See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/267296233

Flow Visualisation Techniques in Wind Tunnels Part I – Non optical Methods

Article · January 2007

CITATIONS READS

32 7,897

1 author:

Slavica Ristic
Central Institute for Conservation in Belgrade
123 PUBLICATIONS   481 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Lasers in cultural heritage protection View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Slavica Ristic on 29 March 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Scientific Technical Review,Vol.LVII,No.1,2007 39
UDK: 533.6.07: 532.529
COSATI: 01-01

Flow Visualisation Techniques in Wind Tunnels

Part I – Non optical Methods

Slavica Ristić, PhD (Eng)1)

In this article, an attempt is made to describe and review the most widely used methods for flow visualization. The
first part describes the basis and applications of different visualization methods (non optical) for subsonic and
supersonic flow in wind and water tunnels: direct injection methods, (smoke, dye, fog and different small particles)
visualization methods by electrolytic and photochemical dye production, gas and hydrogen bubbles, special
techniques, flow visualization by tufts, oil, liquid crystals, pressure and temperature sensitive paints.
A considerable attention is paid to flow visualization techniques performed in VTI wind and water tunnels and almost
all presented photos have been recorded during tests in laboratories of VTI.
Optical methods and their application for compressible flow visualization will be given in the second part of the
article.

Key words: flow visualization, wind tunnel, water tunnel, research method.

Introduction time or after some time, will give valuable information on

such things as the state of the boundary layer (laminar or
F OR centuries, fluid flow has been studied in various
ways and today, fluid flow is still an important field of
research. The areas in which fluid flow plays a role are
turbulent), transition, regions of separated flow and the like.
It must be remembered in such visualization that what is
numerous. Gaseous flows are studied for the development observed on the surface is not always indicative of what is
of cars, aircraft and spacecraft, and also for the design of happening in thee free streams.
machines such as turbines and combustion engines. Liquid The second type of visualization involves the use of such
flow research is necessary for naval applications, such as tracers as smoke particles, oil droplets or helium-filled soap
ship design and is widely used in civil engineering projects, bubbles. Each of these methods requires appropriate
chemistry, medicine and so on. lighting and some device for recording the image such as a
In all kinds of fluid flow research, the visualization is an still or video camera. If the flow field is illuminated in a
important tool in experimental fluid mechanics, which can plane by appropriate masking of the light source it is
provide the overall picture of the flow field. Flow possible to examine discrete sections or slices of the flow.
visualization has probably existed for as long as fluid flow The optical methods can be used to visualize
research itself [1-6]. Experimental flow visualization compressible flows. The three principal optical methods for
techniques are applied for several reasons: flow visualization are: shadow, schlieren and
interferometry. These methods will be the subject of the
− to get a picture of fluid flow around a scaled model of a
second part of the article.
real object, without any calculations;
The advent of computer technique and digital image
− to develop or verify new and better theories of fluid flow processing make it possible to automatically analyze flow
or models. visualization effects and extract qualitative and quantitative
If the flow could be made visible by some kind of flow information, which may not be readily available from
visualization technique, it would be possible to observe conventional flow measurements [1, 5, 12, 21, 23, 30, 32,
flow phenomena which are essentially inviscid (e.g., vortex 36, 38]. Recently, a new type of visualization has emerged:
flows, flows distant from surfaces) as well as those computer-aided visualization. Experimental flow
phenomena which are dominated by the effects of viscosity visualization is a starting point for flow visualization of
(e.g., boundary layer flows, separation) [1-38]. In addition numerical simulations using computer graphics. In the area
to qualitative observations, under certain conditions it of fluid dynamics, computers are extensively used to
would be possible to make quantitative measurements from calculate velocity fields and other flow quantities, using
flow visualization data as well [1-6, 8-10]. numerical techniques to solve the Navier-Stokes equations.
Flow visualization may be divided into surface flow To analyze the results of the complex calculations,
visualization and off-the-surface visualization. Surface flow computer visualization techniques are necessary and very
visualization involves tufts, fluorescent dye, oil or special often used. One possible classification of the flow
clay mixtures, which are applied to the surface of a model. visualization techniques is the following.
Visual inspection of such tufts and coatings as a function of

1)
Military Technical Institute (VTI), Ratka Resanovića 1, 11132 Belgrade, SERBIA
40 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

II Optical methods: test model, or through holes on the model surface. The
1. Shadow method choice of using smoke in a wind tunnel depends on several
2. Schlieren method (parallel or focused, grey or colour) aspects. The smoke must be dense and white for visibility,
non toxic and non corrosive. The quality of the observed or
3. Interferometry (classical, holographic)
photographed smoke line depends also on the choice of the
4. Electronic speckle interferometry and shearography illumination system.
5. Holographic and Laser Doppler anemometry
III Special methods:
1. Energy adding
2. Refractometry
3. Laser light sheet
4. Particle Image Velocimetry
VTI uses several non optics flow visualisation
techniques [7-11]:
− wall tracing method with pigment oil film (TiO2, colour
pigments, graphite powder, lampblack, fluorescent dye)
a) b)
and liquid crystals
− surface tuft methods with thin nylon or silk monofila-
ments and fluorescent mini tufts
− smoke visualization techniques: smoke produced in
smoke generator; smoke introduced at front of the test
section and by vaporization of TiCl4 for local application
− water tunnel flow visualization by the use of gas bubbles,
milk as tracer, aniline and methylene dye, aluminium
powder and polystyrene particles. Some results of VTI
tests are used to illustrate the flow visualization tech-
niques. c
Figure 1. Flow visualization in the VTI smoke wind tunnel (a and b) and
in Onera smoke tunnel (c)
Tracer Methods
There are three basic types of smoke suitable for wind
The visualization technique of streamlines, filament lines tunnel experiments: smoke generated by the vaporization of
or particle paths, which injects some foreign material into a a mineral oil (paraffin, kerosene) mist resulting from the
flow as a tracer is the most popular one and has been vaporization of certain substances containing bromide or
widely used over a long period, up to now. These three chloride and smoke from burning or smouldering wood,
curves coincide if the flow field is stationary. But in the paper or tobacco. The burning or vaporization is done in a
flow that depends on space and time as well, the three types smoke generator.
of curves are different from one another. Which curves will Fig.1 shows the smoke line in the VTI small smoke
be visualized depends on: where the particles are tunnel (1a and 1b) and in Onera smoke tunnel (1c). Fig.2
introduced, the length of the exposure time and the shows the visualized effect obtained with smoke introduced
reference system from which the flow is observed or in the flow trough the ship chimney.
photographed. The flow visualization without smoke generator is
There is no difference between liquid and gaseous flows possible if a drop of TiCl4 (titanium tetrachloride) or
[1, 2]. The tracer may be smoke, dye, pigment, milk, air or C10H7Br (bromnaph-thalin) is deposited onto the surface of
hydrogen bubbles, ozone, fluorescent dye, powder, test model in a wind tunnel; a white stream of smoke will
sawdust, aluminium particle, bakelite etc. originate from this drop. Liquid TiCl4 in contact with the
moist air develops powder TiO2 and HCl. TiCl4 liquid and
Smoke Visualization of the Flow vapour are corrosive and toxic because of HCl. For this
Recent developments indicate that smoke visualization method, the smoke generator is not necessary. TiCl4 has
in wind tunnels, one of the oldest flow visualization also been used in open-air tunnel, in a large number of
techniques, will continue as an important experimental tool experiments. Protection must be employed [1, 2, 3, 13].
in the study of complex flow dynamic phenomena. This method can be applied for flow visualization in the
Improvements in generation and injection of smoke as well whole test section as well as for local parts of the model.
as in lighting (laser as a light source), in techniques of The following pictures show the effect of smoke flow
acquisition and computation have continued to increase the visualization with TiCl4. Fig.3 shows the flow around
scientific value of this method [1-3, 5, 9, 15]. Similar airplane model and sphere visualized by TiCl4 drops in the
results are obtained by flow visualizations with fog and small VTI wind tunnel T-32.
vapour. One of the significant improvements in the filed of
The smoke can be very useful in a wind tunnel with low smoke visualization over the past several years has been the
turbulence. There exists no upper limit of speed for smoke introduction of laser light illumination. The laser beam
line visualization (it was possible to extend the range of passing through either cylindrical lens or glass rod usually
smoke line visualization even to supersonic flow produces the sheet of laser light. By using a light sheet,
velocities). cross section of the wake can be illuminated and the
Smoke line can be generated in a wind tunnel (smoke position of the vortices can be located. Unsteady flow can
tunnel) by introducing smoke (produced by smoke be tested by pulsed ruby laser. Recording of the flow
generated devices) through small pipes placed in front of a visualized effects can be affected by still or moving camera.
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 41

Sometimes, that method is classified as special flow dark images will be observed where there is an absence of
visualization method. particles, such as in the centre of a vortex (Fig.4b).

Visualization using dye

The visualization of the liquid flow patterns by ejection
of dye is an analogy of the smoke visualization technique
[1-9, 15, 18, 21, 23, 35, 38]. The mixing of smoke and air is
more intense than that of dye and water. A dye for the flow
visualization of filament line has to fulfil several
requirements: stability with respect to diffusion, the same
specific weight as the working fluid and high contrast. Dye
can be injected in a tested flow either from a small ejector
tube placed at a desired position or from small orifices, that
are provided in the wall of a model (Fig. 6a), without the
a)
component perpendicular to the model surface. Dye can
also be generated in the flow, without disturbing the flow.

b)
Figure 2. Flow visualization with smoke from ship chimney in small
subsonic wind tunnel T-32

a)

a)

b)
Figure 4. Wind tunnel setup (a) and smoke laser sheet visualization of
vortical flow on the upper surface of the delta wing (Von Karman Institut)

For the purpose of flow visualization the food colouring

dyes, aniline, methylene, potassium permanganate, ink or
fluorescent dyes (fluorescent rhodamine) can be used mixed
in milk or alcohol. The fattiness of the milk retards
b) diffusion of the dyed solution into water and gives high
contrast of the dye line. In a rotating flow, it is important to
Figure 3. Flow visualization with TiCl4 around airplane model (a) and
sphere (b) in T-32 have dye solution with the same specific weight as working
fluid (mixing dye with alcohol).
Fig.4a shows a possible setup for smoke visualization The aniline violet, red and blue dye, injected from small
using laser light sheet [6, 7, 14, 15, 25] and the effects of orifices placed on the top of the model, in the cabin region,
visualization of vertical flow on the upper surface of the visualize the flow around the tested models: 1/48 scale
delta wing. Therefore, this sheet can be used to illuminate model of F-18 aircraft in the flow visualization facility
any cross-section of an airflow that has been seeded with (ONERA, Fig.5a [18]) and in VTI water tunnel, Fig.5b.
particles. The laser light will reflect from the particles, but Fig.6 shows water tunnel flow visualization by wall dye
42 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

streaks, around triangular fin mounted on a flat plate [11]. defined curve and exact temporal control are the principles
Fig.7a shows flow visualization around hydrofoil in VTI by which these methods differ from the conventional dye
water tunnel with aniline dye and 7b visualization of techniques [2]. Focusing light from a flash tube or pulsed
numerical path line superposed on experimental ruby laser onto a point in the photoactive solution fluid
visualization photos. (pyridine dissolve in ethyl alcohol or nitrospyran in
The dye methods used in a closed circuit water tunnel kerosene) initiates a photochemical reaction, which yields a
increasingly contaminates the water. The tunnel has to be spot of blue dye within a few microseconds. The dyed
emptied and refilled after each experiment. Visualization portion of the fluid reverts to the colourless form a second
with dye is not suited for turbulent flow, since the filaments after the initial exposure [1]. The recording of those effects
would decay and the dyes would mix with the surrounding must be performed within this time interval with a sodium
fluid immediately after being ejected [36-40]. lamp.

