Editor-in-Chief

Prof. Xinggang Yan

University of Kent, United Kingdom

Editorial Board Members

Chong Huang, United States Husam Abduldaem Mohammed, Iraq
Yoshifumi Manabe, Japan Neelamadhab Padhy, India
Hao Xu, United States Baofeng Ji, China
Shicheng Guo, United States Maxim A. Dulebenets, United States
Diego Real Mañez, Spain Jafar Ramadhan Mohammed, Iraq
Senthil Kumar Kumaraswamy, India Shitharth Selvarajan, India
Santhan Kumar Cherukuri, India Schekeb Fateh, Switzerland
Asit Kumar Gain, Australia Alexandre Jean Rene Serres, Brazil
Sedigheh Ghofrani, Iran Dadmehr Rahbari, Iran
Lianggui Liu, China Jun Shen, China
Saleh Mobayen, Iran Yuan Tian, China
Ping Ding, China Abdollah Doosti-Aref, Iran
Youqiao Ma, Canada Fei Wang, China
M.M. Kamruzzaman, Bangladesh Xiaofeng Yuan, China
Seyed Saeid Moosavi Anchehpoli, Iran Kamarulzaman Kamarudin, Malaysia
Sayed Alireza Sadrossadat, Iran Tajudeen Olawale Olasupo, United States
Sasmita Mohapatra, India Md. Mahbubur Rahman, Korea
Akram Sheikhi, Iran Héctor F. Migallón, Spain
 Volume 5 Issue 1 • April 2023 • ISSN 2661-3204 (Online)

Journal of
Electronic & Information
Systems
Editor-in-Chief
Prof. Xinggang Yan
 Volume 5 ｜ Issue 1 ｜ April 2023 ｜ Page1-66
Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

Contents
Articles

1 Design of Multi-gas Monitoring Device for Indoor Air Quality

Serri Abdul Razzaq Saleh, Huda Jamal Jumaah, Zainab Ali Khalaf, Sarah Jamal Jumaah
10 The Theory on Thing’s Limits. Part 2: A Brief Analysis of the New Knowledge of Newton’s First Law
Jian Ding
26 An Improved Power Efficient Clock Pulsed D Flip-flop Using Transmission Gate
B.Syamala, M.Thamarai
36 Underwater Image Enhancement Using MIRNet
M.Thamarai, S P Aruna, Kamesh Sonti, P.Sudheer Chakravarthi
45 The Refractive Effect of k-Factor on Radio Propagation over Lokoja, Nigeria
Akinsanmi Akinbolati, Florence N. Ikechiamaka, Akogwu O. Isaiah
51 Introduction to Thermo-Photo-Electronics
Stanislav Ordin

Short Communication

20 A Doppler Location Method Based on Virtual Path Difference

Yu Tao
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

Design of Multi-gas Monitoring Device for Indoor Air Quality

Serri Abdul Razzaq Saleh1, Huda Jamal Jumaah1*, Zainab Ali Khalaf2, Sarah Jamal Jumaah3
1
Department of Environment and Pollution Engineering, Technical Engineering College-Kirkuk, Northern Technical
University, Kirkuk, 36001, Iraq
2
College of Electronic Engineering, Ninevah University, Mosul, 41002, Iraq
3
Center of Disabled Rehabilitation, Iraqi Ministry of Health, Kirkuk, 36001, Iraq

ABSTRACT
Besides the need for low-cost instruments for air pollution measurement and detection, nowadays there are many
concerns about air pollution due to the fast changes and used technologies. This research was applied using an MQ2
gas detector, and microcontroller/Arduino-Uno. The design steps included bonding and connecting readymade sensors,
coding, and finally testing the device. Testing has been conducted in Environment and Pollution Engineering Department
laboratories, at the Technical Engineering College of Kirkuk. This study proposed the use of an MQ2 sensor for multi-gas
rate detection which can exist indoors. The system uses also a DHT22 sensor for measuring environment temperature and
humidity. The sensors are connected to Arduino and LCD to present data on LCD by powering the system with external
power. Overall, the testing was conducted, and the device served as a measuring tool for indoor air as an accurate multi-
gas rate detector.
Keywords: MQ2 sensor; Arduino Uno; Indoor air quality (IAQ); Multi gas; DHT22

1. Introduction more common inside public buildings and houses [1].

Indoor pollution has been classified among the high-
While official attempts to control air contamina- est five environmental hazards to public health [2].
tion have usually concerned the outdoor environment, People are spending their time in homes, offices, or
it is now apparent that raised pollutant levels are any workplace in long-termly, so it is necessary to

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Huda Jamal Jumaah, Department of Environment and Pollution Engineering, Technical Engineering College-Kirkuk, Northern Technical Univer-
sity, Kirkuk, 36001, Iraq; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 6 January 2023 | Revised: 10 February 2023 | Accepted: 15 February 2023 | Published Online: 24 February 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5390
CITATION
Saleh, S.A.R., Jumaah, H.J., Khalaf, Z.A., et al., 2023.Design of Multi-gas Monitoring Device for Indoor Air Quality. Journal of Electronic & In-
formation Systems. 5(1): 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5390
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

monitor environmental air quality which may affect electrochemical detector that reacts with a range of
human health [1]. It stances a serious health threat to gases, It’s used to detect some toxin gases and radi-
humans [3-5]. Particularly for children and, persons ations in case of any poisonous gases or radiation in
who spend much time indoors [6]. Besides, the var- industrial and living areas [18]. In spite of their limi-
ious health problems faced by workers in modern tations, the MQ sensor is used in many applications
closed office buildings [7], where, levels of some and Arduino-based projects. For instance, based on
pollutants are greater indoors than outdoor levels, air quality we can turn a fan off, or make an alarm
and the personal exposures cannot be characterized system to warn us about smoke [15]. Typically, the Ar-
sufficiently by outdoor measurements (for some con- duino-based project needs slight information about
taminants) [1]. programming or little knowledge of electronics
Also, the dependency on solid fuels and incompe- theories and code usage. This may involve indoor
tent stoves has other, far-reaching concerns of health, and outdoor air quality monitoring using wireless
environment, and economic development [6]. So, pre- applications [19]. According to the US Environmental
sented studies specify that Indoor Air Pollution (IAP) Protection Agency, people’s exposure to indoor pol-
produced from cooking and heating causes notable lutants can on occasion be higher than outdoor pol-
health impacts in addition to penetrated outdoor pol- lutants exposure due to interior buildings accumulat-
lution [8]. Therefore, a comprehensive strategy for the ing and concentrating contaminants that result from
detection of indoor pollution, health impacts, control furnishings, and the activity of these building’s occu-
methods, and policy alternatives must be provided [1]. pants. In effect, indoor pollutants were considered a
To evaluate the air quality it required an air pol- serious environmental risk to human health and most
lutant concentration is introduced from a model or a importantly, if we take into account that most public
monitoring tool [9]. In air quality monitoring aspects, currently spends higher than 80% of their time in an
the commercial availability of micro-sensors technol- artificial environment [2].
ogy is allowing the adoption of low-cost sensors [10-12]. Indoor air quality is subject to pollution with chemi-
cals, or any toxins that impact human health, as internal
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is considered an important
air contaminants are related to numerous health risks,
feature to be monitored and controlled for health
such as asthma. In recent years it has been confirmed
aspects and comfort [2]. Various conventional devic-
that interior air quality indoors is rather contaminated
es are presented to monitor contaminants to detect
than in open air or outdoors. Actually, air types indoors
indoor air quality, most of these tools are expensive
are rather hazardous than outdoor air types. Quality
and inadequate in providing high-resolution spa-
of indoor air methods analysis involves air sampling,
tial-temporal measurements, which are necessary to
building surface samples, and indoor airflow modeling.
identify the peak exposure concentrations and detect
The process of analyzing indoor air helps in under-
the sources responsible for the indoor pollution [4].
standing the causes of contamination, then can control
Moreover, risky gases like methane and propane are
it or remove undesirable materials from the air. Ideal
combustible so cause explosions when restricted in
air-type measuring systems involve expensive instru-
a closed place [13]. Studies on the early detection of
ment usage. The essential purpose of this paper was to
fires were applied by using sensors [14]. The sensor
presen t an instrument for measuring the indoor qual-
MQ2 detects gas leakages in small or large places
ity of air along with room temperature and humidity,
and is a protective system against explosions and
where it was tested in a laboratory/building in a college
fires [15]. Generally, gas sensors are categorized by
set-up.
their operational system, the most common are ther-
mal, electrochemical, ampere-metric, potentiometric,
and optical sensors [16]. MQ2 sensors detect harmful
2. System design
gases [17]. Where, it has a small heater along with an The project in the main is based on Arduino run

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

by a power supply provided for the system via USB. mesh is bonded to the body of the sensor with a
The used sensor for detecting multi gases rates is the clamping ring plated by copper as shown in Figure 1.
MQ2 sensor which will be set up and bonded to the Table 1. The technical specifications of the used MQ2 sensor
Arduino with humidity and temperature sensor. To module [23].
sense the existence of any gas, and measure the tem- Sensor details Specifications
perature of ambient and relative humidity a signal Sensor operating voltage 5 Volt
will be sent to the Arduino, then based on program- Electrical load resistance 20 Kilo ohm (KΩ)
ming the data will be collected. Heat resistance 33Ω ± 5%
The upcoming explanation involves the details of Heat consumption <800 mw
the system and its components. Sensing resistance 10 KΩ-60 KΩ
Concentration measure range 200-10000 ppm
2.1 Gas sensor MQ2 As well, works by filtering out the suspended par-
ticles to ensure only gaseous pollutants pass into the
Data acquirement related to gaseous contami-
chamber in addition to protecting the sensor. Figure
nants, and air quality is extensive [20]. The portable
2 represents the internal structure of the MQ2 sensor
air pollution sensing instruments enable the determi-
when an outer part is set aside. It seems like a star-
nation of exposure to air pollutants [21]. The sensor
shaped structure consisting of an element of sensing
MQ2 is used to measure the smoke and combustible
and connecting legs. Beyond the leads, two of them
gasses [13,19,22-25], such as propane, methane gas, hy-
(H) work to heat the sensor and are bonded by a
drogen gas, alcohol, and carbon monoxide [19,23-27]. It
conductive alloy (Nickel-Chromium coil). The oth-
is useful for detecting leakage of gases inside build-
er four leads (A) and (B) responsible for the output
ings as an indoor air quality detector [19,22]. It is a
signal are bonded by platinum wires. The wires are
metal oxide semiconductor kind of sensor (chemire-
bonded to the element of sensing and transfer little
sistor), which contains a voltage divider network that
changes in the current that goes through the sensing
measures released gas concentration with the ability
element. The element of sensing is a tubular shape
to detect 200-10000 ppm gas concentration range,
and manufactured as (Al2O3) Aluminum Oxide based
working on 5 Volt DC [22-24].
ceramic and also coated by Tin Dioxide (SnO2). This
Figure 1 represents the used MQ2 sensor module.
material (SnO2) is the most sensitive part of flamma-
Furthermore, the technical specifications of the used
ble gases. However, the ceramic is heating the sensor
MQ2 sensor module are described in Table 1.
area constantly at working temperature and is only
increasing the heating efficiency.
The sensor provides an analog output voltage
that changes proportionally with the smoke or gas
concentration. A higher gas concentration results in
high output voltage, while a lower gas concentration
results in a lesser output voltage [23].
Moreover, Figure 3 represents the sensor MQ2
pinout, where VCC supplies power for the module
Figure 1. The used MQ2 sensor module [23].
and it could be connected to 5 volt output from the
The MQ2 sensor is circumfluent by two layers of Arduino. GND: The ground pin must be connected
a fine mesh made of stainless steel named an anti-ex- to the Arduino GND pin. DO presents a digital form
plosion network. Because MQ 2 senses flammable of the existence of flammable gases. AO presents
gases, this network will prevent the heater element an analog output voltage that is proportionate to the
from causing an explosion inside the sensor. This smoke or gas concentration [23,28].

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Since the MQ2 is a heater-driven sensor, the sen- ature and humidity. The occupied high temperature
sor calibration may drift if you leave it for a long is + 80 °C and the low temperature of –40 °C while
time. For the first usage after being left in storage for humidity ranges from 0-100%. The measuring accu-
one month or more, for example, you should fully racy is 0.5 °C for temperature, and 2% for humidity
heat it for one or two days to achieve high accuracy accuracy. DHT22 is a digital sensor comprising a
in measuring. While if it recently has been utilized, temperature measurement called a thermistor and an-
the sensor only takes five to ten minutes to fully other sensor called a capacitive sensor to determine
heat. Over the heating time, the MQ2 sensor typically the humidity. This sensor constituents 4 pins: Pin 1
measures high but gradually becomes low and de- represents the power pin, pin 2 represents the data
creases until measurements are stabilized [23]. pin, pin 3 represents the NULL pine, and pin 4 rep-
resents the ground pine. It needs a voltage supply be-
tween 3.3-6 volts. This module DHT22 has the best
specifications which consider the highest expensive
type. Though it has high accuracy and workability at
a higher rate of temperature [29]. Figure 4 represents
the DHT22 sensor module. Furthermore, the techni-
cal specifications of the DHT22 sensor module are
described in Table 2.

Figure 2. The internal structure of the MQ2 sensor [23].

Figure 4. DHT22 sensor module [29].

Table 2. The technical specifications of the DHT22 sensor mod-

ule [29].

DHT22 details DHT22 sensor specifications

Power 3.3 to 6 V
Output signals Digital signals by single-bus
Sensor element Polymer capacitor
[23]
Figure 3. The sensor MQ2 pinout . Humidity (0-100)% and temperature
Range
(–40~80) °C
Accuracy Humidity ±2% and temperature <±0.5 °C
2.2 Temperature and humidity sensor/DHT22/
Sensitivity Humidity 0.1% and Temperature 0.1 °C
AM230x/RHT0x
Sensing Time Two seconds

The DHT22 sensor deals with both room temper- Interchangeability Fully

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Moreover, Figure 5 represents the DHT22 sensor beginning with electronics, programming, and cod-
Pinout, where VCC: Supplies the power to the mod- ing. The Uno is highly robust that can be used most-
ule, and it is recommended 5 V. Data pin: To com- ly. The Arduino Uno is a highly-rated used one and
municate the sensor with the microcontroller. NC: the standard board in the entire Arduino family. The
Will not be connected. GND: Will be connected to board functional voltage is almost 5, and can be run
the Arduino ground. Like the DH11 temperature sen- using a laptop or PC by a USB connector besides an
sor, it is easy to bond the DHT22 sensor to Arduino. AD-to-DC electric plug or battery operated by an ex-
It has quite a long 0.1”-pitch pin so it can simply be ternal power supply, here used a battery provides 9 V.
attached to any board. After powering the sensor by
5 V and connecting ground to ground then, bond the
data pin with digital pin #2 [29].

Figure 6. Arduino UNO R3.

2.4 Liquid color displays Lcd-i2C

For any microcontroller, inspecting and combin-

ing the characters on Lcd, getting familiar with the
data on the Lcd, and configuring it, is the essential
task, and among microcontrollers, Arduino is the
better one. Arduino is an extraordinary step to inter-
Figure 5. The DHT22 sensor pinout [29].
face the LCDs. Figure 7 represents the Lcd-i2C.

2.3 Arduino Uno R3

In this study, we presented an air detector device,

which consists of a gas sensor based on Arduino. Ar-
duino Uno has the option to acquire info on environs
in excess of many sensors then could be practiced
simply. The utilized Arduino in our design is Ardui-
no/Uno R3. It comprises the following parts: Micro-
controller, USB port, power pins, DC power jack,
analog pins, reset bottom, and digital inputs-output
pins. Figure 6 represents Arduino UNO R3.
Arduino Uno considers the preferred board for Figure 7. The Lcd-i2C.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

2.5 Power supply form, then it starts displaying the data on the screen
and shows the results as numbers. Our designed de-
In order to run the board a power supply (6-20 V), vice will detect air quality based on butane, propane,
the power source must be set to turn on the board. hydrogen, smoke, methane, alcohol, and carbon
The range set is 7-12 V. 9 V functions excellently monoxide, which will be displayed as a rate of mul-
can be used. Also, Arduino can be organized by a ti-gases values.
USB link to the computer. Nevertheless, you need
to collect outlines that will be self-governing and or-
ganized by a battery. It’s best for controlling Arduino
definitely with a battery instead of voltage control-
lers which need additional power.

3. Procedure
The study procedure included two steps: Design
and testing. To design the presented device for in-
door air testing we used Arduino, an MQ2 sensor,
DH22 humidity, and temperature sensor. The repre-
sentative form of the suggested system is shown in
Figure 8, which represents the MQ2 gas detection
circuit diagram.
In this design, and based on Figure 8 the MQ2 Figure 8. The MQ2 gas detection circuit diagram.
gas detection circuit diagram, the procedure involved
connecting the gas sensor MQ 2 and DHT22 tem-
perature and humidity sensor on the Arduino board
beside the supplementary apparatuses. The Arduino
Uno is programmed using the software of Arduino
(IDE) version 1.8.9.
Primarily, each sensor was linked with the Ardui-
no, later we uploaded all codes. After the experiment
and the success of the obtained results of inde-
pendently applied codes other sensors with supple-
Figure 9. The operating Arduino software with uploaded codes.
mentary components of the system were linked with
Arduino. We similarly combined all the codes and To test the device four testing areas have been
applied them with the display type on an Lcd mon- selected inside the building. To ensure the workabil-
itor. Consequently, the obtained results will appear ity of the system it was tested at different periods.
as the MQ2 gas value PPM, temperature value in °C The measurements were conducted from February to
and humidity value in %. April 2021. The data were collected at four educa-
Moreover, Figure 9 represents the operating Ar- tional laboratories. The range of MQ2 was within 301
duino software with uploaded codes. PPM to 807 PPM which was programmed to appear
To call the tools from the Arduino library, first the as Smoke on the LCD.
libraries are defined inside the Arduino. The second The collected data appeared different readings.
step involves defining the sensor type and defining The highest values were detected in the Chemistry
the inputs for the sensors. Here, it starts displaying and Water Pollution laboratories at the Technical En-
the temperature and humidity values in fractional gineering College of Kirkuk.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Maximum humidity was 95% detected in Feb- Where Figure 10(a) represents apparatuses of the
ruary 2021. While the minimum humidity was 10% MQ2 multi-gas monitoring system, involving all com-
detected in April 2021. Moreover, the maximum ponents required for starting the sampling of indoor air.
temperature was 35 °C in April 2021, and the mini- While Figure 10(b) represents output results, which it
mum temperature was 16 °C in February 2021. displayed on Lcd as Smoke, value in PPM for MQ2 gas
as a multi-gas rate, Temp. for temperature value in °C
4. Experimental and practical results and Humi. for humidity value in %.
The data collected by the device were compared
We have been engaged in the design of a portable with other data for the purpose of verifying the accu-
air quality monitor (MQ2 gas monitoring) with low- racy of the readings. The results were identical and
cost and useful, using the Arduino platform. somewhat equal to the readings and measurements.
The used sensors and Arduino are commercially The major advantages of this indoor monitoring
available in the market. Where the device is operated device can be described as a simple design consist-
either from the power provided by the computer or ing of readymade apparatuses the calibration can
from an external supply as a 9-volt battery, and the be made easily, obtainable sensors, and open source
result appears as a measure of indoor air pollution codes, the device can be extended by programming
on the display screen in units Part Per Million PPM additional sensors, besides its lightweight, it is port-
which refers to the rate of multi gases values, with able and it easily samples the data, and design cost is
the room temperature and rate of relative humidity low in comparison to other instruments.
displayed during the measurement period. Nowadays, getting indoor air quality and pollutants
Figure 10 displays the comprehensive experi- data by means of Arduino-based projects has become
mental progress. popular and useful. Sensor gathering for air quality
measurements demonstrates the prospect and potential
for many monitoring purposes and sensing [11].

5. Conclusions
In this presented paper, a monitoring instrument
for IAQ monitoring applications was designed. The
system is established utilizing a low-cost gas sensor
MQ2 that is commercially available in the market
in addition to temperature and humidity sensors.
Relying on the open-source microcontroller devel-
opment platform using Arduino the device has been
developed. The measuring ability of the system was
achieved by testing in different locations and peri-
ods. Such a device is very useful in monitoring air
quality conditions inside buildings to better under-
stand the current status of air quality as well as to
study the long-term impacts of bad and polluted air
on public health. Furthermore, the developed device
based on the MQ2 sensor has potential applications
Figure 10. The comprehensive experimental progress: (a) Appa- in many aspects that required the detection of some
ratuses of MQ2 multi-gas monitoring device, (b) output results. harmful gas levels in the air.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Conflict of Interest tion. 78, 1078-1092.

