6 Space physics

6.1 Earth and the Solar System

6.1.1 The Earth
The Earth's Axis
The Earth is a rocky planet that rotates in a near circular orbit around the
Sun
It rotates on its axis, which is a line through the north and south poles
◦ The axis is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.4° from the vertical
The Earth completes one full rotation (revolution) in approximately 24
hours (1 day)
This rotation creates the apparent daily motion of the Sun rising and
setting
◦ Rotation of the Earth on its axis is therefore responsible for the periodic cycle of day
and night
6.1.1 The Earth
Day and Night
The Earth's rotation around its
axis creates day and night
◦ Day is experienced by the half of the
Earth's surface that is facing the Sun
◦ Night is the other half of the Earth's
surface, facing away from the Sun
6.1.1 The Earth
Rising and Setting of the Sun
The Earth's rotation on its axis makes the Sun looks like it
moves from east to west
◦ At the equinoxes the Sun rises exactly in the east and sets exactly
in the west
◦ Equinox (meaning 'equal night') is when day and night are
approximately of equal length
However, the exact locations of where the Sun rises and sets
changes throughout the seasons
 6.1.1 The Earth
In the northern hemisphere
(above the equator):
◦In summer, the sun rises
north of east and sets north
of west
◦In winter, the sun rises south
of east and sets south of west
6.1.1 The Earth
The Sun is highest above the horizon at noon (12 pm)
In the northern hemisphere, the daylight hours are longest
up until roughly the 21st June
◦ This day is known as the Summer Solstice and is where the Sun is
at its highest point in the sky all year
The daylight hours then decrease to their lowest
around 21st December
◦ This is known the Winter Solstice and is where the Sun is at its
lowest point in the sky all year
6.1.1 The Earth
The Earth's Orbit
The Earth orbits the Sun once in
approximately 365 days
◦ This is 1 year
The combination of the orbiting of
the Earth around the Sun and the
Earth's tilt creates the seasons
6.1.1 The Earth
Seasons in the Northern hemisphere caused by the tilt of the Earth
Over parts B, C and D of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun

◦ This means daylight hours are more than hours of darkness

◦ This is spring and summer
The southern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
◦ This means there are shorter days than night
◦ This is autumn and winter
Over parts F, G and H of the orbit, the northern hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun
◦ The situations in both the northern and southern hemisphere are reversed
◦ It is autumn and winter in the northern hemisphere, but at the same time it is spring and summer in
the southern hemisphere
6.1.1 The Earth
At C:
This is the summer solstice
◦ The northern hemisphere has the longest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its shortest day

At G:
◦ This is the winter solstice
◦ The northern hemisphere has its shortest day, whilst the southern hemisphere has its longest day

At A and D:
◦ Night and day are equal in both hemispheres
◦ These are the equinoxes
6.1.1 The Earth
Moon & Earth
The Moon is a satellite around the Earth
It travels around the Earth in roughly a circular orbit once a month
◦ This takes 27-28 days

The Moon revolves around its own axis in a month so always has the same side facing the Earth
◦ We never see the hemisphere that is always facing away from Earth, although astronauts have orbited
the Moon and satellite have photographed it

The Moon shines with reflected light from the Sun, it does not produce its own light
6.1.1 The Earth
Phases of the Moon
The way the Moon's appearance
changes across a month,
as seen from Earth, is called
its periodic cycle of phases
6.1.1 The Earth
In the image above, the inner circle shows that exactly half of the Moon is illuminated by the
Sun at all times
The outer circle shows how the Moon looks like from the Earth at its various positions
In the New Moon phase:
◦ The Moon is between the Earth and the Sun
◦ Therefore, the sunlight is only on the opposite face of the Moon to the Earth
◦ This means the Moon is unlit as seen from Earth, so it is not visible

At the Full Moon phase:

◦ The Earth is between the Moon and the Sun
◦ The side of the Moon that is facing the Earth is completely lit by the sunlight
◦ This means the Moon is fully lit as seen from Earth

In between, a crescent can be seen where the Moon is partially illuminated from sunlight
6.1.1 The Earth
Orbital Speed
When planets move around the Sun, or a moon moves around a planet, they orbit in circular motion
◦ This means that in one orbit, a planet travels a distance equal to the circumference of a circle (the shape of
the orbit)
◦ This is equal to 2πr where r is the radius a circle

The relationship between speed, distance and time is:

the average orbital speed of an object can be defined by the equation

6.1.1 The Earth
where:
◦ v = orbital speed in metres per second (m/s)
◦ r = average radius of the orbit in metres (m)
◦ T = orbital period in seconds (s)

