Semiconductor Electronics :

29 Materials, Devices and

Simple Circuits
SOLIDS
All solids are made up of atoms and molecules but due to different (a , b , c ) along the x, y and z axis and the angles (a, b and g) in
arrangement of the molecules inside them, they are divided into between the translational vectors are called lattice parameters.
two classes (a) crystalline and (b) amorphous. Y
Properties of Crystalline Solids
(i) The atoms and molecules are arranged in a definite or regular b
order.
(ii) Crystalline solids are bounded by flat surfaces.
(iii) They posses uniform chemical composition. g
a a
(iv) They have sharp melting point. X
(v) They are anisotropic.
b
(vi) They have symmetry. c
Properties of Amorphous Solids Z
(i) The atoms and molecules are arranged in an irregular Unit Cell
manner. A unit cell is the smallest geometrical unit in three dimensions.
(ii) These are isotropic i.e. they have same physical properties The repetition of which will give the entire crystal. The crystalline
in all directions. solid is said to be consisting of a large no. of unit cells, each one
(iii) They do not have a sharp melting point. in contact with immediate neighbours.
(iv) They do not have any symmetry.
Y
CRYSTAL LATTICE
It is defined as the infinite array of atoms and molecules in
space (three dimensions) such that at every point, an atom or b
the molecule has got the identical surroundings.
Lattice Vectors g
a
Let a and b be the distance between the two successive atoms X
(points) of the lattice along the x-axis and y-axis, then the lattice a
b
vector l is given by c
ur ur ur
l = n1 a + n2 b where a and b are called translational vectors Z
and n 1 and n2 are the integers.
ur ur ur ur Crystal System
For three dimensional lattice, l = n1 a + n2 b + n3 c Based on the different combination of lattice parameters (a, b, c)
Lattice Parameters and the angles (a, b and g) we can define crystal system as
In a three dimensional crystal structure, the translational vectors follows.

S. Crystal Lattice type Unit cell Examples

No. system characteristics
1. Cubic (i) Simple cubic (sc) a=b= c (i) CsCl, ZnS, NaCl
(ii) Face centered cubic (fcc) s = b = g = 90° (ii) Silver, copper, gold, lead, nickel and platinum
(iii) Body centered cubic (bcc) (iii) Sodium, barium, iron, tungsten and uranium
2. Tetragonal (i) Simple cubic (sc) a=b¹c NiSO4, SnO2 and white tin
(ii) Body centered cubic (bcc) s = b = g = 90°
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3. Hexagonal Simple cubic (sc) a=b¹c Zn, ZnO, Cd, Ni, graphite and quartz
s = b = 90°
g = 120°
4. Rhombohedral Simple cubic (sc) a=b= c Sb, Bi, calcite
(Trigonal) s = b = g ¹ 90° < 120°
5. Orthorhombic (i) Simple cubic (sc) a¹b¹c KNO3, gallanium, mercury chloride, Rhombic
(Rhombic) (ii) Base centred cubic s = b = g = 90° sulphur
(iii) Body centered cubic (bcc)
(iv) Face centered cubic (fcc)
6. Monoclinic (i) Simple cubic (sc) a¹b¹c Na2SO4, KClO3, FeSO4
(ii) Base centered or s = g = 90° ¹ b
end centered cubic (ecc)
7. Triclinic Simple cubic (sc) a¹b¹c CuSO4, K2Cr2O7
s ¹ b ¹ g ¹ 90°

Characteristics of the unit cell of a cubic system Volume of atoms per unit cell
Packing factor ( P.F .) =
(i) Volume of a unit cell (V) = (a × b × c) or V = a × b × c Volume of unit cell
(ii) Mass and density of a unit cell :
The mass of unit cell = number of atoms or molecules in the
cell × mass of each atom
M
or, m = p × ma or m = p ´ where M = molecular wt. of
Na
the substance
M
p
Na pM
\ density d = =
V VN a
If edge a, is given in picometre then Example 1.
pM In a cubic unit cell of bcc structure, the lattice points
d= g / cm 3
a 3 N a ´ 10 -30 i.e. number of atoms are
(iii) Number of atoms (N) in a unit cell or the total number of (a) 2 (b) 6
Nf Nc (c) 8 (d) 12
atoms per unit cell is given by N = N i + + Solution : (a)
2 8
No. of lattice points in a crystal structure will be
where Ni = no. of body centred or interior atoms
Nf = no. of face centered atoms N C N F Ni
n= + +
Nc = no. of corner atoms. 8 2 1
Coordination Number In bcc crystal NC = 8 and NF = 0 and N i = 1 ;
The number of nearest neighbours of a given atom in the crystal
is called the coordination number. 8 0 1
\ n= + + =2
Half of the distance between the centres of two neighbouring 8 2 1
atoms is called atomic radius . It is also called lattice constant or Example 2.
lattice parameter. Sodium has body-centred packing. Distance between two
Atomic Packing Factor or Density of Packing nearest atoms is 3.7 Å. Determine the lattice parameter.
It is defined as ratio of the volume occupied by all the atoms in Solution :
a unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell. Atomic radius for bcc structure is
a 3 or a = 4r = 4(3.7 / 2) = 4 ´ 1.75 = 4.3Å
r=
4 3 3 3 ´ 1.732
i.e., Lattice parameter = 4.3 Å
Example 3.
Determine the atomic packing factor for a face centred
cubic cell.
S.C. B.C.C F.C.C
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 751

Solution : Splitting of 3s levels when four atoms are brought together.

Atomic packing factor E
Volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell Energy
=
Volume of the unit cell
For fcc sturcture, no. of atoms in a unit cell = 4
a
radius of each atom r = ,
2 2 3s
where a is the lattice parameter.
4pr 3 p 2a 3
Volume of 4 atoms = 4 ´ = Atomic
3 6 separation
Fig.2(b)
p 2a 3 / 6 p 2 Formation of 3s band by a larger number of atoms.(G-state)
so, atomic packing factor = =
a3 6 E
ENERGY BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS Energy
When two identical atoms, are far apart, the electronic levels (or
electronic wave functions) in one are not disturbed by the
presence of other atom fig 1(a). For example, the 3s electron of
each sodium atom has a single energy with respect to its nucleus. 3s
But when the two atoms come closer, these electron’s wave
function starts to overlap and each electron revolves round both
nuclei. Atomic
Fig.2(c) separation
Y
Y The wave function of each electron is roughly, a combination of
Probability of the wave functions of isolated atoms : Fig 1(b) & (c) show two
finding the electron (symmetric wave
YA possible wave functions. In the first, the two isolated wave
YB is maximum
Y A+ Y B function) functions are combined with (make symmetric state) same sign,
r r
Fig. 1(a) in the second with opposite signs(antisymmetic state). The
Fig. 1(b)
Y symmetric state has lower energy as compared to antisymmetric
state, because the electron is more likely to be found midway
between the nuclei, which leads to lower coulomb energy. This is
Probability of the effect, responsible for molecular bonding. Representation of
finding the energy level (when two sodium atoms come closer) is shown in
electron is zero
fig 2(a).
r As we bring together a large number of atoms to form a solid, the
Fig. 1(c)
YA – YB same sort of effect occurs. When the sodium atoms are far apart,
(Antisymmetric all 3s electrons have same energy & as we begin to move them
wave function)
Fig. 1 : Wave functions of two sodium atoms (each in G-state) : together, the energy levels begin to “split”. The situation for four
(a) : At wide separation sodium atoms is shown in fig 2(b). As the number of atoms is
(b) : Small separation : Isolated wave function combined with increased (may be 1020 atoms), the levels become so numerous
same sign (i.e., lower energy) & so close that we can no longer distinguish the individual levels
(c) : Small separation : Isolated wave function combined with as shown in fig 2(c). We can regard the N atoms as forming an
opposite sign i.e., antisymmetric state of joint wave almost continuous band of energy. Since those levels were
functions Y A & Y B(higher energy state) identified with 3s atomic levels of sodium, we refer to the 3s band.
Splitting of 3s levels when two atoms are brought together. 3p
E
Energy
N 3s

6N 2p
3s
2N 2s

1N 1s
Atomic
Fig.2(a) separation Fig. 3- Energy bands in sodium metal (G-state)
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Each band has a total of N individual levels. Each level can hold Insulators
2 × (2l + 1) electrons (l is azimuthal quantum number), so the In these substances (such as diamond), the upper most level is
capacity of each band is 2(2l + 1)N electrons. compeletely filled i.e., no unoccupied state is available for electron
Fig - 3 shows a complete representation of energy bands in to move. The nearest unoccupied states are in next band(called
sodium metal. The 1s, 2s & 2p bands are each full, 3s band is half C.B.), but this is separated from filled band (called V.B.) by an
& 3p band is completely empty. The 1s & 2s bands each contain energy gap (Eg) of about 6eV. Hence electron refuses to carry an
2N electrons & 2p band contain 6N electrons. The 3s band contain electric current.
N electron, so it is half filled. The band, which can hold 6N Semiconductors
electrons is completely empty. A semiconductor, has a completely filled valence band i.e., it
When we add energy to a system i.e., to sodium metal, the electron resembles an insulator at zero temperature. However, the gap
can move from filled state to empty state. In this case, the electron between this filled valence band & next band (C.B.) is small, about
can move from partially full states of 3s band to empty states of 1eV or less. Hence electrons can easily make the transitions from
3s band by absorbing small amount of energy or move to 3p one band to another at room temperature & then carry an electric
band by absorbing larger amount of energy. current (Silicon and germanium are semiconductors).
In a solid at zero temperature, the electron settle into the available In a semiconductors, in thermal equilibrium, nenh = ni2
states of lowest energy. The lower energy bands will therefore There are two types of semiconductor.
be completely filled & the upper most energy band will be either (i) Intrinsic (or pure) semiconductors : These semiconductors
completely filled or partially filled, depending on the number of are pure materials in which the thermal vibrations of the
electrons & on the number of available states. The diffence lattice have liberated charge carriers (i.e., electrons & holes).
between conductor & insulator arises from a partially filled or a In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons (n e) are
completely filled upper most energy band. equal to the number of holes (nh).
CONDUCTORS, INSLULATORS AND (ii) Extrinsic (or impure or doped) semiconductors : They are
SEMICONDUCTORS impure semiconductors in which minutes traces of impurity
Conductors introduces mobile charge carriers [which may be +ive (holes)
A conductor such as sodium, has a partially filled band (in sodium, or -ive (electrons)] in addition to those liberated by thermal
the upper most band 3s is half filled). In these substance, electrons vibration.
are free to move by applying an electric field, because un- Again there are two types of extrinsic semiconductors.
occupied states are available in upper most band (in 3s band of (a) N-type semiconductor : When we add a pentavalent
sodium only half states are completely filled & half states are impurity in intrinsic semiconductor, then we obtain N-
empty or un-occupied). Therefore these electrons are mobile & type semi-conductor. The pentavalent impurity
can contribute to electrical & thermal conductivity. For example substances are P, As & Sb. In N-type semi-conductors,
the energy bands of sodium metal are shown in fig. 4. the electrons are majority carriers & holes are
E minority carriers.
i.e., ne >> nh
Energy
(b) P-type semiconductor : When we add a trivalent
3p impurity in intrinsic semiconductor (such as B, Al, In),
we obtain p-type semiconductor.
3s In p-type semiconductors, the holes are majority
Actual separation carriers & electrons are minority carriers.
of atom in crystal i.e., nh >> ne
2p In acceptor impurity (trivalent element) energy level is just above
R the top of valence band (V.B.)
O R0
Fig.4 C.B.
Origin of energy bands in sodium metals, as atoms move together
the energy level spreads into bands.
*EF
In an isolated sodium atom, the six 3p lowest excited state for Acceptor energy level
V.B.
valence electrons are about 2.1 eV above two 3s G-states. But in
solid sodium the 3s & 3p bands are spread out enough so that (*EF is called fermi level & at T = 0 all the states below are
they actually overlap, forming a single band. completely filled. In N-type semiconductor it lies between
Because each sodium atom has only one valence electron but conduction band & donor energy level Ed & in case of P-type, it
eight 3s & 3p states, that single band is only 1/8 filled & other lies between acceptor level Ea & valence band. In intrinsic
states are unoccupied. semiconductor the EF level lies in midway between C.B. & V.B.)
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 753

Comparison Between Conductors, Semiconductors and Insulators

Property Conductors Semiconductors Insulators
Resistivity range 10–6 – 10–8 Wm 10–4 – 0.5 Wm 107 – 1016 Wm
Conductivity range 10–6 – 10–8 mho/m 104 – 0.5 mho/m 10–7 – 10–16 mho/m
Temp. coefficient Positive Negative Negative
of resistance (a)
Flow of current Due to free electrons Due to electrons and holes No current flow

Conduction band Conduction band

(CB) Conduction band
(CB)
(CB)
Electron energy

Ele ctron e ne rgy

Electron energy
Energy band diagram
No gap Overlapping
Forbidden
region
gap DEg 1eV Forbidden
gap DEg 6eV

Valence band
(VB)
Valence band
(VB) Valence band
(VB)

Forbidden energy gap @ 0eV @ 0.1 – 3eV ³ 6eV

Examples Pt, Al, Cu, Ag etc. Ge, Si, C, Ga, As Wood, plastic
GaF2 etc. diamond, mica

COMMON DEFAULT Example 4.

