BIG BANG TO CURRENT EARTH-OVERVIEW

AND
BASIC MATH CONCEPTS

KIDS MATH-SCIENCE DIGITAL BOOK ON THE INTERNET

at

www.KidsMathScienceDigitalBook.com

by

Angela Caldo, Debbie Caldo, Leanne Caldo

Angelo Karras, Hampton Karras, Tom Karras

April 4, 2014
Final Print Version, Happy 80th Birthday Hamp!
To My Wife, Our Mom, and Our Grandmother
“STEM” WEBTREE BELOW AND THIS DIGITAL BOOK WILL HELP PREPARE STUDENTS FOR HIGH SCHOOL AND COLLEGE
www.ed.gov
www.nasa.gov
www.Science.NASA.gov
http://breathingearth.net/
http://spaceweather.com/
http://www.weather.com/
http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/nhats/
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space
www.KidsMathScienceDigitalBook.com
http://mistupid.com/astronomy/orbits.htm
http://spaceplace.nasa.gov/what-is-gravity/
http://periodictable.com/ http://www.ptable.com
www.khanacademy.org www.wolframalpha.com
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ssA7Ew_BQHY
www.msmath1.net www.msmath2.net www.msmath3.net
http://www.co-intelligence.org/newsletter/comparisons.html
http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/Pangaea_game.html
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/earth/earth-from-space.html
http://www.learner.org/resources/series42.html#program_descriptions
http://maps.nationalgeographic.com/maps/print-collection/milky-way.html
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2013/26feb_russianmeteor/
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=snowflakes&qpvt=snowflakes&FORM=IGRE
http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ www.calculator.com http://www.metriccalculator.com
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magearth.html http://goes.gsfc.nasa.gov/
http://www.freemars.org/jeff/planets/planets5.htm http://www.ws5.com/spacetime/ http://www.noaa.gov/
http://www.freemars.org/jeff/planets/planets5.htm www.TomKarras.com http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_When_Gallaxies_Collide.html http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/Contdrift.shtml http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=centrifugal+force+ball&qpvt=centrifugal+force+ball&FORM=IGRE
http://news.cnet.com/8301-17938_105-57598276-1/earth-in-crossfire-on-nasa-hazardous-asteroid-map/
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Magnetosphere.shtml
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanoes&FORM=IGRE&qpvt=volcanoes
http://personal.psu.edu/staff/m/b/mbt102/bisci4online/chemistry/chemistry1.htm
http://dd.dynamicdiagrams.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/orrery_2006.swf
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/magnetic.html www.ed.gov
http://spaceweather.com/gallery/index.php?title=aurora&title2=lights
http://users.tricity.wsu.edu/~hudson/Research/Asteroids/index.htm
http://regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys06/bcentrif/centrif.htm
http://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/us.htm
http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/ringfire.htm
http://www.abc.net.au/news/specials/japan-quake-2011
http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/iceage/timeline.html
http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/14F.html
http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/
http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/545.html
http://www.ewart.org.uk/physics/index.php?l=61
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hEFeLYWTKX0
http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/world.htm
http://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov/okeanos/edu/
http://www.solarsystemscope.com/ison/
http://www.amortizationcalculator.info/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream
www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/nature
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
http://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/rsd/images/
http://video.pbs.org/video/2358778286/
http://www.solstation.com/stars/ast2belt.gif
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/primer/primer.html
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OZIB_leg75Q
http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml
http://standeyo.com/Earth_Changes/Threat.Watch.html
http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm
http://www.citejournal.org/articles/v5i3seminal4/sine%20wave.html
http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=205023
http://edsect.blogspot.com/2013/07/motion-of-solar-system-in-milky-way.html
 Part 1: “BIG BANG TO CURRENT EARTH- OVERVIEW”
Kids Digital Book first on the Internet- August 23, 2010
www.KidsMathScienceDigitalBook.com

by
Angela Caldo, Debbie Caldo, Leanne Caldo,
Angelo Karras, Hampton Karras, Tom Karras
Email version (Word Doc) available at [email protected] by request