[7] Samet, J.M., Marbury, M.C., Spengler, J.D.,
There is no conflict of interest. 1987. Health effects and sources of indoor air
pollution. Part I. American Review of Respira-
Acknowledgment tory Disease. 136(6), 1486-1508. doi: 10.1164/
The authors thank the Engineering Academic ajrccm/136.6.1486.
Office and Dr. Omer Alazzawi for providing the sen- [8] Smith, K.R., 2002. Indoor air pollution in devel-
sors that were used in the project. The authors also oping countries: Recommendations for research.
thank the laboratory officials in the Environmental Indoor Air. 12(3), 198-207.
Engineering Department at the Technical College of [9] Jumaah, H.J., Ameen, M.H., Kalantar, B., et al.,
Engineering in Kirkuk for their assistance in taking 2019. Air quality index prediction using IDW
air samples inside the laboratories during the study geostatistical technique and OLS-based GIS
period and providing the supporting equipment to technique in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Geomat-
evaluate the measurements. ics, Natural Hazards and Risk. 10(1), 200-207.
doi: 10.1080/19475705.2019.1683084.
[10] Piedrahita, R., Xiang, Y., Masson, N., et al.,
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2016. An overview of small unmanned aerial ings. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.
vehicles for air quality measurements: Present com/retrieve/pii/S2214785320403384.
applications and future prospectives. Sensors. [28] Setiawan, F.N., Kustiawan, I., 2018. IOT based
16(7), 1072. air quality monitoring. IOP Conference Series:
[21] Maag, B., Zhou, Z., Thiele, L., 2018. W-air: Materials Science and Engineering. 384(1),
Enabling personal air pollution monitoring on 12008.
wearables. Proceedings of the ACM on Interac- [29] Last Minute Engineers. Interface Itwith Arduino
tive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technol- [Internet] [cited 2021 Mar 7]. Available from:
ogies. 2(1), 1-25. https://lastminuteengineers.com/dht11-dht22-ar-
[22] Thamaraiselvi, D., 2020. Envionment monitor- duino-tutorial/.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

The Theory on Thing’s Limits. Part 2: A Brief Analysis of the New

Knowledge of Newton’s First Law
Jian Ding

Integrated Electronic Systems Lab Co. Ltd., Jinan, Shandong, 250100, China

ABSTRACT
According to the norm of identifying truth in this theory, and Newton’s first law as a basis that can look at the overall
situation, and by virtue of the electron storage ring as an experimental fact, it is pointed out: Only in reality can there
be inertia. Inertia represents the continuity of the development of things. As the speed gradually approaches the c, the
particle’s mass also approaches zero along with its static mass due to the impact of electromagnetic radiation, which
is exactly the root where the energy shrinkage effect of high-speed particles comes from, and also the primary factor
causing the spectrum redshift. Therefore, the Big Bang theory is wrong. All photons are produced from high-density
particles through electromagnetic radiation. Wherever there is fluctuation, there must be mass, and vice versa. This is the
correct understanding of “wave-particle duality”. No matter whether the high-speed electrons or the photons produced
by them all have different static masses, their charge-mass ratio is always the same physical constant, and not affected
by relativistic effects and electromagnetic radiations. This is the true internal mechanism to constitute the uncertainty
principle, and conforms to the experimental facts related to it. It can be proved that in a constant magnetic field, the high-
speed electron or photon having a relatively large curvature radius has a high moving speed and less mass, energy and
wave frequency. Since Einstein used the absolute space-time established by Newton as the criterion and came to the
conclusion that the relative space-time was curved, then he should no longer make circular arguments, that was, used the
relative space-time as the criterion, to change the unit length and time established by the absolute space-time.
Keywords: Mechanics; Relativity; Electron; Photon; Electromagnetic radiation; Energy shrinkage

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Jian Ding, Integrated Electronic Systems Lab Co. Ltd., Jinan, Shandong, 250100, China; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 16 March 2023 | Revised: 23 March 2023 | Accepted: 28 March 2023 | Published Online: 6 April 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5548
CITATION
Ding, J., 2023. The Theory on Thing’s Limits. Part 2: A Brief Analysis of the New Knowledge of Newton’s First Law. Journal of Electronic &
Information Systems. 5(1): 10-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5548
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

1. Introduction Newton’s famous saying: “If I have seen further than

others, it is by standing upon the shoulders of gi-
This article is the second part of the full text of ants.”
“The theory of thing’s limits”. When quoting from As the introduction of the concept of absolute
the content of the full text’s Part 1 [1], use “P1” to in- motion, Newton’s first law of motion can be called
dex. The rest may be inferred by analogy. In P1, the the starting point of classical physics, which has
characteristic of truth has been explained, that was, it been widely applied to physical space in reality, and
could not be proved by empirical methods, and only is the best example. In other words, if compared with
be approached gradually by repeated practice. And any one of the “giants” who are only confined to
according to the principle of inertia, the norm for the real physical space and determined to “gives no
identifying truth has been established. Based on this, basis for the introduction of the concept of absolute
we can break through the bondage of finite thinking, motion” [3], he would be as always standing a little
from the quantitative change of real space have gone higher and seeing a little farther. Only in this way, it
deep into the qualitative change of the ideal realm, can be possible to realize the goal of mutual enlight-
and extend the philosophy of materialism to the cate- enment between natural science and metaphysics [4].
gory of metaphysics. Not only have restored the true
nature of metaphysics, but also achieved the goal
that Sir Isaac Newton pursued throughout his whole
2. The truth contained in Newton’s
life. That was, theological (metaphysical) thought
first law
and scientific ideal were closely related, which was Newton’s first law of motion is also known as the
an organic whole, and the wisdom in one domain law of inertia. It is scientifically to clarify the two
might enlighten the wisdom in another [2]. physical concepts of force and inertia, and correctly
This means that metaphysics has neither divorced explain the relationship between the force and the
from practices, nor just observed objective things state of motion, as well as to put forward that all
with a one-sided, isolated and static way of thought. bodies have the property to keep their state of mo-
In people’s daily life, everyone has used it, just not tion unchanged, that is inertia. It is expressed as [5]:
deliberately reflected on it. Everybody perseveres in its state of rest, or of uni-
The contents contained in metaphysics, such as form motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to
noumenon, axiom or postulation, absolute motion, change that state by forces impressed thereon.
etc., all can be called truths. They must have abso- Obviously, the body described therein is unaf-
luteness and immutability, and do not exist in reality. fected by forces, no matter whether it is stationary
So there is no direct connection between them, but or moving along a straight line in uniform motion,
they have the continuity with objective things in re- its motion state is absolute (or ideal), does not exist
ality. That is to say, the differences between all truths in reality, and belongs to the category of metaphys-
and objective things can reach an arbitrarily small ics. And in reality, no matter what kind of physical
value. problems you study, the law as a shadow always
This means that once a certain truth is mastered, follows. Does it seem to prompt us to reflect on what
it is equivalent to standing in a position that can look the physical phenomena, in reality, are through what
at the overall situation. Thereby getting rid of the kind of a way for the introduction of the concept of
dilemma of placing oneself in the midst of events, absolute motion provides a basis?
which is unable to look at the overall situation In this regard, the ideas and methods for the
clearly, so difficult to grasp the correct direction of formation of “The theory on thing’s limits”, in P1,
research and always using a one-sided view to treat as well as the norm of identifying truth, in which
the overall problem. At this time, again looking back discussions have already given the answer. That is
at the objective things in reality, that is just like Sir to say, Newton’s first law has also told us that only

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

in real space can inertia exist. Inertia represents fluctuated, and the velocity also becomes uneven. So
the continuity of the development of things. It can using Newton’s absolute space-time as the criterion,
be inferred from this that as long as in reality, be- you will feel that the relative space-time is curved,
tween any two things a direct or indirect causality is or the density uneven. And for this, various concepts
bound to find through continuity. Next, use again the such as mass, density, inertia, temperature, pressure,
above-mentioned ideas, methods and norms to give speed, frequency, wavelength, momentum, energy,
a further discussion of several concepts involved in etc., have been defined.
this law. That is to say, as a truth, Newton’s first law has
First of all, the “right line” defined in the law, told us that when bidirectional reasoning is carried
which is an absolutely straight line, does not exist in out between it and objective things, these concepts
reality and belongs to the category of metaphysics. constitute our macro-cognitions of the different
There is an error between any straight line in reality states in the reasoning processes. By virtue of the
and this absolute straight line. But there must be a continuity of the objective things associated with
straight line in reality, and the error between it and them, there are causalities among these macro-cog-
this absolute straight line can be an arbitrarily small nitions, so that we can understand a certain objective
value. Obviously, using this straight line in reality to thing more comprehensively, and would not produce
standardize space-time is the most accurate, but there the wrong cognitions that use one-sided view to treat
is still an error after all. Therefore, the main use of the overall problem, such as “Blind Men and the El-
this straight line is to abstract Newton’s that absolute ephant” [6].
error-free straight line.
So by the definition, the straight-line distance S 3. A particular case of Newton’s first
is equal to the velocity V of uniform linear motion law
times the time spent T (S = VT). The coordinate This particular case has been mentioned in P1,
system thus established describes the absolute time which is the value c of light speed in vacuum. In the
and absolute space of Newtonian mechanics, which absence of any external force, the photon always
are referred to as absolute space-time for short. Only keeps moving along a straight line at a uniform ve-
with this as the criterion, can we start from the con- locity of c = 299792458 (m/sec). This is the limit
sensus of absolute no error to understand the changes value of the speed in the universe, which is just high-
of objective things in reality. er an arbitrarily small value than the highest light
Einstein since used absolute space-time as the speed in reality. This is an absolute motion and also
criterion and came to the conclusion that the rela- an absolute frame of reference. A coordinate system
tive space-time (i.e., the space-time in reality) was which is admitted in mechanics is called as an “iner-
curved, he should no longer use the relative space- tial system”. Based on this, all inertial systems can
time as the criterion to change the unit length and be defined in reality, including the so-called station-
unit time established by the absolute space-time. ary inertial systems. Just like the absolute point po-
This kind of circular argument confused right and sitions of natural numbers on the number axis in P1,
wrong, which was a logical fallacy, and even would the abstractions of these inertial systems do not exist
deduce to turn back in time, so would not muddle in reality, and belong to the absolute space-time view
through certainly in the face of truth [3]. established by Newton.
So why is the relative space-time curved? It is Therefore, in this particular case and therein the
because of the existence of matter in there. With photon in uniform linear motion does not exist in
matter, there must be the interactions of forces reality. Such a photon is defined only to show that it
among them. According to Newton’s first law, due to has continuity with the photon whose speed is clos-
inertia, the matter’s linear motion has been bent or est to the c in reality. From this, it can be seen that

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Newton’s first law is called the law of inertia, which research.

precisely emphasizes that objects, in reality, have That is to say, as the speed of moving the photon
inertia. Where there is inertia, there must be matter in reality gradually approaches the c, its mass will
and mass, and vice versa. But in view of the fact that gradually approach zero, and the moving trajectory
truth must have absoluteness and immutability, the approach the (absolutely) straight line, and the speed
noumena of various concepts belong to the meta- and velocity also tend to unity. This means that in
physical category, such as mentioned in this article, reality, a photon with a relatively high moving speed
of inertia, mass, speed, fluctuation, momentum and should have less mass, energy, and wave frequency
energy, etc., among their noumena there are no con- than another photon with a relatively low moving
tinuity and no direct relationship. They can only be speed. Obviously, this is very consistent with the
related through objective things that have continuity objective facts we have seen, such as the relationship
with themselves in reality. between the energy and wave frequency of visible
So, according to the norm for identifying truth in light.
P1, what else is the difference between the photon In this regard, as early as the 1920s, the famous
that moves at the value c of light speed in a vacuum de Broglie matter wave relation [7] has shown us that
and a photon that moves at the highest light speed in the momentum of a high-density particle (including
reality? electron or photon),
As far as the former is concerned, which is the h
p m=
= v (1)
limit value that is starting from objective facts to be λ
confirmed through the process of gradual approach- and its energy,
ing, does not exist in reality. Hence the former has
hv
neither mass (m = 0) nor energy (E = 0). And the lat- E mv=
= 2
= hf (2)
λ
ter is a photon in reality, of course, it has both mass were related to its wavelength λ or frequency f, but
(m > 0) and energy (E > 0). Otherwise, it means that could not grow without limit, and must be restricted
there is no object of receiving force, so the charac- by Planck’s constant h. Among them, λ is the moving
teristics of inertia certainly can not be shown. speed along the direction of wavelength and v = λ f .
Since in reality, the latter is bound to be affected As the cornerstone of the expansion of Newtonian
by external forces. According to Newton’s first law, mechanics to wave mechanics or quantum mechan-
linear motion has become fluctuations, and the ve- ics, the matter-wave relation can be through the
locity is also not uniform. This is precisely the result continuity with objective things in reality, to rely on
of the interaction between the external force and the each other with Newton’s three laws of motion and
inertial force of the latter. As a result, the concept the value c, and produce causality.
of “speed”, which has been the velocity of moving
along the direction of wavelength, also comes into
being with it. Obviously, this is exactly the objective
4. Photons are the products of
reality we see. But more importantly, Newton’s first
electromagnetic radiation
law has told us that wherever there are fluctuations It is indisputable that a photon in reality has mass
in reality, there must be matter and mass, and vice (m > 0). If there is no mass (m = 0), it means that
versa. there is no matter. That is to say, if there is no object
Furthermore, in view of the former that has no of receiving force, of course, there is no inertia. As
mass (m = 0), but has continuity with the latter, it can a result, those physical phenomena that should be
be realized that the mass of the latter is already very related to it in classical mechanics, such as inertia,
small. Here, Newton’s first law seems to have given fluctuation, temperature, pressure, momentum and
instruction on how to grasp the correct direction of energy, etc., would not appear. Because the interac-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

tions among matters are the necessary condition for photons that have no mass but energy, such a para-
us to perceive the above-mentioned physical phe- dox that confuses the two domains of definition, no
nomena. On the contrary, as long as you find any- one will be to believe it anymore.
thing related to these physical phenomena, it must be In fact, the problem is not so simple. Take random
related to mass. electromagnetic radiation as an example. According
As far as the photon is concerned, it is a high- to formulas (4) and (5), the energy that every one
speed particle that has been produced by electromag- of radiated photons has will take away a part of the
netic radiation from a high-density particle, such as static mass (that is, a certain amount of matter). In
an electron, proton, neutron, or atomic nucleus, etc. this regard, there has been no consensus. And this is
Einstein defined it as the quantum of light, and later exactly the objective fact that modern physics must
it has been called the photon for short. According to face, any so-called authoritative statements that have
the kinetic energy formula of his special relativity [8], attempted to circumvent it vaguely, will certainly
Ek =E − E0 =m0 c 2 (γ − 1)  (3) come back here again, and reconfirm. Otherwise,
modern physics will be fettered here and difficult to
the word “quantum” contains indivisibility between
make great progress.
matter and energy, while the word “light” is focused
In 1927, German physicist Werner Karl Heisen-
on electromagnetic radiation. That is to say, all high-
berg first pointed out that the more precisely the
speed particles that are produced from high-density
position of some particle was determined, the less
particles through electromagnetic radiation, should
precisely its momentum could be known, and vice
be belonged to the category of photons.
versa. The principle can also be expressed as: When
The formula (3) also contains the mass-energy
the momentum p is determined, the speed v (or po-
formula (4) and mass-speed formula (5) of his spe-
sition) cannot be determined; when the speed v (or
cial relativity.
position) is determined, the momentum p cannot be
E = mc 2 or ∆E =∆mc 2 (4)
determined.
m = m0γ (5) In Heisenberg’s time, physicists generally be-
Among them, E0 = m0 c 2 is the static energy and E lieved that an electron would not be further broken
the total energy. Both are aimed at the same moving down. For a low-speed moving in a non-relativistic
object or particle. And the mass-speed formula (5) state, the charge, (static) mass, and the charge-mass
reveals that the concept of mass is divided into two ratio of each electron all were considered to be phys-
parts along with the moving speed v of objects (in- ical constants, which was a consensus that people
cluding various high-density particles) changes. In formed one hundred years ago. And now we must re-
the above formulas, m is the mass to represent iner- alize that the charge and static mass of each electron
tia, m0 is the static mass to represent the quantity of have been no longer constants due to the impact of
matter,
= γ 1/ 1 − v 2 / c 2 is the expansion factor, and c electromagnetic radiation.
is the value of light speed in a vacuum. For the electrons with different static masses,
As far as photons are concerned, since you can their charge-mass ratio e/m 0 is always the same
perceive their fluctuations and energy, so according physical constant. When they are moving at different
to the previous analysis of Newton’s first law, and speeds, the momentums or energies can be the same.
the formulas (1) and (2), should know that they have So the phenomenon presented is “When the momen-
inertia and mass. This is the correct understanding tum p is determined, the speed v (or position) cannot
of “wave-particle duality”. If a consensus can be be determined.” Conversely, when they are moving
reached on this, will people be the sake of whether at the same speed, the momentums or energies can
light exactly is a wave or a particle to be a state of be various. So the phenomenon presented is “When
endless debate and each air his own views? As for the speed v (or position) is determined, the momen-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

tum p cannot be determined.” This is precisely the lated by formula (7) that the speed v of every moving
internal mechanism of the uncertainty principle. In electron therein is also a given value, and has noth-
other words, the uncertainty principle and a large ing to do with its mass.
number of experimental data related to it have prov- e 2
( )
en that the charge and static mass of electrons both v m0
β= = (7)
are not constants [9]. c (
e 2
) +(
c 2
)
m0 BR

5. The energy shrinkage effect of As a result, these high-speed electrons with dif-
high-speed particles ferent static masses can move along the circular or-
bit to do cyclotron motion at a given speed v in the
Now we must realize that if continue to insist on tubular vacuum chamber of the storage ring. Under
the static mass of every electron as a constant, the normal circumstances, the electron beam lifetime in
continuities among them will be lost. Only by aban- the storage ring can even last for more than a dozen
doning this wrong view can we ensure that the un- hours. Once this period of time has passed, the elec-
certainty principle will not offend Newton’s first law. tron beam intensity will quickly decay to zero. The
That is to say, regarding whether an electron will be reason is that during this period of time most of the
broken down further, it should be verified carefully.
static mass ∑ ∆m0 belonged originally to each elec-
In reality, along with the moving speed v of a high- tron itself has been gradually lost as electromagnetic
speed particle (electron or photon) gradually approach- radiation turned into photons. At this time, the static
ing the c, the same particle exhibits two effects: On the mass m0 of each electron in the storage ring has be-
one hand, according to the formula (5) its mass m keeps come very small. As a result, when a photon radiat-
getting bigger; and on the other hand, its static mass m0 ed, its impulse has been transferred to the electron
keeps getting smaller due to the loss caused by elec- and enough pushes the electron to the inner wall of
tromagnetic radiation. The result of the final synthesis the tubular vacuum chamber of the storage ring [13].
shows that its mass gradually approaches zero along The above example, by virtue of the widely used
with its static mass. This is the energy shrinkage effect electron storage ring as an experimental fact, has
of high-speed particles [10]. proved that due to electromagnetic radiation, the
For example, the electron storage rings widely in charge e of a high-speed electron will follow along
use at present, are large-scale scientific facilities for with its static mass m 0 to be lost synchronously,
studying high-energy physics [11]. In the storage ring, and its charge-mass ratio e/m0 always remains un-
an electron momentum [12], changed. This is the energy shrinkage effect of high-
p m=
= v eBR  (6) speed electrons. The nature of this matter is serious
can be obtained directly from the equation of the and of great significance, in order to be cautious,
centripetal force mv 2 / R and Lorentz force eBv . In which should be verified to facilitate consensus.
formula (6), e is the charge of an electron, B is the The behavior of any attempt to circumvent or mud-
magnetic induction intensity, and R is the curvature dle through, may deduce the wrong conclusion, or
radius of the moving electron in the ring. cause the loss of research direction. In fact, it is not
For high-speed electrons, the relativistic effects difficult to verify. As long as you do interference
should be considered. By formulas (5) and (6), the or diffraction experiments on the electron beam in
relative speed (7) of an electron can be deduced. In the storage ring before and after this period of time
view of the fact that the magnetic induction intensity separately, and no need to quantify, just compare the
B and curvature radius R in the storage ring have wavelengths of the two qualitatively to distinguish
been designed to the given values, and the electron them.
charge-mass ratio e/m0 is a constant, it can be calcu- The experimental facts have also revealed that

