Fictions in Autobiography
Eakin, Paul John
Published by Princeton University Press
Eakin, Paul John.
Fictions in Autobiography: Studies in the Art of Self-Invention.
Course Book ed. Princeton University Press, 2014.
Project MUSE. muse.jhu.edu/book/33644.
For additional information about this book
https://muse.jhu.edu/book/33644
[ Access provided at 21 May 2023 10:18 GMT from University of Queensland ]
C H A P T E R O N E
Fiction in Autobiography:
Ask Mary McCarthy No Questions
I. "IN TALKING ABOUT THE PAST WE LIE
WITH EVERY BREATH WE DRAW"
MOST READERS naturally assume that all autobiographies are
based on the verifiable facts of a life history, and it is this
referential dimension, imperfecdy understood, that has checked
the development of a poetics of autobiography. Historians and
social scientists attempt to isolate the factual content of auto
biography from its narrative matrix, while literary critics,
seeking to promote the appreciation of autobiography as an
imaginative art, have been willing to treat such texts as though
they were indistinguishable from novels. Autobiographers
themselves, of course, are responsible for the problematical
reception of their work, for they perform willynilly both as
artists and historians, negotiating a narrative passage between
the freedoms of imaginative ,creation on the one hand and the
constraints of biographical fact on the other. Accordingly, in
order to deal with the vexing issue of factuality that readers
of these texts confront, it is essential to reach some under
standing of the state of mind that motivates autobiographical
discourse in the first place. On the basis of my research into
the autobiographical act as performed by the twentiethcen
tury writers discussed in the chapters that follow, I shall ar
gue that autobiographical truth is not a fixed but an evolving
content in an intricate process of selfdiscovery and selfcrea
tion, and, further, that the self that is the center of all auto
biographical narrative is necessarily a fictive structure. In these
pages I seek to identify the fictions involved in autobiography
and the sources—psychological and cultural—from which they
are derived.
MARY M C CARTHY
It is not my intention, however, to expel truth from the
house of autobiography and to install fiction in its stead. One
could conflate autobiography with other forms of fiction only
by willfully ignoring the autobiographer's explicit posture as
autobiographer in the text. It is, nevertheless, hardly surprising
that the traditional version of the problematic of autobiogra
phy has focused on the apparently antithetical claims of truth
and fiction that are necessarily involved in any attempt to ren
der the materials of a life history in a narrative form. Jean
Jacques Rousseau is often recognized as the father of modern
autobiography, and perhaps he deserves credit, too, for in
augurating the conception of autobiographical truth that has
stunted until very recently the growth of a criticism devoted
to autobiography. Rousseau's stance in the opening lines of
Tbe Confessions (1781), hand over heart, grandly invoking "the
last trump" of Judgment and his "Sovereign Judge" to bear
witness to the truth of his account of his life, has probably
been more memorable for most of his readers than anything
else in the book, including even the pleasurable spankings and
the notorious theft of the ribbon: "I have resolved on an en
terprise which has no precedent, and which, once complete,
will have no imitator. My purpose is to display to my kind a
portrait in every way true to nature, and the man I shall por
tray will be myself." When Rousseau goes on to state, "I have
displayed myself as I was,"1 he affirms the possibility of a
total revelation of human personality, and his readers have
been arguing ever since whether to accept his claim for The
Confessions as truth told with complete and unshrinking can
dor, or to dismiss it as the shameless magniloquence of a mon
strous selfdeception.
Edgar Allan Poe, for one, grasped the revolutionary import
of a project like Rousseau's when he addressed the art of
confession in a passage of his "Marginalia" in Graham's Amer
ican Monthly Magazine of Literature and Art for January, 1848:
1 The Confessions of JeanJacques Rousseau, trans. J. M. Cohen (Harmonds
worth, England: Penguin, 1953), p. 17.
MARY M C CARTHY
If any ambitious man have a fancy to revolutionize, at
one effort, the universal world of human thought, human
opinion, and human sentiment, the opportunity is his
own—the road to immortal renown lies straight, open,
and unencumbered before him. All that he has to do is
write and publish a very little book. Its title should be
simple—a few plain words—"My Heart Laid Bare." But—
this little book must be true to its title.
Poe correctly surmised that the lure of this model of auto
biography, its appeal for the opportunist with an itch for no
toriety ("STAR TELLS ALL"), is irresistible, and constantly
exploited. Poe himself, however, would have none of it, be
cause he believed that the psychological resistance to such a
revelation was insurmountable: "No man dare write it."2 Rad
ically opposed though they are about the possibility of enact
ing the confessional model of autobiography, Poe and Rous
seau are united in their view that the challenge posed by
autobiographical truth is in essence a matter of volition, of
having the courage to utter it, leaving unexamined the prob
lematical nature of the truth to be told, the epistemological
difficulty of ascertaining what it is.
Adventurous twentiethcentury autobiographers have shifted
the ground of our thinking about autobiographical truth be
cause they readily accept the proposition that fictions and the
fictionmaking process are a central constituent of the truth of
any life as it is lived and of any art devoted to the presentation
of that life. Thus memory ceases to be for them merely a
convenient repository in which the past is preserved inviolate,
ready for the inspection of retrospect at any future date. They
no longer believe that autobiography can offer a faithful and
unmediated reconstruction of a historically verifiable past; in
stead, it expresses the play of the autobiographical act itself,
in which the materials of the past are shaped by memory and
imagination to serve the needs of present consciousness. Au
tobiography in our time is increasingly understood as both an
2 Marginalia (Charlottesville: Univ. of Virginia Press, 1981), p. 150.
S
MARY M C CARTHY
art of memory and an art of the imagination; indeed, memory
and imagination become so intimately complementary in the
autobiographical act that it is usually impossible for autobiog
raphers and their readers to distinguish between them in prac
tice. It is in this spirit, for example, that two hundred years
after the publication of Rousseau's Confessions we find the writer
William Maxwell meditating on the nature of autobiographi
cal truth in So Long, See You Tomorrow (1980), a narrative with
equal claims to being a memoir and a novel (it is both):
I seem to remember that I went to the new house one
winter day and saw snow descending through the attic
to the upstairs bedrooms. It could also be that I never
did any such thing, for I am fairly certain that in a snap
shot album I have lost track of there was a picture of the
house taken in the circumstances I have just described,
and it is possible that I am remembering that rather than
an actual experience. What we, or at any rate what I,
refer to confidently as memory—meaning a moment, a
scene, a fact that has been subjected to a fixative and
thereby rescued from oblivion—is really a form of story
telling that goes on continually in the mind and often
changes with the telling. Too many conflicting emotional
interests are involved for life ever to be wholly accepta
ble, and possibly it is the work of the storyteller to rear
range things so that they conform to this end. In any
case, in talking about the past we lie with every breath
we draw.3
It is this process of storytelling that I want to investigate,
this drive toward narration of the self, and the autobiogra
phers I have chosen to work on share my interest in the fic
tions of autobiography. Characteristically, they have little use
for the narrow, nononsense, "nothing but the facts, Ma'am"
approach to the realities of biographical experience. JeanPaul
Sartre's stance is representative. When an interviewer asks him
5 So Long, See You Tomorrow (New York: Knopf, 1980), p. 27.
MARY M C C A R T H Y
whether he has "come closer to [his] own truth through Ro
quentin or Mathieu than in writing The Words," Sartre's reply
demonstrates the limitations of hard and fast taxonomical dis
tinctions between autobiography and novel: "Probably. Or
rather, I think that The Words is no truer than Nausea or The
Roads of Freedom, Not that the facts I report are not true, but
The Words is a kind of novel also—a novel that I believe in,
but a novel nevertheless."4 Most of the autobiographers I shall
be discussing—not only Sartre but Mary McCarthy, Henry
James, and Maxine Hong Kingston as well—freely avow the
presence of fiction in their art. Rejecting the traditional view
of fiction as a potential threat to the success of the autobio
graphical process, antithetical to the truth they propose to
tell, they regard fiction instead as a central feature of that
truth, an ineluctable fact of the life of consciousness.
My inquiry into the fictions of autobiography begins with
a consideration of the referential dimension of autobiographi
cal discourse in the case of Mary McCarthy, who teaches us
that fiction can have for an autobiographer the status of
remembered fact. In the chapters that follow, I study the
dialectical interplay between an autobiographer's impulse to
selfinvention and the received models of selfhood in the
surrounding culture. My investigation of Henry James's
autobiography (Chapter Two) explores the dynamics of the
autobiographical act, in this case devoted to the invention of
an existential fiction. The fiction is double here, for James's
tale is not only the story of young Henry's creation of a self
designed to surmount the crisis of identity and vocation posed
by his nonparticipation in the Civil War, but also, in its tell
ing, a strategy of selfinvention designed to aid the ailing nov
elist to achieve a recovery of his imaginative powers. In the
case of JeanPaul Sartre (Chapter Three), the model of self
hood is specifically literary, for young Sartre, preempting the
autobiographer he would later become, proposes to transform
4 Life!Situations: Essays Written and Spoken, trans. Paul Auster and Lydia
Davis (New York: Pantheon, 1977), p. 15.
MARY M C CARTHY
himself into a text. This curious circumstance of a text about
a self who would be a text offers a privileged occasion to in
quire into the origins of the autobiographical impulse, that
drive toward narration which Maxwell posits as the central
act of memory: is this storytelling limited to the art of retro
spect, something imposed on life history as a consequence of
the autobiographical act, or can narrative itself be said to con
stitute an experiential category?
The examples of McCarthy, James, and Sartre demonstrate
that selfinvention refers not only to the creation of self in
autobiography but also to the idea that the self or selves they
seek to reconstruct in art are not given but made in the course
of human development. Thus, in the final chapter I place self
invention in the context of the history of the self as a concept
in Western culture and in the context of current ontogenetic
and phylogenetic speculations in linguistics, psychology, and
philosophy about the nature of the self in the developmental
history of the human individual. Investigation of the ontology
of the self, both as entity and as idea, suggests the wisdom of
abandoning the familiar formulation of the relation between
the self and the language that is its means of expression in
autobiography. Instead of debating the old either/or proposi
tion—whether the self is a transcendental category preceding
language in the order of being, or else a construct of language
brought into being by it—it is preferable to conceptualize the
relation between the self and language as a mutually consti
tuting interdependency, for study of early human develop
ment reveals an intimate and necessary linkage between the
acquisition of language and the emergence of selfawareness.
In the ontogenetic schema of selfrealization I present in Chapter
Four, the autobiographical act (when it occurs) figures as a
third and culminating phase in a history of selfconsciousness
that begins with the moment of language in early childhood
and subsequently deepens in a secondlevel order of experi
ence in childhood and adolescence in which the individual
achieves a distinct and explicit consciousness of himself or
herself as a self. In this developmental perspective, the auto
MARY M C CARTHY
biographical act is revealed as a mode of selfinvention that is
always practiced first in living and only eventually—some
times—formalized in writing. I view the rhythms of the au
tobiographical act as recapitulating the fundamental rhythms
of identity formation: in this sense the writing of autobiogra
phy emerges as a second acquisition of language, a second
coming into being of self, a selfconscious selfconsciousness.
My study of the fictions that structure autobiography, then,
is finally intended as an exploration of the relation between
narrative and the fundamental structures of consciousness, for
I believe that the impulse to write autobiography is but a
special, heightened form of that reflexive consciousness which
is the distinctive feature of our human nature. I have chosen
to conclude the last chapter with commentary on the recently
published autobiographies of Saul Friedlander and Maxine
Hong Kingston because these texts help to answer why the
autobiographical imperative, a seeming anachronism derived
from the old belief in self and presence, continues to exercise
its creative force with undiminished urgency, vitality, and
originality in what our newest critics would have us accept as
an age of absence and privation.