1.) OVERVIEW OF THIS BOOK

This on-line book has been designed to allow children and adult viewers to educate themselves about
our Earth and its environment by easily selecting “hyperlinks” imbedded within the text to quickly view
samples and illustrations about various science, engineering, and math topics. It is meant to be both
educational and fun and introduces various on-line topics which sometimes are time consuming to
search for these “hyperlinks”; they are already imbedded within this book to educate the readers on
how the internet has become a great learning tool. The authors are first, second, and third generation
family members and have enjoyed working together on this book. The authors have no intention of
advertising for or supporting any of the websites which may come up within this book and are not
affiliated or associated with any vendor and cannot guarantee that these websites and links will be
operational at all times. Comments, corrections, and suggestions are welcomed at above email. Some
of the information in this book was obtained by viewing TV at Science, History, PBS, NGO, and NOVA.

Example 1: How have the Earth’s continents drifted over many years? Click on the link below; after the
link comes up, scroll down and view “Continental Drift”. Our Earth now has 2,600 earth quakes per day.
After viewing any other areas of interest just click upper left hand corner and return to this book and
continue. http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml (1)

Example 2: How to use a calculator on the internet to find a mathematical computation such as, “What
is the square root of a number? “ The square root of a number is that number, say 16, which when
multiplied by 16 is 256. To find the square root of the number 256, go to: www.calculator.com (37) ,
Note: click on Link, when the calculators link comes up, select one of the “Fractions Calculator”, and
place the mouse on blue numbers 2, 5, 6, and select the “square root symbol”. You will find that the
answer is 16, that is, 16 times 16 are 256. After using the on line calculator, click back, left top corner, to
return to this online book and continue.

Example 3: Where are some of the major Earth Volcanoes? Earth has over 1,600 active Volcanoes with
about 20 eruptions daily, View: http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanoes&qpvt=volcanoes&FORM=IGRE

Example 4: Watch the planets as they orbit the sun at: http://mistupid.com/astronomy/orbits.htm (48)

Example 5: How many earths fit into the sun? (Note: this is computed later in Fig. 9) View link:
http://www.co-intelligence.org/newsletter/comparisons.html

So, as one views this book, all illustrations will be found by clicking on each embedded link and after
viewing information on the link, then just click back and return to this book. This reduces the costs of
providing illustrations within the book, reduces costly book preparations, and at the same time provides
the reader more information to review on the internet on related topics and is updated for all viewers.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part 1
1.) OVERVIEW OF THIS BOOK---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p1

2.) OVERVIEW OF THE BIG BANG THEORY TO THE FORMATION OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM------------ p3

3.) OUR SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE MILKY WAY GALAXY-------------------------------------------------------- p4

4.) OVERVIEW OF EARTH IN THE LAST 3.5 BILLION YEARS-------------------------------------------------- p6

5.) EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p10

6.) VOLCANOES ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ p12

7.) EARTHQUAKES AND WATER- GRAVITY WAVES(TSUNAMI’S) ------------------------------------------ p13

8.) AIRFLOW JET STEAMS AND OCEAN CURRENTS------------------------------------------------------------- p14

9.) TORNADOES AND HURRICANES------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p15

10.) ASTEROIDS AND COMETS ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ p16

11.) SOLAR FLARES AND SOLAR WINDS--------------------------------------------------------------------------- p17

12.) CLIMATE CONSIDERATIONS ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p18

13.) EARTH ORBITING SATELLITES FOR GLOBAL MONITORING------------------------------------------- p18

14.) GODS – “GLOBAL OPERATIONAL DISASTER SYSTEM” RECOMMENDATION------------------------ p19

TO IMPROVE HEALTH AND SAFETY

15.) NEAR FUTURE CONCERNS--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p19

APPENDIX (Part 1)- (Math Information will be helpful to students)------------------------------- p20