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

the electron mass M0 and elementary charge e0 in the broken down further, and disturbed by the uncertainty
fundamental physical constants only refer in particu- principle, which has not caused enough attention. This
lar to the statistical values of low-speed electrons primary factor causing the spectrum redshift has ac-
when just reach the status where they can leave the tually been replaced by the Doppler Effect, and trans-
atoms. The ratio of the two is the charge-mass ratio formed into that celestial bodies are moving away
e0 / M 0 in the fundamental physical constants. Due from us. A minimal deviation may result in a wide
to the existence of energy shrinkage effect of every divergence. But now, the cosmological redshift seems
high-speed electron, in general, its static mass and to have been judged as a correct theory while thinking
charge are in the state of synchronous reduction, but carefully, a little worry involuntarily... [14].
the charge-mass ratio (8) has remained unchanged. That is to say, just like the moral in the story
Therefore, it must be emphasized that the charge- “Blind Men and the Elephant”, the well-known Big
mass ratio e/m0 of an electron refers to the ratio of its Bang theory is a cognitive error that has been used
charge to the quantity of matter, which is not affected by a one-sided view to treat the overall problem. The
by relativistic effects and electromagnetic radiation. reason for such an error, if traced to the source, is
By the same token, this conclusion also applies to still because it has offended the most fundamental
every photon that has been radiated by the electrons truth in physics, that is, Newton’s first law. What
in the storage ring. on earth has been offended? It is inertia, that is, the
e / m0 = e0 / M 0 (8) continuity of the development of things. Only in
real space can inertia exist. In other words, any two
things between them in reality, a direct or indirect
6. A minimal error or deviation may causality is bound to find through continuity. Other-
result in wide divergence wise, it would be beyond the scope of real space. It
Then, these photons must follow the law of mo- should be noted here that only mathematics has the
tion determined by formula (7). That is to say, under possibility to run through two different domains of
the premise of the given magnetic induction intensity definition, that is, both continuity and discontinuity
B, the photon with a relatively large curvature radius can exist in that.
R must have a relatively high moving speed and rela- Take the uncertainty principle as an example.
tively less mass, energy and wave frequency. This is This is a research conclusion that has been drawn
consistent with the experiment of decomposing sun- from a large number of experimental facts and
light with a triangular prism, and indicating that the reached a consensus. If continue to insist the static
visible light is also composed of charged particles of mass of every electron is a constant, the price paid is
different sizes. In other words, compared with purple that the continuity among them has been lost, that is,
light, the photons of red light have relatively high offending Newton’s first law. Therefore, such a para-
moving speeds, which should be an objective fact dox that celestial bodies were moving away from us,
that Newton’s first law has tacitly approved. would be deduced. This means that the conclusion
Therefore, it is emphasized again that the energy drawn can only be the static mass of every electron
shrinkage effect of high-density particles caused by being different. Yes, it not only conforms to a large
electromagnetic radiation is an objective reality that number of experimental facts, but also gets the ac-
must be faced in modern physics. Combined with quiescence of Newton’s first law, and everything be-
formulas (1) and (2), it can be seen that this is exact- comes harmonious.
ly the primary factor causing the spectrum redshift. It was because they did not stand on this basis
However, in view of the fact that most mainstream that could look at the overall situation, so these phys-
thinking has been still restricted to the cognition that icists would have ignored the objective fact around
an elementary particle (electron or photon) will not be themselves. That was, electromagnetic radiation

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

could cause an electron to be broken down further. things between them in reality, a direct or indirect
From the two conceptual ambiguities for inertia and causality is bound to find through continuity. Other-
charge-to-mass ratio, to the uncertainty principle wise, in the whole reasoning process, there must be a
by muddling through, and even the photon that had fault beyond the real space, which is to offend New-
no mass but with energy, and so on, various similar ton’s first law.
“authoritative theories” have wandered in modern 2) Now that Einstein used the absolute space-time
physics. And once confronted with the judgement of established by Newton as the criterion and came to
truth, the behavior of any attempt to circumvent or the conclusion that the relative space-time (i.e., the
muddle through, will inevitably become the victim space-time in reality) was curved, then he should no
of one’s own mistake. Although this process may be longer use the relative space-time as the criterion to
long, it is insignificant compared to eternal truth. change the unit length and unit time established by
Incidentally, as a light source of electromagnetic the absolute space-time. This kind of circular argu-
radiation, the speed of moving electrons in the stor- ment confused right and wrong, which was a logical
age ring, v > 0.99c , which is sufficient to prove that fallacy, so would not muddle through certainly.
the value c of light speed in vacuum is independent 3) There are matters in space-time in reality, so
of the state of motion of the emitting body. On the there must be interactions of forces among them.
contrary, it also proves that photons in reality must According to Newton’s first law, due to inertia, the
have static mass, and their size and moving speed linear motion of matter has become fluctuations.
are all different. Because according to Newton’s first Therefore, wherever there are fluctuations, there
law, as the speed of moving photon in reality grad- must be matter and mass, and vice versa. As far as
ually approaches the c, its mass will also gradually photons are concerned, now that we perceive their
approach zero along with its static mass. fluctuations and energy, should know that they have
inertia and mass. This is the correct understanding of
7. Conclusions “wave-particle duality”.
This article is according to the ideas and methods 4) The value c of light speed in a vacuum is a
for the formation of “The theory on thing’s limits”, particular case of Newton’s first law. Based on this,
in P1, as well as the norm of identifying truth, its it can be deduced that in reality, a photon with a rela-
characteristic is based on Newton’s first law, which tively high moving speed should have less mass, en-
is equivalent to standing in a position that can look ergy, and wave frequency than another photon with a
at the overall situation. Thereby getting rid of the relatively low moving speed. This is consistent with
dilemma of placing oneself in the midst of events, the objective facts we have seen. Because every one
which is difficult to grasp the correct direction of of the photons that have been radiated by the elec-
research and always using a one-sided view to treat tron in the storage ring, has the same charge-mass ra-
the overall problem. The theory is applicable to all tio as an electron, but their static masses are different
academic categories, and can be combined with from one another. Then, these photons must follow
objective practices. In terms of testing authoritative the law of motion determined by formula (7). That
theories, clarifying chaos, and deriving new knowl- is to say, under the premise of the given magnetic
edge, etc., there are the following conclusions: induction intensity B, the photon with a relatively
1) Newton’s first law is called the law of inertia, large curvature radius R must have a relatively high
which precisely emphasizes that objects in reality moving speed. This is consistent with the experiment
have inertia. Where there is inertia, there must be of decomposing sunlight with a triangular prism, that
matter and mass, and vice versa. Inertia, represents is, compared with the purple light, the photons of red
the continuity of the development of things. Only in light have a relatively high moving speed.
reality can there be inertia. In other words, any two 5) The photons in reality, are high-speed particles

17
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

produced by high-density particles through electro- ified to facilitate consensus.

magnetic radiation. According to formulas (4) and 8) As a light source of electromagnetic radiation,
(5), the energy that the radiated photons have will the speed of moving electrons in the storage ring,
take away a part of the static mass. Therefore, by vir- v > 0.99c is sufficient to prove that the value c of
tue of the widely used electron storage ring as an ex- light speed in vacuum is independent of the state of
perimental fact, it has been proved that due to elec- motion of the emitting body. On the contrary, it also
tromagnetic radiation, the charge e of a high-speed proves that photons in reality must have static mass,
electron would follow along with its static mass m0 and their size and moving speed are all different.
to be lost synchronously, and its charge-mass ratio
e/m0 has remained unchanged. This means that the Conflict of Interest
charge and static mass of electrons have been no
There is no conflict of interest.
longer constants.
6) For the electrons with different static mass-
es, when they are moving at different speeds, the References
momentums or energies can be the same. So the [1] Ding, J., 2022. The theory on thing’s limits part
phenomenon presented is “When the momentum p 1: The norm of identifying truth. East African
is determined, the speed v cannot be determined.” Scholars Journal of Psychology Behavioural
Conversely, when they are moving at the same speed Sciences. 4(4), 101-104.
v, the momentums or energies would be various. DOI: https://doi.org/10.36349/easjpbs.2022.v04i04.001
So the phenomenon presented is “When the speed [2] Wen, H.W., 2009. Shi Lun Niu Dun Si Xiang Ti
v is determined, the momentum p cannot be deter- Xi Zhong De Zong Jiao Guan (Chinese) [Study
mined.” This is precisely the internal mechanism of on the Newtonian religious ideas]. Zhejiang
the uncertainty principle, which not only ensures the Normal University: Jinhua. pp. 16.
continuity among things in reality, but also has been DOI: https://doi.org/10.7666/d.y1549479
supported by a large number of experimental data [3] Einstein, A., 2000. Xiang Dui Lun (Chinese)
when the principle was approved. In other words, the [Relativity]. Hainan Press: Hainan. pp. 41-57.
uncertainty principle and a large number of experi- [4] Ding, J., 2020. The research of using truth to
mental data related to it have proven that the charge restrict authoritative theories. Journal of Philos-
and static mass of electrons both are not constants. ophy and Ethics. 2(1), 43-50.
7) In reality, along with the moving speed v of a [5] Newton, I., 2001. Zi Ran Zhe Xue De Shu Xue
high-speed particle (electron or photon) gradually Yuan Li (Chinese) [The mathematical principles
approaching the c, the same particle exhibits two ef- of natural philosophy]. Shaanxi Peoples Pub-
fects: on the one hand, according to the formula (5) lishing House: Shaanxi. pp. 18.
its mass m keeps getting bigger ; on the other hand, [6] Sakyamuni. Chang A Han Jing (Chinese) [Dir-
its static mass m0 keeps getting smaller due to the ghagama-sutra (Vol. 19)]. Sino-Culture Press:
loss caused by electromagnetic radiation. The result Beijing. pp. 609-610.
of the final synthesis shows that its mass will follow [7] de Broglie, L., 1992. Wu Li Xue Yu Wei Guan
along with its static mass gradually to approach zero. Wu Li Xue (Chinese) [Physics and microphys-
This is the energy shrinkage effect of high-speed ics]. The Commercial Press: Beijing. pp. 54.
particles, and also the primary factor causing the [8] Einstein, A., 1977. Lun Dong Ti De Dian Li Xue
spectrum redshift. Therefore, the Big Bang theory (Chinese). [On the electrodynamics of moving
is wrong. The nature of this matter is serious and of bodies]. The collected works of Einstein (Vol. 2).
great significance, which is an objective reality that The Commercial Press: Beijing. pp. 83-118.
must be faced in modern physics, and should be ver- [9] Ding, J., 2020. A brief analysis of the research

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scheme of the cyclotron radiation from a single [12] Wu, S.C., Wang, Z.Q., 1995. Jin Dai Wu Li Shi
electron. Physics & Astronomy International Yan (Chinese) [Modern physics experiment].
Journal. 4(2), 60-64. Peking University Press: Beijing. pp. 151.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15406/paij.2020.04.00202 [13] Ding, J., Hu, X.Q., 2014. The electro-ultimate
[10] Ding, J., Hu, X.Q., 2018. Piercing the veil of
particles and a new method for detecting the
modern physics: Part 1 & basics. Physics & As-
photon static mass. International Journal of
tronomy International Journal. 2(2), 128-134.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.15406/paij.2018.02.00074 Modern Physics and Application. 1(1), 1-8.
[11] Jin, Y.M., 2001. Dian Zi Chu Cun Huan Wu Li [14] Hawking, S.W., 1996. Shi Jian Jian Shi (Chi-
(Chinese) [Electron storage ring physics]. USTC nese) [A brief history of time]. Hunan Science &
Press: Hefei. pp. 1. Technology Press: Changsha. p. 46-67.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

SHORT COMMUNICATION

A Doppler Location Method Based on Virtual Path Difference

Yu Tao

China Academy of Management Science, Beijing, 101100, China

ABSTRACT
This paper presents a Doppler passive location method for moving targets with fixed single station using the Doppler
frequency shift and time difference information. First, based on the relationship between frequency shift and path
difference, the virtual path difference is calculated from the measured value of Doppler frequency shift by means of
mean value correction. Then, under the assumption that the target is moving at a constant speed along a straight line, two
coaxial virtual double base arrays are constructed by using the moving track of the moving target based on the method of
fixed period time difference. On this basis, the moving distance of the moving target can be calculated by using the ratio
relationship between the frequency difference and the radial distance between the two adjacent detection points in the
middle of the array, and the linear solution of the two double base path difference positioning equations. At this point, the
relative coordinate position of the moving target can be obtained by directly using the linear solution of the double base
path difference positioning equation again.
Keywords: Fixed single station; Passive location; Doppler frequency; Doppler frequency change rate; Frequency shift-
path difference equation; Virtual path difference

1. Introduction formation is preferred for target position estimation [1-7].

In electronic reconnaissance, when the signal band- The above defects can be remedied by using this tech-
width is insufficient, resulting in the ambiguity of time nology, and the requirements for receiving equipment
difference, or the phase calibration and time synchro- are low. In addition, with the rapid development of
nization are limited by the system complexity, the lo- frequency measurement technology and the continuous
cation technology based on Doppler frequency shift in- improvement of frequency measurement accuracy, the

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Yu Tao, China Academy of Management Science, Beijing, 101100, China; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 24 February 2023 | Revised: 29 March 2023 | Accepted: 31 March 2023 | Published Online: 11 April 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5496
CITATION
Tao, Y., 2023. A Doppler Location Method Based on Virtual Path Difference. Journal of Electronic & Information Systems. 5(1): 20-25. DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5496
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

20
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

passive location technology based on the Doppler fre- 2. Path difference-frequency shift
quency shift has great development potential. However, equation
due to the higher complexity of the nonlinear equation
formed by Doppler frequency shift and target state 2.1 Differential processing
compared with other positioning methods, this will not
According to the relationship between Doppler
only lead to difficulties in analyzing the mathematical
frequency shift and radial range change rate:
model, but also lead to the complexity of system design
in practical engineering, so that the original advantag- ∂r (t )
= vr = v cos β = λf d (1)
es may be lost at last. At the same time, because the ∂t
positioning system based on Doppler measurement is where r (t ) is the radial distance; vr is the radial ve-
a nonlinear system, it is usually necessary to study the locity; v is the moving speed of the target; f d is the
observability of positioning [8-10]. Doppler frequency shift; λ is the wavelength; β is
The author recently proposed a method that can the leading angle.
directly convert the nonlinear Doppler frequency For radial velocity, assuming that the change of
shift function into a linear solution in the research of time is short, the differential of distance to time can
the Doppler passive location of fixed targets by the be converted into the ratio of path difference and
motion detection station [11]. The new method obtains time difference by using the difference calculation
the relationship between the Doppler frequency shift method:
and the radial path difference by differential process- ∂r (t ) ∆r
≈ (2)
ing of the radial velocity, so that the virtual path dif- ∂t ∆t
ference can be constructed according to the detected where ∆r is the path difference; ∆t is the time dif-
value of the Doppler frequency shift, and then the ference.
position of the target can be directly obtained by us- The geometric model corresponding to the math-
ing the linear solution of the double-base path differ- ematical model is shown in Figure 1. Substitute
ence positioning equation. The new method not only formula (2) for formula (1) to obtain the virtual path
has unique results, but also has very simple forms. difference expression based on Doppler frequency
The analysis complexity of passive location based on shift measurement:
the Doppler frequency shift is effectively reduced. ∆r = λf d ∆t (3)
Different from the application scenario of doc-
ument [11], which is a way to detect fixed targets us- Target movement direction
2
ing motion detection stations, this paper studies the
d β2
detection of moving target by fixed single station.
1
Its difficulty is that the moving speed or moving dis- ∆r
tance of moving target is unknown. Obviously, its r2
analysis is relatively more difficult. In this regard, r1
the innovative method proposed by the author is: On
the one hand, two coaxial virtual dual-basis arrays
are constructed by using the moving track of the
moving target, on the other hand, the moving dis- S
tance of the moving target is calculated by using the Figure 1. Geometric model of single motion station.
linear solution of the two dual-basis path difference
positioning equations according to the ratio relation-
2.2 Mean value correction
ship between the frequency difference and the radial
distance between the adjacent detection points. If the Doppler frequency shift measurement value

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

of the moving target at position 1 is used, the expres- On this basis, if the average value of Doppler fre-
sion of virtual path difference is: quency shifts at two positions is used to calculate the
∆r f 1 = λf d 1∆t (4) virtual path difference:

If the theoretical value of path difference is com- ∆r = 0.5λ ( f d 1 + f d 2 )∆t (7)

pared with the virtual path difference obtained based Then the calculation error is just offset. The mid-
on frequency shift measurement: dle curve in Figure 2 shows that the relative calcu-
∆r − ∆r f
lation error of the virtual path difference obtained
ε = 100 × % (5) based on the Doppler average method tends to zero.
∆r
The parameters used in the simulation calculation
where ∆r = r1 − r2 is the theoretical value of path dif-
are: r2 = 600 km, d = 10
600km km.
10km
ference; ∆r f is the virtual path difference calculated
according to equation (3).
The simulation calculation shows that the virtual 3. Detection model
path difference obtained has a large calculation error. As shown in Figure 3, the target moves approxi-
However, further simulation calculation shows that mately at a uniform speed in a straight line, from po-
if detection is also carried out at position 2 accord- sition 1, through positions 2 and 3, to position 4. The
ing to the geometric model in Figure 1, the Doppler
fixed single station detects and receives the radiation
frequency shift is obtained and used to calculate the
signal from the target at a fixed time. If the fixed sta-
path difference from position 1 to position 2, the vir-
tion detects four times continuously, then according
tual path difference obtained is:
to the linear solution of the double base array, two
∆r f 2 = λf d 2 ∆t (6) coaxial virtual double base arrays can be constructed
The subsequent simulation calculation shows that simultaneously from the target’s motion trajectory.
its calculation error is exactly opposite to the calcu-
The moving direction of the target
lation error obtained by using the Doppler frequen- 4
cy shift at position 1. The upper and lower curves 3
2 β3
in Figure 2 describe the relative calculation error d
curves of the virtual path difference obtained based 1 r4
∆r1 r3
on the Doppler frequency shift measurements at two
r2
locations.
r1
10
f
d 1
7.5
f
d 2 S
5 0.5(f +f )
d 1 d 2

2.5 Figure 3. Geometric structure of virtual double-base array.

Relative calculation error ε / (%)

0
Based on the Doppler frequency shift measure-
-2.5 ment, three virtual path differences can be obtained:
-5 ∆r1 = 0.5λ ( f d 1 + f d 2 )∆t (8)

∆r2 = 0.5λ ( f d 2 + f d 3 )∆t (9)

-7.5

-10

∆r3 = 0.5λ ( f d 3 + f d 4 )∆t (10)

0 15 30 45 60 75 90

Leading-anglel β / (°)
2

Then, two ranging solutions are directly given by

Figure 2. Mean value correction of path difference. the double base path difference ranging solution [12]:

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

2d 2 − ∆r12 − ∆r22 where ∆f d is the Doppler frequency difference.

r2 = (11)
2(∆r1 − ∆r2 ) Moreover, due to the constant range or period-
ic detection, the adjacent time difference is nearly
2d 2 − ∆r22 − ∆r32 equal, so the ratio of Doppler change rate between
r3 = (12)
2(∆r2 − ∆r3 ) adjacent nodes can be approximately expressed by
the ratio of Doppler frequency difference:
4. Moving distance of target f
•
∆f f − fd 2
q = •d 3 ≈ d 32 = d 3 (19)
fd 2 ∆f fd 2 − fd1
4.1 Ratio of Doppler change rate of adjacent nodes
d 21

where f d 1 , f d 2 and f d 3 are Doppler frequency shifts.