II. "MEA CULPA"
We readily accept the presence of autobiographical elements
in fiction, and any reader with an interest in the life of an
author takes pleasure in identifying them. Thoreau wisely re
minds us of the inevitable presence of autobiography in fiction
when he observes that "it is, after all, always the first person
that is speaking." The presence of fiction in autobiography,
on the other hand, tends to make us uneasy, for we instinc
tively feel that autobiography is—or ought to be—precisely
notfiction. We want autobiography to be true, we expect it
to be true more or less, and most of us are content to leave
untested the validity of its claim to a basis in verifiable fact;
most of the time we are not in a position to make such a test
anyway. In those cases when we are forced to recognize that
MARY M C CARTHY
an autobiography is only fiction, we may feel cheated of the
promised encounter with biographical reality.
To abandon expectations of the sort I have just described
would be to abandon autobiography itself. Why would we
bother to read it in the first place if we did not believe in
autobiography as a primary expression of biographical truth?
Realizing this, most autobiographers refrain from any behav-
ior that would disturb the delicate entente between writer and
reader that Philippe Lejeune has described as the autobio-
graphical pact;5 indeed they are apt to encourage our trust in
the historicity of their accounts lest we leave them in the lurch
with their lives on their hands.
Mary McCarthy, however, risks violating the convention of
the autobiographical pact at the very opening of her "memoirs"
when she argues that any autobiographer, acting in the best
of faith, is going to produce a narrative that will have fiction
in it, like it or not. The presence of fiction in autobiography
is not something to wish away, to rationalize, to apologize for,
as so many writers and readers of autobiography persist in
suggesting, for it is as reasonable to assume that all autobiog-
raphy has some fiction in it as it is to recognize that all fiction
is in some sense necessarily autobiographical. The practice of
Mary McCarthy provides an ideal opportunity to launch an
investigation of this presence, not only because she explicitly
addresses herself to this issue but because her performance
offers such a distinctly problematical illustration of it. In her
case the autobiographer is an established writer of fiction re-
calling in a series of sketches that look very much like short
stories the truth about a self she portrays as a liar.
McCarthy herself dramatizes the ambiguity of the fiction
writer turned autobiographer when she observes of one of the
chapters of her "memoirs," "This is an example of iStorytelling'; I
arranged actual events so as to make 'a good story' out of them. It is
hard to overcome this temptation if you are in the habit of writing
* Lejeune, Le pacte autobiographique (Paris: Seuil, 1975), pp. 1346.
MARY M C CARTHY
fiction; one does it almost automatically."6 McCarthy was, in fact,
a wellknown writer of short stories when she began in 1944
to publish a series of sketches about a character with the same
name as her own. There were to be eight of these pieces, and
thirteen years later she presented them in a single volume,
which she called Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (1957). At that
time she arranged the sketches in a chronological sequence,
adding a commentary or afterword for each one, and provid
ing a long preface ("To the Reader") in which she described
the problems and motivation for her autobiographical project.
To be sure, autobiographies are frequently many years in the
writing, and there are numerous instances where manuscript
drafts exist of different versions and revisions; what is unusual
in the case of McCarthy's Memories is that the form of the text
itself, with its alternation of chapters and interchapters, dis
plays the evolution of the autobiographical act as an essential
feature of the autobiography, an evolution which is usually
masked by the publication of only a final draft.
McCarthy's commitment to autobiography is manifested not
only in the structure of the text but in the tenor of her open
ing remarks in the preface as well. Even though some readers,
finding her "memories" in a magazine, took them for "stories,"
even though the author herself often states that she wished
she were writing "fiction" (3), she asserts at the outset that"this
record lays a claim to being historical—that is, much of it can be
checked," and she invites anyone detecting "more fiction in it
than I know" (45) to come forward with corrections. More
fiction in it than she knows, for she is the first to point out
the presence of fiction in her enterprise. Conversations, for
example, "are mostly fictionaF'; she can only vouch that "a con-
versation to this general effect took place" (4). Again, after the first
sketch, the added commentary begins, "There are several du-
bious points in this memoir" (47), and of one of the scenes she
6 Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (New York: Harcourt, 1957), pp. 16465.
Subsequent references are to this edition and will appear in the text. Note:
McCarthy's interchapter commentaries are printed in italics in her text and
in mine.
1 1
MARY M C CARTHY
writes, "/ believe this is pure fiction" (48). Of another sketch she
observes, "this account is highly fictionalized"; "the story is true in
substance, but the details have been invented or guessed at" (97). Of
the penultimate sketch, however, she states firmly, "Exceptfor
the name of the town and the names of the people, this story is com
pletely true" (192). And sometimes she is hard put to distin
guish fact from fiction, as when she comments on yet another
sketch, iiThis story is so true . . . that I find it almost impossible to
sort out the guessedat and the halfremembered from the undeniably
reaF (124). That a story may be "so true" without being "un
deniably rear offers some measure of the difficulty we face in
dealing with the presence of fiction in autobiographical nar
rative.
Do McCarthy's commentaries on the extent to which she
has manipulated her materials—sometimes consciously, some
times not—discredit the autobiographical nature of her proj
ect, or do they confirm it? McCarthy's own position on this
score is unmistakable. In collecting the eight "stories" she had
written about herself since 1944, she clearly believed that she
was assembling the material of her autobiography, and all of
the framing commentary she added to bind the pieces to
gether as a group stresses the dynamics of the autobiographi
cal process in which she thought she was engaged. What, then,
are we to make of her candid discussion of the ubiquitous
presence of fiction in her "memories"? Nowhere is this issue
posed more strikingly than in the chapter and interchapter on
"A Tin Butterfly," which, taken together, dramatize the com
plexity of McCarthy's relation to autobiographical truth.
In McCarthy's recreation of the remembered world of "A
Tin Butterfly," the boundaries between autobiographical fact
and narrative fiction seem to dissolve. Orphaned at six by the
sudden death of her parents in the flu epidemic of 1918, Mary,
along with her three younger brothers, began to live out an
unhappy childhood along the lines of classic Victorian fic
tion—the Murdstone chapters of David Copperfield, or Kip
ling's "Baa Baa, Black Sheep." In the first two chapters of
Memories, "Yonder Peasant, Who Is He?" and "A Tin Butter
MARY M C CARTHY
fly," she gives an account of the years she spent in the home
of her McCarthy guardians, Uncle Myers and Aunt Mar
garet, and it is an existence filmed in black and dark black.
The health regimen imposed by Aunt Margaret—repulsive
meals to be endured by day, followed by grim nights spent
with lips taped shut to prevent mouth breathing—was repres
sive, and the capricious beatings meted out by the tyrannical
Uncle Myers were endless. Not surprisingly, the child re
sponds to this "totalitarian" (70) world of harsh rules and ar
bitrary punishments by adopting "a policy of lying and con
cealment": "for several years after we were finally liberated, I
was a problem liar" (65). McCarthy herself suggests that one
appropriate model for the bleak reality of this period of her
life is literary: "It was as though these ignorant people [her
guardians], at sea with four frightened children, had taken a
Dickens novel—Oliver Twist, perhaps, or Nicholas Nickleby—
for a navigation chart" (64). However much these early mem
ories may resemble the stuff of Victorian fiction, McCarthy
also observes that the concentration camp and the prison are
equally valid models, and she is careful to point out in the
concluding section of her commentary on "A Tin Butterfly"
that she has received letters from readers testifying to the ver
isimilitude of her portraits of her guardians. Her materials
may remind us of familiar fictions, but she argues that they
are nevertheless squarely rooted in biographical fact.
An evocation of an environment in which the extremity of
living conditions resembles the melodramatic exaggeration we
associate with sentimental fiction, and a characterization of
the self as a deliberate liar—these are the salient features of
the context that McCarthy provides for the most elaborately
presented memory in her entire autobiography, the episode
of the tin butterfly, which brings her story of her life with
the cruel guardians to a climax. One day, in an uncharacter
istically expansive mood, the usually stingy Uncle Myers buys
a whole box of Crackerjack for sixyearold Sheridan Mc
Carthy, the youngest of Mary's brothers, and the favor at the
bottom of the box turns out to be a painted tin butterfly with
MARY M C C A R T H Y
a little pin on it. The butterfly immediately becomes the boy's
most cherished possession, coveted openly by his two older
brothers, but scorned by tenyearold Mary, who was too proud
to show her feelings. When the butterfly disappears a week
later, however, suspicion settles on Mary, and Aunt Margaret
and her sister force Mary, despite her protestations of her
innocence, to ransack the house looking for it. "Uncle Myers
thinks you took it" (75), Aunt Margaret confides, but the search
is fruidess. After dinner, however, when the tablecloth is lifted,
the butterfly is found pinned to the pad underneath at Mary's
place, whereupon the adults conclude that Mary is guilty, and
proceed to whip her in the lavatory. Aunt Margaret begs Mary
to confess to Uncle Myers ("Say you did it, Mary Therese,
say you did it" [77]), but Mary stubbornly refuses to sacrifice
her innocence to satisfy her uncle, so she is whipped again.
The proud, defiant girl emerges from this confrontation "with
a crazy sense of inner victory, like a saint's," for she had not
"recanted" (78). Six or seven years later, on her way east to
college, Mary stops in Minneapolis to see her brothers at the
home of their new guardian, Uncle Louis, and as they sit one
night on the screened porch, they fall to talking about Uncle
Myers and the past. She now learns from her brother Preston
"that on the famous night of the butterfly, he had seen Uncle
Myers steal into the dining room from the den and lift the
tablecloth, with the tin butterfly in his hand" (80). This vin
dication of Mary's innocence ends the chapter; the "problem
liar" turned "saint" had been punished for telling the truth.
This is the version of the episode that McCarthy published
in The New Yorker in 1951. But did the autobiographer tell the
truth about the aftermath of the episode, the conversation with
Preston that ends the story? In the commentary on it that she
wrote for Memories, the author confesses her misgivings about
the truth of the dramatic ending. As she begins to describe
her doubts here as "a struggle with my conscience," she observes
parenthetically, "the first Communion again" (83). The "again"
alludes both to a pattern of behavior in a series of recollected
experiences and to her treatment of its prototype in the pref
MARY M C CARTHY
ace to the autobiography, "To the Reader." In the first Com
munion episode the child chooses to lie about a fatal sip of
water, accepting the Host without first confessing that she has
broken her fast. Generalizing on the child's transgression,
McCarthy suggests that her performance as an autobiogra
pher—especially, we should note, her ostensible failures to
tell the truth about herself—is of a piece with the most char
acteristic pattern of behavior that her autobiography relates.
"A Tin Butterfly" is a case in point. Rereading the story, she
suddenly remembers that she had started to write a play on
this very subject in college, and she wonders whether the idea
that Uncle Myers put the butterfly at her place was suggested
to her by her drama teacher at Vassar. I can almost hear her
voice saying to me, excitedly: Your uncle must have done itΓ " (82).
Consulting two of her brothers about her doubts, she learns
that neither Kevin nor Preston recalls the statement she at
tributed to Preston about the butterfly, although Kevin re
members the scene on Uncle Louis' screened porch. Mc
Carthy speculates that she herself may have put forward the
drama teacher's idea during this family reunion in Minneap
olis. But then she admits that she cannot remember whether
she took the course in playwriting "before or after the night on
Uncle Louis' porch." iiThe most likely thing," she concludes, "is
that I fused two memories. Mea culpa" (83).
Of what exactly is McCarthy guilty here? Of an involun
tary lapse from fidelity to autobiographical truth into the ir
responsible manipulations of fiction? When she states, as she
does in this commentary, "About the tin butterfly episode, I must
make a more serious correction" (82), she seems to be measuring
the account in the story against the record of unvarnished fact
and to be judging its truth value accordingly. It would be easy
enough to assume that the distinction she is getting at is the
one between fiction and fact, that what we have here is a
shortstory writer confessing her autobiographical sources.
Certainly McCarthy herself sought to emphasize the distinc
tion between the stories or chapters proper and the commen
taries or interchapters: the former are printed in roman type,
MARY MCCARTHY
the latter in italic. The upshot of McCarthy's commentary on
"A Tin Butterfly" is not, however, to disconfirm her original
version of the episode: "But who did put the butterfly by my
place? It may have been Uncle Myers after all. Even if no one saw
him, he remains a suspect: he had motive and opportunity. Tll bet
your uncle did it!''—was that what she [the college drama teacher]
said?" (83). We can only conclude that the fundamental dis-
tinction that the use of the two typefaces represents is not
between art and criticism, between fiction and fact, but rather
between different phases of a single, autobiographical mode
of discourse. One phase reflects the autobiographical act as it
was expressed at a series of discrete moments from 1944 until
1957 in each of the individual, separately published chapters,
while the other reflects the most recent content of the auto-
biographical act that immediately preceded the publication of
the earlier material in book form in 1957.