“BIG BANG TO CURRENT EARTH-OVERVIEW” WEBSITES AND LIBRARY REFERENCES-------- p31
A CONCEPT OF GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION/FORCE & BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT MOONS p35
APPENDIX (Part 2)-Introduction to Electromagnetic Radiation and Measuring Techniques---- p36
APPENDIX (Part 3)- Relationship between Electricity and Magnetism-An Overview------------ p40
A THEORY WHY THERE ARE DIFFERENT NATIONALITIES AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF LIFE ---- p43
ASTEROIDS IN THE ASTEROID BELT AND SOME NEAR EARTH CROSSING ASTEROIDS LOCATED SO FAR ---------- p43
APPENDIX (Part 4) -Hologram on the Web--------------------------------------------------------------- p44
APPENDIX (Part 5) - Gravity, Space and Time, Energy - Overview ------------------------------------- p45
APPENDIX (Part 6) – Overview of the Standard Model of an Atom ------------------------------------ p46
Letter to President Obama – Suggestion for Planet Earth’s 100 year plan ---------------- p50
Acknowledgements -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- p51
2.) OVERVIEW OF THE BIG BANG THEORY TO THE FORMATION OF OUR SOLAR SYSTEM p3
Ground telescopes and Hubble: http://hubblesite.org/ (64) are like time machines
looking deep into space. When they look back about 13.7 billion years nothing
exists except a small heavy point which had exploded and is believed by most
scientists to be the beginning of forming our current Universe. Who knows? Our
universe may have begun from the inside of a large black hole from another
galaxy/universe? View: http://www.pbs.org/deepspace/timeline/index.html (4)
View the WMAP Satellite photo of the “baby Universe” about 13.6996 billion years ago: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Baby_Universe.jpg
Elements, dust, and clouds of matter began to form, large hot objects began to
clump together (accretion process), then galaxies, stars, and planets followed.
View: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_theory : Today there are many
billion billions of stars and over 125 billion galaxies in the Universe. Our Milky
Way is just one galaxy with billions of stars and it is just hard to envision the size
of our Universe. It is said that there are as many stars in the Universe as there are
grains of sand in all of the earth’s coastal regions. “Red shifting-Doppler effect” of
moving galaxies indicates continue expansion; stars and galaxies continue to be
produced and explode. Our solar system with eight planets and many moons,
millions of asteroids and comets, and the Oort cloud is over 4.5 billion years old.
When our solar system was being formed, there were many planet type objects
orbiting the sun; several times they collided and combined to form larger planets.
During this accretion process the hot and heavy elements such as iron go to the
center to form the center core which begins the magnetic field preparation. It
has been stated that the earth was formed by collisions with several mini-planets;
sometime after that, a planet in a similar orbit as the earth collided with the earth
at a perfect angle and resulted in producing our current Moon. The moon has
helped to stabilize our earth’s climate, i.e. allows earth to have a South and North
Pole and near stable spin axis; without the earth’s moon, the earth’s climate
would be very unstable and variable to say the least. View accretion disk in this
website: http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/accretiond.html (7)
The moon rotates about its axis about once per month and orbits the earth about once per month, it is “locked with the earth’s rotation” and
we always see the same side of the moon; we see the Sun’s reflections monthly for the different phases of the moon: full and partial phases.
Our older Earth from 4.5 to 3.5 billion years ago was very active. It has been
stated, from the projections of the number of craters on the moon, that there
must have been over 100 large sized asteroids and comets which impacted the
earth. Projections indicate that the earth had about 25 times more impacts then
the moon. If two asteroids collide (undetected) in the Asteroid Belt or a comet is deflected by Jupiter and
heads to earth, we may only have about 6 months to take appropriate action! Over 200 million years
ago, a 62 mile long asteroid impacted in Quebec, Canada and could have caused a
mass extinction. See: http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm : The p4
debris, from the impact forces, could have circled the Earth and would have
affected many plants, sea life, or land animals and could have lasted for hundreds
of years. Some fossil forms of plants and other life have been found in Greenland
and in the salt mines of Africa in this time frame to “carbon date” the event. The
heat from the impact would have vaporized the ocean and lake waters and due to