´ Incorrect. N–type semiconductors are negatively and P– Find the current produced at the room temperature in a
type semiconductors are positively charged. pure germanium plate of area 2 × 10–4 m2 and of thickness
Ö Correct. Both N–type and P–type semiconductors are 1.2 × 10–3 m when a potential of 5 V is applied across the
faces. Concentration of carriers in germanium at room
neutral because these are made up of neutral atoms.
temperature is 1.6 × 106 per cubic metre. The mobility of
´ Incorrect. Mobility of holes is greater than mobility of electrons and holes are 0.4 m2V–1 s–1 and 0.2 m2V–1 s–1
electrons respectively. How much heat is generated in the plate in
Ö Correct. Mobility of holes is less than mobility of electrons 100 second?
because mobility of holes takes place in valance band and Solution :
mobility of electrons takes place in conduction band. Here, ni = 1.6 × 106 m–3
Keep in Memory me = 0.4 m2V–1s–1
mh = 0.2 m2 V2 s–1 ;
1. Width of forbidden energy gap A = 2 × 10–4 m2 and d = 1.2 × 10–3m ; V = 5 V
= Spacing between the top of valence band and the
As s= n i e (m e + m h )
bottom of conduction band.
2. At absolute zero temperature (0 K), there are no free
electrons in the conduction band of a semi-conductor.
= ( )
1.6 ´ 106 ´ (1.6 ´ 10-19 )(0.4 + 0.2)

3. A good number of semi-conductors (elemental and = 1.53 × 10–13 Sm–1

compound) have been discovered but the most frequently Current produced in germanium plate
used are germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) of group-IV of æVö
periodic table because the forbidden energy gap of them is Ι = JA = sEA = s ç ÷ A
èdø
small (of the order of 1 eV) so that at ordinary room
5
temperature covalent bonds break easily and free electrons = 1.53 ´ 10 -13 ´ ´ 2 ´ 10 - 4 = 1.28 ´ 10 -13 A
-3
become available in the conduction band. (1.2 ´ 10 )
4. Important compound semi-conductors are gallium arsenide Heat generated in plate,
(GaAs), lead sulphide (Pbs), cadmium sulphide (Cds), H = VI t = 5 × 1.28 × 10–13 ×100 = 6.4 ×10–11 J.
indium phosphide (InP), etc. p-n JUNCTION DIODE
5. Holes doesn’t exist in conductors but only in semi-
If we join a piece of n-type to a piece of p-type semiconductor by
conductors. They are deflected by electric and magnetic
appropriate method, then we obtain p-n junction diode. The two
fields like electrons. Their movement contributes to electric
ends of p-n junction is provided with metallic conductors for the
current similar to electrons.
application of an external voltage. It is clear that p-type has more
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holes concentration but less concentration of electrons than This recombination produces narrow region near junction called
n-type semicondutor. depletion layer. Since this region is depleted of free or mobile
charge carrier and contains only immobile charge carriers, hence
it is called depletion region. Due to these immobile charge carriers,
a potential barrier VB is established & further diffusion is stopped
& equilibrium is reached (shown by fig. 1(b)). The sign of VB is
+ive towards the n-type & –ive towards p-type.
The schematic symbol of diode & corresponding equivalance in
terms of VB are shown below in fig. 2 (a) & (b).
Depletion
VB layer
Cathode Anode
(n) VB
(p) (b)
(a)
o x
Fig (2) (c)
In fig-2(a) the triangle shows the direction of current. For Si
diode the value of VB is 0.7V & for Ge diode the value of VB is
0.3V.
FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS OF p-n JUNCTION
DIODE
Forward Bias
When p-side of the p-n junction is connected to the +ve terminal
of a battery and n to –ve terminal, conduction takes place and
the diode is said to be forward biased.
Due to this difference in concentration, density gradient is p n
established across the junction resulting in majority carriers
diffusion : Holes (+ive ions) diffuses from p-type to n-type &
electrons (–ive ions) from n-type to p-type (shown in fig (a)) &
terminating their existence by recombination. + –
Reverse Bias
Diffusion and Drift Current
When p-side of he p-n junction is connected to the -ve terminal
Diffusion current : We know that due to concentration difference,
of a battery and n-side to the +ve terminal, there is no conduction
holes diffuse from p-side to n-side (in figure -1(a)) they move
takes place and diode is said to be reverse biased.
from left to right) & electron diffuse from n-side to p-side (in fig
1(a) they move from right to left). But electric field at junction p n
repels the holes as they come to depletion layer & only those
holes which have high kinetic energy are able to cross the
potential barrier. Similarly electric field at junction repels electrons
& those having high kinetic energy cross the junction. – +
The electric potential of n-side is more +ive (or higher) than Effect of biasing : In forward bias, the thickness of depletion
p-side –ive (or lower). The variation of potential barrier VB is layer decreases and potential barrier reduces, while in reverse
shown in fig (c). bias, the thickness of depletion layer increases and potential
The potential difference created across the p-n junction due to barrier also increases. In forward bias the current increases
the diffusion of electrons and holes is called potential barrier. exponentially & in reverse bias, the current remains constant at
So diffusion results in an electric current from p-side to n-side very small magnitude upto breakdown voltage Vo & after that it
known as diffusion current. increases sharply without any further increase of reverse voltage
Drift current : Due to thermal collision, some times a covalent shown in fig.1.
bond is broken & electron-hole pair is created. But those electron- V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode in forward and reverse
hole pairs are destroyed easily due to recombination. This process bias.
[generation of electron-hole (e-h) pair] occurs in the whole part I
of material. Breakdown Forward
But, if e-h pair is created in depletion region, the electron is quickly voltage bias
pushed by electric field towards n-side & holes towards p-side. V0
As e-h pairs are continuously created in depletion region, there V
knee
is a regular flow of electron towards n-side & holes towards voltage
Reverse
p-side & so current flows from n-side to p-side. This current is
bias
drift current.
In steady state the magnitude of drift current is equal to diffusion
current & since they are in opposite direction, hence there is no Fig (1)
net transfer of charge at any cross section.
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 755

The effect of forward biasing & reverse biasing on potential barrier Keep in Memory
are shown in fig.(2).
Depletion layer Barrier voltage 1
Junction 1. Width of depletion layer µ
Deple
Idiffusion
-tion Idrift Doping
p n VB(x) layer Inet
=0 2. Depletion is directly proportional to temperature.
3. Resistance is forward bias Rforward » 10W – 25W and
No biasing x resistance in reverse bias Rreverse » 105W.
Fig.(2)(a) p-n junction without biasing
4. Under suitable reverse bias break down occurs and voltage
Depletion layer
Junction
gets stabilized at Zener voltage.
Barrier voltage
5. Junction diode (p-n junction) can be used to convert the
Idiffusion
p n Deple
Idrift
a.c. current to d.c. current i.e. as a rectifier. The process of
-tion
layer
Inet conversion from a.c. to d.c. is called rectification.
VB'(x) 6. p-n junction diode can be used as a half wave or full wave
x rectifier. A device used to convert dc into ac is called
Forward biasing
inverter.
Fig.(2)(b) p-n junction with forward biasing
Junction
Barrier voltage 7. Avalanche or zener diode or breakdown
Deple
p n -tion
Idiffusion diode used in voltage stabilisation.
layer Idrift
VB''(x) Inet = Indrift – Idrift
Depletion layer
x 8. Photodiode, used in automatic switching
Reverse biasing
(c) of light, fire alarm, burglar alarm
Fig.(2) (c) p-n junction with reverse biasing
eV LED (Light emitting diode) indicator, and
In forward bias the expression of current is I = I o (exp - 1)
K BT
where V is applied voltage optical fibre communication.
Io is reverse saturation current 9. A zener diode operating in the breakdown region is
e is fundamental electronic charge equivalent to a battery. This property of zener diode makes
KB is Boltzmann constant and it suitable for voltage regulation (holding voltage constant).
T is temperature

Some Important Results of Half-wave and Full-wave Rectifier

Circuit and Quantity Half wave rectifier Full wave rectifier

D1 RL V0
diode
I/P
1. Circuit I/P RL V 0

D2

2. Input voltage Output voltage Output voltage

Vin V0 V0

t
t t

3. The value of Irms of I0 / 2 I0 / 2

input alternating current
I = I0 sin wt
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756 PHYSICS

4. Peak inverse voltage E0 2E0

(i.e. maximum voltage
across diode when it
is not conducting)
5. Output direct current I0 / p 2I 0 / p

2
æ Irms ö
6. Ripple factor g = ç -1 1.21 0.48
è Idc ÷ø

Output d.c. power

7. Efficiency h = 40.6% 81.2%
Input a.c. power

Irms E rms
8. Form factor = = 1.57 1.11
Idc E dc
9. The value of d.c. component Less More
in output voltage as compared
to input a.c. voltage

Example 5. TRANSISTOR
The diode used in the circuit shown has a constant voltage Transistors are three terminal (solid state) devices just like triode.
drop at 0.5 V at all currents and a maximum power rating It can be assumed to consist of two back to back p-n junctions.
of 100 milli-watt. What should be the value of the resistor In practice a junction transistor (p-n-p) consists of silicon (or
R, connected in series with diode to obtain maximum germanium) bar crystal in which a layer of n-type silicon (or Ge) is
current? sandwiched between two layers of p-type silicon & we get p-n-p
R 0.5V transistor. Alternatively it may consist of a layer of p-type between
two layers of n-type material & we get a n-p-n transister as shown
by fig. (1).

B(Base) B(Base)
1.5V
E(Emitter)

Solution : p n p C n p n C
(Collector) (Collector)
VP = 0.5 V, Maximum power rating P = 100 mW = 100×10–3 W (n – P – n) transistor
(P – n – P) transistor
and source voltage Vs = 1.5 V. E (Emitter)
Fig. (1)
Vp2 (0.5) 2
Now diode resistance R D = = = 2.5 W
P 100 ´10 -3 The schematic symbols of transistor are
p p n n
V 0.5 E C E C
Current in diode ΙD = D = = 0.2A
R D 2.5
\ Total resistance in the circuit n B p B
(p-n-p) transistor (n-p-n) transistor
Vs 1.5
RT = = = 7.5 W (a) (b)
Ι D 0.2
Fig. (2)
So, resistance R in circuit = R T - R D = 7.5 - 2.5 = 5 W
Example 6. Components of Transistor :
In p-n junction diode the reverse saturation current is Emitter (E) : It supplies charge carriers (electron in n-p-n
10–5 A at 27ºC. Find the forward current for a voltage of transistor and holes in p-n-p transistor) & it has high density of
0.2 V. [exp (7.62) = 2038.6, k = 1.4 × 10–23 J/K] impurity concentration i.e., highly doped. It is always forward
Solution :
biased.
Q Ι = Ι0 (e eV / kT - 1) Collector (C) : It is a region on other side of base. It has maximum
By solving we get, area out of other sections(emitter & base) of transistor to dissipate
I = 10-5 [e7.62 - 1] = 10 -5 [ 2038.6 - 1] = 20.376 ´ 10 -3 A the heat. It collects the charge carriers & it is always reverse
So the forward current for voltage 0.2V is 20.376 × 10–3A biased.
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 757