McCarthy concludes that she must have "fused" two mem-
ories in the first version of the episode, the memory of the
reunion with her brothers on the porch in Minneapolis and
the memory of her work with a play writing teacher in college.
Moreover, each of these memories has to do with writing about
the episode. That is to say that what is presented in the com-
mentary is not an alternative version of the original, disputed
incident itself but rather a series of earlier recallings of it, a
series of prototypes for the autobiographical act. Following
her reconstruction of the writing of the story about Uncle
Myers, McCarthy even attempts to reconstruct the motivation
of her commentary: what was it that triggered her memory of
the college course in playwriting as she reread "A Tin But-
terfly"? The play, she recalls, "was set in my grandmother's sun
parlor and showed our first meeting with our guardians. It was thinking
about that meeting, obviously, that nagged me into remembering Mrs.
Flanagan and the play" (83). "Obviously ?" The play was about
the guardians; thinking about the guardians recalled the play—
we simply do not know why McCarthy recalled her first
meeting with Myers and Margaret at this point, and we may
well be less than sure that McCarthy knows either. In any
MARY M C CARTHY
case, she drops the issue, leaving us to contemplate the mys
tery of autobiographical motivation.
The "mea culpa" in the commentary on "A Tin Butterfly,"
then, can scarcely be advanced as evidence of McCarthy's fail
ure as an autobiographer in the story unless we are prepared
to forget that her memory is equally the source of both ver
sions of the episode. Instead, the double presentation of the
ending of "A Tin Butterfly" should teach us that autobio
graphical truth is not a fixed but an evolving content, what
we call fact and fiction being rather slippery variables in an
intricate process of selfdiscovery. In view of the complex in
terrelationship between the remembered incident and its
expression in art, we must discard any notion of the juxta
position of story and commentary as representing a simple
opposition between fiction and fact, since fiction can have for
the author, as it does here, the status of remembered fact
(remembering something that is not true—a frequent refrain
in Memories). The making of fictions, moreover, is central to
McCarthy's identity, in her character early on as a problem
liar, and eventually as a writer, and it forms a critical part of
the mass of autobiographical fact that she is dealing with. What
the commentary on "A Tin Butterfly" makes clear is that
McCarthy accepts the presence of fiction in autobiography
and seeks to understand it as a natural function of the auto
biographical process. Following McCarthy's example, are we
then prepared to accept fiction as an inevitable and even es
sential ingredient of autobiography, generated as much by the
unconscious workings of memory as it is by the conscious
agency of the imagination? Yet in so far as we do accept the
presence of fiction in autobiography, are we not blurring by
just so much the fundamental working distinction between
autobiography and other forms of writing?
III. BEYOND THE TEXT
In a recent study entitled "Unsettling the Colonel's Hash: 'Fact'
in Autobiography," Darrel Mansell reminds us that Mc
MARY M C CARTHY
Carthy herself asserts that autobiography can be distinguished
from fiction. She had written a narrative called "Artists in
Uniform," to which the editors of Harper's added the subtitle,
"A Story," when they published it in 1953. Put off by the
misreadings generated by the subtitle, McCarthy tried to set
the record straight a year later in an essay called "Settling the
Colonel's Hash." She rejected the identification of her piece
as "a story," claiming instead that it was more properly re
garded as "a fragment of autobiography" because of its basis
in events that had happened to her "in real life." Conse
quently, readers were misguided in wondering if details such
as the colonel's having hash for lunch were symbolic; "the
colonel had hash because he had hash" in the reallife experi
ence on which the narrative was based. Mansell sums up
McCarthy's view by stressing that it is the basis in fact that
separates autobiography from narrative fiction. We have seen
that McCarthy's performance in Memories is a good deal more
complex than her simplistic remarks about the colonel's hash
might lead us to expect. Nevertheless, Mansell argues that
McCarthy's assertion of a fundamental distinction between
autobiography and fiction is "the assumption we all make ex
cept in our stern philosophical moments."7
When Mansell puts McCarthy's distinction to the test,
however, it collapses, since we "almost never know the actual
relation of literary events to what 'happened, in real life'
"the largescale probability, the verisimilitude, of what an au
thor says in his book therefore has to be considered merely a
rhetorical strategy." It is at this point in his argument that
Mansell shifts to a consideration of the author's intention as
the decisive criterion in the identification of a given text as an
autobiography, since "we do know, or think we know, what
the author intends the relation [between literary events and real
life] to be." It is precisely in the area of intention that present
research has developed a new sophistication in dealing with
this most refractory of literary genres. If to steer toward the
7 Modern Language Quarterly, 37 (1976), 11516.
MARY M C CARTHY
open water of the extratextual is doubtless problematic, it is
also true that to do so is to move with the prevailing current
of the autobiographical text, which signals to us that it is to
be considered as autobiography by referring to a biographical
reality lying beyond itself and upon which it claims to be
founded. It is not surprising, however, given the formalist
hegemony of the previous generation, that autobiographical
criticism has been so late in blooming, and even Mansell, for
one, despite his admirable willingness to grapple with the ref
erential dimension of the autobiographer's art, settles for a
disappointingly formalist conclusion: the critic "reads auto
biography as fiction." The referential dimension of autobio
graphical texts, hitherto decisive, is now to be exorcised as
irrelevant: "the critic tries to assume that over every autobiog
raphy is hung a sign that says, 'The opinions expressed here
are not necessarily those of the management.' "8
Mansell's dilemma is hardly unique, as Louis Renza sug
gests in "The Veto of the Imagination." Renza performs a
balanced and careful scrutiny of the implications of the view
of autobiography that identifies it as an imaginative kind and
that stresses the primacy of the act of creation rather than the
nagging issue of verisimilitude. "Desiring to colonize auto
biography in the name of literary art," he concludes, "the
apologist for autobiography is apt to fictionalize the object
about which he theorizes," attenuating "autobiography's ex
plicit, formal claim to be a legitimate personalhistorical doc
ument."9 Despite this apparent impasse, recent critics have
launched a promising doublepronged inquiry into the issue
posed by the vexingly unverifiable referentiality of autobio
graphical texts. On the one hand, phenomenological, linguis
tic, and psychohistorical methodologies open up the possibil
iIbid., 121, 131.
9 New Literary History, 9 (1977), 45; rpt. in Autobiography: Essays Theoretical
and Critical, ed. James Olney (Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press, 1980), p.
273. Hereafter this volume will be referred to as Autobiography. See, e.g.,
Burton Pike, "Time in Autobiography," Comparative Literature, 28 (1976):
"The past does not exist" (337).
MARY M C CARTHY
ity of investigating the author's motivation for adopting an
autobiographical stance in the first place. On the other, the
consequences of the reader's identification of the author's stance
as such have been explored through case studies of individual
reader responses and through literary historical analysis of the
institutional existence of genres.
Intention becomes the decisive consideration in dealing with
both the generation and the reception of autobiographical texts.
This consideration, according to Philippe Lejeune, is charac
teristically expressed within such texts—explicitly or implic
itly—in the form of an autobiographical pact between author
and reader.10 It is this contract that determines our manner of
reading the text, creating the effects that, attributed to the
text, seem to us to define it as autobiography. Lejeune's view
has been confirmed in part by the work of Norman Holland,
whose experiments have led him to conclude that reader re
sponses vary "according to the expectation or 'set' the reader
brings [to a given text], . . . one kind of 'set' for nonfiction,
another for fiction."11 Moving from the individual case to the
historical group, Elizabeth Bruss has attempted to formulate
the "set" that defines the context in which autobiography is
written and read within "a particular community of writers
and readers." Calling for an end to the countless misguided
efforts to prescribe what autobiography is, Bruss sensibly states
that even the most superficial acquaintance with the diversity
of works customarily received as autobiographies should lead
us to recognize that "there is no intrinsically autobiographical
form." It is nevertheless possible, she argues, to offer limited
generalizations about "our notion of the functions an autobio
graphical text must perform." She proceeds accordingly to
formulate such generalizations in terms of a list of interrelated
10 Lejeune, p. 44.
" "Prose and Minds: A Psychoanalytic Approach to NonFiction," in The
Art of Victorian Prose, eds. George Levine and William Madden (New York:
Oxford Univ. Press, 1968), p. 321. See also Francis R. Hart, "Notes for an
Anatomy of Modern Autobiography," New Literary History, 1 (19091970),
488.
MARY M C CARTHY
"rules" that must "be satisfied by the text and the surrounding
context of any work which is to 'count as' autobiography."12
All these rules, moreover, address the issue of the ostensible
referentiality of such texts.
Research into the genesis of autobiographical texts would
seem, then, to be the most promising approach to the problem
of referentiality that these texts by definition propose. The
source of all the difficulties that bedevil autobiographical crit
icism is, after all, the decision of an author to adopt an auto
biographical stance in the first place, a stance which, signalled
in the text, generates the kind of expectations in readers that
Lejeune, Bruss, Holland, and others have been at pains to
document. But what can we know of intention? Are we in
any better position as readers to get at the truth of the auto
biographical act than we were to verify the truth of the au
thor's past as narrated in the text? Much of the recent criti
cism devoted to autobiography would seem to promote just
such an inquiry, largely as a consequence of the rejection of
the traditional view of the referentiality of autobiographical
texts and the concomitant conception of the autobiographical
act.
Lionel Abel's review of JeanPaul Sartre's The Words in 1965
typifies the older, commonsense belief in the absolute exist
ence of the past events in a life history and hence in the pos
sibility of their recovery in autobiographical narrative. Thus
he defines autobiography as "a recounting of the events of the
author's life as they happened, together with what the author
may have felt or thought at the time of these happenings,
insofar as he can remember them exacdy." Abel rejects Sartre's
volume as an autobiography because he feels that the narrative
offered nothing of the child Sartre but only the adult's opin
ion of him. Abel would have the autobiographer "separate out
of his response to any fact or meaning present before his mind
the impact of that fact or meaning before he reflected on it
12 Bruss, Autobiograpbieal Acts: The Changing Situation of a Literary Genre
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1976), pp. 15, 10.
2 1
MARY M C CARTHY
and its impact after reflection began."13 In this view the au
tobiographer's present consciousness threatens to disrupt the
proper functioning of the autobiographical act conceived as a
disciplined recovery of past consciousness. In practice, Abel's
distinction has proved to be untenable because the autobiog
rapher's access to the past is necessarily a function of his pres
ent consciousness of it. That is to say that the past that any
autobiographical narrative records is first and foremost the pe
riod of the autobiographical act itself. As Burton Pike puts it,
writing on "Time in Autobiography" in 1976, "what is real
to the autobiographer is the present moment, the time of writ
ing, and not the past as it may have 'happened,' either empir
ically or as the nexus of a set of feelings."14 In the words of
James Olney, who is largely responsible for this shift in our
conception of the autobiographical enterprise, an autobiogra
phy is, "intentionally or not, a monument of the self as it is
becoming, a metaphor of the self at the summary moment of
composition."15 Thus, if autobiographical texts do not tell us
as much about the autobiographer's past history as earlier stu
dents of the genre wished to believe, they may nevertheless
have a good deal to tell us about the autobiographer in the
moment of his engagement in the act of composition.
As Jean Starobinski suggests in "The Style of Autobiogra
phy," "No matter how doubtful the facts related, the text will
at least present an 'authentic' image of the man who 'held the
pen.' " Rejecting the definition of style as "form" superadded
to a "content," to be viewed with suspicion for its potential
interference with the record of autobiographical truth, Staro
binski argues for the special importance of the individual mark
of style in autobiography, "since to the explicit selfreference
11 "The Retroactive I," Partisan Review, 32 (1965), 257, 258. Commenting
on Sartre's repudiation of the commonsense belief in the existence of the past,
Lejeune suggests nevertheless that some form of this belief is necessary to the
pursuit of any autobiographical project (p. 235).