the earth’s gravity, water would have stayed in the atmosphere. Eventually, rains
and storms would begin to build up the earth’s oceans and lakes. This process
would repeat many times during this early earth period. Most of the other many
impacts would re-cycle from near mass extinctions to a habitable planet. Many of
the other impact areas are no longer visible and would have combined and mixed
with the earth’s hot layers and mostly oceans and hence are difficult to find. This
cycle of asteroid and comet impacts continued for some time until accretion and
impacts became less frequent allowing the earth to cool down to support the
initial forms of life. Due to the earth’s tilt, we have four seasons. Note: In 2010 NASA spacecraft (Named WISE) discovered that
a 300 yard asteroid is sharing Earth’s orbit, orbiting ahead by about 1/8 to ¼ of an orbit. Also our Milky Way galaxy is currently on a collision
course with the Andromeda galaxy; both galaxies could collide and eventually merge as one larger spherical galaxy in about 3 billion years,
view: http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/5-8/features/F_When_Gallaxies_Collide.html.
During the first 500 to 600 million years when Earth was undergoing heavy
bombardment and excessive activity, it is very possible that Mars had cooled
down enough and had the conditions to support life. Scientists have examined
rocks and materials from Mars and concluded that Mars originally had a magnetic
field, water on the surface, and an atmosphere; then it quickly shut down, lost its
magnetic field which protected it from Sun’s radiation and lost its atmosphere
(due to comets, gamma ray bursts, etc.?). We will know more about Mars after
2030 when the U.S. is expected to send astronauts there for exploration; we
predict that beneath Mars surface they will find forms of fossil life and micro life.
Gamma Ray bursts from Stars (Supernova) was first observed around 1854 by the Chinese Astronomers; they now appear to be occurring daily.
Note: There are over 200 moons orbiting the 8 planets in our Solar System (Mars has 2 moons); Page 35 has a brief discussion about Moons.
View Animation of our Solar System showing moons at: http://dd.dynamicdiagrams.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/orrery_2006.swf .
3.) OUR SOLAR SYSTEM AND THE MILKY WAY GALAXY
Our solar system lies about two thirds distance from the center of our Milky Way
galaxy. A simple scale size model would be like one holding a “baseball” in your
hand to represent our solar system (Sun, Planets, etc.) in Germantown, Maryland,
then the Milky Way Galaxy would be larger than the size of the United States. Our
Milky Way galaxy contains over 200 billion stars! Although this scale model is not
exact, it provides the reader with an idea of the size of our Solar System (Planets,
Sun, etc.) relative to our Milky Way Galaxy. There are about 125 billion of other
galaxies in our Universe and this amount of mass is hard to comprehend. Review
Milky Way Galaxy at: http://cass.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/MW.html (65),
http://maps.nationalgeographic.com/maps/print-collection/milky-way.html p5
This website provides a good view of our Milky Way, zoom/view our Solar System.
Note: Surrounding our Solar System is a large spherical “icy cloud” called the “Oort Cloud”.
The mass of our Sun is over 99% of the mass of our Solar System with its four
rocky planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars), the Asteroid Belt next and then
four 4 larger planets (gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn) followed by the icy-gas giants
of Uranus and Neptune followed by the Kuiper Belt (where Pluto and icy Comets
are orbiting) and all surrounded by the Oort Cloud. A simple scaled model to
approximate the size and distance of our Solar System would be to place a
“basketball at home plate in a baseball stadium to represent our Sun”, and
between home plate and pitcher’s mound place a “flower seed to represent
planet Mercury”, between pitcher’s mound and second base place a “small pea
to represent planet Venus”, at second base place a “larger size pea to
represent planet Earth”, half way between second base and the home run area
“place a grape seed to represent planet Mars”, and let the surrounding stadium
seats represent the “Asteroid belt” filled “with millions of small flower seeds to
represent all of the Asteroids”. Then, outside the baseball stadium beyond the
parking lot, place “a golf ball to represent planet Jupiter”, “several more blocks
away place a ping pong ball to represent Saturn“, and several more blocks away
for each, place “marbles to represent planet Uranus and then Neptune”, and
about 10 blocks further away place “millions of small flower seeds” surrounding
the area of the baseball stadium to “represent Pluto and millions of comets, etc.
in the Kuiper Belt”. Although this scale model is not exact, it is provided to allow