According to the definition of Doppler frequency
shift change rate and the target motion trajectory, the 4.3 Solution of the equation
following two equations can be listed at two adjacent
detection points in the middle of the virtual array: Substitute the two ranging solutions (11) and (12)
into the frequency difference ratio:
• vt22
fd 2 = (13)
λ r2
q=
( 2d 2
− ∆r12 − ∆r22 ) ( ∆r2 − ∆r3 )
3
(20)
( ∆r1 − ∆r2 ) ( 2d 2
− ∆r22 − ∆r32 )
• v2

fd 3 = t3
(14)
λ r3 After sorting, there are:
• •
( ∆r1 − ∆r2 ) 2
where f d 2 and f d 3 are Doppler change rates; λ is 3
q
( ∆r2 − ∆r3 )
( 2d − ∆r22 − ∆=
r32 ) ( 2d 2 − ∆r12 − ∆r22 ) (21)
the wavelength. r2 and r3 are radial distances; vt 2
and vt 3 are tangential velocities. Finally, it can be solved as follows:
The ratio of the Doppler frequency shift change
rate between these two adjacent detection points is: d=
( ∆r 1
2
+ ∆r22 ) − A ( ∆r22 + ∆r32 )
(22)
2 (1 − A )
•
fd 3 r2 vt23
= (15) including:
•
fd 2 r3 vt22
( ∆r1 − ∆r2 )
A= 3 q
According to the sine theorem, the ratio between ( ∆r2 − ∆r3 )
the radial distances of the two adjacent detection
points is:
5. Location of the target
r2 sin β 3 v sin β 3 vt 3
= = = (16)
r3 sin β 2 v sin β 2 vt 2 5.1 Distance
where β1 and β 2 are leading angles.
After the moving distance of the moving target is
Replace it with formula (15) to get:
obtained, the distance between the detection station
•
fd 3 r23 and the moving target can be obtained from the dou-
= (17)
•
fd 2 r33 ble base path difference solution again:
2d 2 − ∆r12 − ∆r22
r2 = (23)
4.2 Frequency difference ratio 2(∆r1 − ∆r2 )
Figure 4 shows the relative calculation error of
Use differential processing: the ranging solution at a different radial distances
• ∆f d and different motion distances. It can be seen that
fd = (18)
∆t the longer the radial distance, the shorter the moving

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

distance of the target, and the smaller the relative speed of the target can be directly solved by Doppler
calculation error. Divergence will occur when it ap- frequency shift:
proaches 90 degrees. λf d 2
v= (25)
10
cos β 2
d = 5 km, r = 300 km

where v is the moving speed of the target.

2
/ (%)

d = 5 km, r = 600 km
8 2
r

d = 15 km, r
2
= 300 km Or the moving speed of the target in the detection
6 d = 15 km, r
2
= 600 km
time can be approximately obtained from the moving
distance and detection time of the target:
Relative calculation error ε

v=
1 ( ∆r
1
2
+ ∆r22 ) − A ( ∆r22 + ∆r32 )
(26)
2 (1 − A )
2
∆t
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Leading-anglel β
2
/ (°)
6. Conclusions
Figure 4. Relative calculation error of ranging solution.
Based on the innovative results of the basic ap-
plication theory of passive location technology [3],
5.2 Orientation of the target the Doppler location method using virtual path dif-
ference presented in this paper greatly simplifies
Using two virtual path differences, the included the system design. In fact, the author’s research
angle between the moving direction of the target and has shown that the path difference-frequency shift
the radial distance can be directly obtained from the equation will help to construct new passive location
double base path difference DF solution [12]: methods.

cos β 2 =
(d 2
− ∆r12 ) ∆r2 + ( d 2 − ∆r22 ) ∆r1 The existing mathematical description of the
(24) Doppler frequency shift is basically carried out in
d ( 2d 2 − ∆r12 − ∆r22 )
one-dimensional space. The author’s earlier research
Figure 5 shows the relative calculation error of proved that when the azimuth between the wave
the DF solution at different radial distances and dif- source and the observer changes with time, the Dop-
ferent motion distances. pler shift should be a function on the two-dimen-
3
sional plane [13]. The Doppler frequency shift on the
d = 5 km, r = 300 km two-dimensional plane can always be decomposed
/ (%)

into the sum of two terms, one of which is only re-

2.5 d = 5 km, r = 600 km
β

= 300 km
lated to the radial velocity, and the other is related to
d = 15 km, r
2 2

d = 15 km, r = 600 km

1.5
2
the radial acceleration. In addition, the given formula
includes two Doppler frequency shifts at different
Relative calculation error ε

1
times, which provides a mathematical method for
0.5 obtaining the Doppler frequency shift value at the
current time by using the Doppler frequency recur-
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 rence at the previous time.
Leading-anglel β
2
/ (°)
The recent research results [11] show the relation-
Figure 5. Relative calculation error of DF solution. ship between path difference and frequency shift,
which provides a new solution for determining the
position of the target directly using Doppler frequen-
5.3 Target’s movement speed
cy shift. The frequency shift-path difference equation
After the azimuth angle is obtained, the moving obtained by mean value correction is the analysis

24
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

basis of the new method proposed in this paper. It is passive location method. Guidance & Fuze.
based on the modified frequency shift-path differ- 33(1), 16-18,32.
ence equation with a small relative calculation error DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-0576.
that can directly use the double base path difference 2012.01.004
positioning theory to obtain the results with good [6] Zhou, Zh., Wang, G.Ch., 2008. Passive location
calculation accuracy. and tracking of maneuvering targets by airborne
With regard to the relationship between frequen- single station. Electronics Optics & Control.
cy shift and path difference, the author’s current con- 15(3), 60-63.
cern is: Can we derive a more rigorous mathematical DOI: https://doi.org/10.3969/j.issn.1671-637X.
formula? Can it rise to the height of a physical equa- 2008.03.016
tion? [7] Liu, C.F., 2011. Wu Yuan Ding Wei Yu Gen Zong
(Chinese) [Passive Location and Tracking]. Xid-
Conflict of Interest ian University Press: Xi’an.
[8] Xiang, F.H., Wang, J.G., 2021. Observability
There is no conflict of interest.
and simulation analysis of fixed single observer
passive location. Modern Defense Technology.
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on Doppler frequency shifts. Acta Aeronautica DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3443467.3443771
ET Astronautica Sinica. 38(9), 284-297. [12] Tao, Y., 2017. Wu Yuan Tan Ce Ding Wei Ji
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[4] Tao, Y., 2011. Airborne Doppler direct ranging location]. National Defense Industry Press: Bei-
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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

An Improved Power Efficient Clock Pulsed D Flip-flop Using

Transmission Gate
B.Syamala, M.Thamarai*

Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sri Vasavi Engineering College, AP, 534101, India

ABSTRACT
Recent digital applications will require highly efficient and high-speed gadgets and it is related to the minimum delay
and power consumption. The proposed work deals with a low-power clock pulsed data flip-flop (D flip-flop) using a
transmission gate. To accomplish a power-efficient pulsed D flip-flop, clock gating is proposed. The gated clock reduces
the unnecessary switching of the transistors in the circuit and thus reduces the dynamic power consumption. The clock
gating approach is employed by using an AND gate to disrupt the clock input to the circuit as per the control signal called
Enable. Due to this process, the clock gets turned off to reduce power consumption when there is no change in the output.
The proposed transmission gate-based pulsed D flip-flop’s performance with clock gating and without clock gating circuit
is analyzed. The proposed pulsed D flip-flop power consumption is 1.586 µw less than the without clock gated flip-flop.
Also, the authors have designed a 3-bit serial-in and parallel-out shift register using the proposed D flip-flop and analyzed
the performance. Tanner Electronic Design Automation tool is used to simulate all the circuits with 45 nm technology.
Keywords: Pulsed D flip-flop; Clock gating; Low power; Shift register; Transmission gate

1. Introduction sider while optimizing their designs [1-4]. Flip flops

The main concern with VLSI circuits is achiev- are the major building blocks of digital circuits
ing low power and compact battery size with a and also consume around 80% of the total power
long life. Area, power, speed, and performance are consumption in the circuits. Therefore, reducing
all critical parameters for VLSI designers to con- the power consumption of flip-flops can signifi-

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
M.Thamarai, Electronics and Communication Engineering, Sri Vasavi Engineering College, AP, 534101, India; Email: thamarai.muthusamy@
srivasaviengg.ac.in
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 26 March 2023 | Revised: 7 April 2023 | Accepted: 10 April 2023 | Published Online: 14 April 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5574
CITATION
Thamarai, M., Syamala, B., 2023. An Improved Power Efficient Clock Pulsed D Flip-flop Using Transmission Gate. Journal of Electronic & In-
formation Systems. 5(1): 26-35 DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5574
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

26
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

cantly reduce the power consumption of digital D flip-flops in logic circuits. The positive D latch using
systems [5]. Any circuit’s overall power consump- the transmission gate is shown in Figure 2.
tion will include both static and dynamic power.
In VLSI circuits, power gating, clock gating, ad-
iabatic method, and other approaches are utilized
to reduce static and dynamic power consumption.
One of the most common strategies for power op-
timization in CMOS devices is clock gating [1].
Almost 50% of the dynamic power is consumed
by the clock distribution network in processors and
clock gating can be used at several levels of the hi- Figure 1. Transmission gate.

erarchy in VLSI design and almost 50% of the dy-

namic power is consumed by the clock distribution
network in integrated circuits. It is feasible to turn
off the clock signal that drives a large functional
unit, lowering power consumption on both its inter-
nal nodes and the clock line.
Pulsed Flip-Flops (P-FF): Pulsed flip-flops are
used in high speed circuits and take an important
role in power reduction. Short duration pulses are
generated and used to trigger the flip-flops instead
Figure 2. Transmission gate based D latch.
of level or edge triggering. P-FFs consist of a single
latch structure and a clock pulse generator (PG). If It consists of two TGs and two inverters. When
the width of the clock pulse is sufficiently narrow, Clk = high, T1 is ON and T2 is OFF, so output (Q)
the P-FF acts like a Master-Slave Flip-Flops (MS- directly follows the input (D). Otherwise, the output
FF) with less timing overhead. Jhon K et al. showed is the stored values in the latch.
that several pulse triggered flip-flop architecture for The proposed work deals with transmission gate
high speed allocations [5]. PF-FFs can be classified as based pulsed D flip-flop design with clock gating for
implicit and explicit type based on the way of pulse power reduction. The paper is organized as follows.
generation. In implicit style, the pulse generation Section 2 describes the related work and Section 3
part is inbuilt into the latch structure and in explicit describes the proposed clock gated transmission gate
it is external to the latch structure. In explicit pulsed based D flip-flop and Section 4 describes the imple-
flip-flops, the pulse generation structure can be com- mentation of a shift register using the proposed D
mon among neighboring flip-flops and saves chip flip-flop. Section 5 discusses the results and Section
area. 6 gives the conclusions.
Transmission Gate: The parallel connection of
nmos and pmos forms the Transmission Gate (TG).
2. Related work
The transmission gate’s on or off condition is con-
trolled by the nmos and pmos gate inputs. The gate Ultra-low power pulse-triggered carbon nanotube
is in on condition when nmos transistor gate gets Clk field-effect transistor (CNTFET) based flip-flop is
input and pmos transistor gate gets Clkb input and proposed by Karim et al. [6] for low power applica-
TG the circuit is shown in Figure 1. tions. The author used signal feed through technique
TGs are bilateral switches since the input and output and also optimized the discharging path to reduce the
are interchangeable. TGs are used to form D latch and delay time for the ‘1’ to ‘0’ transition. The proposed

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

design is also area efficient, since the number of with a current mode signaling transmitter, which re-
transistors used is less when compared to the other duces the power consumption of clock distribution
pulse triggered flip-flop schemes. An explicit type networks more than the voltage mode distribution of
double edge pulse-triggered flip-flop is designed clock signal.
by Singh et al. [7]. The author used Exor gate based Clock gating is one of the efficient methods in
pulse generator to obtain a short pulse at the rising clock power reduction while the input signal switch-
edge and falling edge of the clock signal. The de- ing activity is low [18,19]. John K et al. discussed the
signed flip-flop has less power delay product and is effect of clock gating on conditional pulsed flip-
more suitable for high speed applications. Phyu et al. flops and analyzed in their work [20]. Sharma, D. K
designed the pulse triggered flip-flop using static designed and analyzed different clock gating circuits
latch and dynamic pulse generator [8]. The author used such as latch based, flip-flop based and gate based [21].
explicit type double edge triggering approach. Amee- The author analyzed the circuits in terms of delay,
na et al. proposed another explicit type pulse trig- power and area and proved that gate based clock
gered flip-flop based on data feed through scheme [9]. gating circuits are more power efficient [21]. A latch-
The proposed data feed through scheme reduces the based clock gating technique is used in the design of
long discharge path in conventional explicit pulse SRAM and sequential counter and verified the power
triggered flip-flops and is also suitable for high reduction in the work [22].
speed applications. John K. [10] proposed an implicit
type pulse triggered flip-flop by making conditional 3. Proposed work
enhancement in width and height of the triggering
pulses by using an additional pmos transistor in the 3.1 Clock gating
structure for high speed applications. J.F.Lin et al. [11] The static (leakage) power grows dramatically
proposed an explicit type pulsed flip-flop by using with each generation of technology, dynamic power
True single-phase clock latch based on a signal feed- still dominates the total power dissipation of gener-
through scheme. al-purpose microprocessors [2]. The reduction in tran-
Karimni [12] proposed an ultra low pulse triggered sistor size, interconnect optimization, applying gated
flip-flop with optimized leakage power. The author clock, applying variable threshold voltages, and the
used transmission gate to control the input data and management of dynamic supply voltage are all ef-
the leakage power. Also, the Pulse Generator (PG) is fective circuit strategies for reducing dynamic power
modified to reduce the number of required transistors usage. Clock gating is one of the efficient methods in
and the clock pulse delay. Panahifar, E. & Hassan- clock power reduction when the input signal switch-
zadeh designed a signal feed-through flip-flop that ing activity is low.
uses a pass transistor to feed input data directly to The clock gating approach needs an additional
the output and minimizes the dynamic power [13]. An- logic circuit to generate a clock enabling signal [19,21,23].
other efficient high speed conditional feed through The logic circuit compares the input and output of
pulsed flip-flop was proposed by Pan.D et al. [14]. the latch and if there is any change in the output,
Pulsed flip-flop using a transmission gate is proposed which will be enabled only when the need for output
by Prakalya et al. [15]. They used current mode distri- changes to logic 0 or 1 value according to the circuit
bution of clock pulses than the conventional voltage design. The clock gating approach is used to prevent
mode operation. Consoli, E. et al. designed a modi- unnecessary clock pulses from being sent to the cir-
fied transmission gate based Master Slave Flip-Flop cuit when there is no need for output change. For
(MS F/F) to minimize the delay in the classical trans- example, already flip-flop has output 1, if the next
mission gate based approach [16]. Islam R. et al. [17] input bit is 1 ten no need to apply the clock pulse
proposed a current mode pulsed flip-flop combined to the flip-flop. This will reduce the unnecessary

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

switching of the circuit capacitance and thus reduces transition period from high to low, when enabling
the dynamic power consumption. Moreover, the tog- pin = 1, the counter in negative edge triggering type
gling nature of the clock consumes more power in increments by one count. When the enable pin = 1
registers. during the positive edge of the clock, there is a long
In flip-flops, the switching activity is increased fall time, which results tiny glitches (short duration
due to the transition from 0 to 1 and 1 to 0, and they clock pulses) and the circuit produces output with
require more power. The first step in implementing an error. The AND gate is mostly used for activating
clock gating is to identify the location (module) negative edge triggering circuits.
which consumes large power. The next step is to There are two inputs, Enable and Clock are given
study the switching activity of the module and based
to the AND gate. The circuit operation is as follows.
on that designing of a control logic circuit that pro-
When the Enable is low and the Clock is low then the
duces the enable signal. The enable signal is used to
transistor T1, T4, and T6 are in ON condition and the
turn off and on the clock signal which is going to be
T2, T3, T5 are in OFF, so the output is low. When the
applied at that location. When there is no change in
Enable is low and the Clock is high the transistors T1,
the output of a particular register or flip-flop, then
T3, and T6 are in ON condition the transistor T2, T4,
that unit does not require a clock pulse, since the unit
is going to maintain the same output. The clock gat- and T5 are in OFF condition, so the output is low. Sim-
ing approach cuts the clock pulse to that particular ilarly, when the Enable is high and the Clock is low, the
register or flip-flop and thus in turn saves the dynam- transistors T2, T4, and T6 are in ON condition and the
ic power dissipation. In a sequential circuit, the sim- transistor T1, T3, and T5 are in OFF condition and the
ple solution is to cut the clock pulses which are not output is low. When the Enable is high and the Clock is
going to change the output state of the circuit. This high the transistor T2, T3, and T5 are in ON condition
reduces power consumption. The clock gating to the and the transistors T1, T4, and T6 are in OFF condition
flip-flop block diagram is shown in Figure 3. and the output is high. The clock gating circuit output is
shown in Figure 6. Whenever the Enable and the Clock
both are set to HIGH then the output is HIGH and the
gated clock is given to the proposed D flip-flop.

Figure 3. Clock gating technique to the flip-flop.

3.2 Flow chart for clock gating

The flowchart shown in Figure 4 shows the

simple clock gating method. The clock pulses are
applied to the circuit whenever the clock and enable
input both are in logic ‘1’ condition. If the enable
signal is logic ‘0’ then the clock pulse is blocked to
the circuit. Clock gating is a simple structure and
easy to implement. Any of the following gates can
be utilized in a gated clock gating approach. AND,
Figure 4. Flowchart of clock gating.
OR, and NOR gates are the three gates that are used
in clock gating. Only when both inputs reach a high The proposed clock gating circuit is shown in
value does the AND gate on. Because of the short Figure 5.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

ferred to the output. When Clk = 1 and Clkb = 0, then

TG1 = On, TG2 = Off, TG3 = Off and TG4 = On and
the data at D will be transferred to the first latch (node
N1). The circuit acts as a master-slave flip-flop. The
modified flip-flop circuit using an efficient clock distri-
bution network is shown in Figure 8 [15].

Figure 5. Schematic of AND clock gating.

Figure 7. Schematic of transmission gate-based D flip-flop.

Figure 6.Waveforms of AND Clock gating.

3.3 Transmission gate based D flip-flop

Transmission gate logic is one of the additional

ways to reduce power consumption by using more
power-efficient circuitry to implement the D flip-
flop [8,24]. The transmission gate logic is used to Figure 8. Schematic of TG-based D flip-flop with the clock
construct a flip-flop register stage and is also used distribution network.
at the input stage in memristors [25]. The Figure 7
shows a leading-edge triggered D flip-flop without The proposed flip-flop with the gated clock is
Set, Reset, or Clear signals with the clock signal. D shown in Figure 9. Whenever the enable and the
is the input signal and Clk and Clkb denote clock clock are set to HIGH then only the output is HIGH.
and inverted clock signals respectively. The gated clock is given to the proposed D flip-flop.
The D pin is used to provide input in a flip-flop. As in Figure 9, the gated Clk is applied to the invert-
Transmission gates are equipped with clock pulses er to obtain the Clk and Clkb signals.
that make the transmission gates on and off. When the In the proposed circuit D flip-flop is implemented
Clk = 1 and Clkb = 0, then the conditions of TGs are as using 24 transistors. The clock gating logic is added
follows. TG1 = Off, TG2 = On, TG3 = On and TG4 = to the D flip-flop, which increases the complexity of
Off and the data stored in the latch (N1) will be trans- the circuit, but the power consumption is reduced be-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

cause of the AND clock gating logic. The transistors 4. Serial in parallel out shift register
T1 and T2 combined to form a transmission gate i.e., using proposed D flip-flop
TG1. The transistors T5 and T6 combined to form a
A 3-bit serial-in and parallel-out shift register is
transmission gate i.e., TG2 and the transistors T9 and
designed using the proposed pulsed transmission
T10 combined to form a transmission gate named
gate based D flip-flop with clock gating. Shift regis-
TG3. The transistors T13 and T14 form transmission
ters consist of three proposed D flip-flops. Each flip-
gate, named TG4. If D input is High and the clock is
flop module is with clock gating circuit. Clock puls-
High, then the gated clock output will be one. That
es and enable signal are applied to all the flip-flops
is Clk = 1 and Clkb = 0. Now, the TG1 and TG4
and the data stored in the flip-flops are moved based
will be in on condition and TG2 and TG3 will be in
on the gated clock output. The gated clock becomes
off condition. The input D is transmitted to the first
high (logic ‘1’), when both the Clk and enable input
latch and the output is the data stored in the second
are high. The shift register circuit is shown in Figure
latch. When the gated clock is zero, that is Clk = 0
11. The inputs D and EN (Enable) and CK (Clk) are
and Clkb = 1, then the TG1 and TG4 will be in off
given as follows.
condition and TG2 and TG3 will be in on condition
input D: 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
and the data in the first latch is moved to the second
input EN: 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1.
latch, and whenever clock one, the data will be made
Clock: 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
available at the output.
Gated clock output: 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
The data shifting with the gated clock condition
(En=1 & Clk=1) is shown in Figure 12.
As shown Figure 12, V(3) becomes ‘1’ during
the first gated clock pulse and V(2), V(1) becomes ‘1’
during the second and third gated clock pulses.

Figure 9. Schematic of proposed transmission gate based D flip-

flop with clock gating.

Figure 10 shows the proposed D flip-flop output

waveforms with clock gating.

Figure 11. Schematic of three bit shift register with clock gating.