Visualization by different small particles

Adding small particles in the flow (water or air) can
enable visualization and measuring of the flow velocity.
The fundamental assumption is that the velocity of the
particles and fluid is identical. The particle tracer can be
either solid, liquid or gaseous and the fluid liquid or
gaseous, for e.g.: dust, magnesium (Mg), Al2O3, TiO2,
aluminium (Fig.8) and polystyrene or cosmetic powder,
licopodium, hostaflon, cigarette smoke, metaldehyde,
atomized DOP, glass sphere, marble dust, oil drops, water
drops, hydrogen, gas, helium bubbles,... The diameter of the
particle is between 0.1 to 20 microns [1, 5].

a)

a)

b)
Figure 5. 1/48 scale model of F-18 aircraft in flow visualization Facility
(ONERA) (a) and flow visualization with dye in VTI water tunnel.

b)
Figure 7. Flow visualization around hydrofoil in VTI water tunnel with:
(a) violet aniline dye, (b) experimental and numerical path line
visualization (layers opacity 50%) [23, 35, 38]

The presented methods combine the quantitative tracer

method with a computer system for the automatic analysis.
Figure 6. Water tunnel flow visualization by wall dye streaks. (Von Same methods are based on tracing a small single foreign
Karman Institute [15]) particle and sensing its successive location by one or three
TV cameras at a certain interval.
Electrolytic and photochemical reactions can produce For determining the trajectory and local velocity of a
different dyes in aqueous solutions, which allows flow spherical particle, the equation of the motion of a single
visualization and velocity profile measurements. particle must be solved. It is necessary to complete the
Simultaneous production of dye at all points along a equation of the motion with gravity and "lift force" acting
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 43

on the particle in the flow with velocity gradient. The motion of microscopic particles that follow the fluid flow
particle velocity approaches exponentially the constant [9, 10, 14, 15]. PIV is non-intrusive and therefore the
fluid speed. The faster approach, the smaller, the density measurements obtained are free from disturbance and thus
and the size of the particle. In the compressible flow with highly accurate. The technique is ideal for unsteady
shock waves, particles of finite mass and size cannot follow aerodynamic flows.
such an abrupt change of the state of motion. The positions of the particles are recorded by CCD
General requirements for the selection of the particles to camera when the light sheet is pulsed t and t+∆t. The data
be used are that the particles are as small as possible, processing consists of either determining the average
neither corrosive nor toxic and with a high degree of light displacement of the particles over a small testing region in
reflectivity. The device where the particles are injected into the image or the individual particle displacements between
the fluid should be located far enough upstream the test pulses of the light sheet. Knowing ∆t permits computing of
regime. The choice of the system for recording the particle the flow velocity. The PIV technique may be: 2D PIV, 3D
movement is primarily dependent on the range of expected stereoscopic PIV, stereoscopic, holographic PIV (HPIV)
velocities and on the particles size and reflectivity. In the technique for recording of 3D image of particles [14,
principle, two methods exist; to take a single or multiple 15], PIV for two-phase flow, PIV for the micro flow with
photograph of the flow field with controlled exposure time dimensions lower than 300µm and PIV for combined
or to take exposure of the flow field so that each moving measuring of velocity, concentration and temperature.
particle is reproduced on the photograph by a single streak The general error of PIV measurement of air velocity in
of finite length. Stereoscopic photos or holograms may a wind tunnel experiment is an average of about 3 to 5%.
overcome the problem of localization of the particle. PIV is increasingly used for aerodynamic research [14].
Nowadays, there are a lot of methods for illuminating and The PIV technique allows recording of the complete flow
recording [2, 7, 9, 14]. velocity field in a plane of the flow within a few
microseconds. Thus, it produces information about
unsteady flow fields, which is difficult to obtain with other
experimental techniques. The short acquisition time and
fast availability of data reduce the operational time, and
hence test cost. One of the main components of commercial
PIV systems is the laser: frequency doubled neodium pulse
(Nd:YAG), lasers (50 up to 2500 pulse/s), high speed diode
pumped Nd:YLF lasers (up to 10,000 pulse/s). Low or high
speed cameras for PIV have been including to provide the
best combination of resolution, sensitivity and frame rate.
The software for PIV is a visual programming language
combining complete control of the acquisition, redaction
and analysis. The application of PIV method is illustrated in
Figures 9 and 10.

Figure 8. Visualization of the flow around two cylinders (a) and around
model of Concorde with Al powder (ONERA) [1, 9]

Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) is an experimental

Figure 9. Measurements of velocity vector by PIV around the probe and
method for indirect flow visualization but method providing wing (Boeing Company) [16]
direct, instantaneous velocity vector measurement in a cross Fig.10a shows PIV image of the flow with the Mach-4.5.
section of a flow. The method is classified as special The shock wave is very well visible on the upper part of the
method or as the flow visualization method by small 20°- half angle wedge where the particle density is
particles. The basic principle involves photographing the increased. The fluid density increases by a factor of 3.1
44 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

across the shock. For a laser pulse delay of 0.8 µs, a field of fluid. The anode is placed in some other position. Normal
view of 90 x 90 mm was imaged with a camera lenses focal water may serve as the electrolytic fluid, or sodium
length of 135 mm at f-5.6. The measured velocity sulphate or sodium chloride may be added. Hydrogen
distribution is shown in Figures 10b and 10c for the bubbles are produced on the cathode. They mark a line of
horizontal and vertical velocity components respectively. fluid elements whose position coincides at a given instant
with the position of wire. Any later position of these rows
of tracer particles is called a "time line", which is a measure
of the local velocity profile. The local velocity can be
determined by measuring the distance between the bubble
rows divided by the time between the electric pulses.

a)

b) c)
Figure 10. a) PIV pictures of wedge, b) horizontal flow velocity, c)
vertical flow velocity [22]

The gas bubble visualization

Gas bubbles visualization is a tracer method where tracer
particles have lower (in the water) or density similar (in the
air) to the flow. The observation of such gaseous tracers in b
a gaseous flow requires the use of optical visualization
methods. The gas bubbles change their shape during the Figure 12. Flow visualization in VTI water tunnel with air bubbles around
hydrofoil with different quantity of injected air [36]
motion and in consequence, the drag coefficient of these
gaseous tracer particles is not only a function of the The bubble motion can be recorded with a still or
velocity difference between the fluid and particle, but also a moving camera. Bubbles observation time in the flow is
function of the deforming forces acting on the particle. The limited by the dissolution of the gas bubbles in the fluid (in
gas bubbles can be injected in the flow or generated by water the time is approximately 3 s). The application of this
electrolysis [2, 18, 40, 50]. method is limited in the laminar, low speed flow [2, 3, 18].
Fig.12 shows the flow around hydrofoil in the water tunnel
(VTI) visualized by air bubbles [38].

Flow Visualization by Tufts

Very frequently, flow visualization in the vicinity of the
model in the subsonic flow is performed using tufts. [1-10,
16-20]. However, tuft size, distribution on the model's
surface and sticking are important for turbulent flow testing
and higher quality boundary layer visualization on complex
models. If tuft diameter is less than 0.1mm, the problem of
recording occurs due to a small amount of reflected light
and long exposure time. Tufts can be used for testing the
entire flow field in the wind tunnel. A grid with attached or
Figure 11. Rows of the hydrogen bubbles indicete the velocity profile over glued tufts as screen can be used to visualize the vortex
the plate[1]
shedding behind the model or in the interaction regime of
In a conventional arrangement (Fig.11), a thin, fine wire different fields. The grid should be placed in the wind
(made of platinum or stainless steel with diameter of the tunnel normal to the mean flow direction and the tufts
order of 0.01 to 0.02 mm) can be placed in the flow under pattern should be observed or photographed from
study. This wire is used as the cathode for electrolyzing the downstream (Fig.13.) [2].
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 45

lamp with 100 W has been used as light source.

Visualization effects are recorded with still camera Minolta.
Black and white Ilford HP film (1600 asa) is used.
Exposure time is from 1/60 to 3 s. [20].
In order to overcome the problem of non defined model
edges, fluorescent dyes were used for marking. Another
method for providing the differentiation of model and the
background is to select proper background with different
reflexive coefficient relative to model or elevate the film
sensitivity to more than 1600 asa.

Figure 13. Trailing vortices behind delta wingFluorescent tufts have

numerous advantages in comparison with the ordinary silk
tufts [1, 5, 16-20]. By using fluorescent dyes, the tuft
diameter virtually increases as well as the illumination, thus
allowing higher quality of recording and using thinner tufts
(0.01-0.1 mm). They can be stuck onto the model surface
using very small glue quantities, (0.04 mm), thus avoiding
boundary layer disturbances. Strong centrifugal forces
interfering with flow field act on tufts stuck onto the model
surface and their resultant determines tuft orientation.
Aerodynamic forces are proportional to tuft diameter, while
centrifugal forces are proportional to the square of the
diameter [17]. The problem with small size diameter is
overcame by dying tufts with fluorescent dyes and using
light source with rich ultraviolet part of the spectrum, or
special filters transmissible to that part of the spectrum.
This increases tuft luminance making it look much thicker
and brighter. Hg or Xe lamp with UV filters for λ= 350 nm
are used for steady flow testing. Stroboscopic light sources
are most frequently used for unsteady flow. Visualization
effect can be recorded by still or TV camera. Fluorescent
tufts are also used for flow visualization in water tunnels, as
well as in-flight flow testing.

Figure 15. Flow visualization with fluorescent tufts in T-32 wind tunnel
[20]

Surface Flow Visualization Methods

For observation of flow characteristics close to the wall
of the model, the body wall can be coated with a certain
material which indicates the local wall temperature, surface
pressure, or the streamline pattern of the flow adjacent to
the wall [1-11].