Base (B) : It is middle region which forms the two junctions Configurations of Transistor
between emitter & collector. It is very lightly doped. There are three types of transistor configuration. We can take
Biasing of Transistor either terminal as input terminal and other terminal as output.
(i) Common base configuration (CB) : Here base terminal is
In proper biasing of transistor the input (i.e., base emitter junction)
common to both input & output terminals. The emitter
is always forward biased & output (i.e., collector base junction)
terminal is taken as input.
is always reverse biased as shown in fig.(3) p-n-p
This scheme of biasing is same for all three transistor E C IC
configurations; Common base configuration (CB), common
emitter configuration (CE) & common collector configuration (CC)] IE VCC
p-n-p n-p-n
E C E C B
IB
IE IE Ground
VEE
B B Fig. (5)
(ii) Common emitter configuration (CE) : Here emitter terminal
(a) (b) is common to both input and output terminals as shown in
Fig. (3) fig. (6). The base terminal is taken as input and collector is
Working of Transistor taken as output.
Fig. (4) shows a common base (C.B.) configuration of p-n-p IC
C
transistor. The forward biasing of emitter junction lowers the
emitter base potential barrier, whereas the reverse biasing of B VCC
collector junction increases the collector-base potential barrier.
Hence holes (majority carriers in p-type) flows through emitter to IB E
base & constitutes an emitter current IE. Since emitter is heavily IE
doped in comparison to base, so approximately (only 5% holes
recombine with electrons in base region & constitute base current VBB Ground
IB) 95% holes reach to collector & constitute collector current IC. Fig. (6)
p-n-p
E C IC (iii) Common collector configuration (CC) : Here the collector
terminal is common to both input as well as output terminals
IE VCC as shown in fig. (7). The base terminal is input & emitter is
output terminal.
B
IB E IE
VEE B VEE
IB
Fig. (4)
C
From Kirch off’s current law, VBB IC
IE = IC + I B ...(1)
Eq. (1) holds true regardless of circuit configuration or transistor
type (p-n-p or n-p-n) that is used.
The current gain (B) of transistor is defined as ratio of collector Fig. (7)
current IC to base current IB
IC Transistor as an Amplifier
i.e., b = ...(2) Amplification is the process of linearly increasing the amplitude
IB
of a signal. It is one of the major properties of a transistor.
The value of b lies between 10 and 100. Since I E » IC This amplifing action was produced by transfering a current from
Current gain (a) is defined as the ratio of collector current IC to a low (base emitter loop is forward biased & hence provide low
emitter current IE. The value of a is always less than unity. resistance path and collector base junction is reverse biased &
IC hence gives high resistance path in common emitter configuration)
a= ...(3) to a high resistance circuit.
IE
Common- Emitter (CE) Amplifier : Fig. 8 shows a basic common-
Relation between a and b
emitter amplifier circuit in which we connect a signal source Vs.
b a The input voltage loop is Vs, then from base to emitter through
a= or b= ...(4)
1+ b 1- a transister to ground (common refrence point) & then through
 EBD_7751
758 PHYSICS

VBE back to Vs. The output voltage loop consists ground, then The collector current flowing through RC results in voltage
from emitter to collector through RC. The emitter is connected to drop:
ground. During a +ive half cycle of Vs, the forward bias across vBE (signal)= vs
the emitter base junction will be increased, while during – ive half
cycle of Vs (signal source), the forward bias across emitter base DVBE
junction will be decreased. Hence more electrons flow during VBE =0.7V v BE = VBE + vbe
0.5v–
+ive half cycle and so we obtain more collector current and so dc bias bias + signal
large voltage drop across RC and less value and VCE. In negative
half cycle collector current decreases. time

VCC = 20V
20V
RC ICR C = 9V
v (signal)= vout
VCE Vout (d.c value) ce
DVCE
10V–
ns + VCE=11V
– vCE= VCE + vce
(d.c value) (d.c value + signal)
VBE VCC
Fig. (8) time
In the absence of input signal vs, a D.C collector current IC flows
Base
in collector circuit due to forward biased battery VBE. This is current
called zero signal collector current. So total collector current is
I total collector current = IC + Ic
d.c. collector a .c. collector 80mA
current current ib(signal
60mA IB current) DIB
vs Vout
40mA iB= IB+ ib
Curve & Vs= Vce Curve of IB=60mA
input signal output (d.c value) (d.c value + signal)
+vs
signal
VBE t
VCE t (a)
–vs
–vs=–vce
t 4mA
O ic(signal
(a) (b) current)
Fig. (9)
IC DIC
(a) input signal superimposed on V
(a) Input signal superimposed on V BE
(b) Output amplifying signal wave from super imposed on V CE
2mA IC=3mA
The voltage from the collector to ground determines the output i =I +i
(d.c value) C c c
signal. When IC (during +ive half cycle) increases, VCE decreases (d.c value + signal)
& when IC decreases (during – ive half cycle) VCE increase. So t
(b)
output voltage is 180º out of phase with input signal in CE
amplifier: Fig. (a) Base wave forms or input wave forms
(b) Collector wave froms or output wave forms.
The current gain Ai is defined as,
ICRC = .003A × 3000W = 9.0V
DI Change in load current/collector current
Ai = C = So by K.V.L the voltage from collector to emitter is
DI B Change in input current/base current VCE = VCC – ICRC = 20 – 9 = 11.0V
The voltage gain Av is defined as, Now we introduce signal voltage vs, which has peak value
50mV.
DVCE Change in load voltage
Av = = During +ive half cycle of vs = + 50mV, IB rises to 80mA & during
DVBE Change in input voltage –ive half cycle of vs = – 50mV. IB decreases to 40mA.
The power gain Ap is defined as, Ap = Ai × Av So change in base current is DIB (80 – 60) mA = 20mA
For example : Let VBE =0 .7V, VCC = 20V and change in collector current is DIC (bac DIB) = 50 × 20 = 1mA
IB = 60mA, IC = 3m A, RC = 3 kW It means during +ive half cycle IC becomes 4mA hence
VCE = VCC – ICRC = 20 – 12 = 8.V
IC 3mA
Then bd.c = = = 50
I B 60mA
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 759

During the negative half cycle IC becomes 2mA, hence Comparative study of CB, CE and CC Amplifier
VCE = 20 – 6 = 14V.
Use and property Common base Common emitter Common collector
so DVCE = 3V (CB) amplifier (CE) amplifier (CC) amplifier

DI C 1mA Used for Voltage Power Current

so Ai = = = 50 amplification amplification amplification
DI B 20mA
Impedance Low High Low
DVCE 3V
Av = = = 60 Output
DVBE 50mV Impedance
High High Low

and Ap = Ai × Av = 3000 Ai< 1 Ai (B + 1)> 1

Current gain Ai< 1
(a) (b ) (b » 20 – 100) (20 – 200)
Collector to Voltage gain Av > 1 Av > 1 Av < 1
emitter voltage
Power gain Ap > 1 Ap > 1 Av > 1
14.0V vce
Phase shift Nil 180° Nil
11.0V
8.0V Example 7.
VCE =11.0V nCE = VCE + vce
The correct relationship between two current gains a
and b in a transistor is
time 1+ a
(a) b = a (b) b =
1+ a a
Keep in Memory
b 1+ b
(c) a = (d) a =
1. Amplifier is a device used to increase the amplitude of input 1+ b b
signal. Solution : (c)
2. Amplification factor of triode valve m = gm × Rp where
a
gm = mutual or transconductance and Rp = plate resistance. b= or b(1 - a) = a or b - ba = a
1- a
3. Transistor is also used as an oscillator.
or b = a (1 + b) ; \ a = b /(1 + b)
Frequency of transistor LC oscillator is given by,
Example 8.
1 The current gain of a transistor in common base mode is
f=
2p LC 0.99. To change the emitter current by 5 mA, what will
4. In phase shift oscillator (which consists of three RC section), be the necessary change in collector current?
Solution :
1
the frequency is given by f = DΙ c
2p 6RC = a or DΙ c = a D Ι e ; D Ι c = .99 ´ 5 = 4.95 mA
DΙ e
5. Oscillator gives continuous, undamped oscillating output. Example 9.
6. Inverter : An oscillator which converts d.c. into a.c. For a transistor, the current amplification factor is 0.8,
7. An amplifier with feed back in proper phase and magnitude the transistor is connected in common emitter
behaves as an oscillator. configuration. Find the change in the collector current
when the base current changes by 6 mA.
8. Berkhausen criteria : for amplifier to act as oscillator :
Solution :
Gain with feed back, A´ = A/[1 - KA], K = feed back ratio.
a 0.8
Criteria to become oscillator, (1 - KA) = 0. a = 0.8 ; b = = =4;
1 - a 1 - 0.8
“Where A' is called closed loop gain & A is called open
loop gain. b = DΙ c / DΙ b or DΙ c = b DΙ b = 4 ´ 6 = 24 mA
9. The basic rules for normal operation of a transistor are
Example 10.
(i) the emitter-base junction is forward blased to offer a The current gain of a transistor in a common emitter
low resistance to the flow of current. configuration is 40. If the emitter current is 8.2 mA, then
(ii) the collector-base junction is reverse biased to offer a find the base current.
high resistance to the flow of current.
 EBD_7751
760 PHYSICS

Solution : Boolean expression : A + B = y

Ι c Ιe - Ιb Ιe NOT gate : Output is not the input.
Ι
b= = = - 1 or e =1 + b Logic symbol
Ιb Ιb Ιb Ιb Truth table
A Y A
Ιe 8.2 8.2
or Ιb = = = = .20 mA 0 1
1 + b 1 + 40 41 1 0 B
Example 11.
In a common emitter transistor amplifier b = 60, Boolean expression : y = A
R0 = 5000 W and internal resistance of a trnasistor is NAND gate : It is the combinatin of AND and NOT gate. The
500 W. What will be the voltage amplification of amplifier? output is high, even if all inputs are low (i.e., 0) or one input is
Solution : low.
R 5000 Truth table
A v = b 0 = 60 ´ = 600 A B Y
Logic symbol
Ri 500
0 0 1 A
Example 12. 1 0 1 Y
A p-n-p transistor is used in common-emitter mode in an 0 1 1
B
amplifier circuit. A change of 40 mA in the base current 1 1 0
brings a change of 2 mA in collector current and 0.04 V in
base emitter voltage. Find the (i) input resistance Ri (ii) Boolean expression : A.B = Y
the base current amplification factor (b). (iii) If a load NAND gate is called the building block of all digital circuits.
resistance of 6 kW is used, then also find the voltage gain NOR gate : It is the combination of NOT and OR gate. The output
of the amplifier. is high, when all inputs are low.
Solution : Truth table Logic symbol
A B Y
Here, DΙ b = 40 ´ 10 -6 -3
A ; DΙ c = 2 ´10 A ; 0 0 1 A
1 0 0 Y
DVi = 0.04 V ; R0 = 6000W 0 1 0 B
1 1 0
DVi 0.04
(i) Input resistance, R i = = = 103 W Boolean expression : A + B = Y
DI b 40 ´10 -6
Exclusive OR (XOR) gate : The output of a two input exclusive
(ii) Base current amplification factor, OR gate is at logical 1 if one and only one input accepts logical 0
(zero)
DI c 2 ´ 10 -3
b= = = 50
DI b 40 ´10 -6
A Y=A+B
Logic symbol:
R0 6000 B
(iii) Voltage gain, Av = b = 50 ´ 3 = 300 .
Ri 10
Truth table
LOGIC GATES
A logic gate is a digital circuit that follow certain logical Input Output
relationship between input and output voltages. They control A B Y =A ÅB
the flow of information. 0 0 0
Basic logic gates are : AND, OR and NOT gates. 0 1 1
AND gate : The output is high or 1 when all inputs are high. 1 0 1
Truth table Logic symbol 1 1 0
A B Y
0 0 0
A Logic expression : Y = A Å B = AB + AB
0 1 0
Y Note : This circuit is also called inequality comparator or detector
B
1 0 0 because it produces an output only when the two inputs are
Boolean expression : A . B = y different.
OR gate : Output is high even if one of the inputs is high. BINARY NUMBERS AND DECIMAL NUMBERS
Truth table Logic symbol · In a binary system, a number is expressed by only two
A B Y digits 0 and 1. The base of the binary system is thus 2.
0 0 0 A · 0 and 1 represent the coefficients of powers of 2.
0 1 1
1 0 1 · A binary digit (0 or 1) is known as a bit.
B
1 1 1 · A group of 4 bit is called a nibble & a group of 8 bit is called
byte.
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 761

Decimal to Binary Conversion Some basic boolean identies :

(A) When the decimal number is an integer – OR operation AND operation NOT operation
Divide the decimal number progressively by 2 until the A+ 0 = A A.0 = 0 A+ A =1
quotient is zero. The remainders of the successive divisions, A+1=1 A.1= A A A=0
written in the reverse order, give the binary number.
A+A =A A.A = A A=A
For example : We want to convert (9)10 into binary system.
A+ A=1 A. A = 0
A +B =B +A A. B=B .A
2 9 1 ® First remainder
A(B + C) = AB + ACA + BC = (A + B) (A + C)
4
0 ® Second remainder A + AB = A A(A + B) = A
2
( ­ Read up) A+ AB=A +B A( A + B) = AB
1
0 ® Third remainder These above theorems, identities & relations can be easily proved.
0
1 ® Fourth remainder Keep in Memory