the readers to try to visualize the enormous relative sizes and distance of our
solar system for the Sun, planets, asteroids, and comets. Approximately 50 moons
will fit into earth and 1,300,000 earths into the sun. View Solar System Overview:
http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system (66) and
view planet comparisons at: http://www.freemars.org/jeff/planets/planets5.htm and
http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm
(47) This website shows Kepler’s Laws for orbits, practice the effects of gravity.
Note: Light from the Sun takes about one year to reach the Oort cloud or about 6 Trillion miles away; about 100 blocks to the basketball above .
Light travels about 6 Trillion miles in one year which represents one light year; our
nearest star is about 4 light years away and a spacecraft leaving earth at 10% the
speed of light would take about 40 years, referenced to earth time, to arrive at
the star. It takes sunlight about 8.33 minutes to reach the earth after it leaves the
Sun and light rays over 25,000 years to reach the Earth from the center of our
Milky Way Galaxy. Light travels at 186,000 miles per second, so one could easily
compute the distance to our Sun which is about 93 million miles. The Sun is very
close to Earth when compared to the center of our Milky Way Galaxy. It has
recently been concluded by the scientific community that the center of most
galaxies contains a large black hole which is very massive and contains high forces
of gravity pulling in just about anything which goes close to the edges of the black
hole called the “event-horizon”. Deep inside the back hole at the bottom is called
the “singularity point-area or small circle”. The gravity force of the black hole is so
intense that not even light can escape. When the temperature and pressures
reach high levels, an explosion occurs, debris, radiation, particles, etc. are ejected
and new stars and galaxies are formed. Our current Universe continues to expand
and grow. The black hole in the center of the Milky Way is about 4 Million times
more massive than our Sun and is about 10 thousand times larger. Note: Black holes are
formed when large Stars expand and explode and due to gravity and less pressure, fallback (implode) and become massive. The
Universe is large with a radius about 13.7 billion times 6 trillion miles or about 13.7 x 10^9 x 6 x 10^12 or about 1.6x10^23 miles.
The U.S. has several new satellites in orbit (i.e. Kepler and Spitzer) and more
planned (SIM, Planet Finder, James Webb Telescope, etc.) to search for Earth-Like
Planets or Moons in our Milky Way; the authors predict that several will be found
which have a magnetic field, atmosphere, and the climate conditions to support
life and will be visited (unmanned) within this century when we will be able to
travel faster and further in space with Ion/nuclear engines, magneto-plasma,
Solar Wind, and others as they are developed. Note: Large ground based telescopes and NASA spacecraft’s
(Hubble and Kepler) have found (as of Nov 30, 2011) over 1,200 NEW planets in our 12 billion year old Milky Way Galaxy and many more soon.
The U.S. has been sending radio waves/messages for 50 years; it will take 25,000 years for them to reach the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.
4.) OVERVIEW OF OUR EARTH IN THE LAST 3.5 BILLION YEARS
About one billion years ago when the Earth was about 3.5 billion years old, it is
stated that the earth began to cool down. While it was very hot on the surface,
the earth’s gravity kept the vaporized water from escaping the atmosphere. As
the earth began to cool down, the water/rain began to cover the earth’s surface.
It was a green earth at first due to the water mixing with various forms of metals.
Since water was probably available on the earth since its formation, asteroid and
comet impacts brought more water and initially the earth’s surface was almost
completely covered with water. The heavy radioactive elements near the center
of the earth kept the center of the earth’s core very hot but the surface was
beginning to cool and the earth was said to be a “green planet” instead of “blue
planet” at this time due to the color of the surface water. View early earth:
http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/12/early-earth/video-interactive (14),
Near asteroids (click, select What): http://users.tricity.wsu.edu/~hudson/Research/Asteroids/index.htm
3.4 Billion years ago: Volcanoes began to erupt in Southern Africa and formed
land and mountains. The African continent began to form as part of the earth’s
crust. One by one other continent’s began to form due to volcanic action. p6
3.3 Billion years ago: Stromatolites (micro organisms) were found around the p7
beaches of the continents and were said to have begun producing oxygen by
Photosynthesis as well as micro’s in our Oceans. The earth’s water was now
turning an “orange color” due to iron and oxygen reactions (oxygenation).