Surface Oil Film

Oil film or dots on the model surface enable obtaining a
picture of the flow pattern at the surface of the model
placed in the wind tunnel quickly and easily [1-5, 9, 24, 26-
36]. The special mixture can be prepared from an
Figure 14. Flow visualization with cotton tufts in wind tunnel T-35 for
flow with V= 100m/s [37] appropriate oil and fine pigment (Al2O3; T iO2, powder,
fluorescent dye, colouring pigments, graphite). The
Figures 14 and 15 demonstrate the results of the technique allows observation of the lines of separation and
experiments in T-35 and T-32 wind tunnels; flow reattachment of the flow to the body.
visualization with ordinary cotton and fluorescent silk tufts. Fig.16a shows the visualization with TiO2 + oil on the
Light combat aircraft model has surface painted in opaque surface around two vertical cylinders fixed on the plate in
black with 840 tufts stuck onto it. Tufts are made of silk T-35 for V=50 m/s and around the sphere used for
0.05 mm and 20 mm long (Fig.15). Fluorescent spray was turbulence test for M ∞ = 0, 2 (Fig.16b) [9]. Fig.17 gives oil
used for tuft dying. The flow speeds have been between 20 flow visualization of the airflow on the end wall of a
and 40 m/s and angle of attack altered from -8 to +24o. UV turbine blade cascade. Boundary layer flow visualization on
46 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

the laser guided bomb model with an oil film, performed in

the T-38 wind tunnel, (a) top of the model with fins and
flow on the fin upper surface (b) for M∞= 0.9 are presented
in Fig.18.

a)

a)

b)
Figure 18. Boundary layer flow visualization on the laser guided bomb
model with oil film,(a) top of the model with fins and (b) flow on the fin
upper surface for M ∞ = 0.9 [29, 34].

b)
Figure 16. Flow visualization around two cylinders fixed on the plate in
the large wind tunnel T-35 for M ∞ = 0,5 with oil film (a) and around
sphere for M ∞ = 0, 2 (b), [9]

a)

b)
Figure 19. Flow pattern on the model obtained by the experiment (a) and
by the simulation of the flow for M ∞ = 0.3 and α = 8o (side view) (b)
Figure 17. Oil flow visualization, airflow on the end wall of a turbine
blade cascade. (Von Karman Institute) [15] [31, 32].

Test of the flow field around the axy-symmetrical body – The goal of the experiment was to make comparison of
model of the torpedo without fins and control surfaces, was the aerodynamic coefficients and flow pattern obtained by
performed in the trisonic wind tunnel T-38 of VTI, for the the experiment and by the simulations of the flow possible.
speed of undisturbed flow that corresponds to Mach Fluent 6 was used for simulating the flow. Analysis of the
number M ∞ = 0.3 . Aerodynamic forces and moments were shown photographs (Figures 19a and 19b) demonstrates an
excellent agreement of flow patterns obtained by the
measured by six-component internal strain gage balance.
experiment and numerical simulations. Certain differences
Oil emulsion film with addition of oleic acid and TiO2
are visible in the area behind the model support sting and in
powder was used for flow visualization in the boundary its immediate vicinity because the sting is not included into
layer (Fig.23) [31-33].
the numerical model [47, 50, 51].
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 47

Liquid crystals and temperature sensitive paints known pressure and temperature (wind-off) and condition
A surface-temperature distribution can be gained by (wind on) through a modified form of the Stern-Volmer
coating a test model with cholestric liquid crystals [1, 2, 9]. relationship. Calibration of this intensity ratio ( I ref / I ) , or
If they are illuminated with white light under a certain lifetime (τ) is then correlated with the output of the CCD,
angle of incidence, liquid crystals reflect only one light providing a convenient tool for generation of a spatially
wavelength at each viewing angle, depending on small continuous pressure map, allowing the entire test surface to
temperature changes in the crystal sheet. Liquid crystals are be sampled simultaneously. CCD cameras have a million or
able to respond to finer changes of temperature in the more pixels and this technique provides continuous surface-
boundary layer, due to laminar-to-turbulent transitions or pressure measurements with high spatial resolution. The
indicate the place of shock waves. The colours of liquid output of the CCD array can be visually represented as a
crystals are reverse if the temperature changes in the two-dimensional image, with the luminescence
opposite direction. Therefore, liquid crystals are very corresponding to a grey or false-colour scale. Fig.21
attractive for boundary-layer studies. Model to be tested represents the illustration for PSP applications.
should be made of a material with low heat conductivity
and coated with black paint as base. Fig.20 demonstrates
the application of liquid crystals for hot streams
visualization in a little smoke wind tunnel.
The surface temperature, the local heat transfer rate and
coefficient on a body tested in high speed flow facility can
be measured by means of temperature sensitive paints. An
important difference between liquid crystals and
temperature sensitive paints is, that the temperature span
over the liquid crystals colour change is much smaller (a
few degrees only) than that of paints (several hundred
degrees).

Figure 21. A comparison of pressure results between PSP (right side of

model) and Computational Fluid Dynamics (left side) [36]

Flow Visualization with Special techniques

Third group of visualization methods is based on two
principles: introducing a foreign invisible substance into the
incompressible flow and visualizing the density variations
in the flow by optical methods. The foreign substance in
this case is energy transferred to certain portions of the flow
Figure 20. Flow visualization in the small wind tunnel with to increase the energy level (spark, electron beam and glow
liquid crystals [8, 9] discharge methods) and make artificial density variations.
Such portions of the flow have an altered density and can
Pressure sensitive paint (PSP) be visualized by the optical methods.
They are applied to visualize the rarefied gases that are
The spatially continuous pressure and temperature
for several reasons distinguished from the ordinary
distribution on aerodynamic test surfaces is important for
compressible flows [1]. The gas flow with extremely high
understanding complex flow mechanisms and comparison
level of kinetic energy becomes luminous in a stagnation
with predictions of computational-fluid-dynamics models
point where the kinetic energy is transferred into heat. That
[9, 14, 36]. Conventional pressure measurements are based
heat exits electronic transition in the gas and the flow itself
on pressure taps and electronically scanned transducers.
is visible (Fig.22).
Pressure taps provide pressure information only at discrete
points.
PSP technology has emerged as an alternative for
determining static and transient surface-pressure fields for
aerodynamic applications and flow visualization. The
pressure sensitivity is based on the oxygen (O2) quenching
of luminescent molecules dispersed in a film that is coated
onto a test surface. In practice, the PSP/TSP (temperature
sensitive paint) coating is illuminated with light of the
appropriate energy (colour) to excite the coating-entrapped
probe molecules. The resulting luminescence output is
inversely proportional to the surface pressure or
temperature of the test model.
The resulting luminescence from the model can be
imaged using a CCD camera. Pressure is correlated with the Figure 22. Flow visualization by electronic beam in hypersonic wind
ratio of PSP images acquired at a reference condition of the tunnel for M = 10 [9]
48 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

