NUMERICAL SOLUTIONS TO CE PROBLEMS

CONTENTS

I. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

II. SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
III. SOLUTIONS TO SYSTEMS OF NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS

~Let’s start ^^

I. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

A. MATRIX
In mathematics, a matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers,
symbols, or expressions, arranged in rows and columns. Matrices are
commonly written in box brackets. The horizontal and vertical lines of
entries in a matrix are called rows and columns, respectively. The size of a
matrix is defined by the number of rows and columns that it contains. A
matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m × n matrix or m-by-
n matrix, while m and n are called its dimensions.

• Matrices can be used to compactly write and work with multiple

linear equations, that is, a system of linear equations. Matrices and
matrix multiplication reveal their essential features when related to
linear transformations, also known as linear maps.

Matrix Dimensions: Each element of a matrix is often denoted by a variable with two subscripts. For instance, a21
represents the element at the second row and first column of a matrix A.

Key Terms
element: An individual item in a matrix
row vector: A matrix with a single row
column vector: A matrix with a single column
square matrix: A matrix that has the same number of rows and columns
Diagonal element: elements where the subscript i and j are equal

Example 1

1. Matrix S
Example 2

• KINDS OF MATRICES

1. Row Matrix – matrix with one row

A = [ a 11 a 12 a 13 ……... a 1n]

Ex. A = [ 1 0 2 -3]

2. Column Matrix – matrix with one column

3. Square Matrix– matrix with the same dimension or same number for m & n.

4. Zero Matrix – matrix where all the elements are zero

5.Additive Inverse
Matrix– matrix where the
elements are the elements
of another matrix with
different algebraic signs
 • OPERATIONS ON MATRICES

1. Matrix multiplied with constant C or variable X: distribute the

value of “C” or “x” inside the matrix, multiplying the value of C or x
with the elements inside the matrix.

2. Adding and Subtracting Matrices: We use matrices to list data or to

represent systems. Because the entries are numbers, we can perform operations on matrices. We add or subtract
matrices by adding or subtracting corresponding entries.

In order to do this, the entries must correspond. Therefore, addition and subtraction of matrices are only possible
when the matrices have the same dimensions. Matrix addition is commutative and is also associative, so the following
is true:

A+B=B+A

(A+B) +C=A+(B+C)

Example 1

Solution 1: Manual Adding of Elements

Solution 2: Mode Matrix in the Calculator

Solution 3: using ABC, Calc in the

Calculator

Solution 4: Excel (not applicable in board

exam)

Example 2

Key Answer
0 −2 2
a. [ ]
1 −2 −2
1 6 15
b. [ ]
4 −5 5
3. Multiplication in Matrices

If A is an m x n matrix and B is an o × p matrix, the result AB of their multiplication is an m ×p matrix defined

only if the number of columns n in A is equal to the number of rows o in B. Check to make sure that this is true
before multiplying the matrices since there is “no solution” otherwise.

When multiplying matrices, the elements of the rows in the first matrix are multiplied with corresponding
columns in the second matrix. Each entry of the resultant matrix is computed one at a time.

For two matrices the final position of the product is shown below:

Example 1

If possible, find a single matrix equal to the following

A) AB B) ABC

1 6 15
[ ] =null
4 −5 5
C)
 Solution

f(x) = x3 – 6x2

1st derivative

f'(x) = 3x2 – 12x

for maxima/minima equate f’x = 0

3x2 – 12x = 0

x = 0, 4

• for max and min point, use 2nd derivative

f”(x) = 6x -12

if x = 0, f’’(x) = -12 (maximum point)

if x = 4, f”(x) = 12 (minimum point)

for inflection point, equate f”(x) = 0

6x -12 = 0

x = 2 (inflection point)

a. for single matrix using relative maximum

1 −1 2 5 −2 6 13 6 13
16[ ](0 ) – 4[ ](0) + [ ]=[ ]
−1 −1 −2 4 19 47 19 47

b. for single matrix using relative minimum

1 −1 2 5 −2 6 13 182 −211
16[ ](4 ) – 4[ ](4) + [ ]=[ ]
−1 −1 −2 4 19 47 −205 −273

c. for single matrix using inflection point

1 −1 2 5 −2 6 13 30 −35
16[ ](2 ) – 4[ ](2) + [ ]=[ ]
−1 −1 −2 4 19 47 −29 −49

D)