14 Pike, 334.
15 Metaphors of Self: Tbe Meaning of AutMography (Princeton: Princeton Univ.
Press, 1972), p. 35.
MARY MCCARTHY
of the narration itself the style adds the implicit selfreferen
tial value of a particular mode of speaking."16 This sensible
notion of style as an organic constituent of autobiographical
content has been given a more ambitious theoretical elabora
tion by Elizabeth Bruss. Drawing on speech act theory as
developed by J. L. Austin, P. F. Strawson, and John R. Searle,
she presents the thesis that however private an autobiogra
pher's world may be, "it is a world to which, in writing, he
cannot help but give us a key." Adopting this model, in which
the autobiographical act is conceived as a form of speech act
of which the text constitutes the primary expression, it then
becomes a question of reconstructing the original context by
following "certain clues embedded in the language of the text."
Bruss begins her study by providing an inventory of the avail
able clues or "linguistic markers sensitive to context" (person,
space, time, modality, etc.),17 but it would be hard to say that
her subsequent analyses of individual autobiographies exem
plify the procedures her model proposes. However sharp and
packed with insight her commentaries may be, they look very
much like the kind of close readings practiced by the New
Critics, who would have rejected her determination to use the
text to explore the author's private world as a familiar form
of the intentional fallacy, albeit in a new guise.
Whether a speech act model of this kind can offer valid
insights into the autobiographical act has yet to be demon
strated; it does offer a valuable perspective on the nature of
the referentiality in which the autobiographical text is impli
cated. Moving away from the traditional view of testing au
tobiographical narrative against some extratextual order of fact,
which is, inevitably, largely based in its turn on other texts
(dignified as documents), we begin to see the text itself as
constituting the primary biographical fact with which we have
to deal: if the text is derived from the self, then its factuality
16 In Literary Style: A Symposium, ed. Seymour Chatman (London: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1971), pp. 287, 286; rpt. in Autobiography, pp. 75, 74.
17 Bruss, pp. 31, 19, 31.
MARY M C CARTHY
would be selfmade. Should we not, then, be able to approach
knowledge of the self through scrutiny of its acts of self
expression? Such a proposition is hardly novel, moreover; it
is, in fact, a commonplace of the socalled psychological ap
proach to art. When it comes to autobiography, however, the
application of psychoanalytic theory has been limited mostly
to brief passages or isolated parts of a text. Freud's analysis
of the function of screen memories in a childhood episode of
Goethe's autobiography, A. W. Levi's identification of John
Stuart Mill's repressed wish for his father's death as the cause
of his "mental crisis," Saul Rosenzweig's anatomy of the com
plex of guilt and impotence involved in Henry James's trau
matic experience of an "obscure hurt" in the early days of the
Civil War, Richard L. Bushman's account of the role of infan
tile conflict in Benjamin Franklin's choice of a vegetarian diet—
these are characteristic examples of the psychological criticism
of autobiography.18 On the whole, psychobiographers devote
relatively little attention to their subjects' performance as au
tobiographers. Perhaps this is because they instinctively re
gard the autobiographical act as a precursor of their own in
quiries and hence, like these latter, somehow extrinsic to the
life history it purportedly documents, rather than as a bio
graphical manifestation in its own right requiring the same
explications as the life events it records.19
To be sure, a good many biographers have affirmed the
therapeutic value of the autobiographical act, yet this notion
has not been systematically demonstrated in particular cases.
The most promising contributions here have tended to be
18 Freud, "A Childhood Recollection from Dicbtung und Wahrhett," 1917;
rpt. in Collected Papers, ed. Joan Riviere, 5 vols. (New York: Basic Books,
1959), IV, 35767; Levi, "The 'Mental Crisis' of John Stuart Mill," Psycho-
analytic Review, 32 (1945), 86101; Rosenzweig, "The Ghost of Henry James:
A Study in Thematic Apperception," Character and Personality, 12 (19431944),
79100; Bushman, "On the Uses of Psychology: Conflict and Conciliation in
Benjamin Franklin," History and Theory, 5 (1966), 22540.
19 E.g., Bruce Mazlish, in a book on Mill of more than 400 pages, devotes
only four pages to Mill's engagement in the autobiographical act. James and
John Stuart Mill: Father and Son in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Basic
Books, 1975), pp. 16265.
MARY MCCARTHY
largely theoretical. Erikson's essays on his work on Gandhi
are exemplary in their selfconscious account of the sensitive
methodological problems that face any inquiry into autobio
graphical motivation, and I suspect that any major research
into the psychological dynamics of the autobiographical act is
going to be heavily indebted to Erikson's proposed model for
such analysis. In his biographical study of James and John
Stuart Mill, Bruce Mazlish acknowledges Erikson's contribu
tion in this regard as follows: "with great subtlety he has shown
how the writing and reading of an autobiography is not a
timeless process, but embedded in ongoing history and the
search for identity of both the individual writer and reader,
and the communities in which they live."20
It is just here, however, when the insights of linguistic,
stylistic, and psychohistorical methodologies promise to pen
etrate the private world of the self and its autobiographical
motivation, that we meet the grinning face of fiction at the
door. "Abandon all hope, ye who enter here," the French
structuralists seem to say, the late Roland Barthes foremost
among them when he reminds us, "The one who speaks (in the
narrative) is not the one who writes (in real life) and the one
who writes is not the one who is."21 To Barthes' wise sense of
the need to discriminate among the plurality of identities con
cealed in the "person" of the firstperson singular we could
20 Mazlish, p. 163. In comparison with the authoritative voice of Erikson's
practice as a clinician, other theorists of the autobiographical act are apt to
sound excessively abstract. Louis Renza's fascinating phenomenological spec
ulations on the mystery of autobiographical motivation would be a case in
point. He is obliged to conclude as follows: "Needless to say, the typologies
of autobiographical writing which I have tried to elucidate in this essay refer
to autobiography's 'idea,' to how we can think of its verbal identity from the
imagined perspective of the writer immediately situated in the act of writing"
(19). The imagined perspective here is, of course, Renza's own.
21 "Introduction & l'analyse structurale des recits," Communications, 8 (1966),
20; rpt. "An Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative," New Lit-
erary History, 6 (19741975), 261. Barthes is speaking here not specifically of
autobiography but of narratives in general. In a note of his own he cites
Jacques Lacan's parallel query: "Is the subject to which I refer when I speak
the same as the one who speaks?"
MARY M C CARTHY
add the challenge of Jacques Lacan, who argues that the self
is not a presence but an absence. In these views, the very
concept of autobiographical referentiality thus becomes alto
gether a matter of fiction, whereas it should by definition be
a matter of fact. From the perspective of the age of absence,
the autobiographer's familiar injunction—"this is no book/Who
touches this touches a man"—shows as nothing more than a
piece of Romantic bravado.
Interestingly, the existence of such theorizing has done
nothing to inhibit the autobiographical pursuit; if anything,
quite the reverse. The impulse to take the fiction of the self
and its acts as fact persists, a more than willing suspension of
disbelief in which the behavior of writer and reader refuses to
coincide with theory. Barthes himself has written his auto
biography. Even so extreme example as the Welshman Go
ronwy Rees, who prefaces his autobiography with the asser
tion that "at no time in my life have I had that enviable sensation
of constituting a continuous personality," defining autobiog
raphy as "the art of creating a self which does not exist,"
concludes his foreword with this revealing speculation about
his intention: "But perhaps, in putting these episodes to
gether, I have not been entirely free from a certain curiosity
whether someone else may not be able to find in this bundle
of sensations a greater degree of continuity than I have been
able to do." Autobiography offers the individual an opportu
nity to reify, to constitute, to create an identity precisely be
cause referentiality is the sine qua non of such texts. However,
if the autobiographical process engaged in by the writer is not
truly reversible in the case of the reader or critic—that is, if
the premise of autobiographical referentiality that we can move
from knowledge of the text to knowledge of the self proves to
be a fiction—the text becomes paradoxically not less precious
but more: in making the text the autobiographer constructs a
self that would not otherwise exist. As Rees would have it,
"all we expect of [an autobiographer] is to invent himself."22
22 A Bundle of Sensations: Sketches in Autobiography (New York: Macmillan,
1961), pp. 9, 15, 17, 15. John N. Morris first drew my attention to Rees.
MARY M C CARTHY
Let us grant the very concept of the self as a fiction, let us
speak in the French way of the textuality of the self. After
such knowledge, why do authors still indulge in, and readers
still consent to, a fiction of this kind? It may well be that our
quest for the self is rooted in the same human need that Frank
Kermode identifies as the motive for our invention of endings;
such fictions become "necessary to life," mediating as they do
the limitations of human consciousness in an intractable uni
verse.23 What we would want to understand is the motivation
for writing autobiographical narrative, which is doubtless par
allel to the motivation for reading it. How does making some
thing up—a self, a text—answer to the search for selfknowl
edge? In such an inquiry we do well to begin with the author's
own account of the autobiographical act, accepting the text as
the author's model for the self and for its interpretation. Bear
ing in mind Barthes' caveat that the "I" of the text is identical
to neither the author of the text nor to the biographical indi
vidual who is its subject, let us return to Mary McCarthy and
examine the author's autobiographical stance as it is drama
tized in her narrative.
IV. "C.Y.E."
On a certain day in February of 1943, on her way to the
subway station in Union Square, Mary McCarthy passes a
store called Cye Bernard. To her surprise, the name on the
storefront elicits violent and uncontrollable feelings of embar
rassment and shame, a queer and extravagant sense of inde
cent exposure mixed with martyrdom:
I averted my eyes from the sign and hurried into the
subway, my head bent so that no observer should dis
cover my secret identity, which until that moment I had
forgotten myself. Now I pass this sign every day, and it
See Versions of the Self: Studies in English Autobiography from John Bunyan to John
Stuart Mill (New York: Basic Books, 1966), p. 11.
23 The Sense of an Ending: Studies in the Theory of Fiction (New York: Oxford
Univ. Press, 1968), p. 155.
MARY MCCARTHY
is always a question whether I shall look at it or not.
Usually I do, but hastily, surreptitiously, with an inef
fective air of casualness, lest anybody suspect that I am
crucified there on that building, hanging exposed in black
script lettering to advertise bargains in men's haberdash
ery.
The strangest part about it is that this unknown cloth
ier on Fourteenth Street should not only incorporate in
his name the mysterious, queerly spelled nickname I was
given as a child in the convent but that he should add to
this the name of my patron saint, St. Bernard of Clair
vaux, whom I chose for my special protector at a time
when I was suffering from the nickname.24
In this curious fashion begins "C.Y.E.," the first of Mc
Carthy's autobiographical sketches, published in Mademoiselle
in April of 1944.
As far as the published record is concerned, any attempt to
trace the motivation for McCarthy's autobiography to its origins
must come to rest in the involuntary recall of the past trig
gered by the fortuitous circumstance of this episode of 1943.
Surely "the strangest part" of the passage is that McCarthy
herself should choose to advertise in her story and in its ti
tle—and in the very "black script lettering" she abhors—a
painful experience which she claims to wish to conceal.
McCarthy's stated concern, however, is not to explain the
contradictory intentions implied by her decision to publish
such a confession but rather to understand the unpredictable
behavior of her memory. To account for the ease with which
she had forgotten the past for twenty years, McCarthy in
vokes the mechanism of repression. Developing a political
metaphor for personality, she likens the tyranny of conscious
ness over the exercise of memory to a Sovietstyle dictatorship
which decrees that "discarded selves languish in the Lubianka
of the unconscious"; "the past is manipulated to serve the in
24 Cast a Cold Eye (1950; rpt. New York: New American Library, 1972), p.
121. Subsequent references will appear in the text.
MARY M C CARTHY
terests of the present," "But a moment comes at last," she
writes, "after the regime has fallen, . . . when the archives
are opened . . . and history must be rewritten in the light of
fresh discoveries" (122). This is McCarthy's model for the
complex interplay between conscious and unconscious moti
vation for the control of memory that determines the autobio
graphical act in "C.Y.E." What she does not tell us is the
nature of the fallen regime, nor does she suggest why it should
have been overthrown at a given moment in 1943.
