. These pathogens then enter the
_______________________________________________________
lymph node. The lymphatic capillaries that have extensive apertures to discharge interstitial fluid are also capable of capturing bacteria and viruses.
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References
Books
Marieb, E., Keller, S. (2018), Essentials of Anatomy &
Physiology, 12th Edition, England: Pearson Education Limited.
Saladin, K., Gan, C., Cushman, H. (2018), Anatomy &
Physiology: The Unity of Form & Function, 8th Edition, New York:
McGraw Hill Education.
Shier, D., Butler, J., Lewis, R. (2018), Hole’s Essentials of
Human Anatomy & Physiology, 13th Edition, New York: McGraw
Hill Education.
Tortora, G., Derrickson, B. (2014), Principles of Anatomy &
Physiology, 14th Edition, New Jersey: Wiley.
Online Sources
Histology Zoomer (Unknown). The Histology Tutor. Retrieved
September 23, 2020 from
http://www2.yvcc.edu/histologyzoomer/HistologyTutorials/histology_tu
torials.htm#:~:text=The%204%20basic%20tissue%20types%20are%
20Epithelium%2C%20Connective%20Tissue%2C%20Nervous,differe
nt%20tissues%20at%20high%20power.
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