An intensive hot spot can be obtained by means of a A brief introduction to experimental flow visualization
spark discharge across two electrodes into a gas stream or methods is given. Every method is illustrated by photos of
using a giant pulse laser for producing the luminous plasma flow visualization effects. The advent of computer
(Q-switched giant pulse ruby laser of 100 MW). Another technique, new technology for illumination, modern and
way of artificially introducing density changes in a flow is very powerful device for digital image recording and
to seed the flow with a foreign gas of different refractivity processing makes automatical analysis of the flow
(benzene vapour, CO2). visualization effects and extracting qualitative and
Very often, methods mentioned as special techniques quantitative information possible which may not be readily
where the double refracting liquids, solutions or suspension available from conventional flow measurements.
of certain macromolecules in a neutral solvent are used for Experimental flow visualization is a starting point for
flow visualization. A transparent medium can be numerical flow visualization of simulations using computer
birefringent if it consists of optically anisentropic graphics.
molecules. An incident light wave is separated into two
linearly polarized components with the planes of References
polarization being perpendicular to one another. The
birefringence in these solutions can be observed by means [1] MARZKIRICH,W.: Flow visualization, Academic Press, New York,
1977.
of a polariscope. With the isochromates and isoclines
recorded on a photograph, a data field from which shear [2] ASANUMA,T.: Flow visualization, Hemishere Publishing co., Tokyo,
1977
distribution in a two-dimensional flow field can be deduced
[3] STEDMAN,D.H., CARIGNAN,G.R.: Flow Visualization III, 1983.
and flow velocity calculated.
Analogous methods are of interest in the flow [4] YANG,W.J.: Flow visualization III proc. of 3. International
Symposium, An Arbor MI, 1983, Hemisphere, New York, 1985.
visualization technique. The hydraulic analogy has the
[5] SETTLES,G.S.: Modern Developments in Flow Visualization, AIAA
widest application. For e.g., the formation of gravitational JournaL, 1986, Vol.24, No.8, pp.1313-1323.
waves of long wavelengths on the free surface of a liquid is [6] RISTIC,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja u aerodinamièkim tunelima,
analogous to the pattern of pressure waves in an isentropic Glasnik RV i PVO,1990, No.1, pp.16-24.
supersonic flow [2]. The hydraulic analogy has been used [7] CORLETT,W.A.: Operational Flow Visualization Technique in the
to investigate the wave pattern in the supersonic flow Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel, NASA Conf. Public. 2243, 1993.
around models. Fig.23. shows the flow around a model in [8] Monografija VTI, 1996, Beograd
free surface water tunnel that is analogous with the [9] RISTIĆ,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja, pogled u nevidljivo, Aeromagazin,
supersonic flow M ∞ = 4.1 . maj-juni 1998, st. 56-58, septembar 1998, st.52-54, januar 1999, st.
47-49.
For the purpose of flow visualization high speed
[10] RISTIĆ,S.: Pregled metoda za vizualizaciju strujanja u
photographic techniques are usually applied in connection aerodinamièkim tunelima, KumNTI, VTI Beograd, 1999, No.3.
with one of the visualizing methods. High speed cameras
[11] RISTIĆ,S., ISAKOVIĆ,J., ILIĆ,B., OCOKOLJIĆ,G.: Pregled metoda
with exposure time of 10-6 to 10-9 s in connection with ispitivanja kvaliteta strujanja u aerodinamičkim tunelima, KumNTI,
associated illumination systems can record the shock wave VTI, 2004,Vol.38, Br.3.
motion. If a single shot photograph is used, the [12] ANASTASIJEVIC,Z., RISTIC,S.: Prikaz mogučnosti ispitivanja u
synchronization between the unsteady flow pattern and the laboratorijama eksperimentalne aerodinamike, 2005, Tehnika,
exposure of the photograph must be made. A high speed Mašinstvo 55, 2006, pp.15-24.
cinematographic system is also very suitable for visualizing [13] ROE,P.L.: Numerical Methods in Aeronautical Fluid Dynamics,
London, Academic Press, 1982.
application.
[14] RISTIĆ,S.: Vizualizacija strujanja u aerotunelu pomoću TiCl4,
Naučnotehnički pregled, 1989, Vol.39, Br.8, st.8-14.
[15] HAVERMANN,M., HAERTIG,J., REY,C. and GEORGE,A.:
Application of Particle Image Velocimetry to High-Speed Supersonic
Flows in a Shock Tunnel French-German Research Institute of Saint-
Louis (ISL), 5 Rue du Général Cassagnou, F-68301 Saint-Louis,
France, 1999.
[16] CARBONARO,M.: VKI Lecture Series Measurement Techniques in
Fluid Dynamics an Introduction, Von Karman Institute for Fluid
Dynamics Chaussée de Waterloo, 72 B – 1640, Rhode Saint Genèse -
Belgium, 1994.
[17] GROWDER,J.R.: Fluorescent Mini Tufts For Nonintrusive flow
visualization, Mc-Donnell Douglas report MPC Y 7374, 1977.
[18] GROWDER,J.R.: Fluorescent Mini Tufts For Flow Visualization On
Rotating surfaces, Flow Visualization III, 3th international
symposium on flow visualization, sept. 6-9, 1983, An Arbor
Michigan USA, pp 55.
Figure 23. 2D model using the hydraulic analogy to simulate supersonic [19] STINEBRING,D.R., TREASTER,A.L.: Water Tunnel Flow
flow ( M ∞ = 4.1 ) [16] Visualization by Use of Fluorescent mini tufts , Flow Visualization
III, 1983 , pp. 65.
[20] MCDANIEL,J.C., HANSON,R.K.: Qualitative Planer Visualization in
Gaseous FlowField Using Laser Indused Fluorescent, Flow
Conclusion Visualization III, 1983, pp.113.
[21] RISTIĆ,S.:Vizualizacija podzvučnog strujanja metodom
This paper presents an overview of techniques for flow fluorescentnih končića, Naučnotehnički pregled, 1996, Vol.46, br 4-
visualization in different velocity regimes, except the 5, st.73-76
optical methods. Flow visualization is an important topic in [22] RISTIĆ,S., MAJSTOROVIĆ,P.: Experimental investigation relative
experimental aerodynamics and has been the subject of flow through model of straight profile grid, Scientific Technical
active research for many years in wind and water tunnels of Review, 2000, Vol.50, No.6., pp.29-36.
VTI. [23] RISTIĆ,S.: KOZIĆ,M.,: Investigation of the possibility to apply the
 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS 49
LDA method for the determination of pressure coefficients on a high [32] RISTIĆ,S., MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A.: Determination of aerodynamical
speed axial pump blade model, Scientific Technical Review, 2001, coefficients and visualization of the flow around the axisymetrical
Vol.51, No.5, pp.25-36. model by experimental and numerical methods, Scientific Technical
[24] RISTIĆ,S, MATIĆ,D.: Experimental and theoretical testing flow Review, 2005, Vol.55, No.3-4, pp.42-49.
through model of high speed axial pump blade profile grid, [33] RISTIĆ,S., MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A., SAMARDJIĆ,M.: The numerical
Technical diagnostique, 2005, No.2, pp.17-25. and experimental testing of the axisymetric model flow, Facta
[25] RISTIĆ,S.: Metode vizualizacije graničnog sloja, Tehnička Universitatis Series Mechanics, Automatic Control and Robotics,
dijagnostika, 2004, 3, Br.1, st.14-20. 2006, Vol.5, No.1, pp.145-152.
[26] FRANKE,T.: Unsteady Transonic Flow Around Double Wedge [34] Ristic,S.: Optimizacija primene uljanih premaza u vizualizaciji
Profils, Exper. in Fluids, 1989, Vol.8, pp.192-198. strujanja u aerotunelima, Tehnika, 2005, No.5.
[27] LU,F.K., SETTLES,G.S.: Color Surface Flow Visualization of fine [35] DAMLJANOVIĆ,D., RISTIĆ,S.: Eksperimentalno ispitivanje
Generated Shock Wave Boundery Layer Interactions, Exper. in aerodinamičkih karakteristika modela laserski vođene bombe, VTG,
Fluids, 1990, Vol.8, pp.352-356. 2005, br.5, st.406-417.
[28] RISTIĆ,S. SREĆKOVIĆ,M.: Laser Application Possibilities in [36] RISTIĆ,S. ISAKOVIĆ,J., SREĆKOVIĆ,M., MATIĆ,D.:
Production and Control of Aircraft Industry, II International Comparative analysis of experimental and numerical flow
symposium, Light metals and Composite Materials, Belgrade, 19-20 visualization, FME Transactions, 2006, 34, pp.143-149.
may 2004, pp.151-154. [37] RISTIĆ,S.: Premazi osetljivi na pritisak, nova mogučnost vizualizacije
[29] RISTIĆ,S., VITIĆ,A., ANASTASIJEVIĆ,Z., VUKOVIĆ,Đ.: strujanja, VTG, 2006, br.1, st.35-48.
Investigation of Support Interaction Upon Aerodinamic [38] OCOKOLJIĆA,G., RADULOVIĆA,J. Flow visualization and
Characteristics of aTorpedo Model in theT-38 Wind Tunnel, aerodynamical coefficients determination for the LASTA-95 model
Scientific Technical Review, 2004, Vol.LIV, No.1, pp.50-57. in wind tunnel T-35, Scientific Technical Review, 2006, Vol.56,
[30] RISTIĆ,S., DAMLJANOVIĆ,D.: Coefficient of Normal Force Cz No.2, pp.63-69.
Determination and Flow Visualization Around Control Surface of [39] RISTIĆ,S., PUHARIĆ,M., SREĆKOVIĆ,M., KUTIN,M.: Laser
Laser Navigate Bomb Model in Wind Tunnel T-38, Scientific Doppler Anemometry Application in Hydrodynamic Testing, jan,
Technical Review, 2004, Vol.54, No.3-4. 2007, Atti dela Fondazione Giorgio Ronchi, anno 62, pp.207-218.
[31] RISTIĆ,S, MATIĆ,D., VITIĆ,A.: Vizualizacija i numerièka
simulacijastrujanja oko prednjeg dela modela torpeda, HIPNEF Received: 10.02.2007.
Vrnjačka banja, Zbornik radova, 19-21 maj 2004, str.267-273.

Metode vizualizacije strujanja u aerotunelima

Prvi deo: Neoptičke metode
U radu je prikazan preged metoda koje se najčešće koriste za vizualizaciju struajnja. Prvi deo opisuje osnove i
primena različitih (neoptičkih) metoda vizualizacije podzvučnog i nadzvučnog strujanja u aero i vodenim tunelima;
metode s ubrizgavanjem čestica (dim, boje magla, različite male čestice), metode vizualizacije sa elektrolitičkom i
fotohemiskom proizvodnjom boja, gasni i hidrogenski mehurići, specijalne tehnike, vizalizacija sa končićima, uljanim
premazima, sa tečnim kristalima, boje osetljive na promenu temperature i pritiska.
Posebna pažnja je posvećena metodama vizualizacije koje se koriste u aero i vodenom tunelu VTI-a. Skoro sve
fotografije, koje su prikazane, snimljene su laboratorijama VTI-a.
Optičke metode i njihova primena u vizualizaciji stišljivih fluida je data u drugom delu ovog rada.

Ključne reći: vizualizacija strujanja, aerodinamički tunel, hidrodinamički tunel, metoda ispitivanja.

Metodw vizualizacii potoka v a&rodinami~eskih trubah

^astx perva}: Neopti~eskie metodw
V nasto}|ej rabote priveden obzor metodov, naibolee i nai~a|e ispolxzovannwh dl} vizualizacii
potoka. Perva} ~astx opiswvaet osnovw i primenenie razli~nwh (neopti~eskih) metodov vizualizacii
dozvukovwh i sverhzvukovwh potokov v a&rodinami~eskih i v vod}nnwh trubah; metodw s in`ekciej ~astic
(dwm, kraski, tuman, razli~nwe melkie ~asticw), metodw vizualizacii s &lektrolitnwm i
fotohimi~eskim proizvodstvom krasok, gazovwe i gidrogeni~eskie puzwri, specialxnwe tehniki i
sposobw; vizualizaci} s nitkami, s masl}nnwmi pokrwti}mi, so `idkimi kristallami; kraski
reagiruy|ie na izmenenie temperaturw i davleni}.
Osoboe vnimanie posv}|eno metodam vizualizacii, polxzuemwh v a&rodinami~eskih i vod}nwh trubah
Voenno-tehni~eskogo instituta (VTI). Po~ti vse privedennwe fotografii sdelanw v laboratori}h VTI.
Opti~eskie metodw i ih primenenie v vizualizacii s`imaemwh potokov privedenw vo vtoroj ~asti
nasto}|ej rabotw.

Kly~evwe slova: vizualizaci} potoka, a&rodinami~eska} truba, gidrodinami~eska} truba, metodw

issledovani}.
50 RISTIĆ S.: FLOW VISUALISATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS PART I – NON OPTICAL METHODS

Méthodes de la visualisation du courant dans les souffleries

aérodynamiques Première partie: méthodes non-optiques
Les méthodes utilisées le plus souvent pour la visualisation du courant font l’objet de ce travail. La première partie
décrit les bases et l’application de différentes méthodes (non-optiques) de la visualisation du courant soubsonique et
supersonique dans les souffléries aérodynamiques ainsi que dans les tunnels hydrodynamiques; méthodes à injection
des particules (fumée, couleurs, brouillard, particules variées), méthodes de la visualisation avec la
production,électrolitique ou photochimique, des couleurs, bulles de gaz ou à touffes, enduit d’huile, cristaux liquides,
couleurs sensibles aux changements de la température ou de la pression. Une attention particulière est prêtée aux
méthodes de la visualisation appliquée dans la soufflerie aérodynamique et dans le tunnel hydrodynamique qui sont
situés à l’Institut militaire technique à Belgrade. La plupart des photos, publées dans ce papier, ont été prises aux
laboratoires de cet Institut. Les méthodes optiques et leur utilisation dans la visualisation des fluides compressibles
sont traités dans la seconde partie de ce travail.

Mots clés: visualisation du courant, soufflerie aérodynamique, tunnel hydrodynamique, méthode d’essai.

View publication stats

38 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

UDK: 629.7.018:533.6.011
COSATI: 01-01

Flow visualization techniques in wind tunnels –optical methods

(Part II)

Slavica Ristić, PhD (Eng)1)

An attempt is made to describe and review the most widely used methods for flow visualization. The first part
described the basis and applications of different visualization methods for subsonic and supersonic flow in wind and
water tunnels. This part concentrates on optical methods (shadow, schlieren and interferometry) and their
application in compressibe flow visualization. Almost all presented photos have been made in the laboratories of the
VTI.

Key words: flow visualization, wind tunnel, optical methods, shadow method, schlieren method, holographic
interferometry.