1. The basic concept of digital circuit has been provided by

So (9)10 = (1001)2 George Boole.
(B) When the decimal number is a fraction – 2. Claude shanon established an analogy between function
The number is multiplied repeatedly by 2, and the carry in of mechanical switches and Boolean algebra.
the integer position is recorded each time. The process is 3. Series combination of switches is equivalent to AND logic
continued until the fractional part is zero or sufficient binary operation.
4. Parallel combination of switches is equivalent to OR logic
bits have been obtained.
operation.
Let we want to convert (0.85)10 into binary no. then 5. NOT logic operation is performed on a single variable. That’s
0.85 × 2 = 1.7 = 0.7 with a carry 1 why it is called unary operation.
0.7 × 2 = 1.4 = 0.4 with a carry 1 6. AND, OR and NOT logic operations follow closure property,
i.e., input as well as output are in either of the binary states.
0.4 × 2 = .8 = 0.8 with a carry 0 (¯ Read down)
7. NAND and NOR gates are universial gates
0.8 × 2 = 1.6 = 0.6 with a carry 1 8. If the logic gate is changed from positive to negative or
0.6 × 2 = 1.2 =0 .2 with a carry 1 vice-versa; AND changes into OR, OR changes into AND,
0.2 × 2 = .4 = 0.4 with a carry 0 NAND changes into NOR and NOR charges into NAND.
So (0.85)10 = (0.110110)2 Example 13.
Binary to Decimal Conversion Identify the gate represented by the block diagram shown
in fig. Write the Boolean expression and truth table.
(A) When the binary number is an integer –
Binary can be converted into its decimal equivalent by
noting that the successive digits from the extreme right of a A
I y
binary number are the coefficients of ascending power of 2,
beginning with the zeroth power of 2 at the extreme right. III
B
(B) When the binary number is a fraction –
II
The decimal equivalent of the binary number is found by
multiplying each digit in fraction sucessively by Solution :
2–1, 2–2, 2–3...etc. Here for the input, the two NOR gates have been used as
Let we want to convert (101.011)2 into its decimal equivalent. NOT gates (by joining the input terminals of NOR gate).
Their outputs are jointly fed to the NOR gate. From the
Then
(101.011)2 = 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 NOR gate I, for the input A, the output is A . From the NOR
+ 0 × 2–1 + 1 × 2–2 + 1 × 2–3 = (5.375)10 gate II, for the input B, the output is B . From NOR gate III,
5.375 = 5 × 100 + 3 × 10–1 + 7 × 10–2 + 5 × 10–3 the output is given by Y = A + B = A.B
Demorgan Theorems Thus Boolean expression for this combination of gate is
Y = A + B = A.B
(i) A.B = A + B (ii) A + B = A . B
which is for AND gate. Thus the combination will work as
These theorems are self proved. AND gate. The truth table of the combination of gates is
 EBD_7751
762 PHYSICS

A B Y (b) an ‘AND’ gate and a ‘NOT’ gate respectively

A B
(c) an ‘AND’ gate and an ‘OR’ gate respectively
0 0 1 1 0
(d) an ‘OR’ gate and a ‘NOT’ gate respectively
1 0 0 1 0
Solution : (a)
0 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 1 For first case, C1 = A . B = ( A + B) (by Demorgan's
Example 14.
theorem)
The combinations of the ‘NAND’ gates shown here in fig.
The truth table is shown below
are equivalent to
A B A B A.B A.B
A A 1 0 0 1 0 1
C1 0 1 1 0 0 1
B B
0 0 1 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 0 1
A C2 This is truth table for C1 = A + B i.e. OR gate
B
For second case, C 2 = A .B = A . B i.e., AND gate.
(a) an ‘OR’ gate and an ‘AND’ gate respectively
 CONCEPT MAP

Extrinsic or impure N-type semiconductor

Semiconductors Resistivity ()r Si or Ge doped with
Logic gates Digital or conductivity ()sintermediate semiconductor
circuit follows certain pentavalent
to metals and insulators Due to desirable
logical relationship –5 6 5 –6 –1
As, Sb, Bi etc.
addition of impurity
between the input and r = 10– 10 m;W= 10s– 10sm Electrons majority and
atoms or dopants
output voltage Egfor Ge = 0.72 eV ; Si = 1.1 eV This is to improve holes minority carriers
conductivity ne>> n h
–2 –8
OR gate Metals Resistivity r= 10– 10m W
2 8 –1 P-type semiconductor
A conductivity s= 10 – 10 Sm Intrinsic or pure Si or Ge doped with
Y=A+ B Eg= 0 eV semiconductors e.g., trivalent, B, Al etc.
B Intrinsic carrier concentration Electrons minority and
11 19 ni = n e= n h holes majority carriers
Insulators Resistivity r= 10 – 10 m W Total current I = ne+ n h
AND gate –11 –19 –1
nh> > n e
conductivity s= 10– 10 Sm
A
Eg > 3 eV
Y = A.B
B
Classification SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS; P-n junction
NOT gate of metals, insulators MATERIALS , DEVICES AND An arrangement made by
Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

and semiconductors SIMPLE CIRCUITS a close contact of n-type

Y=A semiconductor and p-type
A Inverter semiconductor
Current gain Converts AC
I P-n Junction transistor to DC
NAND gate Combination a= C
Ie A three terminal semi-
of NOT and AND gate conductor device. Zener diode
I a Used as a Forward and Reverse Potential barrier
A bDC = C = n-p-n and p-n-p transistors
Ib 1 - a voltage biasing : +(ve) terminal Potential difference
Y = A.B CE, CC and CB transistors developed across
regulator connected to p-side and
B æ DI ö Parameters of In transistor Ie =I b+ I c depletion region
bAC = ç c ÷ –(ve) terminal n-side
è DIb ø amplifier in forward biasing. i.e., region either
NOR gate Combination Transconductance Oscillator frequency In reverse biasing side of junction
of NOT and OR gate Uses of transistor 1 +(ve) terminal connected free from charge
æ DI ö b v=
A g m = ç C ÷ = AC to n-side and –(ve) terminal carriers
è DVi ø R in 2p LC
Y=A+ B connected to Width of depletion
B P-side of diode region is of the
–6
Amplifier Switch order of 10m
Used for increasing Transistor in
the amplitude of cut off or saturation
input signal state
763
 EBD_7751
764 PHYSICS

1. Choose the only false statement from the following. 10. When n-P-n transistor is used as an amplifier, then
(a) In conductors, the valence and conduction bands (a) electrons move from collector to emitter
may overlap. (b) electrons move from emitter to collector
(b) Substances with energy gap of the order of 10 eV are (c) electrons move from collector to base
insulators. (d) holes move from emitter to collector
(c) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with 11. An oscillator is nothing but an amplifier with
increase in temperature.
(a) positive feedback (b) large gain
(d) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
(c) no feedback (d) negative feedback
increase in temperature.
12. Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are
2. Application of a forward bias to a p–n junction
(a) free electrons
(a) widens the depletion zone.
(b) holes
(b) increases the potential difference across the depletion
(c) neither holes nor free electron
zone
(d) both holes and free electrons.
(c) increases the number of donors on the n side.
13. In insulator
(d) increases the electric field in the depletion zone.
(a) valence band is partially filled with electrons
3. A transistor has three impurity regions. All the three regions
have different doping levels. In order of increasing doping (b) conduction band is partially filled with electrons
level, the regions are (c) conduction band is filled with electrons and valence
(a) emitter, base and collector band is empty
(b) collector, base and emitter (d) conduction band is empty and valence band is filled
with electrons.
(c) base, emitter and collector
14. The intrinsic semi conductor becomes an insulator at
(d) base, collector and emitter
(a) 0ºC (b) 0 K
4. In a semiconductor diode, the barrier potential offers
opposition to (c) 300 K (d) –100ºC
(a) holes in P-region only 15. NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates primarily
because they
(b) free electrons in N-region only
(a) are available universally
(c) majority carriers in both regions
(b) can be combined to produce OR, AND and NOT gates
(d) majority as well as minority carriers in both regions
(c) are widely used in Integrated circuit packages
5. In Boolean algebra, Y = A + B implies that
(d) are easiest to manufacture
(a) output Y exists when both inputs A and B exist
16. One serious drawback of semi-conductor devices is
(b) output Y exists when either input A exists or input B
exists or both inputs A and B exist (a) they do not last for long time.
(c) output Y exists when either input A exists or input B (b) they are costly
exists but not when both inputs A and B exist (c) they cannot be used with high voltage.
(d) output Y exists when both inputs A and B exists but (d) they pollute the environment.
not when either input A or B exist 17. Radiowaves of constant amplitude can be generated with
6. Which of the following is unipolar transistor? (a) FET (b) filter
(a) p – n – p transistor (b) n – p – n transistor (c) rectifier (d) oscillator
(c) Field effect transistor (d) Point contact transistor 18. Zener diode is used for
7. In a junction diode, the holes are due to (a) amplification (b) rectification
(a) protons (b) extra electrons (c) stabilisation (d) all of the above
(c) neutrons (d) missing electrons 19. Which one is the weakest type of bonding in solids ?
8. By increasing the temperature, the specific resistance of a (a) Ionic (b) Covalent
conductor and a semiconductor (c) Metallic (d) Vander Wall’s
(a) increases for both (b) decreases for both 20. The band gap in germanium and silicon in ev respectively
(c) increases, decreases (d) decreases, increases is
9. The energy band gap is maximum in (a) 1.1, 0 (b) 0, 1.1
(a) metals (b) superconductors (c) 1.1, 0.7 (d) 0.7, 1.1
(c) insulators (d) semiconductors.
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 765

21. The transistor are usually made of (c) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
(a) metal oxides with high temperature coefficient of n–side and the depletion region becomes thick
resistivity (d) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
(b) metals with high temperature coefficient of resistivity p–side and the depletion region becomes thin
(c) metals with low temperature coefficient of resistivity
24. If a small amount of antimony is added to germanium crystal
(d) semiconducting materials having low temperature
coefficient of resistivity (a) it becomes a p–type semiconductor
22. The device that can act as a complete electronic circuit is (b) the antimony becomes an acceptor atom
(a) junction diode (b) integrated circuit (c) there will be more free electrons than holes in the
(c) junction transistor (d) zener diode semiconductor
23. In forward biasing of the p–n junction (d) its resistance is increased
(a) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to
25. At absolute zero, Si acts as
p–side and the depletion region becomes thick
(b) the positive terminal of the battery is connected to (a) non-metal (b) metal
n–side and the depletion region becomes thin (c) insulator (d) none of these

1. On doping germanium with donor atoms of density 7. Current gain of a transistor in common base mode is 0.95.
1017 cm–3 its conductivity in mho/cm will be Its value in common emitter mode is
[Given : me = 3800 cm2/V–s and ni = 2.5 × 1013 cm–13] (a) 0.95 (b) 1.5
(a) 30.4 (b) 60.8 (c) 19 (d) (19)–1
(c) 91.2 (d) 121.6 8. A transistor has b = 40. A change in base current of 100 m A,
produces change in collector current
2. The ratio of electron and hole currents in a semiconductor
is 7/4 and the ratio of drift velocities of electrons and holes (a) 40 × 100 microampere (b) (100 – 40) microampere
is 5/4, then the ratio of concentrations of electrons and (c) (100 + 40) microampere (d) 100/40 microampere
holes will be 9. A transistor has a base current of 1 mA and emitter current
(a) 5/7 (b) 7/5 90 mA. The collector current will be
(a) 90 mA (b) 1 mA
(c) 25/49 (d) 49/25
(c) 89 mA (d) 91 mA
3. In the half wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains
frequency, the fundamental frequency in the ripple would 10. In a common emitter transistor amplifier b = 60, Ro = 5000 W
be and internal resistance of a transistor is 500 W. The voltage
amplification of amplifier will be
(a) 25 Hz (b) 50 Hz
(a) 500 (b) 460
(c) 70.7 Hz (d) 100 Hz
(c) 600 (d) 560
4. In a full wave rectifier circuit operating from 50 Hz mains 11. For a common base amplifier, the values of resistance gain
frequency, the fundamental frequency in the ripple would and voltage gain are 3000 and 2800 respectively. The current
be gain will be
(a) 25 Hz (b) 50 Hz (a) 1.1 (b) 0.98
(c) 70.7 Hz (d) 100 Hz (c) 0.93 (d) 0.83
5. Distance between body centred atom & a corner atom in 12. In a common base amplifier the phase difference between
sodium(a = 4.225 Å) is the input signal voltage and the output voltage is
(a) 3.66 Å (b) 3.17 Å (a) 0 (b) p/4
(c) 2.99 Å (c) 2.54 Å (c) p/2 (d) p
6. If the forward voltage in a semiconductor diode is changed 13. The current gain in transistor in common base mode is 0.99.
from 0.5V to 0.7 V, then the forward current changes by To change the emitter current by 5 mA, the necessary
1.0 mA. The forward resistance of diode junction will be change in collector will be
(a) 100 W (b) 120 W (a) 0.196 mA (b) 2.45 mA
(c) 200 W (d) 240 W (c) 4.95 mA (d) 5.1 mA
 EBD_7751
766 PHYSICS

