Earth Science Reviewer

Pointers To Review

I. Rocks
- Description
- Kinds
- Uses
- Rock Cycle
II. Minerals
- Uses per Mineral
- Properties
III. Energy Sources
- Advantages and Disadvantages
IV. Solving Specific Gravity
I. Rocks

Petrology - the branch of geology that studies the origin,

composition, distribution, and structure of rocks

Rock - Naturally-occurring mixtures of minerals, mineraloids,

glass or organic matter

Uses of rocks

- Fossil fuels
- Building material for houses, road, bridges, and cities
- Used to make cement and concrete
- Salt in our food is a mineral and pumice stones are used in
toothpaste.
- Decoration - Stone statues, gemstones in jewelry, rock
painting, rock garden, rock landscape etc.
- Used in making glass
- Sandpaper

Types of rocks

● Igneous rocks
● Sedimentary rocks
● Metamorphic rocks
Igneous Rocks:
- Formation - Through solidification of magma or lava
Note: (Magma is found outside of a volcano and lava is found inside a volcano)

- Characteristics - No layers; Hardest type of all rocks

- Types

● Intrusive - Formed through the slow cooling of magma

Ex. Granite, Diorite, Gabbro
● Extrusive - Formed through the rapid cooling of lava
Ex. Pumice, Obsidian, Basalt

Sedimentary Rocks:
- Formation - Through the compaction of sediments

- Characteristics - Distinctly layered; Easy to crumble

- Types

● Clastic - Compaction of broken rocks

Ex. Sandstone, Conglomerate
● Chemical - Compaction of dissolved minerals
Ex. Iron ore, Rock salt
● Organic - Compaction of organic materials
Ex. Coal, Limestone

Metamorphic Rocks:
- Formation - Through the transformation of older rocks
 - Characteristics - May or may not have layers; relatively
harder

- Types

● Foliated - Distinguished by layers

Ex. Slate, Gneiss, Phyllite
● Non-foliated - No distinguishable layers
Ex. Marble, Quartzite, Hornfels

Rock Cycle
Cycle Representation:
Terms:

Weathering - The general term applied to the combined action

of all processes that cause rocks to disintegrate physically and
decompose chemically because of exposure near the earth
surface.

Lithification - The physical and chemical processes that

transform sediments into sedimentary rocks. Occurs in
sedimentary basins, where the bottom layers are subjected to
increasing temperature and pressure.

Compaction - A process that squeezes, or compacts,

sediments, pushing water out.

Cementation - Takes place when dissolved minerals are

deposited in the tiny spaces among the sediments.
II. Minerals

Properties:

Property Description

Color A few minerals can be identified by their color. However, color

varies in most minerals depending on how they form making
it a little unreliable.

Streak The streak of a mineral is the color of its powder. Although

mineral color may vary, streak color does not.

Luster How light is reflected off a mineral’s surface is called luster. It

may be described as glassy, earthy, silky, metallic, etc.

Crystal A mineral can be identified by the particular arrangement of

its atoms.

Hardness Mohs Scale ranks minerals hardness 1-10

1=talc, which can be scratched by a fingernail.
10=diamond, which can scratch all known common minerals.

Cleavage A mineral that splits easily along a flat surface and forms a
new “face” is said to have cleavage.

Fracture Minerals that break irregularly, rather than leaving a flat

surface, have fracture, not cleavage.

Density Each mineral has a characteristic density - mass per unit

volume(m/v)
Mohs Hardness Scale:

Uses per Mineral

Antimony - Used along alloy to create batteries for storing grid

power.
Asbestos - Has an unsavory reputation for causing cancer in
people who work around it. When polished, it becomes the well
known and popular ‘Tiger Eye’ stone.
Barium - Common element used in x-ray technology,
fireworks, rubber and glass making and rat poison.
Beryllium - An alkaline element that is highly toxic. Known for
its sugary taste and some of its common uses are in x-rays and
fluorescent lights.
Cobalt - Famous for the incredible blue color it imparts to glass
and pigment. Found in meteorites and is used in invisible ink.
Copper - Used for currency, jewelry, plumbing and to conduct
electricity.
Feldspar - Most commonly found in granite and used mostly as
a building material.
Fluorite - Used to create fluorescent pigment and since it is
very beautiful, used for gem material.
Gold - Used for jewelry, dentistry, electronics, circulation of
money, and a host of other applications. The most malleable
metal which increases the way it can be used.
Gypsum - Most commonly used in drywall, also known as
sheet rock. Also used as a fertilizer and road construction.
Halite(Sodium Chloride–Salt) - Used for seasoning food and
softening water. Also used to make certain acids, in fire
extinguishers and melting ice on the road.
Iron ore - Used in all sorts of construction, from vehicles to
buildings.
Lead - Has a bad reputation for its poisoning capabilities. Was
once used in paint, pencils, and eating utensils.
Lithium - Used in several applications including medication
for bipolar symptoms and batteries. Became very popular with
the advent of electric cars.
Manganese - With iron impurities can be slightly magnetic.
Essential in the steel making process, and petroglyphs were
carved into it in the Southwest.
Mica - Responsible for putting a sparkle on many rocks. Very
flexible, and large sheets of it were used as a window glass in
the past.
Molybdenum - Essential for utilizing nitrogen.
Nickel - Used in currency, jewelry and eating utensils and is
used in alloys as well.
Platinum - Commonly used in jewelry but technology also
benefits from them. The largest source of platinum and the
members of its family from the by-product of nickel mines.
Potassium(Potash) - Major component in crop fertilizer
around the world. Very important in the human body since it
works with salt regulating the pressure inside and outside the
body’s cell walls. Also used in soap manufacture.
Pyrite - Commonly known as ‘fool's gold’. Frequently seen in
granite rocks where it adds sparkle. Native Americans polished
it to use as a mirror. Occasionally used in jewelry. Its
by-product is used in ink and disinfectants.
Quartz - Most abundant mineral on earth. Used in concrete,
glass, scientific instruments and watches. Also used to make
silicon semiconductors.
Silica - Used in desiccants to remove moisture from the air.
Also used in sandpaper and glass making.
Silver - One of the precious metals. Used as currency and in
jewelry making. Also used in medicine due to its microbial
properties.
Sodium Carbonate(soda ash/trona) - Used to control the pH of
products. Used to make glass, paper, detergents and for
softening.
Sulfur - Major ingredient in acid rain but it is also used in wine
making and fruit preservation.
Tantalum - Used when an alloy needs a high melting point and
strength. Used in missiles, aircraft parts and vacuums.
Titanium - One of the most abundant and toughest metals on
Earth. Used extensively in human body repair.
Tungsten - Used to make saw blades and used in welding. Is
metal that is stronger than steel and has a high melting temp..
Uranium - Used in cancer treatments, x-rays, military
weapons and fuel for space shuttles.
Vanadium - Found in many foods and helps bones grow. Useful
in regulating blood sugar in diabetics and helps grow muscles
for bodybuilders.
Zeolite - Known as the ‘stone that dances’. Used in wastewater
cleanup and since it can absorb ammonia, it is used in kitty
litter and reducing other animal smells.
Zinc - Essential for a healthy life. Used for macular
degeneration, diabetes and the common cold.