Introduction transparent environment with a complex light refraction

index. The light refraction index in each flow field point is
F LOW visualization is essential for exploring, and
understanding fluid behavior and can be both qualitative
and quantitative [1-52].
the function of air density in that point, which, on the other
side, is the function of speed, pressure and air temperature
The flows described in the first part of this article [52] [1,6,7-12]. The relation between air density ρ(x,y,z) and the
were considered as incompressible flows with a constant, refraction index n(x,y,z) is called the Gladstone-Dale
uniform density. The other group of flows, i.e. equation: n = 1 + Kρ The Gladstone-Dale constant K has a
compressible flows have variable density which depends on value of ρ-1 and is different for each gas. The refractive
flow velocity. The optical index of refraction n(x,y,z) of a index for gas, which is a mixture of several components e.g.
gas is a function of the gas density. For practical purposes, air, eq. (1) becomes: n = 1 + ΣKi ρi. The Gladstone-Dale
the density difference of 2% can be considered as an constant for air at a temperature of 288 K varies between
appropriate limit between incompressible and compressible 2.239 10-4 to 2.33 10-4 m3/kg.
flows. This occurs if M∞ > 0.2 [1]. According to Snell's law, a light ray, passing through a
Rapid advances during the past decades concerning nonhomogeneous refracted field, is deflected from its
issues associated with high speed flights have brought into original direction and a light path is different from that of
focus the need for competent treatment of the fundamental an undisturbed ray. If a recording plane is placed in front of
aspects of aerodynamics and the need for application of the light ray, after disturbing media, three quantities can be
basic sciences in solving practical problems. The different measured: the vertical displacement of the disturbed ray,
physical methods and techniques are employed to measure the angular deflection of the disturbed ray with respect to
density, pressure, velocity and temperature in gas the undisturbed one and the retardation of the deflected ray,
dynamics. i.e. the phase shift between both rays, owning to their
The main methods for visualization of these flows are different optical path lengths.
optical methods. The three principal optical methods are: Optical visualization methods are based on the recording
shadow, schlieren and interferometry [1-12]. of one of these three quantities (or a combination of them).
The optical flow visualization has been expanded due to The shadowgraph is used for the first phenomenon, the
the innovation of the optical laser. Laser light is highly Schlieren method is used for the second one, and
monochromatic and coherent with high-energy interferometry for the last one.
concentration. The laser light sources have successfully There are significant differences between these methods,
been used in conventional optical visualization systems, but since the shadowgraph is sensitive to the changes of the
they have led to the development of completely new density second derivative (or the refractive index) second
methods. The lasers are attractive as light sources especially derivative ∂ 2 n / ∂y 2 , the Schlieren method is sensitive to the
for interferometry [1, 9,12,18-49]. changes of the density first derivative ∂n / ∂y , and
interferometry is capable to measure absolute density n
Compressible air field as an optical object changes. If, using an optical method, the light refraction
index n(x,y,z) in flow field is determined, other physical
Airflow around aerodynamical models is a very complex parameters of tested environment, significant for
phenomenon. In optical sense, this flow field is a aerodynamic testing, can be indirectly determined as well.
1)
Military Technical Institute (VTI), Ratka Resanovića 1, 11132 Belgrade, SERBIA
 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II) 39

Shadowgraph method concave lens. Fig.2b is a typical shadowgraph showing the

The oldest and the simplest of all optical methods for flow around the spherical tipped cylinder mounted on the
flow visualization is the shadowgraph [1-15]. Fig.1 shows a flat plate [13].
typical setup for shadow methods. A light beam passing Shadowgraph methods with short duration light pulses can
through the wind tunnel test section is parallel. A spherical be used for fine visualization of turbulent compressible flows.
mirror or lens makes the light parallel. The light source
should be small to ensure good sharpness of the obtained
image. Observation and recording the deflected beam parts
are in the perpendicular plane screen at a distance of l from
the test section.

a)

Figure 1. Schematic arrangement of the shadowgraph system, deflection

of light rays in a field of the variable ∂ 2 n / ∂y 2

If the test section is large, the recording is impossible

without focusing the image onto the film. For this purpose
it is preferable to use a second spherical mirror (or lens).
The camera lens in that case is placed in the focal plane of
the second mirror. The recorded shadowgraph is linearly
reduced, but it is identical with that obtained by the
arrangement presented in Fig.1.
To understanding the shadow image, it is useful to b)
analyze the paths of three rays in the section where there Figure 2. Shadowgraph visualization around a sphere (a), and typical
shadowgraph images showing the spherical tipped cylinder mounted on
are parts with a different amount of ∂ 2 n / ∂y 2 (Fig.1). If ray the flat plate (b) [13]
2 passes through the section with a higher value of
∂ 2 n / ∂y 2 then along two other ray, 2 will be deflected to a
great extent, so ray 5 on the photographic plate or screen
will fall between ray 4 and 2. A darker region appears
therefore on the screen between ray 1 and 3 - it represents
the shadow of the disturbance through which ray 2 has
passed. The uniform illumination of the screen is destroyed.
The investigation of these intensity alterations gives a lot of
useful information about the flow field. A shock wave and
turbulent motion in a compressible flow can be detected
and recorded with a shadowgraph [1-15].
Fig.2a shows the bow shock wave ahead of a sphere in
the wind tunnel T-36 at M∞ = 1.86 [7]. The trace of the
shock wave in the photo is a band of absolute darkness
bounded on the downstream side by an edge of intense
brightness. The exact geometrical position of the shock
front is the other edge of the dark zone. Diffraction effects
are visible on the bright edge of the shadow because the
shock wave represents a jump of the refractive index and
because of low gas density in the free stream. The air
density increases after the shock and the incident ray
deviates to the inside edge. It is an analog result to that
obtained with a convex lens.
Since the density in the disturbance is lower than in the
surrounding field, (Prandtl-Meyer expansion fan at the Figure 3. Numerical and experimental shadowgraph visualization of the
sharp end of the nozzle) the bright band appears at the supercritical cascade flow M∞=0.87 [14]
beginning of the shadow[7,12]. The same result is obtained The shadow performances can be illustrated by Fig.3.
when the compressible boundary layers is visualized. Its The blade performances were experimentally confirmed in
effect on a light ray can be compared with the effect of a the Virginia Tech High Speed Cascade Wind Tunnel [14].
40 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

The numerical and experimental methods were performed the schlieren system with the knife edge (black and white
to reveal the associated flow physics, particularly the loss schlieren).
mechanisms. Flow diagnostic techniques such as blade
surface pressure measurement, blade surface oil flow
visualization, and shadowgraph were used in the
experiments to study the pressure/velocity distribution,
shock pattern and boundary layer behavior.

Schlieren method
As mentioned before, the Schlieren method is sensitive
to the changes of the first derivative of density (or
refractive index) and it can record the angular deflection of
the disturbed ray with respect to the undisturbed in a
transparent medium with local non homogeneities [1-
19,27].
Today the Schlieren method is the most frequently used
in aerodynamic laboratories, since it is relatively simple and
very useful.
If a parallel beam of light passes trough the air where Figure 5. The photos of schlieren system components, model in the test
there is a density gradient normal to the beam direction, the section of the T-34 hypersonic wind tunnel and TV camera with monitor
light travels more slowly where the density is greater and
the beam is refracted towards the region of greater density.

a b

Figure 6. Black and white schlieren photos obtained in the T-36 wind
tunnel for M∞ = 1.56 (a) and instantaneous image of Bullet and Muzzle
Blast from a 22-Caliber Rifle (b) [13 ]

In order to investigate the interaction between the

Figure 4. Töepler schlieren system
boundary layer on the injector plate and the jet, a transverse
The most simple one is the Schlieren system with sonic jet was injected into a supersonic cross flow (Mach
parallel light through the wind tunnel test section. In 1.7) [16]. Fig.7a. shows a typical result of schlieren flow
practice there are different systems with lenses or mirrors. visualization. The jet expansion led to the barrel shock and
Töepler system as the base of all other modificated systems the Mach disk shown in Fig.7a. On the other hand, the
is illustrated in Fig.3. The detailed description of the system injectant jet caused interaction phenomena between the
is given in [7,9,10,12 ]. cross flow and the jet itself. In other words, the jet acted on
Today many different systems are used, e.g.: schlieren the cross flow as an obstruction. The schematic of the flow
system with finite slit, with lens for projection, double lens field obtained from the schlieren photograph is shown in
system, single mirror system, system with two mirrors, Fig.7b.
plane concave mirror system and Twin mirror, (asymmetric
twin mirror system) ,etc.
The new dimension has been introduced into the
schlieren system replacing the knife-edge by a filter
consisting of several parallel, transparent, colored strips
(most often three colored sheets, red - blue - yellow or blue
- green - red). The color filter can be consist of four
differently colored strips arranged in a square filter to a
visualize the grad n in two directions. If the flow is
axisymmetric, complementary colors appear for the same
event (compression or expansion) above and below the flow
axis. The recorded pure colors and color combinations are a
measure for the local direction of density gradient in the test
section. A contemporary modification of the schlieren system
concerns the replacement of the knife-edge by optical
elements which influence somehow the phase of the
b
schlieren light beam. Fig.4 shows scheme of töepler schlieren
system. Fig.5 shows the parts of schlieren systems in the T- Figure 7. Schlieren photograph of the flow field. (Mach 1.7) a) and
34 hypersonic wind tunnels in the MTI [9,18]. Schematic of the flow field obtained by the schlieren flow visualization b).
Figures 6 and 7 illustrate schlieren effects recorded with Attempts to increase the amount of information
 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II) 41

extractable from the schlieren photography have led to the Meyer expansion past a nozzle wedge, separation area and
use of various opaque filter geometries other than a knife- flow into the nozzle throat.
edge as well as of transparent phase and color filters [1- The classical schlieren photos obtained by the color
27,29,30,38,43,49]. schlieren system are presented in Figures 9 - 11. The flow
around a cone with a top angle of 15° is tested in the T-36
supersonic wind tunnel for different Mach numbers and
positions of color filters [9,11,25].
A combined holographic interferometer and schlieren
device [9,36,44,46-48], has been designed, made and tested
for the T-38 trisonic wind tunnel. It is a basis for various
optical flow visualization experiments. The device can be
included in tests either as a schlieren system or as an
interferometer. The dimensions of such a system are out of
standard (optical field diameter is Φ = 900 mm, uniform,
without aberrations). It allows to visualize flows in
transonic and supersonic wind tunnel test sections. The
detection range of the density gradient is 0,1- 6,52 kg/m4,
the refractive index 10-7 to 10-4 and the resolution in full
scale is 10-7.
Improvements to this basic schlieren system include the
Rainbow Schlieren (Fig.12) [30] where a colored bulls eye
filter is used rather than a knife edge to quantify the
strength of the refraction. The other variety of schlieren
methods is obtained including laser as a light source.
Fig.13a ilustrates the schlieren system in the T-36 with He-
Ne laser as a light source and 13b shows the schlieren
sffects around a cone (30° top angle) for transonic velocity.
Several variations of large field schlieren systems have
been developed to examine aerodynamic flow fields that
were previously difficult to study with conventional
schlieren systems. In Langley NASA has developed a
focusing schlieren system to provide measurements at a
particular plane in the flow. Multiple source and cut-off
slits are used to eliminate turbulence effects outside the
plane of interest [22]. One advantage of this technique is its
low cost; the optics are cheaper than conventional schlieren
optics, and the windows can be of much lower quality.
High-brightness transmission-type focusing schlieren
systems were developed for aerodynamic testing in wind
tunnels of small-to-moderate size.