14. The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor increases 22. The cause of the potential barrier in a p-n diode is
when electromagnetic radiation of wavelength shorter than (a) depletion of positive charges near the junction
2480 nm is incident on it. The band gap (in eV) for the (b) concentration of positive charges near the junction
semiconductor is
(c) depletion of negative charges near the junction
(a) 0.9 (b) 0.7
(d) concentration of positive and negative charges near
(c) 0.5 (d) 1.1 the junction
15. What is the voltage gain in a common emitter amplifier, 23. The intrinsic conductivity of germanium at 27° is 2.13 mho
where input resistance is 3 W and load resistance 24 W, b = m–1 and mobilities of electrons and holes are 0.38 and 0.18
0.6 ? m2V–1s–1 respectively. The density of charge carriers is
(a) 8 . 4 (b) 4 . 8 (a) 2.37 × 1019 m–3 (b) 3.28 × 1019 m–3
(c) 2 . 4 (d) 480 (c) 7.83 × 1019 m–3 (d) 8.47 × 1019 m–3
16. A half-wave rectifier is being used to rectify an alternating 24. In a reverse biased diode when the applied voltage changes
voltage of frequency 50 Hz. The number of pulses of rectified by 1 V, the current is found to change by 0.5 µA. The reverse
current obtained in one second is bias resistance of the diode is
(a) 50 (b) 25 (a) 2 × 105 W (b) 2 × 106 W
(c) 100 (d) 2000 (c) 200 W (d) 2 W.
17. In a triode, gm= 2 × 10–3 ohm–1 ; m = 42; resistance of load, 25. When the forward bias voltage of a diode is changed from
R = 50 kilo ohm. The voltage amplification obtained from 0.6 V to 0.7 V, the current changes from 5 mA to 15 mA.
this triode will be Then its forward bias resistance is
(a) 30.42 (b) 29.57 (a) 0.01 W (b) 0.1 W
(c) 28.18 (d) 27.15 (c) 10 W (d) 100 W
26. The current gain of a transistor in common base mode is
18. In a p-n junction having depletion layer of thickness
0.995. The current gain of the same transistor in common
10–6 m the potential across it is 0.1 V. The electric field is
emitter mode is
(a) 107 V/m (b) 10–6 V/m
(a) 197 (b) 201
(c) 105 V/m (d) 10–5 V/m
(c) 198 (d) 199
19. The difference in the variation of resistance with temperature 27. The gate for which output is high if atleast one input is
in a metal and a semiconductor arises essentially due to the low?
difference in the
(a) NAND (b) NOR
(a) crystal structure
(c) AND (d) OR
(b) variation of the number of charge carriers with
28. What is the conductivity of a semiconductor if electron
temperature
density = 5 × 1012/cm3 and hole density = 8 × 1013/cm3
(c) type of bonding (µe = 2.3 m2 V–1 s–1, µh = 0.01 m2V–1 s–1)
(d) variation of scattering mechanism with temperature (a) 5.634 (b) 1.968
Ic (c) 3.421 (d) 8.964.
20. In common emitter amplifier the is 0.98. The current
Ie 29. In a p-type semiconductor the acceptor level is situated 60
gain will be meV above the valence band. The maximum wavelength of
(a) 4.9 (b) 7.8 light required to produce a hole will be
(c) 49 (d) 78 (a) 0.207 × 10–5 m (b) 2.07 × 10–5 m
(c) 20.7 × 10 m –5 (d) 2075 × 10–5 m
21. In the diagram, the input is across the terminals A and C
and the output is across B and D. Then the output is 30. In a npn transistor 1010 electrons enter the emitter in
10–6 s. 4% of the electrons are lost in the base. The current
B
transfer ratio will be
(a) 0.98 (b) 0.97
A C (c) 0.96 (d) 0.94
31. The grid voltage of any triode valve is changed from –1
volt to –3 volt and the mutual conductance is 3 × 10–4 mho.
D The change in plate circuit current will be
(a) zero (b) same as the input (a) 0.8 mA (b) 0.6 mA
(c) full wave rectifier (d) half wave rectifier (c) 0.4 mA (d) 1 mA
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 767

32. The ratio of work function and temperature of two emitters (a) (Eg)C > (Eg)Si (b) (Eg)C < (Eg)Si
are 1 : 2, then the ratio of current densities obtained by
(c) (Eg)C = (Eg)Si (d) (Eg)C < (Eg)Ge
them will be
(a) 4 : 1 (b) 2 : 1 39. Application of a forward bias to a p–n junction
(c) 1 : 2 (d) 1 : 4 (a) widens the depletion zone
33. The transfer ratio b of transistor is 50. The input resistance (b) increases the potential difference across the depletion
of a transistor when used in C.E. (Common Emitter) zone
configuration is 1kW. The peak value of the collector A.C (c) increases the number of donors on the n side
current for an A.C input voltage of 0.01V peak is (d) increases the electric field in the depletion zone.
(a) 100 mA (b) .01 mA 40. A semi-conducting device is connected in a series circuit
(c) .25 mA (d) 500 mA with a battery and a resistance. A current is found to pass
34. The manifestation of band structure in solids is due to through the circuit. If the polarity of the battery is reversed,
(a) Bohr’s correspondence principle the current drops to almost zero. The device may be
(b) Pauli’s exclusion principle (a) a p-n junction
(c) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle (b) an intrinsic semi-conductor
(d) Boltzmann’s law (c) a p-type semi-conductor
35. The frequency response curve of RC coupled amplifier is (d) an n-type semi-conductor
shown in figure. The band with of the amplifier will be 41. Which of the following gates will have an output of 1?

1 0
1 1
A max (B)
(A)
0.707 A max

0 0
1 0
(C) (D)

(a) D (b) A
f1 f 2 f3 f 4
(c) B (d) C
42. The following circut represents
(a) f3 – f2 (b) f4 – f1

f 4 - f2 A
(c) (d) f3 – f1
2
Y
36. A diode having potential difference 0.5 V across its junction
which does not depend on current, is connected in series B
with resistance of 20 W across source. If 0.1 A current
(a) OR gate (b) XOR gate
passes through resistance then what is the voltage of the
source? (c) AND gate (d) NAND gate
(a) 1.5 V (b) 2.0 V 43. The diagram of a logic circuit is given below. The output F
(c) 2.5 V (d) 5 V of the circuit is represented by
37. Copper has face centered cubic (fcc) lattice with interatomic
spacing equal to 2.54 Å. The value of lattice constant for W
this lattice is X
(a) 2.54 Å (b) 3.59 Å F
(c) 1.27 Å (d) 5.08 Å W
38. Carbon, Silicon and Germanium atoms have four valence
Y
electrons each. Their valence and conduction bands are
separated by energy band gaps represented by (Eg)C, (Eg)Si
and (E g)Ge respectively. Which one of the following (a) W . (X + Y) (b) W . (X . Y)
relationship is true in their case? (c) W + (X . Y) (d) W + (X + Y)
 EBD_7751
768 PHYSICS

44. If A is the atomic mass number of an element, N is the 49. The current gain b may be defined as
Avogadro number and a is the lattice parameter, then the
density of the element, if it has bcc crystal structure, is (a) the ratio of change in collector current to the change
in emitter current for a constant collector voltage in a
A 2A common base arrangement.
(a) (b)
3
Na Na 3 (b) the ratio of change in collector current to the change
in the base current at constant collector voltage in a
3A 2 2A common emitter circuit
(c) 3
(d)
Na Na 3 (c) the ratio of change in emitter current to the change in
base current for constant emitter voltage in common
45. Metallic solids are always opaque because
emitter circuit.
(a) they reflect all the incident light.
(d) the ratio of change in base current to the change in
(b) they scatter all the incident light. collector current at constant collector voltage in
(c) the incident light is readily absorbed by the free common emitter circuit.
electrons in a metal. 50. A solid that is not transparent to visible light and whose
(d) the energy band traps the incident. electrical conductivity increases with temperature is formed
46. Assuming that the silicon diode having resistance of by
20 W , the current through the diode is (a) ionic binding (b) covalent binding
(knee voltage 0.7 V) (c) metallic binding (d) vander Waal’s binding
51. In a transistor, the change in base current from 100 µA to
R =180W 125 µA causes a change in collector current from 5 mA to
2V 7.5 mA, keeping collector-to-emitter voltage constant at 10
0V
V. What is the current gain of the transistor?
(a) 0 mA (b) 10 mA
(a) 200 (b) 100
(c) 6.5 mA (d) 13.5 mA (c) 50 (d) 25.
47. The following configuration of gate is equivalent to 52. The truth table given below is for
A OR (a) NOR A B Y
B (b) AND 0 0 1
Y 0 1 1
(c) XOR 1 0 1
AND
(d) NAND 1 1 0
NAND
53. In the following circuit, the output Y for all possible
(a) NAND gate (b) XOR gate inputs A and B is expressed by the truth table.
(c) OR gate (d) NOR gate
A
48. Two junction diodes one of Germanium (Ge) and other of A
Y
silicon (Si) are connected as shown in figure to a battery of B
emf 12 V and a load resistance 10 k W. The germanium diode B
conducts at 0.3 V and silicon diode at 0.7 V. When a current
flows in the circuit, the potential of terminal Y will be (a) A B Y (b) A B Y
Ge 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1 0
Y
1 0 1 1 0 0
Si 1 1 0 1 1 0
12 V 10 kW

(c) A B Y (d) A B Y
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 0
(a) 12 V (b) 11 V 1 0 1 1 0 0
(c) 11.3 V (d) 11.7 V 1 1 1 1 1 1
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 769

54. In common emitter amplifier, the current gain is 62. The 58. The circuit has two oppositively connected ideal diodes in
collector resistance and input resistance are 5 kW an 500W parallel. What is the current flowing in the circuit?
respectively. If the input voltage is 0.01 V, the output voltage
is 4W
(a) 0.62 V (b) 6.2 V
D1 D2
(c) 62 V (d) 620 V
55. The real time variation of input signals A and B are as shown 12V
3W 2W
below. If the inputs are fed into NAND gate, then select the
output signal from the following.

(a) 1.71 A (b) 2.00 A

A (c) 2.31 A (d) 1.33 A
A
B Y 59. In the energy band diagram of a material shown below, the
B open circles and filled circles denote holes and electrons
t (s) respectively. The material is

Y Y Ec

(a) (b)
t (s) t (s) Eg
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8

Ev
(c) Y (d) Y
t (s) t (s)
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
(a) an insulator
56. The time variations of signals are given as in A, B and C.
Point out the true statement from the following : (b) a metal
(c) an n-type semiconductor
e e e
(d) a p-type semiconductor
60. In a P -N junction
1.0 1.0 1.0
(a) the potential of P & N sides becomes higher
0 t 0 t 0 t
(A) (B) (C) alternately
(b) the P side is at higher electrical potential than N side.
(a) A, B and C are analogue signals
(c) the N side is at higher electric potential than P side.
(b) A and B are analogue, but C is digital signal
(d) both P & N sides are at same potential.
(c) A and C are digital, but B is analogue signal
61. In the case of a common emitter transistor amplifier the
(d) A and C are analogue, but B is digital signal ratio of the collector current to the emitter current Ic /Ie is
57. If the ratio of the concentration of electrons to that of holes 0.96. The current gain of the amplifier is
7 7 (a) 6 (b) 48
in a semiconductor is and the ratio of currents is ,
5 4 (c) 24 (d) 12
then what is the ratio of their drift velocities?
62. Barrier potential of a P-N junction diode does not depend
5 4 on
(a) (b)
8 5 (a) doping density (b) diode design
5 4 (c) temperature (d) forward bias
(c) (d)
4 7
 EBD_7751
770 PHYSICS

63. A n-p-n transistor conducts when 70. Choose the only false statement from the following.
(a) both collector and emitter are negative with respect (a) In conductors the valence and conduction bands may
to the base overlap.
(b) Substances with energy gap of the order of 10 eV are
(b) both collector and emitter are positive with respect to
insulators.
the base
(c) The resistivity of a semiconductor increases with
(c) collector is positive and emitter is negative with increase in temperature.
respect to the base (d) The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with
(d) collector is positive and emitter is at same potential increase in temperature.
as the base 71. Which one of the following statement is false ?
64. Following diagram performs the logic function of (a) Pure Si doped with trivalent impurities gives a p-type
semiconductor
A (b) Majority carriers in a n-type semiconductor are holes
Y
B (c) Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are
electrons
(a) XOR gate (b) AND gate (d) The resistance of intrinsic semiconductor decreases
(c) NAND gate (d) OR gate with increase of temperature
65. Reverse bias applied to a junction diode 72. A common emitter amplifier has a voltage gain of 50, an
input impedance of 100W and an output impedance of
(a) increases the minority carrier current 200W. The power gain of the amplifier is
(b) lowers the potential barrier (a) 500 (b) 1000
(c) raises the potential barrier (c) 1250 (d) 50
(d) increases the majority carrier current 73. For transistor action
66. In semiconductors at a room temperature (1) Base, emitter and collector regions should have similar
size and doping concentrations.
(a) the conduction band is completely empty (2) The base region must be very thin and lightly doped.
(b) the valence band is partially empty and the (3) The eimtter-base junction is forward biased and base-
conduction band is partially filled collector junction is reverse based.
(c) the valence band is completely filled and the (4) Both the emitter-base junction as well as the base-
conduction band is partially filled collector junction are forward biased.
(d) the valence band is completely filled (a) (3) and (4) (b) (4) and (1)
(c) (1) and (2) (d) (2) and (3)
67. The peak voltage in the output of a half-wave diode rectifier
74. The following figure shows a logic gate circuit with two
fed with a sinusoidal signal without filter is 10V. The d.c.
inputs A and B and the output Y. The voltage waveforms of
component of the output voltage is
A, B and Y are given
(a) 20/p V (b) 10/Ö2 V
A Logic gate
(c) 10/p V (d) 10V Y
circuit
68. In a p-n junction photo cell, the value of the photo- B
electromotive force produced by monochromatic light is
proportional to
1
(a) the voltage applied at the p-n junction A
(b) the barrier voltage at the p-n junction 0
(c) the intensity of the light falling on the cell
B 1
(d) the frequency of the light falling on the cell
69. Of the diodes shown in the following diagrams, which one 0
is reverse biased ?
1
+10 V