Liberated from the prison of the unconscious, a discarded
self from childhood is once more in possession of the author's
consciousness and of the movement of her narrative as well:
"I was back in the convent, a pale new girl sitting in the front
of the study hall" (122). Eager to be accepted by the most
popular girls in the school, the elevenyearold Mary of twenty
years ago naively trusts in the unaided power of her own
identity to achieve the social success she desires. She soon
learns to her cost, however, that power in her world rests
with others. It is the two school clowns, an unprepossessing
pair named Elinor Henehan and Mary Heinrichs, who confer
on girls of their choice the prestige and notoriety of the nick
names they invent. Accordingly, and as sure as fate, recog
nition comes to Mary one night when these selfappointed
arbiters of identity bestow on her the name "Cye," "CYE";
"the next day it was all over the school" (125). Convinced that
the name represents some profound—and unpleasant—truth
about herself, some "wrongness," some "taint," some "miser
able effluvium of the spirit" (126) that has made her the laugh
ingstock of the convent, the girl is consumed with a desire for
the very knowledge that all the others conspire to withhold.
"The hateful name" (127) dooms her to isolation and painful
selfexamination, inverting her dreams of success into a night
mare of failure. The special mark of Mary's vulnerable con
dition is that her deepest private anxieties, given a name, crys
tallize into a secret identity that is condemned to constant
involuntary exhibition. Mary is forced to become an auto
biographer in spite of herself. It is no wonder, then, that when
MARY M C CARTHY
the time comes to leave the school, the girl should resolve to
forget the convent altogether, and this she did for twenty years.
According to McCarthy, it is a force from her unconscious
that sets her autobiographical narrative in motion, and it is
again a force from her unconscious that brings it to a close.
"Yesterday," in the vicinity of the shop with its embarrassing
sign, the words "Clever Young Egg" rise unbidden to her lips.
She experiences that "sharp, cool sense of relief and triumph
that one has on awakening from a nightmare" at the thought
that her anguish over the nickname had been groundless, that
her enemies "really divined nothing" about her. Armed with
a solution to the riddle that bedeviled the child, the adult
Mary prepares for a reconciliation with the past and with her
earlier self:
"Now I can go back," I thought happily, without reflec
tion, just as though I were an absconding bank teller who
had been living for years with his spiritual bags packed,
waiting for the charges against him to be dropped that
he might return to his native town. A vision of the study
hall rose before me, with my favorite nun on the plat
form and the beautiful girls in their places. My heart
rushed forward to embrace it.
As the passage continues, however, the story concludes with
a shocking reversal of this gesture of selfacceptance:
But, also, it is too late. Elinor Henehan is dead, my
favorite nun has removed to another convent, the beau
tiful girls are married—I have seen them from time to
time and no longer aspire to their friendship. And as for
the pale, plain girl in the front of the study hall, her, too,
I can no longer reach. I see her creeping down the cor
ridor with a little knot of her classmates. "Hello, Cye,"
I say with a touch of disdain for her rawness, her guile
less ambition. I should like to make her a piebed, or
drop a snake down her back, but unfortunately the con
vent discipline forbids such open brutality. I hate her,
MARY M C C A R T H Y
for she is my natural victim, and it is I who have given
her the name, the shameful inscrutable name that she
will never, sleepless in her bed at night, be able to puzzle
out. (128)
What takes place is nothing less than another reenactment of
the painful event of the name, this time as deliberate as the
earlier reenactment had been involuntary. Now the Mary of
1943 adopts the role of the hateful pair of clowns, so much so
that she can speak of her earlier self as "my natural victim."
Her motivation in doing so is complex, to say the least, as the
puzzling image of the "absconding bank teller" implies, with
its suggestion of a guilty act (but the charges have been dropped
and were groundless anyway?) that condemns her to exile (but
the banishment was not only selfimposed but unnecessary?).
The distinction between "I" and "her," moreover, that the
psychological confrontation between these warring selves re
quires, is unstable, for just as swiftly as the gesture of love
transmutes to hate, so the identity of the "I" shifts without
warning from a postconvent present ("I have seen them from
time to time") back to the convent past ("the convent disci
pline forbids such open brutality").
There is much that is problematical in the behavior of this
personality in conflict as it is portrayed in "C.Y.E.," and the
tension between the Marys of 1923 and 1943 derives as much
from their similarities as from their obvious differences. To
begin with, we can be fairly sure that the original childhood
experience of injury retains a peculiar power to compel, de
spite any attempts of an older self turned autobiographer to
exercise control. It is reenacted twice within the narrative, as
we have seen, and the writing and publication of the sketch
constitute an additional mimesis of the original episode. To
be sure, to the extent that she becomes the author of "C.Y.E.,"
the older McCarthy can be said to make good the failed am
bitions of the protoautobiographer schoolgirl, whose initial
resolve to make a name for herself in the convent was sup
planted by an equally firm, antiautobiographical determina
MARY M C C A R T H Y
tion that she would "never, never, never again let anybody
see what I was like" (127). Thus she can write at the last, "it
is I who have given her the name," but the tough, aggressive
stance and the tone of superiority that accompany this show
of power seem rather hollow, a wishful display not of the
knowledge but only of the knowing air of the original authors
of the nickname. The "happy solution" to the mystery of Mary's
"secret identity" is never demonstrated, the promised recon
ciliation is never effected. The import of the dramatic ending
and its striking selfbetrayal is undermined by the rest of the
narrative, which betrays the autobiographer's unresolved am
bivalence toward the past (to be remembered or repressed)
and toward her earlier self (to be embraced or repudiated).
The very existence of the text testifies against the truth of the
conclusion that the earlier self and its history are inaccessible
to the autobiographer. How can we believe in the impossibil
ity of the return to the past ("her, too, I can no longer reach")
when the opening of the sketch and indeed all of its subse
quent content dramatize the ease and spontaneity of the
movement backward in time ("I was back in the convent . . .
I see myself perfectly . . . I am ambitious")? It would be more
accurate to say of "C.Y.E." that both its Marys, then and
now, are simultaneously attracted to and repelled by the con
sequences of the quest for identity.
The ambivalence that characterizes McCarthy's behavior in
"C.Y.E." is confirmed by the subsequent history of her au
tobiographical writing. The apparently abortive encounter with
the past proved in the event to be the beginning of an auto
biographical project that would occupy her, on and off, for
the next thirteen years. Eventually, however, a new repres
sion, this time conscious and deliberate, was exercised over
the involuntary recall of her convent shame. Collecting sev
eral short narratives in a volume called Cast a Cold Eye in 1950,
McCarthy included "C.Y.E." without change, for at this point,
as she recalled in an interview with Elisabeth Niebuhr in 1962,
she did not realize how much she "disliked" it. But seven
years later she could not "stand" the sketch: "When I was
MARY MCCARTHY
reading the book [Memories] in proof, I decided to tear it out,
to reduce it to a tiny tiny incident. As it stood, it was just
impossible, much too rhetorical."25 And so the McCarthy of
19561957 suppressed the McCarthy of 1943 as completely as
the McCarthy of 1923 had repressed the original episode of
the nickname for twenty years. "Names," as the new version
is titled in Memories of a Catholic Girlhood, is quite different in
feeling from "C.Y.E." No mention is made of the drama of
memory unleashed by the sight of the storefront of Cye Ber
nard; the painful experience itself, reduced to a page, is sup
plied with an altogether new context; and the last names of
the two school clowns are changed.
In "Names," the event of the nickname becomes the climax
of a pattern of lying that surrounds McCarthy's quest for
identity in her convent years. Her desire for prominence in
the school leads her to pretend to have lost her faith and to
regain it showily in a simulated confession during a retreat.
This is the subject of the sketch that precedes "Names" in
Memories, "C'est Le Premier Pas Qui Coute." When she really
does lose her faith in the process—an unforeseen complica
tion—she is obliged to go through with her conversion or risk
exposure as a liar. This public imposture is presently suc
ceeded by a private one: when blood from a cut stains her
bedsheet, McCarthy finds herself involved in an impossible
situation with an alltoounderstanding dormitory nun who is
convinced that the girl has "become a woman." It is her fate,
it seems, to become entrapped in false identities which she
must maintain through a deliberate program of lying:
There I was, a walking mass of lies, pretending to be a
Catholic and going to confession while really I had lost
my faith, and pretending to have monthly periods by
cutting myself with nail scissors; yet all this had come
about without my volition and even contrary to it. But
the basest pretense I was driven to was the acceptance of
25 "The Art of Fiction XXVII: Mary McCarthy," Paris Review, No. 27
(1962), 64.
MARY M C C A R T H Y
the nickname. Yet what else could I do? In the convent,
I could not live it down. To all those girls, I had become
"Cye McCarthy." That was who I was . . . the kind of
girl I hated. (136)
Mary's wish for recognition in the school is fulfilled but never
on her own terms; this girl, unlike her counterpart in "C.Y.E.,"
receives the autobiographer's sympathy for her unnerving ex
perience of the loss of control over her own life and identity.
Taken together, the writing of "C.Y.E." and its subsequent
transformation into "Names" dramatize two quite different
concepts of autobiographical motivation. In "C.Y.E." the nar
rative is structured by the rhythms of memory, and the au
thor is led to investigate both why she suddenly remembers
and why she had earlier resolved to forget. Even though
memory necessarily plays a central role in the autobiographi
cal act, so much so in fact that many selfhistorians like to
think of it as the autobiographical faculty par excellence, the
agency of memory is not, after all, equivalent to the sum of
autobiographical motivation. McCarthy's practice of revision
ist life history in "Names" reminds us that what is recalled is
subject to the conscious shaping of the autobiographer. In both
versions of the past autobiographical motivation remains elu
sive. For all the apparent deliberateness of McCarthy's behav
ior in 19561957, we do not finally know why she does not
like "C.Y.E." and (by implication) the McCarthy of 1943 any
more than we know why the McCarthy of 1943 "hates" the
McCarthy of 1923. "C.Y.E." and "Names" together suggest
that conflicting impulses of repression and confession govern
McCarthy's autobiographical narrative. Confession itself,
moreover, as we have seen in the episode of the first Com
munion, offers an equivocal model for the expression of au
tobiographical truth, involving as it does in McCarthy's case
the partly involuntary, partly voluntary, public performance
of a lie about one's self. As far as we know, the history of the
autobiography begins with the involuntary recall of the C.Y.E.
episode; it is equally true, again, as far as we know, that this
MARY M C CARTHY
beginning is the only part of the history that McCarthy later
cancelled. The cancellation is all the more remarkable given
the author's decision to structure the completed narrative in
terms of a counterpoint between chapters and interchapters
that explicitly dramatizes shifts in autobiographical perspec
tive. What, then, is the source of her hostility to "C.Y.E.,"
and why did she choose not to speak of it in the interchapter
commentaries whose leading feature is their pretense to can
dor? It seems safe to infer from the fact of the initial confes
sion and its subsequent cancellation that some special kernel
of truth about the self is latent in the episode of the nickname,
a truth that governs the behavior of McCarthy as a girl in
1923, as a young woman in 1943, and as an older woman in
19561957. In each case, in both the event and its two retell
ings, the impulse to reveal is accompanied by an equal and
opposite impulse to conceal. The episode, with its emphasis
on public exposure of some secret truth about the self, ex
presses both the desire for autobiographical confession and its
ultimate defeat, for what "C.Y.E."—hidden or displayed—
signifies for all these Marys is the unknowable mystery of
one's inmost identity. What the troubled psychological and
literary history of the nickname suggests is a deeply ambiva
lent view of the autobiographical act; whether the revelation
of the self to the self and to others is either desirable or even
possible remains unclear.