a b

Figure 8. Color schileren effects around blunt body and thin protruding
probe mounted in front of a blunt body for M∞ = 1.86 (a) and supersonic
flow in the twodimensional model of the supersonic rocket nozzle, (b)
[9,12,17,29,32,49]

Color schileren effects around a blunt body and a thin

protruding probe mounted in front of a blunt body, used to
reduce the drag and the rate of heat transfer, are presented
in Fig.8a [9,12,40,41,43] for M∞ = 1.86. Flow visualization
in a two-dimensional model of the supersonic rocket nozzle
is tested by the schlieren method and the effects are c
presented in Fig.8b. The two-dimensional supersonic
nozzle model is placed in the wind tunnel test section, Figure 9. Color schlieren photos obtained in the T-36 wind tunnel for M∞
where the windows are mounted. The nozzle is designed for = 1.02 (a), 1.1(b) and 1.56(c) around a cone with a 15-degree top angle.
a Mach number in the output plane M∞= 2.6. Fig.8b shows
the flow into the nozzle with and without a barrier, Prandtl-
42 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

a a

b
b

Figure 13. Schieren system with laser as a light source in the T-36 and the
schlieren effect around a cone for M∞ = 1.1

Retroreflective versions were also developed for wind

tunnel flow and for convection flow studies, both of large
scale. Different versions of motion-camera schlieren
systems were developed to examine rocket sled flow fields
and to obtain the flow field around aircraft in flight. Most
images of shock waves have to be generated under highly
controlled, artificial situations. However, recent
c
developments at NASA may permit "field" observations of
shock waves generated by aircraft (Fig.14). The technique
Figure 10. Parts of combined schlieren-holographic interferometer in the
T-38, (a), color schlieren flow around sphere visualization for M∞ =1.02 was invented at the NASA Langley Research Center [23].
(b) and M∞ =1.1(c). A discussion of this technique can be found at the NASA
Ground to Air Schlieren Photography web site.

Figure 14. Full-Scale Schlieren Image of the T-38 Aircraft at Mach 1.1
[23, 26]
Figure 11. Schlieren effects around a cone and a slanted slot in the bottom
wall for M∞= 0.81 in the T-36 supersonic wind tunnel [9,12,26,33,35]
Interferometry
In most gas dynamics applications, it is useful to know
flow density changes in wind tunnels, shock tubes or
supersonic jets. The phase alteration beam passing through
a disturbed section of a tested field can be compared with
an undisturbed beam. The effects of interference make the
basis of interferometry. The application of this principle in
visualizing compressible flow fields is as old as the
schlieren method [1-7,20-49].

Classical interferometry
The most used type of interferometers in wind tunnel
Figure 12. Rainbow Schlieren [22]
tests is the Mach-Zehnder interferometer (MZI) [1,7]. Two
 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II) 43

light beams (test and reference ones) in the MZI are Holographic Interferometry
separated by its four plates. This instrument is suitable for Holographic interferometry is an optical method that
quantitative density measurements in large wind tunnels. It enables complete flow field testing. The method is non-
requires an extremely high degree of mechanical precision contact (it does not disturb the flow field) and is used for
and complexity of construction. Mechanical and optical testing different objects and phenomena [1-7,20-49].
tolerances are in order of a wavelength or below. This The flow density can be measured directly using
makes the instrument expensive and its cost grows rapidly interferometry. The greatest advantage of holographic
with increasing the diameter of the desired size of the field interferometry, in relation to the schlieren method, is the
of view. fact that it provides complete information stored in a single
The basic arrangement of the MZI is shown in Fig.15. plate, allowing a postponement selection of specific types
The source light is made parallel with the lens S. The of flow visualization.
amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by semi- This method is based on holography, developed in the
reflecting mirrors. The four plates are situated in the last forty five years [21]. The holography represents a two-
corners of a rectangle and are all parallel in the start. The stage method which, apart to light amplitudes, records light
test section with its two glass windows is brought into the phases as well. The three-dimensional image recording is
path of the test beam. In order to compensate the phase performed in the first stage, while its reconstruction is
difference in two beams, two identical glass plates are performed in the second stage (Fig.16). Lasers are used as
inserted into the path of the reference beams. After being light sources. The light from a reconstructed image from a
rejoined, corresponding rays of the two light beams can hologram reaching the observer's eye is the same as the one
interfere and a certain pattern of interference fringes that would come from an original object. A holographic
appears on the screen or photographic plate. An non image has the same depth, parallax and different
homogeneity in the test section produces a certain amount perspectives as those available in the actual object scene.
of disturbance of the no-flow fringe system. It can be If the image of one object is recorded two times in
quantitatively related to the density distribution of the flow different moments, in the process of reconstruction both
field [1,2,7,21]. images (figures) will appear simultaneously and in the same
place in space. Since the object waves are mutually
coherent (they originate from the same light beam that
illuminates the hologram) they interfere and the
interference effects can be observed in the reconstructed
object image. If no change occurs on the object between the
first and the second exposition, then there is no difference
in images and there are no interference fringes. If certain
difference appears, then the reconstructed image contains
the system of interference fringes N that indicate thet
change.

Figure 15. Mach Zehnder interferometer a)

The most important quality requirements for an "ideal"

MZI are: homogeneity in the refractive index of the glass of
splitter plates, test section, windows, and compensation
plate; constant and equal thickness of each pair of splitter
plates and windows; exact plane parallelism and surface
quality of all mirrors, plates and windows; exact coating of
the surface of beam splitters with the prevention of any
absorption; a high degree of reflection of full mirrors; exact
mounting which prevents all plates from bending, sagging b)
and other mechanical deformations, and protection of the
instrument from mechanical vibrations and other Figure 16. Arrangement for holograms recording a) and reconstruction b)
disturbances. The basic adjustment is very difficult. It is Quantitative flow testing using holographic
necessary to align the test beam parallelly to the surface of interferograms is performed by determining the number of
a two-dimensional test object to avoid light reflection. The fringes N(x,y) in the field image with respect to a reference
last step in adjusting is always bringing the achromatic point of known density. After that, the index of light
fringe (zero order) into the field of view. Much patience is refraction n(x,y) and the air density ρ(x,y) can be calculated.
required while adjusting the MZI. For the isentropic flow, there are relations between N, n,,, ρ,
The MZI has been applied in practically all cases of gas pressure P, temperature T, velocity V, and Mach number M
flow investigations, where density difference becomes [9,20,21,36,44]. The physical basics and mathematical
noticeable, such as: thermodynamic data, thermal interpretation of the holographic interferometry are
conductivity of gases, dissociation, aerodynamic explaned in references [1,6,7,20,21]. One simple case is the
application, turbulence, wave or sonic booms. 2D flow [9,21,31-35]
44 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

For the processing of interferograms of axisymmetrical 6 mW He-Ne laser (3) is used for setting the
phase objects, the method of inversion, based on the Abel interferometers in all wind tunnels and for holograms
transformation, is used. The experiment geometry is usually reconstruction. The lasers and all other mechanical and
selected in order to simplify to the maximum the optical components are fixed on the adjusting antivibration
mathematical representation of flow and changes occurring table of the height equal to the height of the the wind tunnel
on the path of the laser light beam through the test section axis. Fig.17 shows the schematic drawings of the combined
[9,21,36-50]. holographic interferometer and schlieren device (side view)
In experimental aerodynamics, the flow field around an in the T-38 with the photos of different components. The
axisymetrical model is a typical example for testing the dimensions of the interferometer can be illustrated by the
presented method. object beam length of, which is about 43m and optical field
Computer tomography is an important technique for Φ = 900 mm.
reconstructing 3-D fields from holographic interferograms The laser light is, by means of lens and mirrors, divided
[1,6,21]. It has been under development since the late 1960. in two parts, enlarged and collimated. One part Up passes
Its origins are in the mathematical analysis of Radon. For 3- through the wind tunnel test section (11) and, falls as an
D field diagnostique three holograms should be recorded object beam on holographic plate (9). The other part of the
over an 180° range of viewing directions. light beam is conducted across the wind tunnel and sent to
Therefore, several computational techniques have been the holographic pate. This is a so-called referent or
developed for computer tomography such as: implicit auxiliary light beam (Ur). The holographic plate is exposed
methods (series expansion, discrete element two times: when the wind tunnel is not operating (when
representations), explicit methods (convolution method), there is homogeneous flow field distribution) and when the
and Fourier transform method. The choice of the best wind tunnel is running (when there is a complex flow field,
algorithm depends on the density field structure of, the which is the subject of testing). Standard plates with fine
amount and format of available data, the amount of noise in grain emulsion (8E75, Agfa Gevaert) are used for hologram
the data, and the nature of the desired information. recording. With purpose to illustrate holographic
In order to demonstrate the advantages of holographic interferometry applications, the same photos of holographic
interferometry in complex flow field testings, and images obtained during experiments performed in the MTI
comparison with other classical methods, the series of wind tunnels will be presented.
experiments were performed in the MTI wind tunnels at
flow velocities from M1 = 0.7 to 3.24.
Figures 16 and 17 show the schema and some photos of
the holographic interferometers in two wind tunnels. T-36
the wind tunnel test section has windows Φ = 300 mm
(schlieren quality) enabling the usage of optical methods.
The holographic interferometers with parallel beams, used
for the double exposition method [7, 21] are described here.
The light source for recording holographic
interferograms is the ruby laser (2, output energy is 3 J,
coherence length is greater than 1 m, repetition rate is 4
pulses per minute, the pulse length in the free generation Figure 17. The schema of the holographic interferometer in the T-36 wind
mode is 250 s and 30 ns in the Q-switched mode), while the tunnel

Figure 18. The schema and photos of the holographic interferometer in the T-38 wind tunnel (side view)
45 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

Review of holographic interferograms slanted slot was used because it had been reported that such
The usage of classical methods of the nozzle edge flow geometry would considerably reduce the perturbation of
field testing comprises the introduction of a probe within free flow.
the expansion region and holes perforation on nozzle
surface. These methods significantly change the flow field
and give the erroneous image of processes. Furthermore, it
would be necessary to have very dense grating of
measuring points, thus rendering these methods very
inefficient. In realization of this experiment the holographic
interferometer represented in Fig.36 was used.

a) b)

Figure 21. Holographic interferogram of the flow in the empty wind

tunnel test section with the wall perforation (slanted slot) (a) and with the
cone for M∞ =0,83 (b) [9, 26,34,35]

The interferogram, however, shows that the disturbance

from the slot is not at all negligible and reaches even
beyond the axis of the test section (to about 60 % of the test
section height). The perturbation has the effect on the
model sting mounted in the central line of the test section
(Fig.21b). The flow around a model, a cone with Φ=100mm
Figure 19. Holographic interferometer of supersonic flow in a two- and a top angle of 90°, for M∞ = 3.24 is very different
dimensional model of the nozzle edge (Prandelt-Mayer expansion) M∞ (Fig.22), related to the flow presented in Fig.21.
=1,56