This orbital period (or time period) is defined as:

The time taken for an object to complete one orbit
6.1.1 The Earth
The orbital radius r is always taken
from the centre of the object
being orbited to the object orbiting.
6.1.2 The Solar System
The Solar System consists of:
oThe Sun
oEight planets
oNatural and artificial satellites
oDwarf planets
oAsteroids and comets
6.1.2 The Solar System
oThe Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System
oThe Sun is a star that makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
oThere are eight planets and an unknown number of dwarf
planets which orbit the Sun
oThe gravitational field around planets is strong enough to have pulled in all
nearby objects with the exception of natural satellites
oThe gravitational field around a dwarf planet is not strong enough to have
pulled in nearby objects
6.1.2 The Solar System
Planet:
oA large spherical object that orbits the Sun without another similar object
close to it.
oThere are eight planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus and Neptune.
Minor Planet:
o An object which orbits the sun but is not large enough or far enough
from another object to be defined as planet.
oThey are Pluto and Eris.
6.1.2 The Solar System
Asteroids and Meteroids:
oThese are rocky objects that are smaller than planets.
oMost asteroids are found in the asteroid belt between the orbits of Mars
and Jupiter.
Comets:
oA ball of ice, dust and gas which orbits the Sun in a highly elliptical orbit.
oThe ice melts when the comet approaches the Sun and forms the
comet’s tail
6.1.2 The Solar System
Satellites
oThere are two types of satellite:
oNatural
oArtificial
oSome planets have moons which orbit them
oMoons are an example of natural satellites
oArtificial satellites are man-made and can orbit any object in space
oThe International Space Station (ISS) orbits the Earth and is an example of an
artificial satellite
6.1.2 The Solar System
6.1.2 The Solar System
Accretion Model of the Solar System
There are 4 rocky and small planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth and
Mars
◦ These are the nearest to the Sun
There are 4 gaseous and large planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and
Neptune
◦ There are the furthest from the sun
6.1.2 The Solar System
6.1.2 The Solar System
6.1.2 The Solar System
Elliptical Orbits
Orbits of planets, minor planets and comets are elliptical
◦ An ellipse is just a 'squashed' circle
Planets, minor planets and comets have elliptical orbits
◦ However, the Sun is not at the centre of an elliptical orbit
◦ This is only the case when the orbit is approximately circular
6.1.2 The Solar System
Gravitational Field Strength
The strength of gravity on different planets after an object's weight on that planet
Weight is defined as:
The force acting on an object due to gravitational attraction
Planets have strong gravitational fields
◦ Hence, they attract nearby masses with a strong gravitational force
Because of weight:
◦ Objects stay firmly on the ground
◦ Objects will always fall to the ground
◦ Satellites are kept in orbit
6.1.2 The Solar System
Both the weight of any body and the value of the gravitational field strength g differs between the surface
of the Earth and the surface of other bodies in space, including the Moon because of the planet or
moon's mass
 The greater the mass of the planet then the greater its gravitational field strength
 A higher gravitational field strength means a larger attractive force towards the centre of that planet or moon
g varies with the distance from a planet, but on the surface of the planet, it is roughly the same
 The strength of the field around the planet decreases as the distance from the planet increases
However, the value of g on the surface varies dramatically for different planets and moons
The gravitational field strength (g) on the Earth is approximately 10 N/kg
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the Moon is less than on the Earth
 This means it would be easier to lift a mass on the surface of the Moon than on the Earth
The gravitational field strength on the surface of the gas giants (eg. Jupiter and Saturn) is more than on the
Earth
 This means it would be harder to lift a mass on the gas giants than on the Earth
 6.1.2 The Solar System
On such planets such as Jupiter, an object’s mass remains the same at all points in space
However, their weight will be a lot greater meaning for example, a human will be unable to fully stand up

A smaller body or object will orbit a larger body
 For example, a planet orbiting the Sun
In order to orbit a body such as a star or a planet, there has to be a force pulling the object towards that body
 Gravity provides this force
Therefore, it is said that the force that keeps a planet in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the
Sun
The gravitational force exerted by the larger body on the orbiting object is always attractive
 Therefore, the gravitational force always acts towards the centre of the larger body
Therefore, the force that keeps an object in orbit around the Sun is the gravitational attraction of the Sun and is
always directed from the orbiting object to the centre of the Sun
The gravitational force will cause the body to move and maintain in a circular path
6.2 Stars and the Universe
6.2.1 The Sun as a star