Solution
1−𝑖 0 1 1 1−𝑖−1+𝑖 0
[ 0 2−𝑖 −2 ] [ 𝑖 ]= [ 2𝑖 − 𝑖 2 + 2 − 2𝑖 ]= [−𝑖 2 + 2]
1 −4 3−𝑖 −1 + 𝑖 1 − 4𝑖 − 3 + 3𝑖 + 𝑖 − 𝑖 2 −2 − 𝑖 2
0 1 1 1
=[−𝑖 2 + 2] + [−2] = [−𝑖 2 ] = [1]
−2 − 𝑖 2 2 −𝑖 2 1
 • MATRIX PROPERTIES / CLASSIFICATIONS
1. Transpose: AT

The transpose of an m x n matrix A is n x m matrix, that is the m column & n row of matrix A is the n column & m row of
matrix AT

Properties:

a. (AT) T = A
b. (CA) T = C (A T)
c. If A + B is defined, (A + B) T = A T + B T
d. If AB is defined, (AB) T = B T A T

2. Conjugate: 𝑨

The conjugate of matrix A is the matrix, whose elements are the conjugate of A

Ex.
𝑖 −𝑖
−𝑖 𝑖
[ ] [ ]
0 0
2 2
3. Tran-jugate: A*
- Conjugate of the transpose / Transpose of the conjugate

Properties:

a. (A*)* = A
b. (CA) *= C (A*)
c. If A + B is defined, (A + B) * = A* + B*
d. If AB is defined, (AB) * = B* A*

Example 1

1. Write the transpose, conjugate, and Tran-jugate of the following matrix

6 −3 2 4 2 0
A=[ ]
1 2 −3 5 −7i 6
6 1 6 1
−3 2 −3 2
2 −3 6 −3 2 4 2 0 2 −3
A T= A=[ ] A * = ( 𝐴 )T=
4 5 1 2 −3 5 7i 6 4 5
2 −7i 2 7i
[0 6 ] [0 6 ]
4. Upper triangular Matrix

A square matrix where elements a ij = 0 when i > j , or all the elements below the diagonal are zero
1 2 3
A = [0 5 4]
0 0 6
5. Lower triangular Matrix

A square matrix where elements a ij = 0 when i < j , or all the elements above the diagonal are zero
1 0 0
A = [𝑖 5 0]
2 3 6
6. Diagonal Matrix

A square matrix where elements a ij = 0 when i < j , or all the elements above and below the diagonal are zero
 1 0 0
A = [0 5 0]
0 0 6
7. Scalar Matrix

A diagonal matrix w/ same value of elements

2 0 0
A = [0 2 0]
0 0 2
8. Identity Matrix

A diagonal matrix where elements w/ same subscript is equal to 1.

1 0 0
I = [0 1 0]
0 0 1
9. Real Matrix

A matrix with real elements

Satisfies : A = A

10. Symmetrical Matrix

Matrix with symmetrical elements w/ respect to the principal diagonal
Satisfies : A = A T
21 1 2
A=[1 12 3]
2 3 32
11. Skew – symmetric matrix
A = -A T
12. Hermitian matrix
A = A*
13. Skew – Hermitian matrix
A = -A*

Example 2

Given the following matrices

𝑥 𝑥2
A=[1 2] B=[3 1] C=[1 2] X=[ 1 ]
3 4 1 0 2 4 𝑥3 𝑥4
a. Determine the value of x1, x2, x3 and x4 that satisfies the equation: AX = B – I
Solution
AX B–I

𝑥1 𝑥2
[ ]
𝑥3 𝑥4

[1 2 ] [ 𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 𝑥2 + 2𝑥4 ] = [3 1]–[1 0]

3 4 3𝑥1 + 4𝑥3 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 1 0 0 1

[ 𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 𝑥2 + 2𝑥4 ] = [ 2 1 ]
3𝑥1 + 4𝑥3 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 1 −1
𝑥1 + 2𝑥3 = 2 𝑥2 + 2𝑥4 =1

3𝑥1 + 4𝑥3 = 1 3𝑥2 + 4𝑥4 =-1

5
Solving: 𝑥1 = -3 𝑥3 = 𝑥2 = -3 𝑥4 = 2
2
 b. AX = CI
c. CX =A

Note if no answer: Write No solution, or symbol of Null

Example 3

A=[2 1] B = [ −3 0 ] C = [ −2 −2 ] D=[0 0]
1 2 −2 −5 0 4 0 0
a. 3A + CD
[6 3]
3 6
b. ABC
[ 16 −4 ]
14 −26
c. AC – 2D
[ −4 0 ]
−2 6
d. Determine all numbers of “z” which satisfies the Az3 + Bz2 + Cz = D
z= 0