2.5 Billion years ago: The stromatolites and sunlight reactions were producing
oxygen. Forms of life both under the ocean and above the land were beginning to
take place and the organisms were the building blocks of life for both plants and
animals. The oxygen levels began to rise and oxygen began to replace the carbon
dioxide (caused by volcanogenic action) in the atmosphere and in the oceans. The
continents had grown larger but were still separated by oceans of water and it
appears that the first “snow ball earth” soon occurred with lots of methane gases.

1.5 Billion years ago: Lava was produced when the earth’s internal heated
molded rock and its heavy flow and circulation began. As the lava pushed upward
it opened /separated the earth’s crust and the downward movements of the hot
molded materials began to cause the earth’s crust to close together, then plate
tectonics began. The internal circulation patterns of the hot molten materials
then formed large cracks and caused all of the continents to eventually collide
and merge as one large section above the oceans. Ocean life, land life, plants and
water life began to flourish as oxygen levels in the oceans and on and above the
land began to increase; the oceans and sky were turning to blue colors.

700 Million years ago: Due to the heavy volcanic actions and plate tectonic
motions, ash clouds began to form in the atmosphere blocking the sunlight and
cooling the earth. The Polar Regions began to enlarge and eventually the earth
became a “snow ball earth” again. The result was mass extinctions of plants,
animals, and sea life on the Earth’s surface and in most cases under the oceans.

650 Million years ago: Again, thanks to the internal heat of the earth and the
heavy pressures, older cracks under the sea and earth’s crust, and heavy volcanic
actions “saved the day” and began to melt the large ice sheets and produced a
greenhouse effect again. After millions of years the cycle repeated itself as in the
above paragraphs and the continents began to split apart.

500 Million years ago: High oxygen levels returned and forms of life began again.
450 Million years ago: A gamma ray burst may have destroyed life again on Earth.
400 Million years ago: Ozone layers formed above the earth to block out the UV
rays and oxygen levels began to reach today’s levels. Plant and sea life began to
form again.

300 Million years ago: Due to tectonic plate motions and continued volcanic
eruptions, the landmass combined again to form several large land masses and
tall mountain ridges due to the crashing and buckling of two or more tectonic
plates. Note: Due to the decay of plant life, temperature changes and pressure
changes, the carbon materials decaying in fresh waters produced large qualities
of fossil fuels such coal on land and oil and gas under the oceans.

250 Million years ago: With possibly an Asteroid and the Siberia volcanic actions
of hot and heavy materials on the earth’s surface and clouds of ashes caused
mass extinctions again, and resulted in the lost of about 95% of all plant and
ocean life. http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/Pangaea_game.html (2)

240 Million years ago: After the “dust settled” and the oxygen and carbon dioxide
levels began to rise, ocean and land life formed again, this time larger due to the
higher oxygen levels. Thus began the “Dinosaur Age”. View (3) below:
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/Contdrift.shtml

180 Million years ago: Again, due to the continual heavy volcanic eruptions and
tectonic plate motions, the continents began to separate again, carrying
dinosaurs, etc. with them. Dinosaur bones are found in all continents. Also, lots
of gold and diamonds were produced underground from the very hot Volcanoes.

100 Million years ago: Due to the high level of oxygen and large growth of plants
available to feed the dinosaurs, etc., the dinosaurs grew even larger.

65 Million years ago: Due to a large asteroid (about 6 miles long) landing off the
east coast of Mexico and a large volcanic action taking place about the same time
in India, the earth had another mass extinction which killed off most of the large
animals on the surface of the earth. Is it possible that the asteroid impact force
was transferred through the earth and caused the India volcanic eruption?
Note: This 6 mile asteroid is said to be over one million times more powerful than the atomic bombs dropped over Japan.
55 Million years ago: The India and Asia tectonic plates collided to form the
Himalaya Mountains; India moved North liked it was on a “conveyor belt”.
35 Million years ago: A large asteroid crashed into the Chesapeake Bay Area. p8
2 Million years ago: After many millions of years, of the “dust settling again”,
mammals, ocean, and land life began to arrive due to evolutionary and mating
processes. Humans may have first developed in Africa and spread from continent
to continent and had to deal with several more Ice Ages, Volcanic Eruptions,
Asteroids Impacts, etc. During ice ages, large glaciers advanced and ocean levels
lowered, land/coastal areas increased; during global warming glaciers melted and
coastal land was lost: http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/iceage/timeline.html
Earth currently has 7 continents, almost 200 countries, and about 7 Billion people.
SUMMARY STATEMENTS:
VOLCANOES CAN FORM UNDER OCEANS OR ON LAND. VOLCANOES CAN CAUSE LAND BUILDUP REACHING ABOVE THE OCEANS
NEAR FAULT LINES/INTERSECTING TECTONIC PLATES SUCH AS HAWIAN ISLANDS, NEW ZELAND, ICELAND, AND MANY OTHERS.