R
Y 0
(a) (b)
+5 V –12 V R

–5 V
+5 V t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
R The logic gate is :
(c) (d)
R (a) NAND gate (b) NOR gate
–10 V (c) OR gate (d) AND gate
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 771

75. A transistor is operated in common emitter configuration at 80. In a CE transistor amplifier, the audio signal voltage across
VC = 2V such that a change in the base current from 100 mA the collector resistance of 2kW is 2V. If the base resistance
to 300 mA produces a change in the collector current from is 1kW and the current amplification of the transistor is
10mA to 20 mA. The current gain is 100, the input signal voltage is
(a) 50 (b) 75
(a) 0.1 V (b) 1.0 V
(c) 100 (d) 25
76. Symbolic representation of four logic gate are shown as (c) 1 mV (d) 10 mV
81. Transfer characteristics [output voltage (V0 ) vs input
voltage (V1)] for a base biased transistor in CE configuration
(i) (ii)
is as shown in the figure. For using transistor as a switch, it
is used

(iii) (iv)
V0 I II
III
Pick out which ones are for AND, NAND and NOT gates,
respectively
(a) (ii), (iii) and (iv) (b) (iii), (ii) and (i)
(c) (iii), (iii) and (iv) (d) (ii), (iv) and (iii) Vi
77. Pure Si at 500K has equal number of electron (ne) and hole
(nh) concentrations of 1.5 × 1016 m–3. Doping by indium (a) in region (III)
increases n h to 4.5 × 1022 m–3. The doped semiconductor is
(b) both in region (I) and (III)
of
(a) n–type with electron concentration (c) in region (II)
ne = 5 × 1022 m–3 (d) in region (I)
(b) p–type with electron concentration 82. The figure shows a logic circuit with two inputs A and B
ne = 2.5 ×1010 m–3 and the output C. The voltage wave forms across A, B and
(c) n–type with electron concentration C are as given. The logic gate circuit is:
ne = 2.5 × 1023 m–3
(d) p–type having electron concentration
ne = 5 × 109 m–3
78. A zener diode, having breakdown voltage equal to 15V, is
used in a voltage regulator circuit shown in figure. The
A
current through the diode is

250W B
20V 15V 1kW

C
t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6
(a) 10 mA (b) 15 mA
(c) 20 mA (d) 5 mA
79. Two ideal diodes are connected to a battery as shown in
(a) OR gate (b) NOR gate
the circuit. The current supplied by the battery is
(c) AND gate (d) NAND gate
D1 10W
A B 83. The input resistance of a silicon transistor is
100 W. Base current is changed by 40 mA which results in a
D2 20W
C D change in collector current by 2 mA. This transistor is used
as a common emitter amplifier with a load resistance of 4
5V
E F KW. The voltage gain of the amplifier is
(a) 2000 (b) 3000
(a) 0.75 A (b) zero
(c) 0.25 A (d) 0.5 A (c) 4000 (d) 1000
 EBD_7751
772 PHYSICS

84. In a n-type semiconductor, which of the following statement 91. In a bridge rectifier, the number of diodes required is
is true? (a) 1 (b) 2
(a) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms (c) 3 (d) 4
are dopants.
92. The ratio of forward biased to reverse biased resistance for
(b) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are pn junction diode is
dopants.
(a) 10–1 : 1 (b) 10–2 : 1
(c) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are
dopants. (c) 104 : 1 (d) 10–4 : 1

(d) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are 93. In germanium the energy gap is about 0.75 eV. The
dopants. wavelength of light which germanium starts absorbing is
85. In a common emitter (CE) amplifier having a voltage gain G, (a) 5000 Å (b) 1650 Å
the transistor used has transconductance 0.03 mho and (c) 16500 Å (d) 165000 Å
current gain 25. If the above transistor is replaced with Directions for Qs. (94 to 100) : Each question contains
another one with transconductance 0.02 mho and current STATEMENT-1 and STATEMENT-2. Choose the correct answer
gain 20, the voltage gain will be (ONLY ONE option is correct ) from the following-
1 (a) Statement -1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement -2 is a
(a) 1.5 G (b) G
3 correct explanation for Statement-1
5 2 (b) Statement -1 is true, Statement-2 is true; Statement -2 is not
(c) G (d) G
4 3 a correct explanation for Statement-1
86. In th e study of transistor as amplifier, if (c) Statement -1 is true, Statement-2 is false
IC I (d) Statement -1 is false, Statement-2 is true
a= and b = C , where, IC, IB and IE are the collector,,
IE IB 94. Statement-1 : NAND or NOR gates are called digital building
base and emitter currents, then blocks.
(1 + a) (1 - a) Statement-2 : The repeated use of NAND (or NOR) gates
(a) b= (b) b=
a a can produce all the basis or complicated gates.
a a 95. Statement-1 : When two semi conductor of p and n type
(c) b= (d) b= are brought in contact, they form p-n junction which act
(1 - a ) (1 + a )
like a rectifier.
87. An oscillator is nothing but an amplifier with
Statement-2 : A rectifier is used to convent alternating
(a) positive feedback (b) large gain
current into direct current.
(c) no feedback (d) negative feedback
96. Statement-1 : NOT gate is also called invertor circuit.
88. A TV tower has a height of 100 m. How much population is
Statement-2 : NOT gate inverts the input order.
covered by the TV broadcast if the average population
density around the tower is 1000 km–2 ? (radius of the earth 97. Statement 1 : Diode lasers are used as optical sources in
= 6.37 × 106 m) optical communication.
(a) 4 lakh (b) 4 billion Statement 2 : Diode lasers consume less energy.
(c) 40,000 (d) 40 lakh 98. Statement 1 : A pure semiconductor has negative
89. The energy gap of silicon is 1.14 eV. The maximum temperature coefficient of resistance.
wavelength at which silicon starts energy absorption, will Statement 2 : In a semiconductor on raising the temperature,
be (h = 6.62 × 10–34 Js ; c = 3 × 108 m/s) more charge carriers are released, conductance increases
(a) 10.888 Å (b) 108.88 Å and resistance decreases.
(c) 1088.8 Å (d) 10888 Å 99. Statement 1 : A transistor amplifier in common emitter
configuration has a low input impedence.
90. The value of b
Statement 2 : The base to emitter region is forward biased.
(a) is always less than 1
100. Statement 1 : If the temperature of a semiconductor is
(b) lies between 20 and 200 increased then it’s resistance decreases.
(c) is always greater than 200 Statement 2 : The energy gap between conduction band
(d) is always infinity and valence band is very small.
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 773

Exemplar Questions 5. Hole in semiconductor is

1. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases with (a) an anti – particle of electron
increase in temperature because (b) a vacancy created when an electron leaves a covalent
(a) number density of free current carries increases bond
(b) relaxation time increases (c) absence of free electrons
(d) an artificially created particle
(c) both number density of carries and relaxation time
6. The output of the given circuit in figure given below,
increase
(d) number density of carries increases, relaxation time
decreases but effect of decrease in relaxation time is
much less than increase in number density vm sin wt
2. In figure given below V0 is the potential barrier across a
p–n junction, when no battary is connected across the (a) would be zero at all times
junction (b) would be like a half wave rectifier with positive cycles
1 in output
2 (c) would be like a half wave rectifier with negative cycles
3 in output
V0 (d) would be like that of a full wave rectifier
7. In the circuit shown in figure given below, if the diode
forward voltage drop is 0.3 V, the voltage difference between
A and B is
(a) 1 and 3 both correspond to forward bias of junction A A
(b) 3 corresponds to forward bias of junction and 1 0.2mA 0.2mA
corresponds to reverse bias of junctions r1 5K
5K
(c) 1 corresponds to forward bias and 3 corresponds to
reverse bias of junction
(d) 3 and 1 both correspond to reverse bias of junction 0.3V
3. In figure given below, assuming the diodes to be ideal
(a) D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse biased and hence 5K r2 5kW
current flows from A to B
(b) D2 is forward biased and D1 is reverse biased and B B
hence no current flows from B to A and vice–versa (a) (b)
(c) D1 and D2 are both forward biased and hence current (a) 1.3 V (b) 2.3 V
flows from A to B (c) 0 (d) 0.5 V
(d) D1 and D2 are both reverse biased and hence no current
flows from A to B and vice – versa
8.
..
Truth table for the given circuit is
A C

.
A R
D1

. .
–10V E

.
D2 B D
B
(a) A B E (b) A B E
4. A 220 V AC supply is connected between points A and B 0 0 1 0 0 1
(figure). What will be the potential difference V across the 0 1 0 0 1 0
capacitor? 1 0 1 1 0 0
A 1 1 0 1 1 0

(c) A B E (d) A B E
200 AC C V
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1
B 1 0 1
(a) 220 V (b) 110 V 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 0
(c) 0V (d) 220 2V
 EBD_7751
774 PHYSICS

NEET/AIPMT (2013-2017) Questions (a) NOT gate (b) AND gate

9. In a n-type semiconductor, which of the following (c) NOR gate (d) OR gate
statements is true? [2013] 15. The given graph represents V - I characteristic for a
(a) Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms semiconductor device.
are dopants.
(b) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are I
dopants. A
(c) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are
V
dopants.
B
(d) Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are
dopants. Which of the following statement is correct ? [2014]
10. In a common emitter (CE) amplifier having a voltage gain G, (a) It is V - I characteristic for solar cell where, point A
the transistor used has transconductance 0.03 mho and represents open circuit voltage and point B short
current gain 25. If the above transistor is replaced with circuit current.
another one with transconductance 0.02 mho and current
(b) It is a for a solar cell and point A and B represent open
gain 20, the voltage gain will be 2013]
circuit voltage and current, respectively.
1
(a) 1.5 G (b) G (c) It is for a photodiode and points A and B represent
3 open circuit voltage and current, respectively.
5 2 (d) It is for a LED and points A and B represent open
(c) G (d) G
4 3 circuit voltage and short circuit current, respectively.
11. The output(X) of the logic circuit shown in figure will be
16. The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on: [2014]
[2013]
(A) type of semi conductor material
(B) amount of doping
(C) temperature
(a) X = A.B (b) X = A.B Which one of the following is correct ?
(a) (A) and (B) only (b) (B) only
(c) X = A + B (d) X = A, B
(c) (B) and (C) only (d) (A), (B) and (C)
12. In an unbiased p-n junction, holes diffuse from the p-region
17. Which logic gate is represented by the following
to n-region because of [NEET Kar. 2013]
combination of logic gate ? [2015]
(a) the potential difference across the p-n junction
(b) the attraction of free electrons of n-region Y1
A
(c) the higher hole concentration in p-region than that in
n-region Y
(d) the higher concentration of electrons in the n-region
than that in the p-region B
Y2
13. One way in which the operation of a n-p-n transistor differs
from that of a p-n-p [NEET Kar. 2013] (a) NAND (b) AND
(a) the emitter junction is reversed biased in (c) NOR (d) OR
n-p-n 18. If in a p-n junction, a square input signal of 10 V is applied
(b) the emitter junction injects minority carriers into the as shown, then the output across RL will be [2015]
base region of the p-n-p
(c) the emitter injects holes into the base of the p-n-p and +5V
electrons into the base region of n-p-n
RL
(d) the emitter injects holes into the base of
n-p-n –5V
14. The output from a NAND gate is divided into two in parallel
and fed to another NAND gate. The resulting gate is a 10V
[NEET Kar. 2013] (a) (b)
–5V
A
C¢
C 5V
B (c) (d)
–10V
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 775