Example 4

𝟑
Let f(x) be the sum of the diagonal elements of [𝒙 𝟑 ] . Find the matrix defined by
𝟏 𝟗𝒙𝟐

= [𝟐 𝟏 ] 𝐱𝟐 + [ −𝟑 𝟎 ] 4x - [ −𝟐 −𝟐 ]
𝟏 𝟐 −𝟐 −𝟓 𝟎 𝟒

When “x” is the inflection point. x=-3

[ 56 11 ]
33 74
Example 5

Given the following matrices

1 8 −3 −2 0 −5𝑖
6 −3 2 4 2 0
E = [−2 2 −1] F=[ ] G = [ −1 10 ] H=[ 0 −1 3𝑖 ]
1 2 −3 5 −7i 6 5 3
3 0 4 1 4 2
Find
a. (H T) E
1 −16 10
[ 14 −2 17 ]
−11𝑖 + 6 −34𝑖 12𝑖 + 8
b. GF
4 23 −32 46 −2 − 70𝑖 60
[ ]
33 −9 1 35 10 − 2i 18
c. E + G
NULL
 B. DETERMINANTS
The Determinant of a Matrix:
The determinant of a matrix is a scalar (number), obtained from the elements of a matrix by specified, operations,
which is characteristic of the matrix. The determinants are defined only for square matrices. It is denoted by det A or
|A| for a square matrix A.
o The determinant of the (2 x 2) matrix

is given by det A = |A|

Example 1

=(3x3)-(-2x1) = 11

Solution 1 : By manual solving

Solution 2 : By Calculator

o The determinant of the (3 x 3) matrix

is given as, det A = |A|

Note: Each determinant in the sum (In the R.H.S) is the determinant of a submatrix of A obtained by deleting a
particular row and column of A. These determinants are called minors. We take the sign + or - , according to ( -1)i+j aij
Where i and j represent row and column.

Minor and Cofactor of Element:

The minor Mij of the element aij in a given determinant is the determinant of order (n – 1 x n – 1) obtained by deleting
the ith row and jth column of Anxn.
For example in the determinant
The scalars Cij = (-1)i+j Mij are called the cofactor of the element aij of the matrix A.
Note: The value of the determinant in equation (1) can also be found by its minor elements or cofactors, as

a11M11 – a12M12 + a13M13 Or a11C11 + a12C12+ a13 C13

Hence the det A is the sum of the elements of any row or column multiplied by their corresponding cofactors.
The value of the determinant can be found by expanding it from any row or column.

Example 2

Find Det. A

Solution:
Choosing 2nd row
2 1 3 1 3 2
=-(0)| | + (1)| | - (-2)| | = 0+ 1(12-1) +2(9-2)
3 4 1 4 1 3
= 25

Solution 1 : By manual solving

Solution 2 : By Calculator

Properties of the Determinant:

The following properties of determinants are frequently useful in their evaluation:
1. Interchanging the corresponding rows and columns of a determinant does not change its value (i.e., |A| =
|A‟|).
2. If two rows or two columns of a determinant are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is changed but its
absolute value is unchanged.
3. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is zero, the value of the determinant is zero.
4. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical, the value of the determinant is zero.
5. If every element of a row or column of a determinant is multiplied by the same constant K, the value of the
determinant is multiplied by that constant.
6. The value of a determinant is not changed if each element of any row or of any column is added to (or
subtracted from) a constant multiple of the corresponding element of another row or column.
7. The determinant of a diagonal matrix is equal to the product of its diagonal elements.

8. The determinant of the product of two matrices is

equal to the product of the determinants of the two matrices, that is |AB| = |A||B|.
9. The determinant in which each element in any row, or column, consists of two terms, then the determinant
can be expressed as the sum of two other determinants
Example 3
Given that the following 5th order determinant is equal to zero. Find all the values of x which satisfies the
equation.
1 𝑥 𝑥+2 𝑥−2 99
0 𝑥 𝑥−2 𝑥+2 98
|0 0 𝑥+2 𝑥−2 97|| = 0
|
0 0 0 𝑥−2 96
0 0 0 0 96
Solution:
Multiplying the diagonals as per property of determinants
1(x)(x + 2) (x – 2) (96) = 0
x= 0, -2,2

Example 4

−1 −1 0 3
2 −4 4 1
A=| |
0 2 5 1
−3 0 −9 −5
Solution 1:

Choosing 1st row

−4 4 1 2 4 1 2 −4 1 2 −4 4
Det. A = -1| 2 5 1 | – (-1) |0 5 1 | + 0|0 2 1 | - 3|0 2 5 | = -1(86) + (-29) +0 – 3(48)
0 −9 −5 3 −9 −5 3 0 −5 3 0 −9
Det.A = -259

Solution 2: Direct By Calcu (for Canon only)