Figure 10. Waveforms of TG-based D flip-flop with AND clock gating. Figure 12. Waveforms of three-bit shift register.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

5. Implementation results in tanner condition then only the output data are transferred
tool otherwise the output remains in the same condition.
This reduces power consumption. The first wave-
The proposed transmission gate based D flip-flop form shows the Enable input and the second one is
with clock gating circuit and shift register circuits the clock input. The gated clock input is shown in
discussed in Sections 3 and 4 are simulated and their the third waveform. The D input and flip-flop outputs
performance is measured using tanner tool with 45 are shown in waveforms 4 and 5 respectively.
nm technology.

Figure 15. Output waveforms TG-based D flip-flop with clock

gating in tool.

Figure 13. Schematic of AND clock gating in tool. The inputs and obtained output values are given
Figure 13 shows the AND gate clock gating below.
circuit implementation of the schematic shown in Enable: 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 (input)
Figure 5. In the circuit, the input terminal A refers Clk: 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 (input)
to the enable input and B refers the clock input. The gated clock: 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 (output based on
proposed transmission gate based D flip-flop with clock gating)
clock gating schematic in tool is shown in Figure D input: 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 (input)
14, which is the same as the circuit in Figure 9. Vout: 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 (flip-flop output)
The flip-flop output is zero for the first five D
inputs, since the gated clock is zero. The output re-
mains in its previous condition (0 value). Next gated
clock becomes 1 and the D value is 0 and is stored
in the flip-flop (output becomes 0). It is maintained
until the gated clock becomes 1. The gated clock be-
comes 1, the D input is also 1 (8th bit), the flip- flop
output changes to 1.
Figure 16 shows the serial in parallel out shift
register using the proposed D flip-flop with clock
gating. The register accepts serial input (one bit at a
Figure 14. Schematic of proposed TG-based D flip-flop with
time through a single data line) and generates paral-
clock gating in tool.
lel output. The circuit consists of three connected D
Figure 15 shows the output of the proposed flip-flops [21]. All three of the flip flops are coupled
transmission gate based D flip-flop with clock gat- with the clock signal and the enable signal and D
ing. Whenever the Enable and the Clock is in high input signal. The first flip-flop output is given to the

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

second flip-flop as D input and so on. All the flip- en in Table 1.

flop receives the same clock signal and is having a Table 1. Comparison of proposed work and existing work.
clock gated module. The gated logic circuit allows
Number of
gated clock only whenever there is a change in input Method Power Delay
transistors
value. Transmission gate-based
D flip-flop without clock 0.24 mW​ 24​ 20.02 ns​
gating (Conventional)
Transmission gate based D
0.17 mW 30 10.23 ns
flip-flop with clock gating
Modified Transmission
gate-based D flip-flop 4.699 µW​ 18​ 60.02 ns​
without clock gating
Modified Transmission
gate-based D flip-flop with
3.092 µW​ 24​ 49.16 ns​
clock gating (Proposed
work)

Figure 16. Serial-in parallel-out shift register in tool.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, a clock gated pulsed D flip-flop
using a transmission gate was implemented. The
gated clock reduces the unnecessary switching of the
transistors in synchronous circuits and in turn, the
dynamic power consumption of the circuit is also
reduced. First, the clock gating circuit was imple-
mented. Next, the transmission gate-based D flip-
flop, modified transmission gate-based D flip-flop
performances are measured with and without clock
gating. The performances are analyzed in terms of
power, the number of transistors and delay. The pow-
er reduction of 1.586 µw (34%) was achieved using
the clock-gated modified transmission gate-based D
flip-flop when compared to the without clock gating
Figure 17. Output waveforms of the shift register in tool.
condition of the same circuit. The delay is more in
Figure 17 shows the output of the three-bit shift the proposed circuit, since the gated clock circuit
register and five clock pulses are applied to the cir- increases the delay. A 3-bit serial-in and parallel-out
cuit to store the data ‘1 1 1’. The gated pulse trigger- shift register was also constructed using the proposed
ing circuit (clock gating) allows only three pulses to D flip-flop and its average power was 4.22 µw watts
the flip-flop. These pulses are used to move and store which is less than the conventional 3-bit shift regis-
the given input D values in the shift register. This ter without clock gating. The proposed design pulsed
avoids unnecessary switching of transistors in the D flip-flop is useful for low power applications.
circuit and saves power.
The power consumption of the proposed D flip-
flop with clock gating is less when compared to the
Conflict of Interest
existing transmission gate based flip-flops and is giv- There is no conflict of interest.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

Underwater Image Enhancement Using MIRNet

M.Thamarai1*, S P Aruna2, Kamesh Sonti1, P.Sudheer Chakravarthi1
1
Sri Vasavi Engineering College, Pedatadepalli, Andhra Pradesh, 534101, India
2
Skilltroniks Technologies, Tadepalliudem, Andhra Pradesh, 534101, India

ABSTRACT
In recent years, enhancement of underwater images is a challenging task, which is gaining priority since the human
eye cannot perceive images under water. The significant details underwater are not clearly captured using the conventional
image acquisition techniques, and also they are expensive. Hence, the quality of the image processing algorithms can be
enhanced in the absence of costly and reliable acquisition techniques. Traditional algorithms have certain limitations in
the case of these images with varying degrees of fuzziness and color deviation. In the proposed model, the authors used a
deep learning model for underwater image enhancement. First, the original image is pre-processed by the white balance
algorithm for colour correction and the contrast of the image is improved using the contrast enhancement technique. Next,
the pre-processed image is given to the MIRNet for enhancement. MIRNet is a deep learning framework that can be used
to enhance the low-light level images. The enhanced image quality is measured using peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR),
root mean square error (RMSE), and structural similarity index (SSIM) parameters.
Keywords: Underwater; Deep learning; MIRNet; Peak signal-to-noise ratio; Structural similarity index

1. Introduction
it. Nowadays, image processing is growing rapidly
Image processing can be used to perform some in the core research area within engineering, medi-
operations on an image to extract some useful infor- cine and other disciplines too [1].
mation from it. It is one branch of signal processing In image processing, underwater image enhance-
where the input is a 2-D signal (image) and the out- ment plays a crucial role and vision applications over
put may be an image or an attribute associated with the past few years. The images taken underwater

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
M.Thamarai, Sri Vasavi Engineering College, Pedatadepalli, Andhra Pradesh, 534101, India; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 26 March 2023 | Revised: 19 April 2023 | Accepted: 20 April 2023 | Published Online: 24 April 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5600
CITATION
Thamarai, M., Aruna, S.P., Sonti, K., et al., 2023. Underwater Image Enhancement Using MIRNet. Journal of Electronic & Information Systems.
5(1): 36-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5600
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

are affected by various lighting and environmental The rest of the paper is organized as follows:
conditions; hence the quality of the image is degrad- Section 2 reviews the literature on image processing
ed. The underwater image suffers from degradation underwater. Section 3 presents a new method for
due to scattering and absorption. The scattering and enhancing the quality of underwater image. Section
absorption process of light in water influences the 4 discusses the simulation results obtained by using
overall performance of the systems underwater [2]. our model and comprehensive analysis of the model
Forward scattering leads to blurring of the image by evaluating various metrics. Finally, Section 5 de-
features, and backward scattering limits the con- scribes the conclusion of the work.
trast of the image. Similar is the color fading issue,
whereby colors like red and yellow almost disappear 2. Literature survey
with increasing depths, which is the reason for the Schettini et al. [4] review the enhancement and
domination of either the blue or the green color. The restoration methods for underwater image process-
underwater images are specified by their poor visibil- ing. They discussed light propagation in water, im-
ity since light is exponentially attenuated as it travels age color correction, lightning problems, and various
in water and the scenes result poorly contrasted and quality assessment models.
hazy as shown in Figure 1(a-c). Hence, it is neces- Boudhane et al. [5] proposed a method for pre-pro-
sary to enhance the underwater images for analyzing cessing and fish localization in underwater images by
its quality, and to prepare the image for further pro- using a mean-shift algorithm for image segmentation
cessing [3]. and the Poisson-Gauss mixture algorithm for noise
reduction, and tested their model under different un-
derwater conditions.
Ancuti et al. [2] performed a fusion of two images
(color compensated and white balance version) and
then transforms the edges and color contrast to the
output images.
(a) Underwater Fish image
Daway et al. [6] performed underwater image en-
hancement by changing the color content in the im-
age from RGB to YCbCr space. They used Rayleigh
distribution along with an integrated color model and
calculated no-reference-image quality metrics.
Li et al. [7] created an underwater image enhance-
ment benchmark with 950 raw images, 890 reference
images, and 60 challenging images. They also pro-
(b) Coral reef image vided an underwater image enhancement network
named Water-Net and made the dataset public.
Han et al. [8] proposed a convolution neural net-
work (CNN) based method by combining the max-
RGB method and the shades of grey method for
detecting the underwater objects.
Wang et al. [9] proposed an underwater image
enhancement CNN using two color spaces that in-
tegrate RGB color space and HSV color space and
(c) Under water image with light scattering
evaluate their method with qualitative and quantita-
Figure 1. Sample underwater images. tive comparisons on both synthetic and raw images.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Zheng et al. [10] proposed a CNN-based network photos and recordings may appear to have a certain
for enhancing the underwater images using an hue cast over the image. In underwater the percep-
end-to-end defogging module. They also added a tion of color is highly correlated with the depth, and
cross-layer connection, and pooling pyramid module an important problem is the green-bluish appearance
to improve the defogging network’s ability to extract that needs to be rectified. As the light penetrates the
the required information. water, the attenuation process affects selectively the
wavelength spectrum, thus affecting the intensity
3. Proposed work and the appearance of a colour surface. Since the
scattering attenuates more the long wavelengths than
This section discusses the proposed methodology
the short ones, the color perception is affected down
for enhancing the quality of underwater images.
in deeper water. In practice, the attenuation and
the loss of color also depend on the total distance
3.1 Block diagram
between the observer and the scene. Despite white
The proposed enhancement process of the model balance being crucial to recover the color, using this
is shown in Figure 2. The first step is the acquisition correction step is not sufficient to solve the dehaz-
of RGB images from the dataset. The input image is ing problem since the edges and details of the scene
pre-processed by the White-Balance algorithm for have been affected by the scattering.
colour correction and the contrast of the image is The White-Balance algorithm has three types.
improved using the contrast enhancement technique. They are the White Patch algorithm, Gray World
White-Balance aims at improving the image aspect, algorithm, and Ground Truth algorithm. From these
primarily by removing the undesired color castings three algorithms for selecting the best algorithm, we
due to various illumination or medium attenuation applied the histogram plots on output images of three
properties [11]. White-Balance discusses the visible methods. We found that the Ground Truth algorithm
color white under specific lighting conditions affects is the best one as compared to the remaining algo-
the hue of all other colors. rithms.
Ground truth algorithm for white-balance
Ground Truth is a term used in statistics and ma-
chine learning that means checking the results of
machine learning for accuracy against the real world.
The term is borrowed from meteorology, where
“Ground Truth” refers to information obtained on-
site. The term implies a kind of reality checks for
machine learning algorithms. The Ground Truth of a
satellite image means the collection of information
at a particular location. It allows satellite image data
Figure 2. Proposed enhancement process.
to be related to real features and materials on the
White balance algorithm ground. This information is frequently used for the
White-Balance process aims at improving the calibration of remote sensing data and compares the
image aspect, primarily by removing the undesired result with Ground Truth. So far, we have made as-
color castings due to various illumination or medium sumptions about how the color spaces behave in our
attenuation properties. White-Balance defines what images. Instead of making assumptions for enhanc-
the color white looks like in specific lighting condi- ing our images, we select a patch (portion of an im-
tions, which also affects the hue of all other colors. age) and use that patch to recreate our desired image.
Therefore, when the White-Balance is off, the digital Having selected the patch, we proceed to enhance

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

our image. For this purpose, we can do it two ways: 1) spatial resolution. This recursive residual design pro-
MAX method—normalize each channel of the orig- gressively breaks down the input signal to simplify
inal image to the maximum value of each channel of the overall learning process and allows the construc-
the region, 2) MEAN method—normalize each chan- tion of a deep neural network as shown in Figure 3.
nel of the original image to the mean value of each
channel of the region. The output is slightly closer
to the white patch output but the latter is brighter. It
also emphasized the color of the lily, but instead of
highlighting the color of the pads, it only brightened
it. For the Ground Truth algorithm, the output image
depends greatly on the choice of the patch image.
So, the patch is chosen wisely by visualizing the en-
hanced image based on the type of application.
Next, the colour corrected image can be passed
through contrast enhancement. This step aims to
increase image perception by the human eye. This
technique plays a major role to bring out the existing
information within the low dynamic range of that Figure 3. MIRNet architecture.
grey level image [12]. It is required to perform the
Selective kernel feature fusion (SKFF)
operations like contrast enhancement and reduction
The SKFF module can perform the dynamic ad-
or removal of noise to improve the image quality.
justment of receptive fields via i) Fuse and ii) Select
Adaptive Histogram Equalization is used for con-
operations. The first operator will generate the global
trast enhancement of the image. Adaptive Histogram
feature descriptors by summing the information from
Equalization is different from Histogram Equaliza-
multi-resolution streams. The second operator uses
tion in that it computes multiple histograms for each
the descriptors for feature maps recalibration fol-
individual part of the image and uses them to spread
lowed by aggregation as shown in Figure 4.
the image’s brightness levels. As a result, it is appro-
priate for enhancing local contrast in images.
Next, the pre-processed image can be passed
through the MIRNet for enhancement [13]. MIRNet
is a deep learning framework which can be used to
enhance the given image at a low light level.

3.2 MIRNet Figure 4. Structure of SKFF.

It is a feature extraction model which calculates Dual attention unit (DAU)

a set of features across various spatial scales and The DAU can extract the features from the con-
maintains the original high-resolution features for volution streams. While the previous block fuses
preserving the spatial details. In this process, the the information across multi-resolution branches,
features across various resolutions are fused together we also need some mechanism to share information
and repeat this mechanism for representation learn- within a feature tensor, both along the spatial and
ing. Also, it is a modern approach to fusing the mul- the channel dimensions which are done by the DAU
ti-scale features with the help of a selective kernel block. The DAU reduce less useful features and only
network which combines variable receptive fields allows more informative features to pass further.
and faithfully preserves the original features at each This process of feature recalibration can be achieved

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

by two mechanisms: Channel and Spatial Atten- gramming language [14]. The libraries include:
tions as shown in Figure 5. • Numpy
• Keras
• Matplotlib
• Scikit-learn

4. Simulation results
Figure 5. Structure of DAU. In this section, the simulation results carried out
in our work are presented which follows the compar-
Multi scale residual block (MRB)
ison of results.
The MRB can receive rich contextual information
from low-resolutions and generate a spatially-precise
4.1 Dataset used
output by maintaining high-resolution representa-
tions. It consists of multiple (three in this paper) ful- The dataset used in our implementation is the un-
ly-convolution streams which are parallel connected. derwater image enhancement benchmark (UIEB) da-
The MIRNet employs a recursive residual design taset [7], which includes 890 raw underwater images
(with skip connections) to ease the flow of infor- and corresponding reference images.
mation during the learning process. To maintain the
residual nature of our architecture, down sampling 4.2 Performance metrics
and up sampling operations are performed between
residual resizing modules as shown in Figure 6(a-b). The performance metrics used in our implementa-
tion include peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR), mean
square error (MSE), root mean square error (RMSE),
and structural similarity index (SSIM) which are de-
fined as:
 2552 
PSNR = 10.log10  
 MSE 
(a) Down sampling module in MRB 1 M N
∑∑ [ I (i, j ) − I ′(i, j )]
2
=MSE
MN =i 1 =j 1

1 n
∑ ( yi − yˆi )
2
RMSE
=
n i =1

(2 µ x µ y + c1 )(2σ xy + c2 )
SSIM ( x, y ) =
( µ12 + µ22 + c1 )(σ 12 + σ 22 + c 2 )

(b) Up sampling module in MRB

4.3 Simulation results

Figure 6. Structure of MRB. From the UIEB dataset, different raw images are
taken as inputs and applied the proposed algorithm
and obtained the white balanced image, contrast
3.3 Software requirements
enhanced image, MIRNet output image, and corre-
The software used in our implementation is Py- sponding histograms for each image. In this paper,
thon. Python is an object-oriented, high-level lan- the input and output images and corresponding histo-
guage, interpreted, dynamic and multipurpose pro- gram plots for four different raw images are present-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

ed and are shown in Figures 7-10 respectively.   Raw image-2: Image size 768 × 1024
  Raw image-1: Image size 208 × 319

(i) (ii)

(i) (ii) Figure 8(a). (i) Input image-2 and (ii) histogram of input image-2.

Figure 7(a). (i) Input image-1 and (ii) histogram of input im-
age-1.

(i) (ii)

Figure 8(b). (i) White balanced output for image-2 and (ii) his-
(i) (ii)
togram of white balanced output for image-2.
Figure 7(b). (i) White balanced output for image-1 and (ii) his-
togram of white balanced output image-1.

(i) (ii)
(i) (ii)
Figure 8(c). (i) Contrast enhanced output for image-2 and (ii)
Figure 7(c). (i) Contrast enhanced output for image-1 and (ii) histogram of contrast enhanced output image-2.
histogram of contrast enhanced output image-1.

(i) (ii) (i) (ii)

Figure 7(d). (i) Enhanced output for image-1 using MIRNet and Figure 8(d). (i) Enhanced output for image-2 and (ii) histogram
(ii) histogram of enhanced output image-1. of enhanced output image-2.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

  Raw image-3: Image size 237 × 315

(i) (ii)
(i) (ii) Figure 10(b). (i) White balanced output for image-4 and (ii)
histogram of white balanced output image-4.
Figure 9(a). (i) Input image-3 and (ii) histogram of input image-3.

(i) (ii)
(i) (ii)
Figure 10(c). (i) Contrast enhanced output for image-4 and (ii)
Figure 9(b). (i) White balanced output for image-3 and (ii) his-
histogram of enhanced image-4.
togram of white balanced output image-3.

(i) (ii) (i) (ii)

Figure 10(d). (i) Enhanced output for image-4 and (ii) histogram
Figure 9(c). (i) Contrast enhanced output for image-3 and (ii)
of enhanced image-4.
histogram contrast enhanced output image-3.
The performance metrics for the above mentioned
four images ere calculated and compared with the
metrics for the color corrected image and the output
enhanced image. The evaluated metrics for the imag-
es are represented in Tables 1-4.
Table 1. Result comparison for image-1.

(i) (ii) Color corrected image using Enhanced image

Metric
Figure 9(d). (i) Enhanced output for image-3 and (ii) its histogram. white balance using MIRNet
RMSE 73.9 34.7
 Raw image-4: Image size 683 × 910 PSNR 10.7 17.3
SSIM (0.4, 0.4) (0.8, 0.8)
Table 2. Result comparison for image-2.

Color corrected image Enhanced image

Metric
using white balance using MIRNet
RMSE 77.3 26.5
(i) (ii) PSNR 10.3 19.6

Figure 10(a). (i) Input image-3 and (ii) histogram of input image-3. SSIM (0.3,0.4) (0.8,0.8)

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Table 3. Result comparison for image-3.