Energy of Sources

Different sources of Energy

Hydropower
Carried out through dams
Advantages:
- Reduces consumption of fossil fuels for electricity
production.
- Reduces production of greenhouse gasses, such as CO2
- Reduces production of pollution, such as particulate matter
- Can prevent uncontrolled flooding
- Can also be used in agriculture through irrigation as well as
recreational activities such as boating and fishing
- Is a renewable energy resource

Disadvantages:
- Dirt can build up at dams, decreasing their effectiveness
- Large-scale wildlife habitat destruction due to river valley
flooding
- Interferes with natural wildlife migration patterns, such as
salmon.
- Dam construction forces people to leave their homes if they
live in or near the flooded river valley.
- Very expensive to build
- Reduces areas for certain types of recreation such as fishing,
camping, hunting, hiking
- Interferes with natural flow of water through environment
- If natural fisheries are affected, harms the livelihoods of
people who rely on those fisheries for a living.
- Requires maintenance
- Can fail catastrophically

Solar Energy
- Carried out through solar panels which is powered by silicon
Advantage:
- Renewable & Pollution Free
- Less to no maintenance for years
- More solar energy in summer
- Reduce electricity bill
- Diverse Application
- Can be stored in Battery
Disadvantage:
- Needs lots of space
- High Initial cost
- No solar power at night & cloudy days
- Less solar energy in winter
- DC equipment are expensive
- Expensive battery

Wind energy
- Carried out through wind turbines
Advantage:
- Creates employment opportunities
- Has relatively low operating expenses
- An everlasting and renewable energy source
- Gradually reducing reliance on fossil fuels by embracing wind
energy to create electricity
Disadvantage:
- Can only be successfully installed in specific areas
- Quite difficult and expensive to install
- Include a safety concern to individuals working near them in
windy conditions.
- To be efficient and effective, a wind turbine necessitates
continuous supply of wind energy and is wholly unpredictable.

Geothermal Energy
- Carried out through geothermal plants near volcanos
Advantages:
- Good for the environment
- Is a reliable source of renewable energy
- Have high efficiency
- No too little geothermal system maintenance needed
- Unlimited supply of geothermal energy
Disadvantages:
- Causes greenhouse emissions[Greenhouse emissions: Carbon
dioxide, Nitrogen gas(NO2), Methane(CH4)]
- Possibility of depletion in geothermal sources
- High-cost investment needed for geothermal systems
- Hard to implement geothermal systems in big cities
- Geothermal reservoirs cannot easily be found

Nuclear Energy
- Carried out through nuclear plants
Pros:
- Inexpensive source of energy
- Low greenhouse gas emission
- Power output is maximum
- Reliable source of energy
- Positive economic impact
Cons:
- Environmental Impact(Effect of nuclear energy to
environment: Contamination, radiation, leak)
- Potential of nuclear accident
- Expensive and long time to build
- Security Threat
- Is not a renewable source of energy(Source of nuclear energy:
Plutonium, Radium, Uranium)
Biomass Energy
Advantages:
- Renewable
- Carbon neutrality
- Less dependency on fossil fuels
- Can be produced domestically
- Sources for biomass energy are easily available
- Low cost
- Reduces and utilizes waste
Disadvantages:
- Not completely clean energy
- Economically inefficient
- Can lead to deforestation
- Requires large amount of space
- Requires water
- Low energy density
- Requires sustainable use and management

Additional terms:
Threats of nuclear energy to the environment
- Radiation
- Contamination
- Leak

Different Greenhouse Gasses

- Carbon dioxide(CO2)
- Nitrous oxide(N2O)
- Methane(CH4)
- Water vapor
Specific Gravity

Formulas:

Sp Gr = ⍴ of given object/⍴ of reference object

Density(⍴) = m/v

Reference Objects(g/mL):

Copper(Cu) = 8.9
Silver(Ag) = 10.5
Lead(Pb) = 11.3
Gold(Au) = 19
Salt = 2.16
Aluminum(Al) = 2.70
Iron(Fe) = 7.80
Mercury(Hg) = 1.33
Water(H2O) = 1

Units:
⍴ in liquid = g/mL
⍴ in solid = g/cm3
Sp Gr = unitless