The holographic interferograms were used for numerical

calculation of flow field parameters in the vicinity of the
nozzle edge where the expansion fen is formed (Fig.19).
The fringe number N was read from this hologram. The
points in front of the expansion fen have N=0, since the last
fringe has N=17. The theoretical and experimental values of
the Mach numbers in the expansion area are in good
agreement Mexp = 2.15, Mthe = 2.13 [25].
The photos in Figures 20a and 20b present holographic
interferograms of the flow around a sphere for M∞ = 0.8
(without shock wave) and 1.06 (bow shock wave is in front
of the model). Fig.20b is a combination of holographic
Figure 22. Interferogram of the flow with M∞ = 3.24 around the cone (top
interferograms (upper part) and a schlieren photo of the angle 90°)
same flow. The interferometric photo clearly shows: the
stagnation point, the detached bow wave, the vortex sheet The combined photos (Figures 20b and 23) are usefull
generated past sphere, etc. for comparative analysis of different optical flow
visualizatiom methods.

a) b)

Figure 20. Holographic interferogram of the flow around a sphere for M∞

= 0.82 (a) and mixed; hologram and schlieren for M∞ = 1.06 (b)

Flow visualization around tunnel wall perforations

[9,26,34,35] is a very interesting example. Many transonic Figure 23. Combined photo: the holographic interferogram and the
schlieren effect of the flow around a small cone for M∞ = 1.56
tunnels operate with perforated walls in the test section. A
number of investigations have been performed to determine The interferograms of several different configurations of
how the flow in the test section is affected by the presence supersonic rocket nozzle barriers are recorded in order to
of the perforation. The following photos (Fig.21.) report on provide a good insight in to the physical processes of lateral
a test performed in the T-36, with a single slanted slot in the force appearance and the racket control system efficiency
bottom plate of the test section. by lateral force [7,9,29,32,49]].
The disturbances originating from the slot are expressed The flow in the two-dimensional model of the supersonic
by distortions of the parallel fringe system. A concentration nozzle with and without three barriers (spoiler, deflector
of fringes indicated the formation of a pressure wave. The and cone shaped barrier) (Figures 24 and 25) serving as the
46 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

trust vector control is recorded by the double exposition The upper part of Fig.26 is the interferogram of the flow
method. The numerical results are compared to the results around the model of cone-cylinder (θc=15˚, l= 300 mm
of the pressure distribution measurements on the upper and base Φ=160mm, lc =160mm) for M∞=1.474, recorded in
the bottom wall of the nozzle. The interferometric fringes the T-38 wind tunnel. The calculated flow iso density lines
distribution in the nozzle image without a barrier (Fig.24a) for the experimental conditions and the same model are
is symmetrical with respect to the nozzle axis and presented in the lower part of Fig.26.
represents the point with equal density. The Figures 27 and 28 are recorded in the T-36 to
illustrate the flow over the plate with a rear step part
(noaerodinamical shape) and the flow around a missle for
M∞=1.56.

a) b)

Figure 24. Holographic interferogram of the flow in the two-dimensional

model of the a racket nozzle: experimental and theoretical isomach lines in
Figure 27. Holographic interferogram of the flow around the 2D plate
a supersonic nozzle without a barrier a) and with a barrier, deflector, b)
with a rear step part for М∞=0.8
A complex flow field in the nozzle is simulated on a
computer through the numerical solution of the partial
differential equations and boundary conditions [32]. The
identity of the experimental and theoretical isomach line
(method of characteristics) is evident. The theoretical value
of the Mach number in the output plane of the nozzle is
estimated to be M=2.6. The pressure measurements data,
result in M=2.46 and holographic calculations give a Mach
number of M=2.56. The placing of barriers in the
supersonic flow leads to the creation of the stagnation zone
and shock and expansion waves (Figures 25a and 25b).

Figure 28. Holographic interferogram of the flow around a missle for

M∞=1.56

Other interferometric methods used for flow visualization

world wide
a) b) The holographic interferometry, today, is one of very
important wind tunnel optical methods for transonic and
Figure 25. Holographic interferogram of the flow in the two-dimensional supersonic flow visualization. In the VTI wind tunnels, the
model of the rocket nozzle with: a cone shaped barrier a) and a spoiler b) most often used method is the double exposure method.
Other centers apply the real time method, the average or
sendvich methods, the specle interferpmetry, refraction
interferometry, differential interferometry, etc. Optical
holography is most frequent by used, with laser light in the
visible spectrum. In standard procedures the interferencial
effects are recorded on photo or thermosensitive emulsions.
Electronic holography uses CCD cameras. In some specific
cases acoustic and microwave holography, with electron
beams X – rays, or computer holography can be used.
Besides holographic interferometry, similar possibilities
today have speckle interferometry, moiré interferometry
and shearography. Only two methods of them will be
mentioned here as methods used for flow visualization,
without pretending to be the best choice.
Laser speckle photography is an optical method which can
be applied for quantitative measurements of fluid flow
density fields in a wide dynamic range. In the conventional
method, the density gradient vector map of a density field is
reconstructed by the optical Fourier transform of a double
exposed laser speckle pattern recorded on a photographic
Figure 26. The composite experimental and theoretical image of the flow
around the modelof cone-cylinder with М∞= 1.474
film. The digital technique, digital laser speckle photography,
 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II) 47

improves laser speckle photography in the spatial resolution, than thirty years, starting with black and white schlieren
in the dynamic range and in the efficiency of density field system, developing color schlieren systems in three
reconstruction. Practical setup of the method is very simple. facilities and introducing holographic interferometry in two
Since only the light deflection is important for the density wind tunnels. The indirect method of visualizing is the
measurement in laser speckle photography, a long coherent Laser Doppler anemometry used primary for flow velocity
light length is not required for the laser source and then it has measurements [7].
an advantage over other optical methods. The digital images
of laser speckle patterns are PC-acquired, and the same
algorithm with cross-correlation can be applied to obtained
the local density gradient vector [50].
Fig.29 represents the density field analysis of the Mach
reflection of the shock wave as a typical problem of
compressible fluid flow.
Differential Interferometry is a new technique which
enables quantitative analysis of density gradients in flows,
based on a Fourier analysis of interferograms and a specially
designed interferometer. Differential interferometry produces
the first derivative of the refractive index. Real-time color
holographic interferometry has been developed to obtain the
refractive index n itself. In this technique, the light source is
made of three wavelengths (one red, one green and one blue)
from a mixed gas (argon and krypton) laser.
Fig.30 shows visualization examples of diffetential color
holographic interferograms [51] .

Figure 30. Ultra high-speed direct interferograms of the flow around a

cylinder, ∆ t = 50 µs [51].

a) b)

Figure 29. Results of the density gradient vector map by digital laser
speckle photography.
In order to demonstrate and to compare complementary
possibilities of optical methods in quantitative flow c)
visualization, Prandlt-Mayer expansion tested by three Figure 31. Visualization of the supersonic flow around a two-dimensional
optical methods is presented. 90˚ edge nozzle: a) shadow, b) schlieren and c) interferogram
Figures 31a, b and c shows the flow visualization around a
90° corner end edge of a supersonic nozzle. The
interferogram is recorded by double passing collimated
object beam through the wind tunnel test section. The
shadow is recoded on a holographic plate because of
collimated beams. The color schlieren is made immediately
after holography. Fig.32 include: diagram grad ρ versus y for
line with coordinates x=40 mm, -30<y<15 mm and
superposed photos: the first layer is holografic interferogram
and the second one is color schlieren.
a) b)
Conclusion
Figure 32. Visualization of the supersonic flow around a 70˚ nozzle edge
In the wind tunnels of the VTI the visualization of (the first layer is holografic interferogram and the second is one color
complex flows by optical methods has been used for more schlieren a). The diagram is grad n versus y b).
48 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II)