References
Color corrected image Enhanced image [1] Acharya, T., Ray, A.K., 2005. Image processing:
Metric
using white balance using MIRNet
Principles and applications. John Wiley & Sons:
RMSE 53.5 24.5 New York.
PSNR 13.5 20.3 [2] Ancuti, C.O., Ancuti, C., De Vleeschouwer, C.,
SSIM (0.4, 0.4) (0.7, 0.7) et al., 2017. Color balance and fusion for under-
water image enhancement. IEEE Transactions
Table 4. Result comparison for image-4.
on Image Processing. 27(1), 379-393.
Metric
Color corrected image Enhanced image [3] Raveendran, S., Patil, M.D., Birajdar, G.K.,
using white balance using MIRNet
2021. Underwater image enhancement: A com-
RMSE 115.8 29.16 prehensive review, recent trends, challenges
PSNR 6.8 18.83 and applications. Artificial Intelligence Review.
SSIM (0.2, 0.3) (0.6, 0.6) 54(7), 5413-5467.
[4] Schettini, R., Corchs, S., 2010. Underwater im-
age processing: State of the art of restoration
5. Conclusions
and image enhancement methods. EURASIP
A deep learning framework based technique MIR- Journal on Advances in Signal Processing. 2010,
Net is proposed in our paper for underwater image 1-14.
enhancement which transforms images to provide [5] Boudhane, M., Nsiri, B., 2016. Underwater im-
a better representation of the content present in the age processing method for fish localization and
image. First, the color of the input image is corrected detection in submarine environment. Journal of
using a technique called the White-Balance algo- Visual Communication and Image Representa-
rithm. Next, the contrast of the color corrected imag- tion. 39, 226-238.
es is improved using an adaptive histogram equali- [6] Daway, H.G., Daway, E.G., 2019. Underwater
zation method. Finally, the pre-trained deep learning image enhancement using colour restoration
model MIRNet is used to enhance the image. The based on YCbCr colour model. IOP Conference
quality of the output images is justified in terms of Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
PSNR and SSIM parameters and tabulated. Hence, 571(1), 012125.
we conclude that the proposed method can perform [7] Li, C., Guo, C., Ren, W., et al., 2019. An under-
underwater image enhancement for low light, low water image enhancement benchmark dataset
contrast underwater images effectively without any and beyond. IEEE Transactions on Image Pro-
loss of information. cessing. 29, 4376-4389.
Future Scope [8] Han, F., Yao, J., Zhu, H., et al., 2020. Under-
The proposed method can be extended in the water image processing and object detection
future with suitable pre-processing techniques to based on deep CNN method. Journal of Sensors.
enhance the blurred underwater images which result 2020(9), 1-20.
from the light scattering problem of the underwater [9] Wang, Y., Guo, J., Gao, H., et al., 2021. UIEC^
2-Net: CNN-based underwater image enhance-
image capturing system.
ment using two color space. Signal Processing:
Image Communication. 96, 116250.
Conflict of Interest [10] Zheng, M., Luo, W., 2022. Underwater image
There is no conflict of interest. enhancement using improved CNN based de-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

fogging. Electronics. 11(1), 150. Learning enriched features for fast image res-
[11] Thai, B., Deng, G., Ross, R., 2017. A fast white toration and enhancement. IEEE Transactions
balance algorithm based on pixel greyness. Sig- on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence.
nal, Image and Video Processing. 11, 525-532.
45(2), 1934-1948.
[12] Hashemi, S., Kiani, S., Noroozi, N., et al., 2010.
[14] Dey, S., 2018. Hands-on image processing with
An image contrast enhancement method based
on genetic algorithm. Pattern Recognition Let- Python: Expert techniques for advanced image
ters. 31(13), 1816-1824. analysis and effective interpretation of image
[13] Zamir, S.W., Arora, A., Khan, S., et al., 2022. data. Packt Publishing Ltd: Birmingham.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

The Refractive Effect of k-Factor on Radio Propagation over Lokoja,

Nigeria
Akinsanmi Akinbolati*, Florence N. Ikechiamaka, Akogwu O. Isaiah

Department of Physics, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, 821101, Nigeria

ABSTRACT
The effective earth radius factor (k-factor) has a refractive propagation effect on transmitted radio signals thus making
its study necessary for the proper planning of terrestrial radio links and power budget. This study was carried out over
the city of Lokoja, Nigeria, using ten years (2011 to 2020) atmospheric data of temperature, pressure and humidity both
at the surface (12 m) and at 100 m AGL. The data were retrieved from European Centre for Medium-Range Weather
Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA5. The k-factor yearly variation follows the same trend with minimum and maximum values
obtained during dry and wet season months respectively. In addition, the highest mean value of 1.00042 was recorded in
the month of August while the lowest value of 1.00040 was recorded in the month of January with an overall mean value
of 1.0003. This value is less than the recommended standard of 1.33 by ITU-R. The propagation effect corresponding
to k < 1.33 is sub-refractive. The implication of this on radio wave propagation, especially terrestrial communications is
that transmitted wireless signal is prone to losses. This can be mitigated through an effective power budget: Choice of
transmitting antenna’s height and gain, so as to improve the Quality of Service over the study area.
Keywords: Effective earth radius factor (k-factor); Refractive effect; Terrestrial radio link; Radio signal; Power budget

1. Introduction also known as the receiver [1]. The interaction of

propagated radio signals with the path of propagation
Generally, the dynamics in the atmosphere can through various mechanisms often leads to signal
lead to attenuation of radio signal propagated from degradation [2]. This has made path loss-related stud-
the source which is the transmitter to the destination ies by radio scientists and engineers imperative in

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Akinsanmi Akinbolati, Department of Physics, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, 821101, Nigeria; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 21 March 2023 | Revised: 20 April 2023 | Accepted: 21 April 2023 | Published Online: 28 April 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5583
CITATION
Akinbolati, A., Ikechiamaka, F.N., Isaiah, A.O., 2023. The Refractive Effect of k-Factor on Radio Propagation over Lokoja, Nigeria. Journal of
Electronic & Information Systems. 5(1): 45-50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5583
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

radio communication industries [3]. Radio scientists where N1 and N2 are the refractivity values at heights
and engineers need knowledge of the effective earth h1 and h2 respectively. In this study h1 and h2 are at
radius factor (k-factor) in a local environment for the the surface (12 m) and 100 m Above Ground Level
proper planning of terrestrial radio links and power (AGL) respectively. The k-factor can be expressed as
budget. If the troposphere is homogenous and turbu- indicated in Equations (3)-(4) [4,5].
lent free, any wave propagated into the troposphere
parallel to the earth’s surface will follow the earth’s (3)
curvature [4] and be maximally received. However,
where a is the radius of the earth (a = 6371 km = 344
due to the inhomogeneity of the troposphere, radio
mni) and dN/dh is the rate of change of refractivity
wave propagated undergoes bending depending on
the tropospheric condition which also depends on the indices with height.
interaction of the radio climatic factors in the envi- k-factor can also be expressed as indicated in
ronment [5]. Equation (4), which was used for k-factor computa-
The k-factor is useful in the prediction of local tions in this work.
radio wave propagation conditions. Typically, a de-
sign value of k = 1.33 is often assigned in locations  (4)
where the values are not known. Studies have also
shown that its value is location based and should
not be assumed constant for all environments [4]. 2. Review of related work
Since k-factor is weather and climate dependent, it
Transmission of a radio signal in the lower atmos-
is therefore imperative for regular studies to be car-
phere is affected by many processes which include
ried out using up-to-date data in order to capture the
variations in air temperature, pressure, and humidity.
effects of climate change. It also represents a spatial
These variations in weather parameters often result
average, which can only otherwise be obtained from
in refractivity changes [9]. These changes can result
simultaneous meteorological surroundings along
in abrupt changes in the propagation direction of a
the propagation path. The k-factor is the radius of a
radio signal resulting in signal loss. Based on this
hypothetical spherical Earth, without an atmosphere,
premise, studies on the effect of radio climatic fac-
for which propagation paths follow straight lines [6].
tors on propagated signals have become imperative
for the planning of a reliable radio link in a region.
1.1 Radio refractivity
Adediji and Ajewole [8] studied the vertical refractiv-
The radio refractivity N can be expressed as: ity gradient in Akure, Nigeria by measuring atmos-
77.6  e pheric variables using integrated sensor suits (ISS) at
N=  P+4810 ( N -units ) (1)
T  T different heights above ground level. Results show
It depends on atmospheric parameters of pressure that propagation conditions have varying degrees of
P (hPa), temperature T (K) and water vapour pres- occurrence. Oyedum et al. [10] worked on reduced sea
sure e (hPa) [7,8]. level refractivity in Minna, Central Nigeria. Ayantun-
ji et al. [11] studied the seasonal and diurnal variation
1.2 k-factor of surface radio refractivity in Akure, Nsuka, Minna,
Sokoto and Jos (in Nigeria). The result of the work
The k-factor can be obtained using two refractivi- revealed higher values of surface refractivity during
ty values as: the wet season in Nigeria compared to the dry sea-
dN N 2 − N1 son months. Propagation of radio signal in the trop-
= (2)
dh h2 − h1 osphere is affected by the interaction of signal with

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

some primary (air temperature, pressure, and humid- (1)-(4) were used to determine the k-factor values for
ity) and secondary (radio refractivity, refractivity the years under study. The mean annual values were
gradient, k-factor, etc.) radio-climatic factors. Many used for analysis to enhance the reliability of the re-
works have been done locally and internationally, sults.
but due to climate change it is necessary that studies Data analysis and ITU-R recommendation on k-factor
employ up-to-date data to ensure the high reliability Necessary analyses such as sorting, calculation of
of findings. mean values and plotting of graphs were carried out
A design value of 1.33 is often assigned for k-fac- using Excel. The ITU-R Recommendation on k-factor
tor in line of sight link especially where information standards on refractive conditions of the atmosphere
about the actual value of k-factor for that location is and the subsequent attenuation effect was equally
not available [7,4]. P. E. Okpani et al. [12] investigated used at achieving the set objectives. The ITU-R Rec-
the effect of radio climatic variables on signal prop- ommendation on k-factor and associated propagation
agation over Nsukka, Nigeria. Results have shown effects are presented in Table 1. The determined
that k-factor values ranged from 1.555-1.652. Ojo values of k-factor obtained for the years and seasons
et al. [4] worked on the characterization of secondary were compared with ITU-R standard in order to pre-
radio-climatic variables for microwave and milli- dict the refractive propagation effects over the study
meter wave link design in Nigeria, using five years
areas.
of data (2009-2013). The study location included Table 1. ITU-R standards on k-factor and the associated propa-
Akure, Enugu, Minna, Jos, and Sokoto cities. Results gation effects [5,7,14].
revealed average values of 1.476, 1.940, 1.860 and
k-factor’s
1.287 respectively in Akure, Minna, Jos and Sokoto
range of Propagation effect on radio communications
respectively. Ukhurebor and Odesanya [5] investi- values
gated k-factor over Auchi area of Edo State, South- k = 1.33 In this case, radio signals are transmitted along
South, Nigeria. The work determined k-factor mean standard a straight line part on the earth’s surface and go
atmosphere into space unimpeded.
value of 1.470 over Auchi which is slightly greater
Here, a portion of the radio wave (signal)
than ITU-R standard. Abu-Almal and Al-Ansari [6] 1.33 ＞ k ＞ 0
propagates abnormally away from the earth
Sub-
calculated the k-factor and point refractivity gradient surface, resulting to interference and coverage
refraction
in United Arab Emirates (UAE). Fourteen years of limitation.

radiosonde meteorological data were employed. Re- Here, the radio wave signals (e. g microware
link, GSM, satellite) spread irregularly toward
sults revealed k-factor monthly variation from 1.43 ＞ k ＞ 1.33 the earth’s surface thus, surface extending the
to 3.17. Super- radio horizon and merge the path clearance
refraction giving rise to irregular huge waves above the
line of view due to multiple reflection.
3. Methodology
Here, there will be ducting which will make
This study was carried out in the city of Lokoja. ＜k＜0
the radio waves to bend downwards with a
Ducting
Lokoja is the state capital of Kogi State, in North curvature greater than the earth’s.
Central, Nigeria. Secondary atmospheric data of
temperature, pressure and humidity both at the
4. Results
surface (12 m) and at 100 m AGL for Lokoja were
retrieved from ECMWF ERA5 in December 2021. Figure 1 presents the yearly variation of k-factor
The data are high-resolution satellite-data with high covering 2011 to 2020 over Lokoja. The variation
reliability covering 2011-2020. ECMWF is an inde- follows the same trend for the ten years under study
pendent intergovernmental organization, which was with minimum and maximum values obtained dur-
established in 1975. They produced global numerical ing dry and wet season months respectively. Figure
weather forecasts for worldwide users [13]. Equations 2 presents the mean variation of k-factor over the

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

months of the years under study using mean values during the wet season months of April to September.
for the ten years in Lokoja. Observation from the Tables 2 and 3 present the determined correlation
figures shows lower values were obtained during coefficient(s) between k-factor and atmospheric pa-
the dry season months of January-March and Oc- rameters at the surface (12 m) and at 100 m respec-
tober-December while higher values were obtained tively.

Figure 1. Yearly variation of k-factor covering the ten years (2011-2020) under study over Lokoja.

Figure 2. The mean monthly variation of k-factor for the ten years under study over Lokoja.

Table 2. Correlation coefficient between k-factor and atmospheric parameters at surface (12 m, AGL).

Temp (C) Humidity (%R.H) Press. (hPa) Rainfall (mm) k-factor

Temp 1
Humidity –0.810 1
Press. –0.923 0.687 1
Rainfall –0.603 0.849 0.578 1
k-factor –0.620 0.949 0.715 0.784 1
Table 3. Correlation coefficient between k-factor and atmospheric parameters at 100 m, AGL.

Temp (C) Humidity (%R.H) Press. (hPa) Ammount Rainfall (mm) k-factor

Temp 1
Humidity –0.846 1
Press. 0.923 –0.676 1
Rainfall –0.756 0.840 –0.590 1
k-factor –0.872 0.955 –0.724 0.784 1

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

5. Discussion was obtained between k-factor and humidity and

k-factor and rainfall. The implication is that the
In addition, the highest value of 1.00042 was
higher the humidity and rainfall over the location,
recorded in the month of August while the lowest
the higher the k-factor. This is consistent with the
value of 1.0004 was recorded in the month of Janu-
results depicted in Figure 2. On the other hand,
ary. The overall mean value for the ten years under
using the atmospheric parameters at 100 m AGL,
study is 1.00029 or approximately equal to 1.0003.
the correlation coefficient between k-factor and;
This value is less than the recommended standard
temperature, pressure, humidity are –0.87, –0.72,
of 1.33 (i.e 1.33 > k > 0 ) standard by the Inter-
0.96 respectively. Here, a high positive correlation
national Telecommunication Union, Radio Study
Group (ITU-Rec. 530-16, 2015). The propagation coefficient was obtained between k-factor and hu-
effect corresponding to k < 1.33 is sub-refraction; midity again.
by interpretation, the atmosphere for the ten years
under study in Lokoja is sub-refractive. The effect 6. Conclusions
of this on radio wave propagation is that a certain
The variation of the effective earth radius factor
portion of the propagated radio signals has the ten-
(k-factor) for a period of ten years over the city of
dency to propagate abnormally by not following the
Lokoja was investigated. The refractive propagation
earth’s curvature. This often leads to interference
effect of this secondary radio climatic factor on radio
and signal degradation before the expected points
communication was revealed as sub-refractive based
of reception. In this kind of situation the quality of
on the ITU-R standard of categorization. The impli-
reception of radio signals on the microwave, Satel-
cation of this on radio wave propagation especially
lite, VHF (Very High Frequency) and UHF (Ultra
High Frequency) bands are affected. As a result of terrestrial communications is that transmitted wire-
the finding of this work which employed ten years less signal is prone to losses due to sub-refractive.
of recent data, the probability that Lokoja will Based on these results, terrestrial radio communi-
experience sub-refraction in the subsequent years cation engineers and various stakeholders of radio
ahead is high. The implication of this on radio propagation systems in Lokoja should make efforts
wave propagation especially terrestrial communica- at mitigating sub-refractive losses. This can be
tions is that transmitted wireless signal is prone to achieved through an effective power budget; choice
losses due to sub-refractive. Based on these results, of transmitter power and antenna height and gain.
terrestrial radio communication engineers and var- In addition, existing terrestrial radio communication
ious stakeholders of radio propagation systems in stations over the study areas may need to increase
Lokoja should make deliberate efforts at mitigating their antenna’s height or by employing the use of
sub-refractive losses. This can be achieved through repeater station(s), so as to improve the Quality of
an effective power budget; choice of transmitter Service (QoS) over the study location.
power and antenna height and gain. In addition,
existing terrestrial radio communication stations Author Contributions
over the study areas may need to increase their an-
tenna’s height or by employing the use of repeater 1) Author ‘AA’ (#1): Designed the study, made
station(s), so as to improve the Quality of Service data available, read through the manuscript and
(QoS) over the study location. made useful corrections.
The correlation coefficient between k-factor 2) Author ‘FNI’ (#2): Proof read the manuscript
and temperature, pressure, humidity and rainfall at and made a contribution.
the surface are –0.62, 0.72, 0.95 and 0.79 respec- 3) Author ‘AOI’ (#3): Carried out the study, wrote
tively. Here, a high positive correlation coefficient the first draft.

49
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Conflict of Interest nas and Propagation. 245070.

[7] International Telecommunications Union, Radio
There is no conflict of interest. Study Group (ITU-R), Recommendation on Ra-
dio refractivity, ITU-Rec. P. 453(2003-2019).
References https://www.itu.org/rec.p.453
[1] Akinbolati, A., Akinsanmi, O., Ekundayo, K.R., [8] Adediji, A.T., Ajewole, M., 2008. Vertical pro-
2016. Signal strength variation and propagation file of radio refractivity gradient in Akure South-
profiles of UHF radio wave channel in Ondo West Nigeria. Progress in Electromagnetics Re-
state, Nigeria. International Journal of Micro- search C. 4, 157-168.
wave and Wireless Technologies. 6(4), 12-27. [9] Okoro, O.N., Agbo, G.A., 2012. The effect of
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5815/ijwmt.2016.04.02 variation of meteorological parameters on the
[2] Akinbolati, A., Agunbiade, O.J., 2020. Assess- tropospheric radio refractivity for Minna. Global
ment of error bounds for path loss prediction Journal of Science Frontier Research Physics &
models for TV white space usage in Ekiti State, Space Science. 12(2).
Nigeria. International Journal of Information [10] Oyedum, O.D., Igwe, K.C., Eiche, J.O., et al.,
Engineering and Electronic Business. 10(3), 28. 2009. Reduced-to-sea-level refractivity in Min-
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5815/ijieeb.2020.03.04 na, Central Nigeria. Natural and Applied Sci-
[3] Akinbolati, A., Ajewole, M.O., 2020. Inves- ence Journal. 11(2), 1-5.
tigation of path loss and modeling for digital [11] Ayantunji, B.G., Okeke, P.N., Urama, J.O.,
terrestrial television over Nigeria. Heliyon. 6(6), 2011. Diurnal and seasonal variation of surface
e04101. refractivity over Nigeria. Progress in Electro-
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04101 magnetics Research B. 30, 201-222.
[4] Ojo, J.S., Ojo, O.L., Akinyemi, P., 2019. Char- [12] Okpani, P.E., Nwofe, P.A., Chukwu, N.O., 2015.
acterization of secondary radioclimatic variables Effect of secondary radioclimatic variables on
for microwave and millimeter wave link design signal propagation in Nsuka, Nigeria. Interna-
in Nigeria. Indian Journal of Radio & Space tional Research Journal of Natural Sciences.
Physics (IJRSP). 46(3), 83-90. 3(2), 9-17.
[5] Ukhurebor, K.E., Odesanya, I., 2019. Rela- [13] The European Centre For Medium-Range
tionship between meteorological variables and Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) ERA5, 2021.
effective earth radius factor over Auchi, Edo Available from: https://www.ecmwf.int/en/fore-
State, South-South, Nigeria. Covenant Journal casts/dataset/ecmwf-reanalysis-v5
of Physical and Life Sciences (Special Edition). [14] Ajayi, G.O., 1989. Physics of the tropospher-
7(1). ic radio propagation. Proceeding of the ICTP
[6] Abu-Almal, A., Al-Ansari, K., 2010. Calculation College on Theoretical and Experimental Radio
of effective earth radius and point refractivity Propagation Physics; 1989 Feb 6-24; Trieste,
gradient in UAE. International Journal of Anten- Italy. p. 54.

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Journal of Electronic & Information Systems

https://journals.bilpubgroup.com/index.php/jeis

ARTICLE

Introduction to Thermo-Photo-Electronics
Stanislav Ordin

The Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, 119991, Russia

ABSTRACT
Building the foundations of Thermo-Photo-Electronics became possible only after the correction of thermodynamic
errors in the traditional theory of semiconductor Electronics and Photo-Electronics. It is these errors that determined
the output of the asymptotics of the operating parameters of semiconductor electronic devices, in particular, both the
saturation of the limiting clock frequency of processors, and the saturation of the efficiency of both thermoelectric
and photoelectric converters. But in semiconductors, although these thermodynamic errors manifested themselves not
only in the instrumental, but also in the technological aspect, they could not prohibit semiconductor Electronics itself,
unlike Electronics based on other materials. It’s just that a number of qualitative mistakes were made in the theory of
semiconductor devices and photo devices. In this work, it is shown that the energy band diagram of semiconductor
contacts itself was constructed with a significant omission—without taking into account the temperature force on
the contact. At the same time, because of the incorrect calculation of currents according to the outdated formulas of
Richardson-Langmuir-Deshman, there were also PROHIBITIONS. So the practitioners compensated for the errors of the
theory with “empirical corrections”. So electronics engineers often made devices not according to a strict theory (which
simply did not exist until now), but on a hunch and according to empirical local laws. And only the correction of the
historical mistakes made it possible to expand the phenomenology of the description of processes in a Solid Body, on the
basis of which it is possible to make calculations of highly efficient elements of Photo-Thermo-Electronics.
Keywords: Phenomenology; Potential barriers; P-n-junction; Prigogine local entropy production; Richardson-
Langmuir models; Local thermo-EMF

*CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Stanislav Ordin, The Russian Academy of Sciences, Saint Petersburg, 119991, Russia; Email: [email protected]
ARTICLE INFO
Received: 21 March 2023 | Revised: 18 April 2023 | Accepted: 20 April 2023 | Published Online: 11 May 2023
DOI: https://doi.org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5580
CITATION
Ordin, S., 2023. Introduction to Thermo-Photo-Electronics. Journal of Electronic & Information Systems. 5(1): 51-66. DOI: https://doi.
org/10.30564/jeis.v5i1.5580
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2023 by the author(s). Published by Bilingual Publishing Group. This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribu-
tion-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/).