•The Sun lies at the centre of the Solar System

• The Sun is a star which makes up over 99% of the mass of the solar system
• The fact that most of the mass of the Solar System is concentrated in the Sun is the reason
the smaller planets orbit the Sun.
• The gravitational pull of the Sun on the planets keeps them in orbit

•The Sun is a medium sized star consisting of mainly hydrogen and helium
•It radiates most of its energy in the infrared, visible and ultraviolet regions of
the electromagnetic spectrum
6.2.1 The Sun as a star
•Stars come in a wide range of sizes and colours, from yellow stars to red dwarfs, from blue giants
to red supergiants. These can be classified according to their colour
•Warm objects emit infrared and extremely hot objects emit visible light as well. Therefore,
the colour they emit depends on how hot they are
•A star's colour is related to its surface temperature
• A red star is the coolest (at around 3000 K)
• A blue star is the hottest (at around 30 000 K)
 6.2.2 Stars
•Galaxies are made up of billions of stars
•The Universe is made up of many different galaxies
•The Sun is one of billions of stars in a galaxy called the Milky Way
•Other stars in the Milky Way galaxy are much further away from Earth than the Sun is
•Some of these stars also have planets which orbit them.
•Astronomical distances such as the distances between stars and galaxies, are so large that physicists use
a special unit to measure them called the light-year
•One light-year is:
•The distance travelled by light through (the vacuum of) space in one year
•The speed of light is the universal speed limit, nothing can travel faster than the speed of light
•But over astronomical distances, light actually travels pretty slowly
•The diameter of the Milky Way is approximately 100 000 light-years. This means that light would take
100 000 years to travel across it
Life Cycle of Stars
1. Nebula
All stars form from a giant interstellar cloud of hydrogen gas and dust called a nebula
2. Protostar
The force of gravity within a nebula pulls the particles closer together until it forms a hot ball of gas,
known as a protostar
As the particles are pulled closer together the density of the protostar will increase. This will result
in more frequent collisions between the particles which causes the temperature to increase
3. Main Sequence Star
Once the protostar becomes hot enough, nuclear fusion reactions occur within its core.
The hydrogen nuclei will fuse to form helium nuclei. Every fusion reaction releases heat (and light) energy
which keeps the core hot
Once a protostar is formed, its life cycle will depend on its mass
 Life Cycle of Stars
• Once a star is born it is known as a main-sequence star
• During the main sequence, the star is in equilibrium and said to be stable. The inward force due to gravity is equal to
the outward pressure force from the fusion reactions
4. Red Giant or Red Super Giant
• After several billion years the hydrogen causing the fusion reactions in the star will begin to run out
• Once this happens, the fusion reactions in the core will start to die down
• This causes the core to shrink and heat up. The core will shrink because the inward force due to gravity will
become greater than the outward force due to the pressure of the expanding gases as the fusion dies down
• A new series of reactions will then occur around the core, for example, helium nuclei will undergo fusion to
form beryllium
• These reactions will cause the outer part of the star to expand
• A star the same size as the Sun or smaller will become a red giant
• A star much larger than the Sun will become a red super giant . It is red because the outer surface starts to cool
Life Cycle of Stars
5. For Red Giant Stars
Planetary Nebula
Once this second stage of fusion reactions have finished, the star will become unstable and eject the
outer layer of dust and gas. The layer of dust and gas which is ejected is called a planetary nebula
White Dwarf
The core which is left behind will collapse completely, due to the pull of gravity, and the star will
become a white dwarf. The white dwarf will be cooling down and as a result, the amount of energy it
emits will decrease
Black Dwarf
Once the star has lost a significant amount of energy it becomes a black dwarf. It will continue to cool
until it eventually disappears from sight
Life Cycle of Stars
6. For Red Super Giants
Supernova
Once the fusion reactions inside the red supergiant finally finish, the core of the star will collapse
suddenly causing a gigantic explosion. This is called a supernova
At the centre of this explosion a dense body, called a neutron star will form
The outer remnants of the star will be ejected into space during the supernova explosion, forming
a planetary nebula. The nebula from a supernova may form new stars with orbiting planets
Neutron Star (or Black Hole)
In the case of the biggest stars, the neutron star that forms at the centre will continue
to collapse under the force of gravity until it forms a black hole. A black hole is an extremely
dense point in space that not even light can escape from
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe
Galaxies & Redshift
Usually, when an object emits waves, the wavefronts spread out symmetrically
If the wave source moves, the waves can become squashed together or stretched out
A moving object will cause the wavelength, λ, (and frequency) of the waves to change:
◦ The wavelength of the waves in front of the source decreases and the frequency increases
◦ The wavelength behind the source increases and the frequency decreases
◦ This effect is known as the Doppler effect
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe
The Doppler effect also affects light
◦ If an object moves away from an observer the wavelength of light increases
◦ This is known as redshift as the light moves towards the red end of the spectrum