19. In the given figure, a diode D is connected to an external 22. A npn transistor is connected in common emitter
resistance R = 100 W and an e.m.f. of 3.5 V. If the barrier configuration in a given amplifier. A load resistance of 800
potential developed across the diode is 0.5 V, the current in W is connected in the collector circuit and the voltage drop
the circuit will be: [2015 RS] across it is 0.8 V. If the current amplification factor is 0.96
D and the input resistance of the circuit is 192W, the voltage
gain and the power gain of the amplifier will respectively be:
R = 100W (a) 4, 3.84 (b) 3.69, 3.84 [2016]
(c) 4, 4 (d) 4, 3.69
23. To get output 1 for the following circuit, the correct choice
for the input is [2016]
A
3.5V B
(a) 40 mA (b) 20 mA Y
C
(c) 35 mA (d) 30 mA (a) A = 0, B = 1, C = 0 (b) A = 1, B = 0, C = 0
20. The input signal given to a CE amplifier having a voltage (c) A = 1, B = 1, C = 0 (d) A = 1, B = 0, C = 1
æ pö 24. In a common emitter transistor amplifier the audio signal
gain of 150 is Vi = 2 cos çè15t + ÷ø . The corresponding
3 voltage across the collector is 3V. The resistance of collector
output signal will be : [2015 RS] is 3 kW. If current gain is 100 and the base resistance is 2
kW, the voltage and power gain of the amplifier is [2017]
æ 2p ö
(a) 75cos ç15t + ÷ (a) 15 and 200 (b) 150 and 15000
è 3ø
(c) 20 and 2000 (d) 200 and 1000
æ 5p ö 25. The given electrical network is equivalent to : [2017]
(b) 2cos ç15t + ÷
è 6ø A Y
B
æ 4p ö
(c) 300cos ç15t + ÷ (a) OR gate (b) NOR gate
è 3ø
(c) NOT gate (d) AND gate
æ pö 26. Which one of the following represents forward bias diode?
(d) 300cos ç15t + ÷
è 3ø
–4V R –3V
21. Consider the junction diode as ideal. The value of current (a) [2017]
flowing through AB is : [2016]
–2V R +2V
A 1kW B (b)

+4V –6V 3V R 5V
(a) 0 A (b) 10–2 A (c)
(c) 10–1 A (d) 10–3 A
0V R –2V
(d)
 EBD_7751
776 PHYSICS

Hints & Solutions

EXERCISE - 1 = 60.8 mho/cm

1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (d) 4. (c) 5. (b) 2. (b) I = nA evd or I µ nvd

6. (c) Field effect tansistor is unipolar in nature because in
Ie n e ve n e Ie v h 7 4 7
this either holes or electrons are present. But in case \ I = n v or = ´ = ´ =
of BJT both holes and electrons are present due to h h h n h Ih ve 4 5 5
which they are bipolar in nature. 3. (b) In half wave rectifier, we get the output only in one half
7. (d) cycle of input a.c. therefore, the frequency of the ripple
8. (c) The resistivity of conductor increases with increase of the output is same as that of input a.c. i.e. 50 Hz
in temperature. The resistivity of semiconductor 4. (d) In full wave rectifier, we get the output for the positive
decreases as the temperature increases and negative cycle of input a.c. Hence the frequency of
9. (c) Maximum in insulators and overlaping in metals the ripple of the output is twice than that of input a.c.
i.e. 100 Hz
10. (b)
11. (a) 3
5. (a) [Hint Þ for B.C.C cell r = a
12. (a) Minority carriers in a p-type semiconductor are free 4
electrons.
so distance between body centered atom & a corner
13. (d)
3
14. (b) [Hint : At 0K (–273ºC) motion of free electron stop i.e., atom is 2r = ´ a ´ 2 = 3.66A º ]
4
there is no electron in conduction band therefore at
0K intrinsic semiconductor becomes insulator.] DV 0.7 - 0.5
6. (c) Forward resistance = = = 200 W
15. (b) Combination of NAND & NOR gates can produce OR, DI 1.0 ´ 10-3
AND & NOT gates
16. (c) 7. (c) b = a = 0.95 = 0.95 = 19
17. (d) Radiowaves of constant amplitude can be produced 1 - a 1 - 0.95 0.05
by using oscillator with proper feedback.
DI C
18. (c) Zener diode is used as a voltage regulator i.e. for 8. (a) b = or DIC = b DIB = 40 ´ 100 m A
DI B
stabilization purposes.
19. (d) 20. (d) 9. (c) IC = IE –IB = 90 – 1 = 89 m A
21. (a) Metal oxides with high temperature coefficient of
resistivity. Ro 5000
10. (c) Voltage amplification A v = b = 60 ´ = 600
Ri 500
22. (b) Integrated circuit can act as a complete electronic
circuit.
A V 2800
23. (d) In forward biasing of the p-n junction, the positive 11. (c) Current gain, a = = = 0.93
A R 3000
terminal of the battery is connected to p-side and the
negative terminal of the battery is connected to n- 12. (a) The phase difference between output voltage and input
side. The depletion region becomes thin. signal voltage in common base transistor circuit is zero
24. (c) When small amount of antimony (pentavalent) is added
13. (c) DI C = a DI E = 0.99 ´ 5 = 4.95 m A
to germanium crystal then crystal becomes n-type semi
conductor. Therefore, there will be more free electrons 14. (c) Band gap,
than holes in the semiconductor.
hc (6.6 ´ 10 -34 ) (3 ´ 108 )
25. (c) Semiconductors are insulators at low temperature Eg = = eV = 0.49 eV
l 2480 ´ 10 -9 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
EXERCISE - 2
RL 24
1. (b) Conductivity s = n i em e = 1017 ´ (1.6 ´10 -19 ) ´ 3800 15. (b) Voltage gain, A v = b R = 0.6 ´ 3 = 4.8
i
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 777

16. (b) In half wave rectifier only half of the wave is rectified
(0.7 - 0.6)V 0.1
= = = 10 W.
mR mR (15 - 5 ) mA 10 ´10-3
17. (b) A n = r + R = (m / g ) + R
p m 26. (d) Current gain in common emitter mode

a 0.995 0.995
42 ´ (50 ´103 ) = = = = 199.
= = 29.57 1 - a 1 - 0.995 0.005
42 /(2 ´10 -3 ) + 50 ´10 3
27. (a)
V 0.1 28. (b) Given : µe = 2.3 m2 V–1 s–1
18. (c) E = = - 6 = 105 V / m
d 10 µh = 0.01 m2 V–1 s–1, ne = 5 × 1012 / cm3
19. (b) = 5 × 1018/m3 nh = 8 × 1013/cm3 = 8 × 1019/m3.
20. (c) We know that for common base Conductivity s = e[neµe + nhµh]
= 1.6 × 10–19 [5 × 1018 × 2.3 + 8 × 1019 × 0.01]
i collector current
a= c = = 0.98 = 1.6 × 10–1 [11.5 + 0.8]
ie emiter current
= 1.6 × 10–1 × 12.3 = 1.968 W–1 m–1.
& for common emitter
hc 6.62 ´10 -34 ´ 3 ´108
i collector current 29. (b) l = = = 2.07 ´ 10 -5 m
b= c = E -3
(60 ´ 10 ´ 1.6 ´10 )-19
ib base current
30. (c) No. of electrons reaching the collector,
a 0.98 0.98
b= = = = 49. 96
1 - a 1 - 0.98 0.02 nC = ´ 1010 = 0.96 ´ 1010
100
21. (c) The given circuit is a circuit of full wave rectifier.
22. (d) During the formation of a junction diode, holes from p- n ´e
Emitter current, IE = E
region diffuse into n-region and electrons from n-region t
diffuse into p-region. In both cases, when an electrons
meets a hole, they cancel the effect at each other and as Collector current, I = n C ´ e
C
t
a result, a thin layer at the junction becomes free from
any of charges carriers. This is called depletion layer. \ Current transfer ratio,
There is a potential gradient in the depletion layer,
IC n C 0.96 ´ 1010
negative on the p-side, and positive on the n-side. The a= = = = 0.96
potential difference thus developed across the junction IE n E 1010
is called potential barrier.
DI p
1 31. (b) g m = DV
23. (a) Conductivity, σ = = e(n eμ e + n h μ h ) g
ρ
ie, 2.13 = 1.6 × 10–19(0.38 + 0.18) ni or DIp = gm ´ DVg = 3 ´ 10-4 ´ [-3 - (-1)]
(Since in intrinsic semi-conductor, ne = nh= ni)
= –0.6 × 10–3 A = shortage of 0.6 × 10–3 A
\ density of charge carriers, n i
J1 AT12 e - W1 / kT1
2.13 32. (d) =
= = 2.37 ´ 1019 m -3 . J 2 AT22e - W2 / kT2
1.6 ´ 10-19 ´ 0.56
24. (b) Reverse resistance W1 W2
2 2
æ T1 ö - kT1 + kT2 æ 1 ö 0 1
DV 1 = çç ÷ e
÷ =ç ÷ e =
= = = 2 ´ 106 W è T2 ø è2ø 4
D I 0.5 ´10-6
Vs 0.01
25. (c) Forward bias resistance =
DV 33. (d) [Hint Þ i B = = = 1 ´ 10-5 A
DI R in 103
 EBD_7751
778 PHYSICS

ve terminal of the cell pushes (enters) the n side and

ic
Now b of transistor is defined as bac = decr ea ses t h e n um ber of un compen sat ed
ib pentavalent ion due to which potential barrier is
reduced. The neutralised pentavalent atom are again
or i c = 50 ´10 -5 = 500mA ] in position to donate electrons.
34. (b) Pauli’s exclusion principle. 40. (a) In reverse bias the current through the p-n junction is
35. (b) almost zero.
36. (c) V' = V + IR = 0.5 + 0.1 × 20 = 2.5 V 41. (d) (A) is a NAND gate so output is 1´ 1 = 1 = 0
0.5V 20W (B) is a NOR gate so output is 0 + 1 = 1 = 0
0.1A
(C) is a NAND gate so output is 0 ´1 = 0 = 1
(D) is a XOR gate so output is 0 Å 0 = 0
V
0
37. (b) Given interatomic spacing = 2r = 2.54 Å 1
1
4r = 2 a, where a is lattice constant

2a a Following is NAND Gate Y = AB

2r = = 2
2
42. (b) Output of upper AND gate = AB

Output of lower AND gate = AB

\ Output of OR gate, Y = A B + BA
a = 2r 2 = (2.54 Å)(1.414) = 3.59 Å This is boolean expression for XOR gate.
38. (a) Due to strong electronegativity of carbon. 43. (c) (W + X) . (W + Y) = W + (X . Y)
39. (c)
P N Z´ A
44. (b) d =
N ´a3
For bcc, Z = 2
2A
d=
Na 3
45. (c)
46. (c) Here diode is forward biased with
voltage = 2 – 0 = 2 V.
VB = Vknee+ IR
2 = 0.7 + I× 200
(\ Total resistance = 180 + 20 = 200W)
1.3
\ I= = 6.5mA
200

Y1
47. (b) A
B
Y

Y2

Y1 = A + B, Y2 = A . B
Number of donors is more because electrons from –
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 779

58. (b) D2 is forward biased whereas D1 is reversed biased.

Y = (A + B)gAB = AgA + AgB + BgA + BgB
So effective resistance of the circuit
= 0 + AgB + BgA + 0 = AgB + BgA R = 4 + 2 = 6W
This expression is for XOR
12
48. (d) 49. (b) 50. (b) \i = =2A
6
D IC 59. (d) For a p-type semiconductor, the acceptor energy level,
51. (b) Current gain = when VCE is constant.
DI B as shown in the diagram, is slightly above the top Ev
of the valence band. With very small supply of energy
2.5 ´ 10 -3 an electron from the valence band can jump to the
= = 0.1´ 103 = 100 level EA and ionise acceptor negatively.
-6
25 ´ 10
60. (b) [Hint : For easy flow of current the P side must be
[DIB = 125 µA – 100 µA = 25 µA connected to +ive terminal of battery i.e., it is
DIC = 7.5 mA – 5 mA = 2.5 mA] connected to higher potential in comparison to N. This
52. (d) The given truth table is for NAND gate. connection is called forward biased. In this case the
53. (c) input resistance is very low.
In reverse-biased, the P-side is connected to –ive
A terminal & N side to (+ive) terminal to battery. In this
A Y'
Y case input resistance is very high.
B
B n
dow I
k e forward
ea ag
Y ' = A + B. Y = A + B = A + B. Br volt biased
VB
Truth table of the given circuit is given by V
VT
A B Y' Y reverse
0 0 1 0 biased
0 1 0 1
Ic
1 0 0 1 61. (c) = 0.96 Þ I c = 0.96 I e
Ie
1 1 0 1
But I e = I c + I b = 0.96 I e + I b Þ I b = 0.04 I e
Vo R 5 ´103 ´ 62
54. (b) = o ´b = = 10 ´ 62 = 620
Vin R in 500 I c 0.96 I e
\ Current gain b = = = 24
I b 0.04I e
Vo = 620 × Vin= 620 × 0.01 = 6.2 V
\ Vo = 6.2 volt. 62. (b) [Hint : Barrier potential depends on, doping density,
temperature, forward/reverse bias but does not depend
55. (b) From input signals, we have,
on diode design.]
A B Output NAND gate 63. (c) When the collector is positive and emitter is negative
0 0 1 w.r.t. base it causes the forward biasing for each
1 0 1 junction, which causes conduction of current.
0 0 1 64. (b) A
1 1 0 Y
B X
0 0 1
The output signal is shown at B.
X = AB
56. (d) A and C are analogue but B is digital signal.
\ Y = X = AB
I e n e eAv e 7 7 v
57. (c) = Þ = ´ e Y = AB by Demorgan theorem
I h n h eAv h 4 5 vh
\ This diagram performs the function of AND gate.
ve 5 65. (c) In reverse biasing, the conduction across the p-n junction
Þ =
vh 4
 EBD_7751
780 PHYSICS