ANOTHER SOLUTION OF SOLVING DETERMINANTS

1
|A| = New element
(#)𝑛−2

Where

# = any element (not equal to zero), from the original determinant

n = dimension of the determinant

Example 5

Given : 4th order determinant

0 1 2 3
−1 0 1 2
A=| |
−2 −1 0 3
−3 −2 −3 0
Required : det A or |A|

Solution :

# = -1 of 2nd row and 1st column

n=4
Solution
1
|A| = New element
(#)𝑛−2

For New element

0 1 0 2 0 3
| | | | | |
−1 0 −1 1 −1 2
−1 0 −1 1 −1 2
| | | | | |
−2 −1 −2 0 −2 3
−1 0 −1 1 −1 2
| | | | | |
−3 −2 −3 −3 −3 0

1 2 3
1
|A| = |1 2 1|
(−1)4−2
2 6 6

1
|A| = (4)
(−1)2

|A| = 1 (4)

|A| = 4

Solution 2 : By calculator (CANON /CLASSWIZ)

 II. SOLVING SYSTEM OF LINEAR OF EQUATIONS USING:
A. CRAMER’S RULE
B. GAUSSIAN/GAUSS-JORDAN METHOD
C. USING INVERSE
1. Using the Gauss-Jordan method
2. Method of Adjoints
3. By calculator (until 4 by 4 matrix for Canon/Classwiz)

Let’s have a short recap of all the above, then I will show my own sample.

A. CRAMER’S RULE

CRAMER’S RULE is an explicit formula for the solution of a system of linear equations with as many equations as
unknowns, valid whenever the system has a unique solution. It expresses the solution in terms of the determinants of
the (square) coefficient matrix and of matrices obtained from it by replacing one column by the column vector of
right-hand-sides of the equations.
B. GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION / GAUSS – JORDAN ELIMINATION

i. GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION
A method of solving a linear system of equations. This is done by transforming the system's augmented matrix into
row-echelon form by means of row operations. Then the system is solved by back substitution.
There are three types of row operations which may be performed on the rows of a matrix:
1. Swap the positions of two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a non-zero scalar.
3. Add to one row a scalar multiple of another.
If the matrix is associated to a system of linear equations, then these operations do not change the solution
set. Therefore, if one's goal is to solve a system of linear equations, then using these row operations could
make the problem easier.
ii. GAUSS-JORDAN ELIMINATION
Gauss-Jordan Elimination is like the continuation of Guassian Elimination; the process is the same.
The Echelon form of Gauss-Jordan Elimination is an identity matrix (type of matrix from modul
Let’s try to solve the previous sample problem using Gauss-Jordan Elimination.
C. USING INVERSE

When AX = B, then X = A−1B

A. Using Gauss – Jordan for finding the inverse of a matrix

Given
A =[ 𝑎 𝑏 ]
𝑐 𝑑

Step 1 : Augmented Matrix with the Identity Matrix [ A I ]

[𝑎 𝑏 1 0 ]
𝑐 𝑑 0 1

Step 2 : We perform Gauss-Jordan reduction on the matrix and the results is [ I A-1] . If we cannot reduce A to
I using row operations, then A has no inverse.
𝑒 𝑓
[1 0 ]
0 1 𝑔 ℎ

From this
𝑒 𝑓
A-1 = [ ]
𝑔 ℎ

Find the inverse of

A=[7 3]
5 2

[7 3 1 0] 1/7 R1
5 2 0 1

[1 3/7 1/7 0 ] -5 R1 + R2
5 2 0 1

[1 3/7 1/7 0 ] -7 R
2
0 −1/7 −5/7 1

[1 3/7 1/7 0 ] - 3/7 R2 + R1

0 1 5 −7

[1 0 −2 3 ]
0 1 5 −7

So A-1 = [ −2 3 ]
5 −7
B. Using Method of Adjoints

Given

7 2 1
A=[ 0 3 −1]
−3 4 −2

Step 1: Assemble the matrix of cofactors of A

+(−2) −(−3) +(9) −2 3 9

C = [−(−8) +(−11) −(34)] =[ 8 −11 −34]
+(−5) −(−7) +(21) −5 7 21

Step 2 = Create adjoint of Matrix A = adj (A) = CT

−2 8 −5
adj (A) = CT = [ 3 −11 7]
9 −34 21

Step 3: Use the formula for the inverse matrix:

1
A-1 = adj (A)
det A

Where det A is the determinant of matrix A.