V. "THE WORD FOR MIRROR"
"A Tin Butterfly" (1951) and its commentary (1957) supply
two alternative versions of a decisive event in Mary Mc
Carthy's past; so do "C.Y.E." (1944) and "Names" (1957). In
the one case the difference is apparently the result of an un
conscious fusion of two memories; in the other it is the result
of a deliberate revision for reasons undisclosed. Such evidence
suggests the difficulty of locating any fixed points of reference
in a life history; it underscores the limitations of any defini
tions of autobiography that are based on presumably stable
MARY MCCARTHY
concepts of times and identities past and present. Instead, au-
tobiography is better understood as a ceaseless process of
identity formation in which new versions of the past evolve
to meet the constantly changing requirements of the self in
each successive present. Accordingly, any necessity to choose
between competing versions of the past—between the two ac-
counts of the theft of the butterfly, between "C.Y.E." and
"Names"—simply evaporates. It would, moreover, be equally
foolish to reject both versions of an event as though accept-
ance of the truth of the one necessarily required rejection of
the truth of the other. Truth and identity in autobiography
are plural, and, therefore, so is the autobiographical text, as
McCarthy's counterpoint of chapter and commentary makes
clear. Nevertheless, the various Marys—the autobiographer
and her earlier, discarded selves (including selves who per-
formed as autobiographer)—share a single name, and the
composite text we read, the Memories of 1957, for all its mul-
tiple parts, is one, beginning once and ending once. Is this
formal unity of the narrative nothing but formal, an aesthetic
construct, or is it the manifestation of an underlying psycho-
logical unity to which it ostensibly refers? Such a narrative,
with its double view—singular and plural—of the self and its
history, poses the question whether the very idea of autobiog-
raphy is not in its deepest sense a fiction, some wish or dream
of a possible unity of personality underlying the apparent ac-
cidents of an individual life. Do the vicissitudes of the auto-
biographical act in McCarthy's case, for example, predicate
the existence of a continuous identity of the self, or do they
represent nothing more than a set of discrete, randomly shift-
ing gestures? Investigation of her performance as an autobiog-
rapher suggests both the possibilities and the limitations of
the creation of a text as an instrument to negotiate—and re-
negotiate—the terms of an individual's psychological reality.
Autobiography becomes a privileged bridge of discourse of
the self with itself across lapsing time.
If we consider the history of the composition of McCarthy's
MARY MCCARTHY
Memories as a sequence, it dramatizes a series of deepening
returns to the past. Risking the schematic in order to highlight
the presence of a coherent pattern of behavior, we can iden
tify three distinct phases or waves of autobiographical recol
lection, each reaching further back into the past than its pred
ecessor. In the first of these McCarthy returns to the period
of her life in the convent, which is the subject of "C.Y.E."
(1944) and "The Blackguard" (1946); in these pieces she is a
girl of eleven and twelve. In the second phase, she returns to
her life with the guardians, beginning after the death of her
parents when she is six and continuing more or less chrono
logically through her years in the convent and still later in a
public high school; this is the order of the next five sketches
as originally published: "Yonder Peasant, Who Is He?" (1948),
"A Tin Butterfly" (1951), "C'est Le Premier Pas Qui Coute"
(1952), "The Figures in the Clock" (1953), and "Yellowstone
Park" (1955). In a last phase, McCarthy returns to her own
earliest memories of the first six years of her life before her
parents died, and beyond these to the history of her parents
and her mother's mother before she was born; these are the
subject of "To the Reader" (1957) and "Ask Me No Ques
tions" (1957) which, respectively, begin and end the narrative
of McCarthy's Memories published in 1957. Something was
drawing the autobiographer steadily backward into the past;
somehow, as she came to believe, the central issues of her life
history were connected with her loss of her parents in the
influenza epidemic of 1918. From "C.Y.E." to "Ask Me No
Questions"—the history of the autobiographical act begins with
the middle of her story and it comes to an end with the be
ginning.
Philippe Lejeune argues that the most general order in which
autobiographical narrative can unfold is that of the inquiry,
which alone arises naturally from the very circumstances in
which autobiography is produced. The final object of every
autobiographical quest, he believes, is the impossible search
for one's birth; one returns to the past in an attempt to pen
MARY M C C A R T H Y
etrate the mystery of one's origins.26 McCarthy's pursuit dur
ing her thirties and forties of the story of her early years,
especially her recurrent sense of an inscrutable darkness lurk
ing at the heart of selfknowledge, would seem to corroborate
this thesis quite specifically, but in a more general way all
autobiographers might be said to do so. Erik Erikson theorizes
that man's creation of myths, of " 'ideal' realities in which we
become and remain the central reality," mediates against his
egochilling awareness that his "nonexistence . . . is entirely
possible." He proceeds to give an account of the process of
identity formation that offers a major insight into the inven
tion of autobiography:
The sense of identity, which is not wanting in most
adults, prevents such feelings of panic. To be adult means
among other things to see one's own life in continuous
perspective, both in retrospect and in prospect. By ac
cepting some definition as to who he is, usually on the
basis of a function in an economy, a place in the sequence
of generations, and a status in the structure of society,
the adult is able to selectively reconstruct his past in such
a way that, step for step, it seems to have planned him,
or better, he seems to have planned it. In this sense, psy
chologically we do choose our parents, our family his
tory, and the history of our kings, heroes, and gods. By
making them our own, we maneuver ourselves into the
inner position of proprietors, of creators.27
26 Lejeune, p. 201. Martha R. Lifson takes McCarthy as her primary ex
ample to illustrate her thesis that the quest for the secret self is a central
motive in the creation of autobiography. Lifson shares my view that Mary's
grandmother Preston functions as a surrogate for Mary in the final section of
Memories, although she leaves the role of Tess, Mary's mother (for me the
crucial, mediating term in the dynamic of the relationship), largely out of
account. "Allegory of the Secret: Mary McCarthy," Biography, 4 (1981), 249
67.
27 Young Man Luther: A Study in Psychoanalysis and History (1958; rpt. New
York: Norton, 1962), pp. 11112.
MARY MCCARTHY
Thanks to this reversible teleology ("it seems to have planned
him, or better, he seems to have planned if), autobiographi
cal narrative offers a unique opportunity to affirm the god
like existence of the self—the self as a causa causans, Erikson
suggests—against the threat of nonidentity. Thus the autobio
graphical act would be merely a special instance of the psy
chological imperative motivating any individual to the work
of selfcreation.
In "To the Reader" McCarthy presents the loss of her par
ents as the central fact with which she had to reckon in the
creation of her autobiography. In its essence autobiography is
for her an art of memory, and memory is not only fallible but
in her case beyond correction:
One great handicap to this task of recalling has been the fact
of being an orphan. The chain of recollection—the collective
memory of a family—has been broken. It is our parents, nor
mally, who not only teach us our family history but who set us
straight on our own childhood recollections, telling us that this
cannot have happened the way we think it did and that that,
on the other hand, did occur, just as we remember it, in such
and such a summer when SoandSo was our nurse.
In this perspective the death of her parents illuminates the
problematical relationship to truth that links all of the various
Marys past and present in the narrative: lying becomes a sign
of her orphan condition, the making of fictions a function of
her loss. In addition, this statement contains a latent wish that
provides a major clue to the motivation for the autobiography:
if "this task of recalling" is completed, if the broken link in "the
chain of recollection" is repaired, then, at least in narrative, the
orphan will repossess her missing parents.28 Such a view helps
28 In his suggestive study of the parallels between the situation of the writer
and that of the patient undergoing a psychoanalysis, Bernard Pingaud de
scribes the fantasy of wishfulfillment that can inform the creation of narra
tive as follows: "Tandis que Ie patient utilise un allocutaire reel, present ma
teriellement comme support de ses fantasmes, l'ecrivain s'invente it mesure
MARY M C C A R T H Y
to account for the urgency with which McCarthy can speak
of her project, as when she says of it, "It has been a kind of
quest" (5). Thus, when she writes of the "burning interest in our
past," which she and her brother Kevin try "to reconstruct to
gether, like two amateur archaeologists" (6), the autobiographical
act emerges as her opportunity to acquire a past she would
otherwise have lacked. Paradoxically, her status as an orphan
simultaneously inhibits and stimulates the functioning of the
autobiographical impulse: the loss of her parents becomes the
pivotal, identityconferring event in her life, the breaking and
the making of her narrative. This McCarthy herself seems in
part to see when, reflecting on the fact that she and her brother
"are the only members of the present generation of our family who
have done anything out of the ordinary," she asks: iiWas it a good
thing, then, that our parents were 'taken away,' as if by some higher
design?" (1617). She professes not to know the answer, but
leaves little doubt about her own view of the matter when she
conjures up a vision of the banal, conventionally middleclass
self she might otherwise have become, a "rather stout," unre
flecting Catholic "married to an Irish lawyer and playing golf and
bridge" (16).
Interestingly, the loss of her parents, which McCarthy pre
sents in "To the Reader" as the focal event in her history, at
once obstacle and incentive to its recovery in narrative, seems
to be lurking in the background of the very first of her auto
biographical writings that we know of. According to the com
mentary on "A Tin Butterfly," the only completed part of the
play she had planned to write in college on this episode dealt
with "our first meeting with our guardians" (83). In Memories, this
meeting occurs in the first of the sketches, "Yonder Peasant,
Who Is He?" (1948), where it is associated with the period
un destinataire, Ie fantasme de l'ecriture etant precisement la conviction que
l'oeuvre obligera, en fin de compte, cet interlocutaire desire et impossible 4
se presenter en chair et en os. Ainsi Kafka ecrit sa Lettre au pert non pas pour
s'expliquer, ni pour se disculper, mais pour que l'image paternelle que l'ecri
ture appelle naisse de l'ecriture ellememe, pour que ce soit ce perela qui Iise
la lettre." "L'ecriture et la cure," Nouvelle Revue Frangaise (Oct. 1970), 154.
MARY M C C A R T H Y
immediately following the death of her parents, at a point
when the child refuses to acknowledge the reality of her loss:
"Those weeks in my grandmother's house come back to me
very obscurely, surrounded by blackness, like a mourning card:
the dark well of the staircase, where I seem to have been
endlessly loitering, waiting to see Mama when she would come
home from the hospital. . . ." In the context of this delicate
phase in the formation of her identity, when she hovers be
tween regression and development, "a dangling, transitional
creature, a frog becoming a tadpole" (38), the maid's an
nouncement one afternoon that "there is someone here to see
you" necessarily comes as a shock: "My heart bounded; I felt
almost sick (who else, after all, could it be?), and she had to
push me forward. But the man and woman surveying me in
the sun parlor with my grandmother were strangers . . ." (39).
Who else indeed if not "Mama"? In the commentary she wrote
in 1957 for "Yonder Peasant," however, McCarthy singles out
this passage for special criticism, dismissing it as "purefiction,"
for "in reality, I had already seen the people who were going to be
my guardians sometime before this" (48). She says that she no
longer remembers what made her "change this story to something
decidedly inferior, even from a literary point of view—far too senti
mentar (49). This harsh judgment is misleading, for the power
of the scene as it is presented in "Yonder Peasant" derives
from the fact that the meeting with the guardians functions
as a screen for the fantasy of a reunion with the lost parent.
The real 'fiction" in the account is the narrative reenactment
of the child's need to believe that the mother is not dead.
Taken together, the episode in "Yonder Peasant" and
McCarthy's subsequent criticism of it in the commentary rep
resent the two most characteristic postures of her performance
as an autobiographer in Memories. On the one hand, she con
stantly criticizes herself—as a child telling lies, as an auto
biographer making fictions—for infidelities to the truth; on
the other, she willingly conspires with her earlier selves in the
invention of wishfulfilling fictions. In this case neither mem
ory nor imagination succeeds in dispelling the darkness that
MARY M C CARTHY
shrouds the primal event of death and loss. In the narrative a
break occurs at just this point, coinciding and symbolizing the
psychological blackout involved, and the author's subsequent
researches, reported in the commentary, fail to close the gap.
The newspaper accounts contradict each other on the date of
death, and discussions with brother Kevin yield no certainty
on the date of burial. As to this last, McCarthy is obliged to
settle for "the feeling of 'remembering' " (48). In "Ask Me No
Questions," the final sketch in the series, she makes one last
effort to repair the break in her lifeline, and nearly succeeds,
by means of a subtle and daring fiction, in placing herself in
the presence of the determining event in her story. It is an
instructive failure.