Testing of complex flow fields around models in wind [23] SETTLES,G.S., HACKETT,E.B.,. MILLER,J.D, and
WEINSTEIN,L.M.: Full-Scale Schlieren Flow Visualization, Flow
tunnels using the methods of holographic interferometry, Visualization VII, ed. J. P. Crowder, Begell House, NY, Sept. 1995,
showed the significant advantages of this method, pp.2-13
compared with shadow and schlieren methods. For a two- [24] SETTLES,G.S.: Color Surface Flow Visualization of fine Generated
dimensional flow, one interferogram is enough to complete Shock Wave Boundery Layer Interactions, Exper. in Fluids, 1990,
flow visualization and calculation. The schlieren method Vol.8, pp.352-356
reduces a three-dimensional flow to a two-dimensional [25] RISTIĆ,S.: Testing of the Flow Field Around the Nozzle Edge Using
image and calculation becomes very complicated. the Method of Holographic Interferometry, 1990, Fizika, 22, 3,
pp.529-543,
Holographic interferometry gives the best results for
transonic and supersonic flows. Holographic interferometry [26] RISTIĆ,S.: Disturbance of Transonic wind Tunnel Flow by a Slot in
the Tunnel Wall, Experiments in fluids, 1990, 11, pp.403-405,
allows a great number of information with high accuracy
[27] ROBERT,A.: GRC, Schlieren Measurement Technique, NASA, 2001
from a small number of experiments.
[28] RISTIĆ,S., SREČKOVIĆ,M., MILOSAVLJEVIĆ,A.,
Flow visualization methods currently serve as a VRAČARIĆ,D., ANĐELIĆ,B.: The Application of Holographic
computational base for different numerical methods. Interferometry for Wind Tunnel Windows Testing, Procee. of 9th
European Conference on fracture (ECF9), sept. 21-25, 1992, Varna
Bulgarija, pp.607-612
References
[29] RISTIĆ,S., SREČKOVIĆ,M.: Flow Investigation in 2D Model of
[1] MARZKIRICH,W.: Flow visualization, Academic Press, New York, Supersonic Nozzle by the Method of Holografic Interferometry, Opto
1977 93, april 1993, Paris
[2] ASANUMA,T.: Flow visualization, Hemishere Publishing co., Tokyo, [30] RISTIĆ,S., SREČKOVIĆ,M.: Parallelisams and Errors in Researching
1977 some Characteristics of Materials by Means of Holographic and
Scattering processes, Proceeding of the XIII Yugoslav Symposium of
[3] HUNTER,W.W.: Flow Visualization and Laser Velocimetry for wind the Physics of condensed matter, Vrnjacka Banja, sept. 28-30, 1993
tunnel, NASA, Conference Publication 2243, 1982
[31] RISTIĆ,S., STOJADINOV,G., STAMENKOVIĆ,D.: Testiranje
[4] STEDMAN,D.H.: Carignan G.R. Flow Visualization III, 1983 strujnog polja oko 2D modela metodom holografske interferometrije,
[5] YANG,W.J.: Flow visualization III proc. of 3. International Naučnotehnički pregled, 1993, Vol XLIII, br.2, st.8-17
Symposium, An Arbor MI, 1983, Hemisphere, New York, 1985 [32] RISTIĆ,S.: Ispitivanje strujanja u 2D supersoničnom mlazniku
[6] SETTLES,G.S.: Modern Developments in Flow Visualization, 1986, metodom holoografske interferometrije, Naučnotehnički pregled,
AIAA JournaL, vol 24, No. 8, 1313-1323 1995, Vol.45, br.1-2, st. 95-102
[7] RISTIC,S.: Pregled metoda za vizualizaciju strujanja u [33] RISTIĆ,S.: Optimizacija kvantitativne obrade holografskih
aerodinamičkim tunelima, kum NTI, VTI VJ, 1999. interferograma za 2D i osno simetrična strujanja, Jubilarni broj
[8] CORLETT,W.A.: Operational Flow Visualization Technique in the Naučnotehničkog pregleda, 1996, Vol.46., br 4-5, st. 37-45
Langley Unitary Plan Wind Tunnel, NASA Conf. Public. 2243, 2001 [34] RISTIĆ,S.: Primena holografske interferometrije u ispitivanju
[9] RISTIĆ,S.: Optičke metode za vizualizaciju strujanja u slobodnostrujnih poremećaja, Jubilarni broj Naučnotehničkog
aerodinamičkim tunelima, 2002, Tehnička dijagnostika, god.1, broj 4, pregleda, 1998, Vol.48 , br.4, st.95-101
st. 58-65 [35] RISTIĆ,S., SREČKOVIĆ,M.: Pressure Disturbances Testing by
[10] RISTIĆ,S.: Optical Methods In Flow Visualization, Zbornik radova Schlieren Method and Holographic Interferometry, Laser '98, 7-11,
naučnog skupa “Primenjena fizika u Srbiji”, Srpska akademija nauka i dec. 1998, Tucson, Arizona, Proceedings pp. 568-547
umetnosti, Beograd 27-29. maja, 2002., st. 143146 [36] JONES,D.J.: Application of Computed shock standoff distance for
[11] RISTIĆ,S., ISAKOVIĆ,J., SREĆKOVIĆ,M., MATIĆ,D.: wind tunnel calibration, NRC report, 19
Comparative analysis of experimental and numerical flow [37] MILOVANOVIC,A. and all.: Holographic and Interferometric
visualization, FME Transactions, 2006, Vol.34, pp. 143-149 methods in pressure vessel testing, Lasers 99 Quebeck, 1999 dec 13-
[12] RISTIĆ,S.: Optical methods in wind tunnel flow visualization, FME 16, Proceedings of the Int. Conf. on Lasers `99, Ed, V.J. Corcoran and
Transactions, 2006, Vol.34, pp.7-13 T.A. Corcoran, SOQuE, STS. Press, Mc Lean 2000, pp.211-218
[13] GREGORY-SMITH,D.G. and all: A Combined System for [38] ZDRAVKOVIC,M.: Numerical calculation of flow around cone-
Measurements of High Speed Flow by Interferometry, Schlieren and cylinder, internal report, MTI, Belgrade, 2003
Shadowgraph, Meas. Sci. Tech., 1990, Vol.1, pp.419-424 [39] RISTIĆ,S., SREČKOVIĆ,M.: Laser Application Possibilities in
[14] SONG,B.: Experimental and Numerical Investigations of Optimized Production and Control of Aircraft Industry, II International
High-Turning Supercritical Compressor Blades, Dissertation, Faculty symposium, Light metals and Composite Materials, 19-20 may 2004,
of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, November Belgrade, Proceedings, pp.151-154
2003, Blacksburg, Virginia [40] MILIĆEV,S., PAVLOVIĆ,M., VITIĆ,A., RISTIĆ,S.: Eksperimental
[15] JOHN,E.LAMAR: Flow-Visualization Techniques Used at High Study of the Influence of Spike Shape Axisymmetric Flow Past
Speed by Configuration Aerodynamics Wind-Tunnel-Test, Team Bodies, Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, An International Journal,
NASA Langley Research Center Hampton, L-17973, April 2001 Special Volume (1),Proceedings of the 23rd Yugoslav Congress of
Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, Belgrade, October 2001,(2004),
[16] SAKIMA,F., FEI,H., ARAI,T. and KASAHARA,J.: Interaction pp.261-264
Phenomena Between a Supersonic Cross Flow and a Transverse Sonic
Jet, AIAA 2002-5181, AIAA/AAAF 11th International Space Plane [41] MILIĆEV,S., PAVLOVIĆ,M., RISTIĆ,S., VITIĆ,A.: On the
sand Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference, 29 Influence of Spike Shape at Supersonic Flow Past Blunt Bodies, Facta
September - 4 October 2002,Orléans, France universitatis, series: Mechanics, Automatic, Control and Robotics,
2002, Vol.3, No.12, pp.371-382
[17] RISTIĆ,S.: Metod za povećanje osetljivosti i rezolucije Šliren sistema
u boji, Naučnotehnički pregled, 1987, Vol.37, br.1, st.3-8 [42] RISTIC,S.: Metode vizualizacije graničnog sloja, Tehnička
dijagnostika, 2004, god.3, br.1, st.14-20
[18] RISTIĆ,S., VITIĆ,A., VUČKOVIĆ,S.: Mach Number Determination
of Hypersonic Flow with a New Schlieren System, Scientific [43] RISTIĆ,S, MILIĆEV,S., VITIČ,A.: Eksperimentalna ispitivanja
Technical Review, 2002, Vol.52, No.5-6, pp.17-24 uticaja šiljka na aerodinamičke karakteristike zaoblenog tela,
Tehnička dijagnostika, 2004, god.3, br. 4, st.17-25
[19] WEINSTEIN,L.M.: "An Improved Large-Field Focusing Schlieren
System" AIAA paper 91-0567., 1991 [44] RISTIĆ,S.: Investigation of Supersonic Flow in Wind Tunnel T-38 by
a Method of Holographic Interferometry, Scientific Technical Review,
[20] TROLINGER,J.D.: Holography for Aerodynamics, August 1972, 2004, Vol.LIV, No.2, pp.3-10.
Astronautics & Aeronautics, pp.56-62
[45] RISTIĆ,S.: Ispitivanje supersoničnog strujanja oko kugle metodom
[21] VEST,C.M.: Holographic Interferometry, New York, Wiley and holografske interferometrije, Tehnička dijagnostika, 2005, br.1, st. 22-29
sons,1982.
[46] ANASTASIJEVIĆ,Z., RISTIĆ,S.: Prikaz mogučnosti ispitivanja u
[22] WATT,D.W., VEST,C.M.: Digital Interferometry for Flow laboratorijama eksperimentalne aerodinamike, 2005, Tehnika,
Visualization, Exper. in Fluids, 1987, Vol.5, pp.401-405 Mašinstvo, br. s.
 S.RISTIĆ: FLOW VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN WIND TUNNELS –OPTICAL METHODS (PART II) 49

[47] RISTIĆ,S., SREĆKOVIĆ,M.: Testing of supersonic wind tunnel flow Measurement of Mach Reflection of Shock Waves by Laser Speckle
by holographic interferometry, 2006, Atti dela Fondazione Giorgio Method, Proc. SPIE, Voi.3172, pp.238-245.
Ronchi, anno 61, march, pp.231-240 [51] DESSE,J.M.I, TRIBILLON,J.M.: Recent improvements in color
[48] RISTIĆ,S., ANASTASIJEVIĆ, Z., ISAKOVIĆ,J.: New Combined interferometry, 8th International Symposium on Fluid Control,
Holographic Interferometer and Schlieren Device for Wind Tunnel T- Measurement and Visualization, China, 2005
38, proceedings of ICASAT 2007, Tripoli 23-25/04/2007 [52] RISTIĆ,S.: Flow visualization techniques in wind tunnels optical
[49] RISTIĆ,S., ANASTASIJEVIĆ, Z., ISAKOVIĆ,J.: Comparative methods (Part I), Scientific Technical Review, 2007, Vol.LVII, No.1,
analysis of the expansion flow by optical methods, proceedings of pp.39-50.
ETAI 2007, Ohrid,19-21.9.2007 (u štampi)
[50] HIRAHARA,H., KAWAHASHI,M.: (1997), Density Field Received: 26.04.2007.

Vizualizacija strujanja u aerotunelima – Optičke metode (II)

U ovom radu su prikazane i objašnjene metode vizualizacije strujanja koje se najčešće koriste u aerotunelima. Prvi
deo opisuje osnove i primenu različitih metoda za vizualizaciju podzvučnih i nadzvučnih strujanja u aero i vodenim
tunelima. Posebna pažnja optičkim metodama (metod senke, šliran metod i holografska interferometrija) i njihovoj
primeni u vizualizaciji stišlivih fluida je posvećena u ovom delu rada. Skoro sve prikazane fotografije su snimljene u
laboratorijama VTI-a.

Ključne reći: vizuelizacija strujanja, aerodinamički tunel, optičke metode, metoda senke, holografska
interferometrija.

Vizualizaci} potoka v a&rodinami~eskih trubah

Opti~eskie metodw (II)
V nasto}|ej rabote privedenw i po}snenw metodw vizualizacii potoka, naibolee i nai~a|e
ispolxzovannw v a&rodinami~eskih trubah. Perva} ~astx opiswvaet osnovw i primenenie razli~nwh
metodov vizualizacii dozvukovwh i sverhzvukovwh potokov v a&rodinami~eskih i vo vod}nnwh trubah. V
&toj ~asti nasto}|ej rabotw osoboe vnimanie posv}|eno opti~eskim metodam (metod teni, {liran metod
i golografi~eska}Đ interferometri}) i ih primeneniy vo vizualizacii s`imaemwh potokov. Po~ti vse
privedënnwe fotografii sdelanw v laboratori}h VTI.

Kly~evwe slova: vizualizaci} potoka, a&rodinami~eska} truba, gidrodinami~eska} truba, opti~eskie

metodw, metod teni, golografi~eska}Đ interferometri}, metodw issledovani}.

Visualisation du courant dans les souffleries aérodynamiques –

méthodes optiques (II)
Les méthodes de la visualisation du courant, utilisée dans les souffleries aérodynamiques le plus souvent, sont
présentées et expliquées dans ce papier. La première partie décrit les bases et l’application de différentes méthodes
pour la visualisation des courants soubsoniques et supersoniques dans les souffleries aérodynamiques ainsi que dans
les tunnels hydrodynamiques. Dans cette partie du travail, l’attention particulière est attirée sur les méthodes
optiques (méthode d’ombre, méthode schlieren, intérphérométrie holographique) et sur leur emploi dans la
visualisation des fluides compressibles. Presque toutes les photos présentées ont été prises dans les laboratoires de
l’Institut militaire technique.

Mots clés: visualisation du courant, soufflerie aérodynamique, tunnel hydro- dynamique, méthodes optiques, méthode
d’ombre, intérphérométrie holog- raphique.