For det. A

From
7 2 1 7 2
A=[ 0 3 −1] 0 3
−3 4 −2 −3 4

det A = (-42 + 6 + 0) – (-9 + -28 + 0) = 1

1
A-1 = adj (A)
det A

−2 8 −5
1
A-1 = [3 −11 7]
1
9 −34 21

−2 8 −5
A-1 = [ 3 −11 7]
9 −34 21

C. By Calculator /MS EXCEL ^^

Example 1

Solve the following system by using

x+ y+ z=5

2x + 3y + 5z = 8

4x + 5z = 2

a. Cramer’s Rule
1 1 1 5
|𝐷| = |2 3 5| = 13 k = [8]
4 0 5 2
5 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 5
|𝐷𝑥| = |8 3 5| = 39 |𝐷𝑦| = |2 8 5| = 52 |𝐷𝑧| = |2 3 8| = -26
2 0 5 4 2 5 4 0 2
39 52 −26
x= =3 y= =4 z= = -2
13 13 13

Answer : x=3, y=4, z =-2

b. Gaussian Elimination
c. Gauss Jordan Elimination
d. Inverse
1. Using method of Gauss – Jordan for Inverse

1 1 1 x 5
A = [2 3 5] X= [ ]
y B = [8]
4 0 5 z 2

X = A-1B

For A-1

1 1 1 1 0 0
[2 3 5 0 1 0] -2R1 + R2 and -4R1 + R3
4 0 5 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 0 0
[0 1 3 −2 1 0 ] -R2 + R1 and 4R2 + R3
0 −4 1 −4 0 1

1 0 −2 3 −1 0
[0 1 3 −2 1 0 ] 1/13 R3
0 0 13 −12 4 1

1 0 −2 3 −1 0
[0 1 3 −2 1 0 ] -3R3 + R2 and 2R3 + R1
0 0 1 −12/13 4/13 1/13

1 0 0 15/13 −5/13 2/13

[0 1 0 10/13 1/13 −3/13 ]
0 0 1 −12/13 4/13 1/13

15/13 −5/13 2/13

A-1 = [ 10/13 1/13 −3/13 ]
−12/13 4/13 1/13

X = A-1B
 15/13 −5/13 2/13 5
X= [ 10/13 1/13 −3/13 ] [8]
−12/13 4/13 1/13 2

3
X=[ 4 ]
−2

2. Using method of adjoints

X = A-1B

1
A-1 = adj (A)
det A

1 1 1 1 1
A = [2 3 5] 2 3
4 0 5 4 0

det A = (15 + 20+ 0) –(12+0+ 10) = 13

+(15) −(−10) +(−12) 15 10 −12

C = [ −(5) +(1) −(−4) ] = [−5 1 4 ]
+(2) −(3) +(1) 2 −3 1

15 −5 2
adj (A) = CT = [ 10 1 −3]
−12 4 1

1
A-1 = adj (A)
det A

15 −5 2 15/13 −5/13 2/13

1
A-1 = [ 10 1 −3] = [ 10/13 1/13 −3/13]
13
−12 4 1 −12/13 4/13 1/13

X = A-1B

15/13 −5/13 2/13 5

X= [ 10/13 1/13 −3/13 ] [8]
−12/13 4/13 1/13 2

3
X=[ 4 ]
−2

Note : There’s also other Methods like Jacobi Iteration / Gauss Seidel, you can browse your CIE 115 Notes for
reference.

You can actually use your Mode 5 equations for this. For Canon F 789 SGA/Classwiz it can solve 4 equations 4
unknowns.
 III. SOLUTION TO NON-LINEAR EQUATIONS
Note: You can actually use Shift Calc on this. However, you should be careful that by using this it can only give you 1
root per input. So, you should check how many possible roots of the non-linear equation you are trying to solve.

You can also use Mode 5 (equation).

A. USING BISECTION METHOD

Example 1
Example 2

Example 3
Determine the root 7x3 – 15x2 + 5x =17
x = 2.29319

B. FIXED-POINT ITERATION
 C. NEWTON’S METHOD
Also known as the Newton–Raphson method, named after Isaac Newton and Joseph Raphson, is a root-finding
algorithm which produces successively better approximations to the roots (or zeroes) of a real-valued
function. If a differentiable function y = f(x) has a simple root s in (a, b) and f’(s) ≠ 0, then the iteration rule is
given as

Example 1

Note: There’s also other Methods like Secant Method, Regula-Falsi Method, Newton-Rhapson Method (best use for 2
or more non-linear equations). You can browse your CIE 115 Notes for reference.

Also, there’s a topic called Numerical Integration you can also browse your CIE 115 last module for that, Just take
note that in solving definite integrals you can directly use your calculator.^^

I think, it’s best to practice solving always, and be familiarize with the functions in your calculator. ^^

Prep by:

Engr. Mary Joanne Calpito