INITIALLY, the terminal position of "Ask Me No Questions" in
Memories comes as a surprise, a strategic error in the literary
design, for it violates the rhythm generated by the more or
less chronological progress from childhood to high school in
the first seven sketches. As the sketches succeed one another,
the autobiographer gradually moves away from the family
portraits that cluster in the early portion of the narrative to a
more focused concern with her own development, which she
dramatizes in terms of her relationships with various school
friends and teachers. She could so easily have capitalized on
the momentum generated by the sixth and seventh sketches,
"The Figures in the Clock" and "Yellowstone Park," which
portray a distinctly adolescent Mary finishing high school and
learning the ways of the world, to pursue her development at
Vassar in the final chapter. Instead, seeming to exchange au-
tobiography for biography, McCarthy devotes the last and
longest of the chapters to a portrait of her mother's mother,
Augusta Morganstern Preston.
The commentary immediately preceding "Ask Me No
Questions" addresses the issue of the curious final position of
the story in the narrative, latest in the sequence of composi-
tion, earliest in terms of the personal history with which it
deals. As in the genesis of her very first autobiographical sketch,
MARY M C CARTHY
McCarthy's stance is again distinctly ambivalent. She had
waited to write partly because her grandmother was still liv
ing uwhile most of these memoirs were being written." However,
McCarthy continues, "even when she was dead, I felt a certain
reluctance . . . as toward touching a sensitive nerve," for "it meant
probing . . . into the past, into my earliest, dimmest memories, and
into the family past behind that." Again, as in the case of "C.Y.E.,"
the motive for repression of the past is balanced by a com
pulsion to explore and solve some underlying enigma in her
story: "/ knew I was going to have to touch on her, or the story
would not be complete. . . . [T]he sense of a mystery back of the story
I had already told traced itself more and more to the figure of my
grandmother" (193). "Touch on her," "touch on a sensitive nerve"—
the autobiographer is intimately linked to her biographical
subject; the identification between the two women is crucial,
as we shall see, for McCarthy intuitively understands that the
anatomy she intends to perform on her subject involves a lay
ing bare of the nervous system of her own personality. And
so "Ask Me No Questions" begins with this statement: "There
was something strange, abnormal, about my bringingup; only
now that my grandmother is dead am I prepared to face this
fact" (195).
"Ask Me No Questions" clearly demonstrates that Mc
Carthy did experience her grandmother's death as a kind of
release, opening up previously forbidden territory in her own
past. The movement backward in time steadily accelerates in
the first few pages; three, six, almost twenty, more than forty
years ago. Only in "To the Reader," also written at this time,
is the prose so richly autobiographical in texture, not only in
the comprehensiveness with which all phases of her life are
recalled but also in the explicitness with which the process of
recollection itself is dramatized. Nevertheless, the first act of
this newly liberated autobiographical consciousness is the ev
ocation of a memory of Grandmother Preston that restores
the very prohibition so freshly lifted by her death. "Six years
ago," three years before she died, the old woman and Mary
go over a collection of family photographs, and the grand
MARY MCCARTHY
mother in the confusion of senility charges Mary with having
written "bad things" about her in her autobiographical sketches,
whereas in fact McCarthy has hitherto avoided treatment of
this most important of her relatives. In this revealing moment
life history and the autobiographical narrative devoted to it
intersect, for the set of photographs becomes a metaphor for
the portraits McCarthy assembled in Memories, a symbolism
carried over into the published text, moreover, which in-
cludes an album of family pictures.
Here McCarthy is again on the defensive, rehearsing once
more her desire to write and not to write about her grand-
mother and, ultimately, herself. She explains that she had not
written because she knew that her grandmother hated to have
her likeness taken, and so the portrait in "Ask Me No Ques-
tions" is to be understood as the equivalent of the presence
conspicuously missing in so many of the photographs ("a
shadow on the lawn . . . may indicate where she was stand-
ing"). Thus she embarks on her telling of this story with "a
distinct uneasiness," imagining her grandmother's shade in-
terposing to forbid her projected revelation:
Limbo is where I can best imagine her, waiting for me
at some stairhead with folded arms and cold cream on
her face, as she used to wait in her pink quilted Japanese
bathrobe or the green one with the dragons when I turned
my key softly in the front door at two or three in the
morning, with a lie, which I hoped not to need, trem-
bling on my lips. She would never forgive me for what
I am about to do, and if there is an afterlife, it is God
who will have to listen to my explanations. (198)
This striking image captures the moral ambiguity of Mc-
Carthy's autobiographical situation: the identity of the object
of her search is concealed behind a threatening mask, and the
truth she seeks to unlock and utter shows here as a lie; the
passage suggests that to practice such revelation is to commit
a sin, a violation of the privacy of the self. Moreover, in the
context of her own reluctance toward the inquiry she is about
MARY M C CARTHY
to pursue, the scene on the stairhead dramatizes an internal
confrontation between two opposed motives in her own per
sonality: the opposition to the aggressive quest for knowledge,
suggested here by the daughter's return home from a mature
world of latenight experience, takes the form of a forbidding
and hostile parent.
In this evocation, McCarthy's autobiographical stance in the
concluding phase of her project in 1957 is every bit as contra
dictory and conflicting as it was at its inception in 1943. A
clue to the latent tension lies in the roles assumed in the pri
mal confrontation on the stairs—the disobedient daughter and
the unforgiving mother—and the mystery of unreciprocated
love that keeps them apart. It is a nowin situation, for any
attempt to justify to her grandmother the story she is going
to write would be as "hopeless" as the attempt to justify what
she had already written:
You could never explain anything to her or make her see
you loved her. She rebuffed explanations, as she rebuffed
shows of affection; they intruded on her privacy, that
closely guarded preserve—as sacrosanct as her bureau
drawers or the safe with a combination lock in her closet—
in which she clung to her own opinion. "Look, Grandma,"
I began, but then I gave it up. (197)
I would argue that this curious linkage of the issue of her
autobiographical motivation to her desire to love and be loved
is governed by the logic of McCarthy's great loss, the vulner
ability of her orphan state, a logic which we might reconstruct
as follows. The preeminently missing figure among the fam
ily photographs is Mary's grandmother; in its counterpart,
Memories, it is Mary's mother. To write the grandmother's
story is to recapture the mother and give her love; the appar
ent aggression of the intrusion on privacy is to be understood,
paradoxically, as a "show of affection." But why is the fantasy
of such a reunion colored by the need for reconciliation that
the encounter on the stairs seems to imply? Why indeed, un
less the absence of the loving mother, early taken from the
MARY M C CARTHY
child in the influenza epidemic of 1918, was somehow expe-
rienced by McCarthy as a rejection? Her position here, in this
autobiographical present (imagined, significantly, in terms of
a memory from the past), as so often in her story—in "A Tin
Butterfly," in "Names"—is defined by her sense of guilt for
something she has not done, as though the mother had died
because the child had inadequately loved her. Such a sense of
guilt would doubtless be encouraged by the sudden shift in
the children's domestic circumstances from a life of happiness
and indulgence by adoring parents (this is the picture in "To
the Reader") to one of discipline and punishment under the
loveless regime of the guardians ("Yonder Peasant, Who Is
He?" and "A Tin Butterfly"). The climax of McCarthy's au-
tobiographical quest would be to come to terms at last with
the event that had made her an orphan, shaping her life and
her story. Viewed in this light, the stairway setting of the
imaginary encounter with the dead grandmother seems more
than accidental, for it links this scene with McCarthy's fan-
tasy of a reunion with her dead mother in "Yonder Peasant,
Who Is He?" In a suggestive reversal of roles, Mary assumes
here the part played in the earlier scene by her mother, whose
death had abandoned the child to a shadowy limbo of loiter-
ing by the stairs.
Although I am convinced that something very like the pat-
tern of the "logic" I have described structures the working out
of the autobiographical impulse in McCarthy's case, I would
be the first to point out that such speculations are necessarily
unverifiable. They are offered as a possible background for
the central issue that I would like to study in McCarthy's
performance in "Ask Me No Questions": her transformation
of the grandmother and her story into a special kind of fiction
to meet the requirements of her autobiographical quest into
her own identity and its mysterious origins. If the grand-
mother is perceived as a barrier to the pursuit of the past, in
what sense, we may ask, is the telling of her story an appro-
priate ending to McCarthy's own story, as she urges that it is
and had to be? The subsequent narrative, in thirteen sections
MARY M C CARTHY
of varying length, unfolds as a series of four attempts to pass
beyond the unforgiving figure at the head of the stairs into
the knowledge the autobiographer seeks to possess.
In the second section, in which McCarthy delves into her
earliest childhood memories, the recurring image of the
grandmother that links them all is that of a woman wearing a
veil or mask, culminating in the recollection of a "strange lady
. . . with a different kind of veil on, a black one, which hung
all the way down over her face" (201), who visited the six
yearold Mary during her convalescence from the flu in Min
neapolis in 1918. Only months later did the child surmise that
her own parents "were not coming back," and that "the strange
lady had come and cried on my bed because her daughter was
dead" (202). This initial clarification, however, fails to dissi
pate the darkness that McCarthy associates early and late with
the elusive figure of Augusta Preston. In the third section, as
the author studies various photographs of her grandmother,
she is struck by the shift in her appearance from a young
woman of "gentle, open, serious mien" to an older woman
with a "sharp" and "jaunty" air (203), and finds herelf at a
loss to account for so "profound a change": " 'What hap
pened?' " (204).
McCarthy proceeds in this and the following sections to
assemble the facts of Mrs. Preston's story despite her subject's
avowed lack of any autobiographical curiosity—" 'Why do you
keep asking me all those old things?' " (204). A brief review
of her grandmother's childhood—Mrs. Preston, like Mary, is
an orphan—leads into a more extended but finally inconclu
sive examination of her Jewish background. The author is
obliged to settle for her own nagging sense of a biographical
significance that refuses to be captured, a "something—a shying
away from the subject, an aversion to naming it in words"
(211). Mrs. Preston's accounts of her own motivation are re
luctant and unenlightening, and McCarthy can find little re
semblance between her grandmother's characterization of her
self as a perennial "loser" in the anecdotes she liked to tell and
her own memory of her as a "disconcerting," "impassive,"
MARY MCCARTHY
"forbidding" woman ("most people . . . were afraid of her")
(217).
The seventh section rounds off this sequence of retrospect
by returning once more to the "oddity" of Augusta Preston's
appearance; this, McCarthy asserts, was "the first thing that
would have struck an outsider about her in her later years"
(217). Studying the image of her grandmother arrayed for her
unvarying daily routine of afternoon shopping, she highlights
the "consummate artifice" involved, especially the cosmetic
disguise of the face, "the rouge and the powder and the van
ishing cream underneath" (218). Despite this "blazonry of make
up," "she did look remarkably young," so much so that flat
tering salespeople urge her to make Mary "pass for your
daughter"; the granddaughter adds, significantly, "she could
have passed for my mother" (220). McCarthy reads a "garish"
loneliness in her grandmother's appearance, but she confesses
her inability to account for it, for "she had nothing to com
plain of in life" (221):
. . . until she reached her second childhood, she seemed,
on the surface, a contented woman, well situated in life,
selfcontained, unemotional. The only blights she had
suffered, so far as I knew, were the unseasonable death
of my mother and a mastoid operation that had left her
with some scars, just under her ears, in her neck and
lower cheeks. (222)
This second attempt at clarification of the mystery of this life
is avowedly unsatisfactory. As Faulkner's Mr. Compson puts
it, after his elaborate reconstruction of the motivation of the
dead Sutpens in Absalom, Absalom! ends in failure, "It just
does not explain."