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

1. Introduction But a rigorous theoretical extension of the purely

diffuse (as analysis showed) theory of thermoelec-
Ilya Prigogine’s discovery of the production of tricity was made me later [11-14], when the existence
local entropy was not taken into account by Elec- of Local thermoelectric power was confirmed for a
tronics, although it directly relates to micro- and
whole class of wide-gap semiconductors [15] and it
nano-scales. And this phenomenological error in the
became clear that not only phenomenology of ther-
theory of semiconductor devices is decisive. But
moelectricity, but also the entire phenomenology of
it was aggravated by the fact that ALL solid-state
the p-n junction [16].
physics was “stuck” on the use of flat electron orbit-
And then, neither the laboratory of thermoelec-
als, which Pauling introduced for “two-dimensional”
tricity of the Ioffe Institute of the USSR Academy of
graphite and for which he received the Nobel Prize.
Sciences, nor the International Thermoelectric Soci-
But Pauling himself, as an honest scientist, having
ety dared to deviate from traditional thermoelectric
discovered his mistake, tried to correct it by intro-
concepts and, with the need to correctly take into ac-
ducing “curved” orbitals for graphite itself [1]. Now,
count the concentration force. Take it into account in
after restoring the Planck-Einstein quantization, it
the same way as it has long been done in the theory
is shown how to get the correct orbitals instead of
of p-n junction. And the management of the Global
the mystical Schrödinger wave functions [2-4]. And
Thermoelectric company, which arranged a radio
this is the next stage of the rigorous expansion of the
conference with me at the beginning of this centu-
phenomenology of Electronics on the basis of the
ry, summarized both our discussion and the general
obtained foundations to the phenomenology of Pho-
position of the thermoelectric community by saying:
to-Thermo-Electronics and to the construction of a
“We are now the world’s largest manufacturer of
rigorous theory of semiconductor devices.
thermoelectric generators based on well-established
The dimensional thermoelectric effect in silicon
traditional thermoelectric technology. And where
carbide crystals, which I initially discovered back
will we be if we switch to the Intel technology you
in the 1980s in the study of contact effects [5-7], has
propose for thermoelectricity”.
already shown insufficient completeness of thermoe-
But even at the beginning of the century, even if
lectric phenomenology to describe thermo-EMF [8-10]
then at a qualitative level, I already felt that there is
and output resistance in microstructures with po-
a “reverse side of the coin”, that phenomenology,
tential barriers (Figure 1), which, in fact, prompted
and, as a result, calculations of the characteristics of
me to start a long-term cycle of research on Local
the p-n junction are also not complete without tak-
(NANO) Effects (formerly called midi-effects).
ing into account the temperature force traditionally
used in thermoelectricity. I understood and showed
at a qualitative level to the management of Intel that
Moore’s law does not take into account that it was
precise because of the lack of taking into account the
temperature force that they reached the saturation of
the processor clock frequency with increasing minia-
turization of individual elements (an increase in the
number of elements in a chip).
But Intel also followed a purely empirical path
Figure 1. Dependences of thermo-EMF (originally it was as-
according to its own, mastered technology - first
sumed that this is the diffuse Seebeck coefficient) and the ratio
of the output thermoelectric resistance to the galvanic resistance
they blind the processor, and then examine what they
of a SiC semiconductor crystal depending on its thickness (size did. He took so long to respond that I wrote to them:
along the heat flow). “Dear Sirs, I am not sure that I will live to see the

52
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

next millennium. So please decide on my project.” now with the violation of the Onsager Principle, ad-
And INTEL answered: “Thank you for your patience mitted by an amateur physicist, watchmaker Peltier.
and humor” and was also afraid to move away from Moreover, she “passed” by Oleg Losev’s discovery
its traditional processor manufacturing technology, of a p-n junction, and past the discovery of “anom-
and tried to solve the problem incorrectly, but to alous thermo-EMFs” in it, and past Ilya Prigozhin’s
get around it due to multi-core. But this method of discovery of local entropy production. So it is not
increasing the number of elements, even then it was surprising that in the period when all the bureaucrat-
obvious, would not allow going beyond the logarith- ic science degenerated into the knowledge industry,
mic dependence of the speed of processors on the thermoelectricity, as science, simply ceased to claim
number of elements in them. scientific Fundamentality, and turned into a factory
My project “NANO-thermopowers” won the laboratory serving production with obsolete technol-
Samsung competition, but our Noble Zhores Alfer- ogies compared to electronics. That is why, in fact,
ov took the money from it for his heterostructures, there is no scientific thermoelectric journal, but only
which, as it has now become clear, he did WRONG. factory reports in the proceedings of the international
So, only local, my co-authors, professors Toru Mi- thermoelectric conference, in which my work was
yakawa, Wang Nang Wang and Satoru Yamoguchi, published only for decoration [18]. That is why ther-
helped me in conducting research on Local Effects. moelectricity was not even presented in international
And now those early qualitative results of mine have multidisciplinary scientific journals either, until the
received rigorous experimental and theoretical con- International Journal of Frontier Studies asked me to
firmation and have shown the need to expand not send my biography. To which I replied that I am no
only thermoelectricity, but all Electronics to Ther- longer a young man and I can tell a lot about myself.
mo-Photo-Electronics. But let me tell you the tragic History of Thermoelec-
tricity. And in response, I received an offer to publish
2. Electronics stagnation analysis this story of mine “Anomalous thermo-EMF is Local
thermo-EMF” [19]. And they published, free of charge,
2.1 Reasons for the stagnation of thermoelec- like all 70 of my scientific articles in the Open Ac-
tricity cess in recent years. So even the development of the
fundamental aspects of thermoelectricity—contact
Thermoelectric instruments and devices have phenomena, which I was instructed to study 40 years
been actively used since the middle of the last cen- ago by the last Coryphaeus of Thermoelectricity,
tury. But already at the end of the last century, both Lazar Solomonovich Stilbans, and which resulted in
by the demand for them and by the achievements of this eighth scientific book of mine, was not support-
their marginal efficiency, it became clear that after ed in any way by thermoelectric organizations after
reaching a certain level, no further progress was ob- the death of Stilbans. And although the technology
served. On the contrary, refrigerators began to return of some thermoelectric firms like Dexter has already
from thermoelectric to traditional, mechanical ones, been brought to the nano-level, traditional thermo-
and thermogenerators began to be used only if there electric concepts are still dominant for them. And
is a source of waste heat. And thermoelectricity itself the main interest in Local thermo-EMF is shown by
as a science actually degenerated into Materials Sci- electronics, which is reflected in the very title of my
ence [17]. new book “Thermo-Photo-Electronics”.
But historically, it was thermoelectricity that
allowed Onsager, based on the Curie theorem, to
2.2 Reasons for the stagnation of the Physics
formulate his Principle of Symmetry of Kinetic Co-
of Contact Phenomena
efficients [8]. But there was no feedback. The primi-
tive theory of Thermoelectricity has been built up to Physics jumped from the macroscopic description

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

of nature to the microscopic one, skipping a whole considered as unrelated phenomena [5,21,22]. And this
class of NANO-phenomena [20]. And the point is not led to the fact that in thermoelectricity, Peltier heat,
only that a very roughly constructed Quantum The- in violation of the Onsager Principle, continued to
ory [2,3] was used in the description of microscopic be attributed to the contact characteristic, and the
phenomena, but that at the same time, both in elec- contacts were actually considered to be infinitely
tronics and in optics, the model of the Ideal Infinitely thin. But precision measurements of the temperature
Thin Interface between two media was transferred. distribution near the contact gave on the “infinitely
Thus, in fact, not the contact of two media was de- thin” interface the inequality of asymptotics (Figure
scribed, but the consequences of its existence in con- 2).
jugate media. Initially, the length of contact was tak-
en into account in Optics. Both the very emergence
of modern Electrophysics of Contact Phenomena,
and the certainty in the very formulation of contact
experiments arose only when it was understood that
it had already been created, intuitively, the technolo-
gy of forming an extended (of a certain size) contact
with well-repeatable properties - this is a p-n junc-
tion [9-16].
Figure 2. Asymptotic discontinuity of the temperature distri-
The historical consideration of electronics without
bution at the interface between materials with different Fermi
taking into account heat flows has imposed a number electron energies.
of restrictions on the design of devices and devices
based on it. In addition, these restrictions led to a The experimentally observed temperature jump at
number of “theoretical” prohibitions on the existence the boundary of dissimilar media naturally follows
and possibility of registration, which was revealed from the production of the local Prigogine entropy
in the study of the Local thermo-EMF described in at the potential barrier when current flows through
previous works. However, an important clarifica- it: From the absorption of energy on one side of
tion needs to be made. Lack of understanding of the the barrier and its release after the electron passes
physics of Local thermodynamic effects not only through the barrier. In this case, the application of
imposed a ban on the Local Effects themselves, but thermal conductivity to the barrier is not formally
also led to a attribution (even in WIKIPEDIA) of a applicable—the energy recovery by phonons occurs
primitive device to a photo-thermoelectric converter, only partially (no more than half) and with a rela-
while it contains a simple photo-conversion of the tive delay determined by the ratio of the electron
thermal radiation flux. transit time over the barrier to the phonon transit
Similarly, under the sign “Thermo-transistor”, time through the barrier. So, the “anomalous” size
changes in the properties of a conventional transistor dependences of thermopower and resistance shown
from an average temperature were used, i.e. actually in Figure 1 are not anomalous, but simply not taken
Local effects did not even try to use. into account by the Theory of Contact Phenomena.
The main, phenomenological reason for the In addition, in Electronics, the Langmuir and
stagnation of the Theory of Contact Phenomena, in Richardson models [23,24] are still used to calculate
particular, the Theory of p-n junction and barrier currents through potential barriers. These models,
phenomena, is, of course, that the Temperature Force developed at the dawn of the last century, both on
has been completely thrown out of consideration. a spatial scale corresponding to the millimeter gap
So, even in adjacent sections of the same fundamen- between the electrodes the scale of currents corre-
tal book, thermoelectric and contact effects were sponding to the current of electrons from graphite

54
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

heated to 3000 degrees do not correspond in any Taking into account the polarity of the electron
way to the currents used in electronic devices. In dispersion law for a displaced barrier (Figure 3)
addition, the formulas obtained within these models allows a rigorous calculation of the ballistic current
are very non-rigorous—the Richardson and Desh- over potential barriers, the thickness of which is less
man formulas are only the first linear approximation than the mean free path of an electron, for electrons
for two special cases, giving the saturation current in the entire Brillouin zone. In this case, a strict
and a linear approximation in the region of reduced expression for the current over the barrier can be
voltages less than the average thermal energy [25]. So written as a standard expression for the Richardson
even in serious monographs on thermionic emission current with a correction factor:
these formulas are used only for decoration. And half
R ( eU ) J R ( eU ) ⋅ Κ ( eU ) (2)
⋅* * * 3D *
J=
a thousand pages are devoted to describing local pat-
terns that have nothing to do with these formulas [26]. where the correction factor is given by expression (3)
and essentially depends on the dimensionless stress
eU
3. Correction & extension of electronics reduced to thermal energy: eU * = kT .

Let’s start the corrections with the elementary for-

mulas for the CVC, which were obtained by Lang-
muir-Richardson-Deshman for Thermal Emission,
i.e. not at all for semiconductor electronics, but, and
they continue to be used in it:
2 e 1 1  ϕ 
JL
= (1 − r ) ATh 2 exp  − kTh  (1)
⋅ 2 ⋅U 3/2 , J R = Figure 3. The spatial transition of electrons taking into account
9π m d  h
the polarity of kinetic energy (on the left—the standard disper-
where in the Langmuir formula, d—the barrier sion law, on the right—taking into account the polarity of the
thickness, a U—the potential difference across it and current).
where A—the Richardson constant, and ϕh —the Taking into account additional corrections, the
work function and T—temperature (of the cathode, expression for the total current (2) turns out to be
in thermal emission), respectively, a is the average more complex than given in the work [27], but it can
value of the electron reflection coefficient at the also be divided into factors with the coefficient of
boundary, which is small and, at In the analysis, we current coupling with the reduced voltage (3).
will further assume that the first parenthesis is equal *
1 − eU  eU *  π ⋅
to 1. =
Κ ( ) 
3D eU *
eU *
e 2
1+ e



2  −1+ e 
The Langmuir formula was obtained under the  

assumption of an initial zero velocity of all electrons  eU *  1 



above the barrier and its increment due to the elec-  2e HypergeometricU − 2 ,0, eU  −
 2 * 

    (3)
tric field. And the Richardson formula—when taking  eU *    
 3  
 
⋅  e 2 MeijerG  {},   , {0,1} ,{} , eU *  +
    
into account (in the Brillouin zone) only those elec-  2

       
   
trons whose velocity vector is directed towards the    
   
interface In this case, in fact, the Richardson model  π  BesselI 0, eU  + BesselI 1, eU   eU * 
 * * 
  

2 



2 
 
took into account only the difference between the   

electron densities at the emitter and collector above The resulting total ballistic current (2), even with-
the maximum of the potential barrier (i.e., part of out taking into account the temperature force (if the
the concentration force) that occurs when the field is temperatures of the emitter and collector are equal),
applied, multiplied by the average thermal electron shows that the Richardson formula describes, purely
velocity. qualitatively, only that part of it that determines its

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

output to the saturation current at reduced voltages the limit—by the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.
of the order of the average thermal energy (Figure But, in fact, the neglect in the p-n junction of cur-
4a). The linear decay, borrowed in all ABC books rents less than those corresponding to this voltage,
on the Physics of Semiconductor Devices from the which is a rough model limited the linear section of
Richardson formula, with a decrease in the reduced the current-voltage characteristic (theoretically, they
voltage below the average thermal energy of elec- were measured experimentally for a long time) and
trons, as can be seen from Figure 4, is not observed became one of the components of the PROHIBI-
almost to zero. This giant correction at very low TION of the existence of Local thermo-EMF.
voltages (Figure 4b) is the fundamental difference A significant, not only quantitative, but also
between the ballistic current and Ohm’s diffuse law, qualitative correction of the ballistic current was
which removes the Langmuir-Richardson prohibition obtained for the saturation current, for current and
on their measurability of currents at low voltages. A at voltages greater than the average thermal energy.
significant, not only quantitative, but also qualitative As can be seen from Figure 4b, at reduced voltages
correction for the ballistic current in terms of satura- greater than the thermal energy of electrons, an av-
tion current and at voltages is greater than the aver- alanche-like increase in current occurs—pre-break-
age thermal energy. down.
Honest experimenters carry out precision meas-
urements and trust their results, rather than theoreti-
cal prohibitions, which are canonized, but sometimes
reflect only some local patterns. But in Science, this
happens, unfortunately, often—the Ideas of its true
Creators are not fully understood, but are picked up
by opportunists (market players)—developers. So
these Ideas are actively promoted by developers, but
with distortions and errors. So it was, for example,
with many operating devices created by Geniuses:
Leonardo da Vinci, Nikola Tesla and Lev Theremin,
who could not reproduce later. And now, when the
fundamental sections of Physics have reached the
modern level, it has become clear that an entire in-
dustry has been formed—Electronics, the instrumen-
tal and technological problems of which are related
to the fact that the theory of the p-n transition is built
Figure 4. Dependence of the Richardson current and the total in violation of the laws of non-equilibrium thermo-
ballistic current (Richardson) on the reduced voltage: a—cur- dynamics and that this is largely determined by the
rents in relation to the Richardson saturation current, b—ballistic distortion of Ideas, which the founders of electronics,
correction factor to the Richardson current.
Losev and Tauc, came to purely intuitively (the No-
Of course, there are limitingly measurable cur- bel laureates for the transistor themselves called the
rents, but they are by no means limited to reduced creator of Losev’s resistance transformer his father).
voltages of the order of the average thermal energy So, it was with the p-n junction, first created in
of electrons, which characterizes only Ohm’s diffuse silicon carbide and described in the 30s of the last
law. The minimum measurable currents are deter- century by Oleg Losev. Losev himself immediately
mined by the signal-to-noise ratio, which depends on intuitively realized that this was a current device.
the registration time: kT= U ⋅ J ⋅ ∆tmeasurement , and in And he was able to use it almost immediately: He

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

created on it an LED, a photodiode, and a resistance above, within the framework of a truncated concen-
transformer, which the Nobel laureates called in tration-electric phenomenology, it is necessary to use
short (in English) a transistor and even a transistor an extended phenomenology supplemented by a heat
receiver. But the physics of the p-n junction and the flux [11-16].
description of the operation of the listed devices
based on the p-n junction were built by analogy with
a radio tube, which, in principle, is a field device.
Thus, when solving various problems for semicon-
ductor devices in the p-n junction, the cause-current
and the effect-voltage were rearranged. And the
prominent physicist Abram Fedorovich Ioffe did not
fully understand Losev then, who was half a century
ahead of modern electronics. But academician Ioffe, Figure 5. The traditional scheme for the transformation of ener-
gy bands of semiconductors with different types of conductivity
not like the current “luminaries” of science, achieved
upon their contact and the opening of the p-n junction formed in
the assignment of a candidate of physics and mathe-
this case when the i-region is irradiated with light.
matics to him. And only after almost 100 years, the
return to Losev’s current circuit made it possible to From the balance of thermodynamic flows J,
significantly improve the characteristics of semicon- the equality of the concentration force FN and the
ductor devices. electric force FE in the p-n junction naturally fol-
Tauc is another, Czech Corypheus, ahead of his lows. But we will not dwell on this refinement of the
time. He was the first, immediately after the libera- description of the photoelectric effect for the time
tion of Prague by the Soviet troops, to establish the being. The analysis of thermoelectric and thermionic
production of point transistors in Prague (formerly effects showed that from the general phenomenolo-
of the Bell Company). And he immediately discov- gy, strictly corresponding to the Curie theorem and
ered thermoelectric effects in the p-n junction and the principle of symmetry of the Casimir-Onsager
honestly described them. But then (and even now) kinetic coefficients, in the description of the p-n
thermoelectricity itself was stuck at the macroscopic, transition and, thereby, the photoelectric effect, the
purely diffuse level of describing the phenomenon temperature force FT is excluded from consideration
and classified Tauc’s results as anomalies. of thermodynamic flows J (Table 1).
The description of the generation of photo-EMF Table 1. Three private phenomenologies, traditionally using
in the p-n junction was also carried out for a field only two thermodynamic forces in three different branches of
device. Photo-EMF, in principle, was correctly as- Physics.
sociated with a potential barrier and an electric field E-T phenomenology Thermoelectricity
in it, as a force, but balancing only the concentration J =σ E + σ (S ∆T )
E J L F +L F
= E EE E EN N

J= ∏ J + K ∆T
T E J L F +L F
= T ET E TT T

force. In this rough approximation, the p-n junction Volt-Amp Characteristic

diagram shows the complete alignment of the Fermi E-N phenomenology (VAC)
levels of the electron and hole regions (Figure 5) p-n junction J L F +L F
= E EE E EN N

J L F +L F
= N EN E NN N

with the formation of a region with full compensa-

Thermal emission
tion of electrons and holes (i-region). T-N phenomenology
J L F +L F
=
Vacuum gap
T TT T NT E

The thermodynamic discovery by Ilya Prigogine J L F +L F

= N TN E NN N

of the production of local entropy helped to restore Table 1 shows the Phenomenologies underlying
the correct description of the physics of the p-n the incomplete description of a number of effects as
junction. It made it possible to understand that in Fragments of the General Phenomenology (for ther-
the p-n junction, described for the reasons noted moelectricity, the system of equations, in addition to

57
 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

the canonical form, is also written using traditional gradient, which was associated with an empirical
coefficients: electrical conductivity σ, thermal con- coefficient due to the imperfection of materials.
ductivity Κ, Seebeck S and Peltier Π). The potential difference across the transition plates
At the same time, the standard band structure of is equal in this case to half the band gap. And the
the junction itself is modified, taking into account equality of concentration potentials corresponds to
the temperature force, and the energy diagram of the the Local Thermo-EMF and occurs, of course, only
equilibrium p-n junction is modified, which, with- with a heat flow through the transition (Figure 6c).
out taking into account the temperature force, gave, In this case, the current-voltage characteristic
as shown in Figure 5, the potential barrier value (CVC) of the p-n junction, of course, depends on the
approximately equal to the band gap of the semicon- temperature difference on its plates, which is deter-
ductor. Taking into account the temperature force, mined by the heat flux through the p-n junction. If,
in the absence of heat flux, the value of the potential in accordance with Losev’s theory, we take into ac-
barrier turns out to be equal to half the band gap count the primacy of the current in the p-n junction,
(Figures 6a-6b). And when it turns on the heat flow, then the contribution of the temperature force gives a
the value of the potential barrier will increase until a shift in the CVC, described by the formula:
tunnel breakdown occurs (Figure 6c). ∆JTh/ Ph = kTh// Ph ⋅OTh/ Ph (4)
where OTh/ Ph the energy flow through the p-n junc-
tion, and kTh// Ph the current coupling coefficient
in the p-n junction from the heat or light flux (for
light—the quantum yield at a given wavelength of
light).
There is a current-voltage characteristic shift,
similar to the photo-effect shift, but of the opposite
sign EMF (Figure 7).