Redshift is:
An increase in the observed wavelength of electromagnet radiation emitted from receding
stars and galaxies

Light from a star that is moving towards an observer will be blueshifted and light from a star
moving away from an observer will be redshifted
6.2.3 The Expanding Universe
•The diagram also shows that the light coming to us from distant galaxies is redshifted. The lines
on the spectrum are shifted towards the red end
•This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
•If the galaxies are moving away from us it means that the universe is expanding
•The observation of redshift from distant galaxies supports the Big Bang theory
•Another observation from looking at the light spectrums produced from distant galaxies is that
the greater the distance to the galaxy, the greater the redshift. This means that the further
away a galaxy, the faster it is moving away from us.
The Big Bang
Around 14 billion years ago, the Universe began from a very small region that was extremely
hot and dense
Then there was a giant explosion, which is known as the Big Bang
This caused the universe to expand from a single point, cooling as it does so, to form the
universe today
Each point expands away from the others. This is seen from galaxies moving away from each
other, and the further away they are the faster they move
Redshift in the light from distant galaxies is evidence that the Universe is expanding and
supports the Big Bang Theory. As a result of the initial explosion, the Universe continues to
expand.
The Big Bang
Evidence for the Big Bang:
The Big Bang theory is very well supported by evidence from a range of sources
1. Galactic red-shift
•Galactic redshift provides evidence for the Big Bang Theory and the expansion of the universe
•Red-shift provides evidence that the Universe is expanding because Red-shift is observed when
the spectral lines from the distant galaxy move closer to the red end of the spectrum.
•This is because light waves are stretched by the expansion of the universe so the wavelength
increases (or frequency decreases).
•This indicates that the galaxies are moving away from us
The Big Bang
2. Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR)
•The discovery of the CMB (Cosmic Microwave Background) radiation led to the Big Bang theory
becoming the currently accepted model.
•The CMB is a type of electromagnetic radiation which is a remnant from the early stages of the
Universe. It has a wavelength of around 1 mm making it a microwave, hence the name
Cosmic Microwave Background radiation.
•Astronomers discovered radiation in the microwave region of the electromagnetic spectrum
coming from all directions and at a generally uniform temperature of 2.73 K. They were unable
to do this any earlier since microwaves are absorbed by the atmosphere. Around this time,
space flight was developed which enabled astronomers to send telescopes into orbit above the
atmosphere.
The Big Bang
Using Redshift Observations to Measure the Universe

The change in wavelength of the galaxy’s starlight due to redshift can be used to find the
velocity, v, with which a galaxy (or any distant object) is moving away from Earth
 Hubble & The Age of the Universe
This doppler shift in the wavelength of the light is evidence that distant galaxies are moving
away from the Earth.
Hubble also observed that light from more distant galaxies was shifted further towards the red
end of the spectrum compared to closer galaxies.
From this observation he concluded that galaxies or stars which are further away from the Earth
are moving faster than galaxies which are closer.
Hubble & The Age of the Universe
Hubble’s law states:
The recessional velocity v of a galaxy is proportional to its distance from Earth

◦ H0 = Hubble constant, this will be provided in your examination along with the correct units (s-1)
◦ The accepted value is that H0 = 2.2 × 10–18 per second
◦ v = recessional velocity of an object, the velocity of an object moving away from an observer (km s-1)
◦ d = distance between the object and the Earth (km)
The Hubble Constant, H0 is defined as:
The ratio of the speed at which the galaxy is moving away from the Earth, to its distance from
the Earth
Hubble & The Age of the Universe
Hubble & The Age of the Universe
•The gradient of the graph can be used to find the Age of the Universe
• When the distance equals zero, this represents all the matter in the Universe being at a single point
• This is the singularity that occurred at the moment of the Big Bang

•The units of the gradient are per second (the same as the units of the Hubble Constant).
•By taking the reciprocal, or 1/Ho, the units will become seconds.
•Therefore the reciprocal of the gradient represents time and gives the amount of time which the
Universe has been expanding for
•Astronomers have used this formula to estimate the age of the Universe at about 13.7 billion
years