does not take place due to majority carriers, but takes

place due to minority carriers if the voltage of external DIC 10mA 10 ´ 103
b= = = = 50
battery is large. The size of the depletion region increases DIB 200mA 200
thereby increasing the potential barrier.
76. (d)
66. (c) In semiconductors, the conduction band is empty and
the valence band is completely filled at 0 K. No 77. (d) ni2 = nenh
electron from valence band can cross over to (1.5 × 1016)2 = ne (4.5 × 1022)
conduction band at 0 K. But at room temperature some Þ ne = 0.5 × 1010
electrons in the valence band jump over to the or ne = 5 × 109
conduction band due to the small forbidden gap, i.e., Given nh = 4.5 × 1022
1 eV.
Þ nh >> ne
67. (c) Vo 10 \ Semiconductor is p-type and
V= = V
p p ne = 5 × 109 m–3.
68. (c) Electromotive force depends upon intensity of light 78. (d) Voltage across zener diode is constant.
falling, it does not depend on frequency of barrier
voltage. 250W i i1kW
69. (d) Positive terminal is at lower potential (0V) and negative 5V i–i1kW
terminal is at higher potential 5V. 20v 1kW
70. (c) Semiconductors have –ve temperature coefficient of 15V
15V
resistivity.
71. (b) Majority carriers in an n-type semiconductor are Current in 1kW resistor,
electrons.
72. (c) Power gain = voltage gain × current gain 15volt
(i)1kW = = 15 mA
1kW
V0 I0
= VG × IG = × Current in 250W resistor,
Vi Ii
(20 - 15)V 5V
V02 Ri 100 (i)250W = =
= 2× = 50 ´ 50 ´ 250W 250W
Vi R0 200
20
2500 = A = 20 mA
= = 1250 1000
2
73. (d) For transistor action, the base region must be very \ (i) zener diode = (20 - 15) = 5mA.
thin and lightly doped. Also, the emitter-base junction 79. (d) Here D1 is in forward bias and D2 is in reverse bias so,
is forward biased and base-collector junction is reverse D1 will conduct and D2 will not conduct. Thus, no
biased. current will flow through DC.
74. (a) From the given waveforms, the truth table is as follows.
V 5 1
I= = = Amp.
R 10 2
A B Y
1 1 0
80. (d) IC
0 0 1
0 1 1 RC O/P = 2 Volt
1 0 1
Input RB
The above truth table is for NAND gate.
Therefore, the logic gate is NAND gate.
75. (a) The current gain
The output voltage, across the load RC
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 781

V0 = IC RC = 2
2
The collector current (IC) Voltage gain of new transistor G' = G
3
2 86. (c) As we know that I e = I c + Ib
IC = = 10-3 Amp
2 ´ 103 Divide both side by Ie
Current gain (b) Ie I 1 1
= 1+ b Þ = 1+
Ic Ic a b
IC
(b) current gain = = 100
IB a
b=
1- a
IC 10-3 87. (a)
IB = = = 10 -5 Amp
100 100 88. (d) d = 2hR
Input voltage (Vi) Population covered
Vi = RB IB = 1 × 103 × 10–5 = 10–2 Volt = p d2 × population density
Vi = 10 mV
= 3.14 × 2hR × 1000 × (10–3)2
81. (b) I ® ON
= 3.14 × 2 × 100 × 6.37 × 106 × 1000 × 10–6
II ® OFF
= 40 × 105 = 40 lakhs.
In IInd state it is used as a amplifier it is active region.
-34
hc 6.62 ´ 10 ´ 3 ´108
A 0 1 1 0 89. (a) l= = = 10.888 Å
82. (a) B 0 0 1 1 E (1.14 ´1.6 ´10 -19 )
C 1 1 1 1
OR gate 90. (b) 91. (d) 92. (d)

Vout I out Rout hc

93. (c) E=
83. (a) Voltage gain (AV) = V = I × R l
in in in

hc 6.63 ´ 10 -34 ´ 3 ´ 108

2 ´ 10 –3 4 ´ 103 Þl= = = 16500Å
AV = ´ = 2 × 100 = 2000 E 0.75 ´ 1.6 ´ 10 -19
40 ´ 10-6 100
94. (a) These gates are called digital building blocks because
84. (b) In a n-type semiconductor holes are minority carriers
and pentavalent atoms are dopants. using these gates only (either NAND or NOR) we can
compile all other gates also (like OR, AND, NOT, XOR)
R out 95. (b) Study of junction diode characteristics shows that
85. (d) Voltage gain DÚ = b
R in the junction diode offers a low resistance path, when
forward biased and high resistance path when reverse
R out biased. This feature of the junction diode enables it to
Þ G = 25 R ...(i) be used as a rectifier.
in

b 96. (a) A NOT gate puts the input condition in the opposite
Transconductance gm = order, means for high input it give low output and for
R in
low input it give high output. For this reason NOT
b 25 gate is known as invertor circuit.
Þ Rin = =
gm 0.03
97. (c) Statement - 1 is True, Statement- 2 is False
Putting this value of Rin in eqn. (i) 98. (a) In semiconductors, by increasing temperature,
covalent bond breaks and conduction hole and
R out
G = 25 × 0.03 ...(ii) electrons increase.
25
99. (a) Input impedance of common emitter configuration.
R out DVBE
\ G' = 20 × 0.02 ...(iii) =
20 DiB V
CE = constant
From eqs. (ii) and (iii)
where DVBE = voltage across base and emitter (base
emitter region is forward biased)
 EBD_7751
782 PHYSICS

DiB = base current which is order of few microampere. maximum. So, a maximum potential difference will
100. (a) In semiconductors the energy gap between conduction appear across resistance connected in series of circuit.
band and valence band is small (»1 eV). Due to So, potential across PN junction will be zero. When
the diode will be in reverse biase during negative half
temperature rise, electron in the valence band gain
cycle of AC voltage, the resistance of p–n juntion
thermal energy and may jumpy across the small energy
becomes high which will be more than resistance in
gap, (to the conduction band). Thus conductivity
series. So, there will be voltage across p–n junction
increases and hence resistance decreases.
with negative cycle in output.
EXERCISE - 3 7. (b) Let the potential difference between A and B is V, Given
here r1 = 5 kW and r2 = 5 kW are resistance in series
Exemplar Questions
connection.
1. (d) In semiconsuctor the density of change carriers So,
(electron hole) are very small, so its resistance is high
when the conductivity of a semiconductor increases VAB – 0.3 = [(r1 + r2) 103] × (0.2 × 10 – 3)] [Q V = ir]
with increase in temperature, because the number (VAB – 0.3) = 10 × 103 × 0.2 × 10–3 = 2
density of current carries increases then the speed of So, VAB = 2 + 0.3 = 2.3 V
free electron increase and relaxation time decreases
8. (c) As the given figure the output of C,D and E are :
but effect of decrease in relaxation is much less than
increase in number density. C = A.B and D = A.B
2. (b) When p–n junction is forward biased then the depleton
E = C + D = (A.B) + ( A.B)
layer is compresses or decrease so it opposes the
potential junction resulting decrease in potential So, the truth table of given arrangement of gates can
barrier junction when p–n junction is reverese biased, be written as :
it supports the potential barrier junction, resulting
increase in potential across the junction.
A B A C = A.B D = A.B E = ( C + D)
3. (b) As the given circuit, p–side of p–n function D1 is
connected to lower voltage and n –side of D1 of higher 0 0 1 0 0 0
voltage. 0 1 1 0 1 1
So, D1 is reverse biased. 1 0 0 0 0 0
In circuit A is at –10V and B is at 0 (zero) V. So B is 1 1 0 1 0 1
positive then A or
The p–side of p–n junction D2 is at higher potential
NEET/AIPMT (2013-2017) Questions
and n–side of D2 is at lower potential.
So, D2 is forward biased. 9. (b) In a n-type semiconductor holes are minority carriers
Hence, No current flows through the junction B to A and pentavalent atoms are dopants.
and vice–versa.
R out
4. (d) As the given figure p–n junction conducts during 10. (d) Voltage gain DÚ = b
positive half cycyle only, then diode connected here R in
will work is positive half cycle. Potential difference
across C will be peak voltage when diode is in forword R out
Þ G = 25 R ...(i)
bias then the peak voltage of the given AC voltage in

= V0 = Vrms 2 = 220 2V b
Transconductance gm =
5. (b) Atom of semiconductor are bounded by covalent R in
bonds between the atoms of same or different type. b 25
Þ Rin = =
The concept of hole describes the lack of an electron gm 0.03
at a position where one could exist in an atom or
atomic lattice. If an electron is excited into a higher Putting this value of Rin in eqn. (i)
state, it leaves a hole in its old state. So, hole can be R out
defined as a vacancy created when an electron leaves G = 25 × 0.03 ...(ii)
25
a covalent bond.
6. (c) When the diode will be in forward biased during R out
positive half cycle of input AC voltage, the resistance \ G' = 20 × 0.02 ...(iii)
20
of p–n junction is low. The current in the circuit is
 Semiconductor Electronics : Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits 783

From eqs. (ii) and (iii) Diode ® forward biased output across will be

2 5V
Voltage gain of new transistor G' = G
3

11. (b)
During –ve half cycle Diode ® reverse biased output
i.e., output X = A.B will not obtained.
ALTERNATE :
V (3.5 - 0.5)
19. (d) Current I = = A
R 100
A B X
[Q Barrier potential VB = 0.5V]
0 0 0
1 0 0 3
= = 30mA
0 1 0 100
1 1 1 20. (c) Given : Voltage gain AV = 150

p
Vi = 2cos æç 15t + ö÷ ; V0 = ?
12. (c) In p-region of p-n junction è 3ø
holes concentration > electrons concentration and in
For CE transistor phase difference between input and
n-region
output signal is p = 180°
electrons concentration > holes concentration.
V0
13. (c) In p-n-p transistor holes are injected into the base while Using formula, AV =
Vi
electrons are injected into the base of n-p-n transistor.
Emitter-base junction is forward biased. Þ V0 = AV × Vi
14. (b) C ¢ = A× B Þ C = A× B = A× B æ pö
= 150 × 2cos ç 15t + ÷

Hence the resultant gate is AND gate. è 3ø
15. (a) The given graph represents V-I characteristics of solar
cell. p
or V0 = 300 cos æç 15t + + p ö÷
è 3 ø
16. (d) The barrier potential of a p-n junction depends on
amount of doping, type of semiconductor material and
æ 4 ö
temperature. V0 = 300 cos ç 15t + p ÷
è 3 ø
17. (b) First two gates are NOT gates and the last gate is NOR
gate. 21. (b) Since diode is in forward bias, so the value of current
flowing through AB
Thus, y1 = A, y2 = B and y = y1 + y2
DV 4 - ( -6 ) 10
The truth table corresponding to this is as follows: i= = = = 10–2A
R 1´103 103
22. (a) Given: amplification factor a = 0.96
A B y1 = A y 2 = B y1 + y 2 y = y1 + y2 A. B
load resistance, RL = 800 W
0 0 1 1 1 0 0
input resistance, Ri = 192W
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 a 0.96
So, b = = Þ b = 24
1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 - a 0.04
Voltage gain for common emitter configuration
Thus the combination of gate represents AND gate. RL 800
18. (c) Here P-N junction diode rectifies half of the ac wave Av = b. R = 24 × = 100
i 192
i.e., acts as half wave rectifier. During + ve half cycle
Power gain for common emitter configuration
 EBD_7751
784 PHYSICS

Pv = bAv = 24 × 100 = 2400 24. (b) Given, current gain b = 100, Rc = 3kW, Rb = 2kW
Voltage gain for common base configuration
Rc æ3ö
R 800 Voltage gain (Av) = b = 100 ç ÷ = 150
Av = a, L = 0.96 × =4 Rb è2ø
RP 192

Power gain for common base configuration Power gain = Av b = 150 (100) = 15000

Pv = Ava = 4 × 0.96 = 3.84 25. (b) A Y1 Y2 Y

23. (d) The Boolen expression for the given combination is B
output Y = (A + B) · C
y1 = A + B
Truth table
A B C Y = (A + B) · C y2 = y1 + y1 = y1 = A + B
0 0 0 0
y = y 2 = A + B i.e. NOR gate
1 0 0 0
V1 V2
0 1 0 0 26. (d)
0 0 1 0
In forward bias, V1 > V2 i.e., in figure (d) p-type semi-
1 1 0 0 conductor is at higher potential w.r.t. n-type semicon-
0 1 1 1 ductor.

1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
Hence, A = 1, B = 0, C = 1