In the first seven sections of "Ask Me No Questions,"
McCarthy ranges freely backward and forward from the ear
liest to the latest phases of her grandmother's story and her
own points of contact with it. In the second half of the nar
rative, beginning with section eight, she presents a sustained
evocation of the years she spent living in the Preston house,
MARY MCCARTHY
while she attended first a Catholic convent and later a public
high school. This is the period in which Mary's orphan cir
cumstances structure her relationship with her grandmother
as that of mother and daughter. After five years of deprivation
with the hateful guardians in Minneapolis, the elevenyear
old girl is overwhelmed by the luxury of the affluent Preston
household. Repeating the pattern of the earlier portions of the
narrative, the focus narrows swiftly to the grandmother's body
and Mary's chilling intuition of the "mature sensuality" with
which her grandmother satisfied its hunger:
I conceived an aversion to apricots—a tasteless fruit, any
way, I considered—from having watched her with them,
just as though I had witnessed what Freud calls the pri
mal scene. Now I, too, am fond of them, and whenever
I choose one from a plate, I think of my grandmother's
body, fullfleshed, bland, smooth, and plump, cushion
ing in itself, close held—a secret, like the flat brown seed
of the apricot. (225)
The girl gradually perceives the grandmother's body as a kind
of "cult object," the omphalos of the family world, and the
bathroom as "the temple" of its worship. Here Mrs. Preston
secludes herself for hours each day in preparation for her pub
lic display of herself in the ritual afternoon shopping, and
here, inevitably, Mary, now twelve, is tempted one day to
enter the inner sanctum and appropriate its "relics" (22526).
Significantly, McCarthy prefaces this episode of the bath
room with an allusion to another scene of revelation much
later on, in Mrs. Preston's seventies, when Mary caught "a
disturbing glimpse of her thighs": "Disturbing, because I knew
she would not want to be looked at, even in admiration" (226).
This allusion parallels—and closely follows in the text—the
author's analysis of the child's watching the grandmother eat
as the equivalent of witnessing "what Freud calls the primal
scene" (225), and suggests an undercurrent of sexuality as a
latent content in the forbidden knowledge that McCarthy, then
as a child, now as an autobiographer, pursues. McCarthy shows
MARY M C CARTHY
herself as imitating her grandmother, early and late, in the
application of cosmetics, in the eating of fruit, as though
through symbolic gestures of impersonation she could become
and hence possess what she seeks to know.
Her transgression betrayed by the forbidden cosmetic dis
guise of rouge and powder she has applied, the guilty grand
daughter adopts the familiar recourse of lying in the "terrible
scene" with her grandmother that follows. The pair of women
in opposition, the mask (here worn by Mary), the lying that
accompanies the revelation of the truth—all these suggest the
scene as a prototype for the stairhead encounter that intro
duces the final phase of McCarthy's autobiographical quest.
The bathroom, she writes, "figured to me as the center of
everything in the Preston family life from which I was ex
cluded" (228). From here on the narrative presents the auto
biographer facing the fact that she presents as the occasion for
writing "Ask Me No Questions": "There was something
strange, abnormal, about my bringingup" (195).
The picture of family life as McCarthy reconstructs it is
one of "shut doors and silence," which symbolizes the painful
lack of communication between Mary and her relatives. Re
peated attempts at conversation with her grandmother invar
iably end in failure: "We could never be 'like mother and
daughter' to each other, in spite of what people said" (231).
Gradually McCarthy comes to see her family as "remarkably
inhospitable." The Prestons rarely entertain and make no ef
fort to supply a social life for their adopted granddaughter.
As with the hated nickname, the girl is led to blame her lack
of social life on herself, as though "there was something wrong
with me, like a petticoat showing, that other people could see
and I couldn't" (235). It is at this point that the autobiogra
pher takes up for the first time the relationship between her
grandmother and her mother, for "in my mother's day, so I
was told, things had been very different" (237). In the thir
teenth section of the narrative McCarthy presents the third in
the series of attempts to read aright the enigmatic figure
guarding the stairhead against the autobiographer's deter
MARY M C CARTHY
mined ascent to knowledge. "My mother," she begins, "had
been my grandmother's darling" (237).
The "official explanation" for the "oddities" of the Preston
household was that Mary's grandmother "had never recovered
from the shock of my mother's death" (238), and McCarthy
speculates that her own failed relationship with Mrs. Preston
may have been the result of her painful resemblance to her
mother. In this view the paired lives of grandmother and
granddaughter, the paired narratives of "Ask Me No Ques-
tions" and Memories of a Catholic Girlhood, would be similarly
determined by the same central shaping event of loss. Mc-
Carthy, however, rejects the "official" version of the grand-
mother's story in favor of her own instinctive insight as a
child that Mrs. Preston's mourning was "willful and obdu-
rate": "My grandmother's grief had taken a form peculiar to
herself, stamped, as it were, with her monogram—the severe
'AMP,' in scroll lettering, that figured on her silver, her brushes
and combs, her automobile." For "my mother's darling," read
"AMP"; the identity of the beloved other is stamped—and
stamped out—with the sign of the voracious ego. Her analysis
traces the experience of grief to her grandmother's "coque-
try," to her preoccupation with her "beauty"; it becomes merely
an adjunct, a prized possession serving the conspicuous con-
sumption of self: "life itself was obliged to court her" (239).
Pursuing this thesis, McCarthy proposes that her grandmoth-
er's story was structured by a series of three "mortal" affronts
to her ego: a conjectured injury to her Jewish pride (occur-
ring, perhaps, early in her marriage), a tragic face lifting (in
1916 or 1917, when she was in her forties), and, finally, the
death of her daughter Tess (in 1918). All the puzzling aspects
of the biographical materials that McCarthy has assembled in
the narrative so far seem to fall into place in this penultimate
moment of clarification, a clarification, however, which fails
to make good the autobiographer's sense that the grandmoth-
er's character held "the key" to the "mystery back of the story"
she had already told about herself. Significantly, the death of
Tess is displaced here by the face lifting as the central event
MARY M C CARTHY
of "Ask Me No Questions." To the aftermath of the botched
surgery belong the daily cult of the bathroom and the ritual
of the afternoon shopping, the withdrawal from society into
silence; the legacy of "pouchy disfiguring scars" (240) explains
all the makeup, the veils, the refusal to be photographed.
In the concluding section of the narrative McCarthy returns
once more to the last years of her grandmother's life; here,
with her account of Mrs. Preston's response to the death of
her sister Rosie, McCarthy's search for knowledge of her
grandmother comes to an end. In this climactic scene, her-
alded by "a terrible" and "unearthly" scream, she seems for
once to witness the always veiled and impassive woman in the
throes of undisguised and violent emotion:
Flinging open her bedroom door (even then with a sense
of trepidation, of being an unwarranted intruder), I saw
her, on her bed, the covers pushed back; her legs were
sprawled out, and her yellow batiste nightgown, trimmed
with white lace, was pulled up, revealing her thighs. She
was writhing on the bed; the cook and I could barely get
hold of her. My uncle appeared in the doorway, and my
first thought (and I think the cook's also) was to get that
nightgown down. The spectacle was indecent, and yet of
a strange boudoir beauty that contrasted in an eerie way
with that awful noise she was making, more like a howl
than a scream and bearing no resemblance to sorrow. (242)
This, like its predecessors, is one more version of the experi-
ence of revelation that the narrative is designed to supply.
The allusion to the indecent exposure of the thighs links this
scene with the episode of Mary's trespass in the bathroom as
a girl of twelve, where it is also mentioned; this earlier scene
is in its turn a version of the stairhead encounter that frames
the entire narrative. In this nocturnal display of naked emo-
tion the autobiographer seems at last to behold the inmost
truth about the woman whose story, so she had believed, could
illuminate the darkness at the center of her own life history:
"It seemed clear to me that night, as I sat stroking her hair,
MARY M C CARTHY
that she had never really cared for anyone but her sister; that
was her secret." However, undercutting her sense "that some
sort of revelation had taken place," echoed by her belief that
the family "too, felt that she [Mrs. Preston] had revealed
something" (243), is her inability to determine for sure what
actually has been revealed. And so this last of the series of
clarifications of the grandmother's story, like all the others,
gives way once more to a sense of the unsolvable mystery at
the heart of personality.
Displaced first by the face lifting and then by the death of
Rosie, the death of Mary's mother, the missing event of
McCarthy's own story, recedes from the autobiographer's grasp.
"She had never really cared for anyone but her sister"; rec
ognition of this truth forecloses definitively the possibility that
McCarthy could reenact and symbolically recover the ex
change of love interrupted by her mother's early death. Bio
graphically speaking, there is nothing surprising in Mc
Carthy's involvement in a behavior pattern of this sort, first
during her adolescence in Seattle, and then, many years later,
during the autobiographical act. To the contrary, such behav
ior seems altogether natural, given the circumstances. In an
obvious way the grandmother functioned as a substitute for
Mary's mother, and, reciprocally, Mary functioned as a sub
stitute for her as well; this aspect of the motherdaughter tie
is everpresent in their relationship—even the casual com
ments of admiring salespeople kept it in view. What "Ask Me
No Questions" proposes, however, with its juxtaposition of
the grandmother's story on Mary's own history, is a more
daring perspective on the motherdaughter axis in which the
grandmother would function as a surrogate for Mary herself.
She would be a Mary who consciously experienced the loss
of Tess, a Mary who loved the mother and who was genu
inely bereaved by her death, as opposed to the sixyearold
girl for whom the event of loss was wrapped in a blackout of
sickness and repression. Thus it is, as we have seen, that
McCarthy is capable of playing the role of either the un
masker or the masked in the various scenes of revelation. The
MARY M C C A R T H Y
dual role suggests the identity of subject and object, of self
and other, that makes possible the fulfillment of the wish:
McCarthy wants to witness what "she" has experienced. To
this extent the biographical facts about the grandmother would
operate as an autobiographical fiction designed to recover the
missing event of McCarthy's own life story.
The very premise of this fiction, however, the bereavement
that they shared, is disconfirmed by the ultimate scene of rev
elation at the time of Rosie's death. In an ironic reversal of
roles, the orphan autobiographer offers maternal consolation
and love to the "mother" in her loss ("I sat stroking her hair"),
while the grandmother, swiftly slipping into senility, becomes
precisely such a "child" as Mary describes herself to have been
in "To the Reader" and "Yonder Peasant, Who Is He?", be
lieving that the dead sister had " 'gone away,' . . . just as
children believe that this is what happens to their dead rela
tions" (24344). And so the end of "Ask Me No Questions,"
and with it, Memories of a Catholic Girlhood, circles back to its
beginning and the unfathomable mystery of origins.
At the last the powers of language—and, by extension, nar
rative—atrophy. One afternoon, the old lady, in a state of
agitation, asks Mary to get her something—the " 'wachama
callit' "—from her bureau, and Mary is at a loss to discover
what she wants until the nurse supplies the answer: "She's
forgotten the word for mirror" (245). The autobiographical
act, we might say, is the attempt to find the word for mirror.
McCarthy speaks of her project in the preface as "a kind of
quest," and the story in Memories of its pursuit over a period
of thirteen years reveals that the presence of fiction in auto
biography is properly regarded not as an interference with the
search for the truth about the self but rather as an inevitable
and invaluable resource for its recovery. McCarthy's position
at the end of Memories repeats her position in the very first of
her autobiographical sketches. As in "C.Y.E.," she is dealing
in "Ask Me No Questions" with the presence of something
about herself, some deep truth, which she cannot get at but
which she believes to be central to her identity and its story.
MARY M C C A R T H Y
The autobiographer has pursued her symbolic manipulations
of fact to the limit, attempting to fashion in her grandmother's
story and in her own an instrument of vision in which she
can witness the reflection of her inmost self; her narrative can
do no more.
Did McCarthy recognize that to write a life is in effect to
embrace a strategy for translating the incommunicable self into
a communicable substance, incommunicable because not fi
nally knowable? Had she engaged in the making of fictions
about what is, perhaps, itself only a fiction? In any case, some
five years after the publication of Memories, in an interview in
1962, McCarthy announces her definitive abandonment of the
view of autobiography that governs the creation of Memories·.
I think I'm really not interested in the quest for the self
any more. Oh, I suppose everyone continues to be inter
ested in the quest for the self, but what you feel when
you're older, I think, is that—how to express this—that
you really must make the self. It's absolutely useless to
look for it, you won't find it, but it's possible in some
sense to make it.29
After such knowledge, an autobiographer can only say of the
truth of her story, "ask me no questions," for the telling of
lies is inextricably implicated in the writing of her memories.
The lesson of McCarthy's experience of the autobiographical
act is that the process of selfdiscovery is finally inseparable
from the art of selfinvention.
w "The Art of Fiction," 9394.