Figure 6. Energy diagrams of two semiconductors of different

types of conductivity: a—before bringing them into contact, b—
equilibrium state after their contact at equal temperatures, c—
equilibrium state with heat flow through the p-n junction.

As shown in Figures 6a and 6b, between the

semiconductors brought into contact in an equilibri-
um state, due to the balance of electric and concen-
tration forces, the difference in electric potentials
at the contact (the red line is the bottom of the con-
duction band, the blue line is the top of the valence Figure 7. Calculated shifts in the current-voltage characteristic
band) is equal in magnitude and opposite in sign to of an ideal p-n junction by equivalent (in terms of power) flows:
thermal (red curves) light (blue curves), with an increase in
the difference at the boundary of the concentration
flows by 2 times. Generation quadrants are marked in yellow.
potential (dashed black line). Thus, given in Figure
5, in accordance with the complete system of equa- The experiments confirmed the qualitative picture
tions for thermodynamic forces and flows, it already of the displacement of the CVC by a constant, stabi-
allows eliminating the theoretical equal 2 in the lized heat flux (Figure 8).
description of the transition without a temperature But as dynamic experiments have shown, when

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

a stabilized but modulated heat flux is applied, the flows through the p-n junction, an area of positive
shift of the transition by a constant stabilized current currents arises in its I-V characteristic in the upper
leads to a change in the frequency response with left quadrant at negative voltages at the p-n junction,
its passage, in accordance with “Experimental and which, in full accordance with the concepts of gener-
Theoretical Expansion of the Phenomenology of ators (the simplest is an electric battery), is the area
Thermoelectricity” [12], through the Gaussian thermo- of generation of electrical energy due to the flow of
electric resonance, which is determined by the phase heat flowing through the transition (Figure 10).
reversal of the thermal signal (Figures 9a, 9b, 9c).

Figure 8. Experimental current-voltage characteristics of a p-n Figure 10. Experimental thermo-generator characteristics of p-n
junction with stabilized different heat fluxes through it. junctions and optimally doped silicon (for silicon, the optimal
EMF—μV is three orders of magnitude lower than that of p-n
junctions—mV).

This was experimentally confirmed on the devel-

oped detectors based on Local Thermo-EMF in sili-
con junctions, the volt-watt sensitivity of which was
obtained three orders of magnitude higher than that
of detectors based on the traditional macroscopic
Seebeck effect.
At the same time, the extended phenomenology
shows that there can be complex, three-phase effects
in the p-n junction, which makes it possible to opti-
mize, in particular, the combination of local thermo-
Figure 9. Dependence of the frequency response of the p-n junc-
electric effects with photoelectric effects in it.
tion on its DC bias [28]: a—decrease in the low-frequency branch
Previously, the generator characteristic of the
with an increase in the bias current to a critical value of 4.2 μA,
b—increase in the low-frequency branch with an increase in the transition was constructed without taking full ac-
bias current above the critical value, c—Thermo-Photo-Elec- count of the specifics of the equilibrium state, taking
tric resonance at a critical value of the bias current, described into account the local production of Prigogine’s
normally by the Gauss dependence from the logarithm of the entropy. In this case, zero current through the junc-
frequency.
tion corresponds to a zero temperature drop. But
So the differences in the I-V characteristics in in fact, the p-n junction is Maxwell’s demon—a
Figures 7 and 8, in principle, not only do not violate “gear” wheel separating hot and cold current carri-
the overall picture, but they detail it as the presence ers, in principle, allowed at the micro level by the
of two antiphase signals determined by technological production of Prigogine’s Local Entropy. And the
and design factors. mechanism of its operation is obvious from Figure 5:
As shown in Figures 7 and 8, when a heat flow When semiconductors come into contact, its asym-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

metry (polarity) occurs. At the same time, to start

the electron transfer process, an energy equal to half
the band gap is sufficient, while after their transfer
and annihilation with holes, their reverse transfer
requires an energy equal to the full band gap. So, a
local temperature drop occurs on the plates of the p-n
junction, which determines the local thermodynamic
equilibrium. In this case (Figure 10), the experiment
shows that the CVC has a shape fundamentally simi-
lar to that shown in Figure 8.
Figure 12. Separation of an analogue of Peltier heat by a struc-
The sign of the Local thermo-EMF arising in the ture of series-connected p-n junctions grown on a silicon sub-
p-n junction does not depend on the polarity of the strate [28-31].
heat flux, as in the case of voltages determined by
As can be seen from Figure 12, the fast temper-
the diffuse Seebeck coefficient (which are 3 orders
ature response, determined only by the polarity of a
of magnitude less), but is completely determined,
three-micron structure of series-connected p-n junc-
in accordance with the displacement of the CVC
tions, has a slow temperature effect, determined by a
(Figure 7) by the heat flux modulus of polarity p-n
thick silicon substrate.
transition, i.e. diffusion of the main carriers of its hot
It is also characteristic that the thermal shunting
lining (Figure 11).
of the structure of p-n junctions completely lineariz-
es the CVC, which directly indicates that the heat
released by the structure is determined by the Local
thermo-EMF.
The use of extended concentration-electrical-ther-
mal phenomenology made it possible both to confirm
the current (primacy of the current) of the Losev p-n
junction, and to transfer the “anomalous” thermoe-
lectric power discovered by Tauc in the p-n junction
to the category of normal-local, and to describe new
experimental results of studies of contact thermoe-
lectric power. In addition, the extended phenomenol-
ogy made it possible to understand that macroscopic
thermoelectricity is artificially limited only by dif-
Figure 11. Dependence of the polarity of the EMF on the di- fuse thermoelectric materials and showed that for
rection of the polarity of the heat flux for conventional diffuse diffuse thermoelectrics, the efficiency of thermoelec-
thermoelectrics (top) and the dependence of the polarity of the
tric conversion achieved in practice is already close
Local EMF only on the polarity in the p-n junction (bottom).
to the theoretical limit.
On a structure of series-connected p-n junctions In addition, extended phenomenology has shown
with a thickness of 3 μm, grown on a 300-micron de- that the efficiency of thermoelectric conversion
vice silicon substrate, a similar independence of the based on local thermoelectric power does not have
generated temperature drop from the current polarity a diffuse limit and can be dramatically increased by
is observed at short recording times. And at long several times compared to that achieved using the
measurement times, only a certain asymmetry is ob- Seebeck effect in traditional diffuse materials (Figure
served, which is associated with the shunting effect 10).
of a thick substrate (Figure 12). This was experimentally confirmed on the devel-

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

oped detectors based on Local Thermo-EMF in sili- three times, since the diffuse Seebeck effect is used,
con junctions, the volt-watt sensitivity of which was i.e. friction is used squared. In this regard, Local
obtained three orders of magnitude higher than that thermo-EMF, using not diffuse, but ballistic effects,
of detectors based on the traditional macroscopic eliminates the friction multiplication, thereby making
Seebeck effect. it possible to approach the Carnot cycle. But thermo-
At the same time, the extended phenomenology electricity itself also demonstrates the Reverse Pro-
shows that there can be complex, three-phase effects cess—the flow of electrical energy (into an external
in the p-n junction, which makes it possible to opti- circuit) from a thermogenerator can, in principle, be
mize, in particular, the combination of local thermo- opposed to the flow of heat from a thermoelectric re-
electric effects with photoelectric effects in it. frigerator.
And in this regard, there is nothing supernatural
4. Reversible effects in the fact that with the help of Local thermo-EMF
it is possible to generate electricity both due to the
Since what differs from the generally accepted
flow of the body, and to generate a heat flow due to
one often “does not fit in the head” and is perceived
electric energy.
as erroneous or mystical, an ELEMENTARY expla-
In considering Local thermo-emfs, we have al-
nation is required for the material shown in Figure
ready started from the band diagram and from the
11 and Figure 12.
current-voltage characteristics, similar to those used
Reversible Processes, forbidden by the Second
to describe the photo-effect. And for the photo effect,
Law of Thermodynamics, connected with the trans-
the reverse effect used in LEDs is also well known.
formation of Chaos into Harmony (the impossibility
of this transformation in inanimate Nature), we will In principle, these both effects are also the imple-
not consider here [32-35]. mentation of the Heat Engine, simply because of the
“The law of non-decreasing entropy, or the so- high light temperature, which acts as a hot temper-
called physical meaning of the second law of ther- ature in the Carnot formula, it is believed that their
modynamics, was discovered by Rudolf Clausius Carnot coefficient is close to unity and, at the same
(1865), and its theoretical justification was given by time, all energy processes in the p-n junction can be
Ludwig Boltzmann (1870s).” fully described by the change in the electron energy
But we will consider not just Reverse Process- in the transition diagram. In practice, this is far from
es, such as a change in the sign of a mechanical or the case, and in terms of efficiency, photocells only
electrical force with a corresponding change in the approach the efficiency of an internal combustion
sign of movement, as in the same linear Ohm’s Law, engine. And the LEDs heat up so much that they
but we will consider exactly the Reverse Processes, even burn out with improper cooling. And when in-
which, in principle, are not prohibited by the Sec- direct-gap semiconductors are used as a material for
ond Law of Thermodynamics, but simply limited in these diodes, the efficiency also decreases further
effectiveness. The simplest examples are the con- due to the fact that the transition of an electron from
version of mechanical or electrical energy into heat, one energy level to another is carried out not only
which the Heat Engine has long “learned” to convert due to a quantum of light, but also due to thermal vi-
back into mechanical or electrical energy. And the brations of phonon atoms.
limit of effectiveness of this Reverse Transformation, Nevertheless, their principles of operation in an
as follows from the Second Law of Thermodynam- ideal diode can be described in the “language” of
ics itself, is determined by the Carnot cycle. One of light-electron.
these Thermal Engines is a thermoelectric generator, For a photodiode, as shown in Figure 7, the light
the efficiency of which, in principle, is determined flux shifts the current-voltage characteristics of an
by the same Carnot cycle, but in reality it is less than ideal diode. At the same time, in the photo-quadrant

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

marked in yellow, the current and voltage are in in the p-n junction near the critical voltage, only in
antiphase and the corresponding power is negative the form of light. For a real diode, for the reasons
(Figure 13). noted above, only a part of the power will be re-
leased in the form of light, and, at high currents, the
light will be extinguished. All the electrical power
consumed by the diode will be released as heat. Such
a current analysis of the light effect makes it possible
to clarify the description of the direct photo effect as
well. As shown in Figure 5, the photo effect, due to
the smallness of the photon momentum, is associ-
ated precisely with vertical transitions of electrons.
But the critical voltage of the light of the diode is
Figure 13. Anti-phase current and voltages give negative (gener-
reached when the spatial transition of electrons be-
ator) power both with the photo effect (blue color) and with the comes possible (Figure 3), which, at the same time,
Local thermal effect. strictly corresponds to the law of conservation of
momentum and does not require the participation of
As shown in Figure 13, we obtain a similar neg-
phonons in direct-gap semiconductors.
ative power peak for the thermal quadrant, where the
current and voltage are in antiphase (in experimental
Figure 10, the corresponding thermal power peaks
are shown positive for convenience). It is like a bat-
tery delivering positive power to an external circuit,
the current and voltage inside it are also in antiphase,
which corresponds to the removal of this power from
the battery to transfer it to the external circuit.
The light effect, the reverse of the photo effect,
has been studied quite well. Therefore, we will begin Figure 14. Schematic diagram of the description of the forward
the analysis of Reverse Effects with him. As was and reverse branches of the I-V characteristics (shown by circles,
customary in all Electronics, and analyze the light blue for the light effect, red for the Local thermal effect in the p-n
junction) by the current bias of the I-V characteristics of an ideal
effect as a field effect, determined by the achieve-
diode.
ment of a certain critical voltage on the p-n junction
on the direct branch of the CVC. But if we take into When the ideal diode is displaced by the current
account the linear relationship of different flows in the shutoff direction, the electrical energy con-
(formula 4), then the experimental CVC of the direct sumed by the diode in the initial section of the I–V
branch of the LED corresponds to positive current characteristic (Figure 12) will in fact similarly turn
displacements of the direct branch of its CVC, which into a heat flux, which, as in the light effect, corre-
corresponds to the expansion of the phenomenology sponds to the displacement of the I–V characteristic
of the description of the p-n junction when taking of the ideal diode, but in terms of the shutoff current
into account the light flux (Figure 14, on the right). (Figure 14, left).
So, taking into account the primacy of the cur- And in both considered cases, in the initial sec-
rent, it is possible to construct a differential I-V char- tions of the CVC, the parameters of the p-n junction
acteristic of an ideal diode, displaced, as in the case plates will determine on which plate the release of
of the photo effect, by the opening (of a different po- light or heat will occur more. And with an increase
larity) current, determined by the emitted light flux. in currents above certain critical ones, heat will be
So for an ideal diode, we will get the power released released purely ohmic-isotropically. And this is the

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

boundary between flows and isotropic selection. photo effects, to find the maximum efficiency, one
Strict, quantitative consideration requires, as can limit oneself to three simplified systems of
shown above (Figure 6), taking into account the equation (6) and analyze the three-dimensional ther-
“Maxwell’s demon” in the initial CVC, taking into mo-voltage-ampere surface (Figure 15).
account that the equilibrium state of the p-n junc-
tion corresponds to a small temperature difference
between its plates. But this temperature drop is as-
sociated with specific details of the p-n junction and
will not be considered here. We only note the main
thing - a strict phenological description, developed,
in principle, for any number of independent forces
(J) and flows (F), as shown by studies on the NA-
NO-scale, requires taking into account not three
(as shown in Table 1), but four pairs of forces and
flows: electrical, concentration, thermal and light.
J E = LEE FE + LET FT + LEN FN + LEPh FPh
J N = LNE FE + LNT FT + LNN FN + LNPh FPh
(5) Figure 15. CVC expansion takes into account the temperature
JT = LTE FE + LTT FT + LTN FN + LTPh FPh force.
J Ph = LPhE FE + LPhT FT + LPhN FN + LPhPh FPh
In the general case, it is necessary to analyze a
where L is the corresponding 16 kinetic coefficients 4-dimensional thermo-photo-voltage-ampere surface.
related to each other, as follows from the “reversibil-
ity”—the reversibility of effects (Figures 13-14), by
5. Conclusions
the Onsager symmetry principle, which reduces the
number of independent kinetic coefficients to 10: The registration of the Effects, which were classified
J E = LEE FE + LET FT + LEN FN + LEPh FPh as quantum, as if by itself, implied their measurability.
Additionally, this was supported by hastily made Quan-
J N = LEN FE + LNN FN + LNT FT + LNPh FPh
(6) tum Statistics, which, as it were, fenced off the meas-
JT = LET FE + LNT FN + LTT FT + LTPh FPh
urability of Quantum Effects from its limitations by
J Ph = LEPh FE + LTPh FT + LNPh FN + LPhPh FPh Classical Thermodynamics (how loosely this was done
By solving this system for any flow (force) and will be shown in the chapter of my future work “Quan-
using the boundary conditions, one can obtain the tum Extension of Classical Representations” [36]). But,
maximum efficiency of electric power and heat flux even without the macroscopic parameters calculated
generation [11-13], or the maximum efficiency of light from the mystical Schrödinger wave functions, simply
generation. Moreover, it is possible to achieve the from the analysis of Newton’s Elementary Particle, it
maximum efficiency of the transistor and thereby re- is possible to obtain both their measurable diffuse light
duce its own noise level and increase its speed. quanta flux, and the measurable wave of coherent laser
Only in this case it must be borne in mind that light.
these are Local Kinetic coefficients that characterize Local—missed between macroscopic and micro-
a non-homogeneous material, an artificially created scopic NANO-effects, in this regard, were less fortu-
“Maxwell’s demon”—an element of a working na- nate, because they directly adjoined, and in thermoe-
no-structure, in particular, the ideal diode described lectricity they were determined by Thermodynamics
by us. and its limitations simply forbade their measurabili-
In semiconductor devices with weak light and ty. And these restrictions-prohibitions were lifted by

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 Journal of Electronic & Information Systems | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | April 2023

Ilya Prigogine’s own Thermo-Dynamics of flows, References

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Conflict of Interest expansion of the phenomenology of thermo-
There is no conflict of interest. electricity. Global Journal of Science Frontier

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[Local thermoelectric effects in wide-gap semicon- барьером, ФТИ им. А.Ф. Иоффе, Российской
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термоэлектричества, опубликовано (Russian) org/pubs/articles/11583.htm
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ICT’97, XVI International Conference on Ther- and cancellation of the Richardson-Langmuir
moelectrics; 1997 Aug 26-29; Hotel Art’otel ban. Non-Metallic Material Science. 3(1), 15-
Dresden. USE: IEEE. p. 96-97. 23.
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ity and reality are local Thermo-EMFs. Global Conference on Thermoelectrics; 2002 Aug 25-
Journal of Science Frontier Research-Physics & 29; Hyatt Regency Hotel, Long Beach. USA:
Space Science (GJSFR-A). 18(2), 59-64. IEEE.
[20] Ordin, S., 2012. НАНО или новый образ [29] Ordin, S.V., Sokolov, I.A., Zjuzin, A.J. (editors),
мышления, опубликовано (Russian) [NANO 2006. Термоэлектрические процессы в p-n
or a new way of thinking]. Nanotechnological переходах (Russian) [Thermoelectric processes
Society of Russia. Available from: http://rusnor. in p-n junctions]. Works of X Interstate Semi-
org/pubs/articles/7556.htm nar: Thermoelectrics and Their Application, A.F.
[21] Stilbans, L.S., 1957. Термоэлектрические Ioffe PhTI of the Russian Academy of Sciences;
явления. Полупроводники в науке и технике, 2006 Nov 14-15; St.-Petersburg. p. 41-47.

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[30] Ordin, S.V., 2020. Local (NANO) thermoelec- Society of Russia. Available from: http://rusnor.
tric effects. The Journal of Modern Technology org/network/social/user/10216/blog/3877/
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[31] O r d i n S . V. ( e d i t o r ) , 2 0 1 5 . О п т и ч е с ка я опубликовано (Russian) [Degrees of harmony
методика измерения локальных термо-ЭДС, of nature]. Nanotechnological Society of Russia.
ФТИ им. А.Ф.Иоффе Российской Академии Available from: http://rusnor.org/network/social/
Наук, Санкт Петербург, Россия (Russian) user/10216/blog/3894/
[Optical technique of measurement local ther- [35] Ordin, S., 2023. Foundations of thermoelectron-
mo-EMF, PHTI of A.F.Ioffe of the Russian ics. International Journal of Physics and Mathe-
Academy of Sciences, St.-Petersburg, Russia]. matics. 5(1), 15-19.
Interstate Conference: Thermoelectrics and DOI: https://doi.org/10.33545/26648636.2023.
Their Application. p. 234-237. v5.i1a.46
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models. Lambert: London. pp. 82. of quantum statistics. Science Set Journal of
[33] Ordin, S., 2022. Характеризация Состояния Physics. 2(2), 1-4. Available from: https://
Материи, опубликовано (Russian) [Characteri- www.mkscienceset.com/articles_file/246-_arti-
zation of the state of matter]. Nanotechnological cle1682576762.pdf

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