MOUNTAINS WERE FORMED FROM CRASHING/BUCKELING OF TECTONIC PLATES (i.e. APPALACHIANS AND HIMALAYAS, ETC.)
AND FROM VERY LARGE/TALL MOVING ICE SHEETS SCRAPING UP THE GROUND DURING ICE AGES (i.e. GRAND CANYON).

VOLCANOES CAN CAUSE GLOBAL COOLING WITH VOLCANIC ASHES BLOCKING THE SUN, RESULTING IN MAJOR PROBLEMS, i.e.
YEAR WITHOUT A SUMMER IN THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AROUND YEAR 1815. HURRICANES CAN PRODUCE TORNADOES.

VOLCANOES CAN CAUSE GLOBAL WARMINGWHICH RESTORES LIFE DURING ICE AGES AND COULD ALSO AFFECT LIVING
CONDITIONS i.e. LITTLE ICE AGE IN EUROPE ABOUT YEARS 1350 TO 1820

EARTH’S INNER LAYERS ARE STILL HOT AND CAN CAUSE VOLCANIC ACTIONS, INDUCE TECTONIC PLATE MOTIONS, AND IGNITE
COAL UNDER GROUND WHICH RELEASES METHANE GASES IN THE ATMOSPHERE

EARTHQUAKES CAN EXCITE VOLCANOES AND VOLCANOES CAN EXCITE EARTHQUAKES. EARTHQUAKES AND VOLCANOES CAN
CAUSE HYDROLOGIC “GRAVITY-WATER WAVES” (TSUNAMIS) WHICH COULD AFFECT LIVING CONDITIONS NEAR COASTAL AREAS

IN 1908, A COMET CHANGED TO A STONEY ASTEROID WAS THOUGHT TO HAVE EXPLODED IN THE SKY ABOVE THE EARTH OVER TUNGUSTGA,
SIBERIA, RUSSIA IN A NON-POPULATED AREA; IF THAT OBJECT WOULD HAVE EXPLODED OVER NEW YORK CITY, THE ENTIRECITY WOULD HAVE
BEEN DESTROYED. About 13,000 years ago a 3 mile wide asteroid/comet may have exploded over the U.S. and destroyed most of life, humans,
plants, etc. and could have resulted in causing global problems within several days affecting the earth’s climate and lasted for many years.

SOME METERORITES WHICH CRASHED ON EARTH BROUGHT “LIFE SEEDS” WHICH HAVE THE “RIGHT STUFFTO GROW LIFE” IF
THE CONDITIONS ARE RIGHT. Earth rotates at the equator about 1,040 miles/hr and orbits the Sun about 66,600 miles/hr.

DAMS/RESERVOIRS CAN TRIGGER EARTHQUAKES/TSUNAMIS AND CAUSE LANDSLIDES PENDING WATER PRESSURE AND
STABILTIY OF THE SURROUNDING LAND. ALSO, EXPLOSIONS FROM MINING OPERATIONS CAN TRIGGER EARTHQUAKES AS
WATER AND SOIL MOVE UNDERGROUND, I.E. SOUTHEAST AUSTRALIA.

LARGE METHANE HYDRATES CRYSTAL BALLS CAN FORM UNDER THE OCEAN DURING ICE AGES AND UNDER HIGH PRESSURES
EXPLODE LIKE VOLCANOES AND ASSIST IN GLOBAL WARNING. HURRICANES CAN PRODUCE TORNADOES.

OXYGEN IS MAINLY PRODUCED ON EARTH FROM INTERACTIONS OF THE SUN’S ENERGY AND CARBON DIOXIDE AND WATER
WITH: 1.) ORGANISMS IN THE OCEANS, AND 2.) PLANTS AND TREES ON LAND.

THE SOUTH POLE ROTATION IS THE “ENGINE” WHICH CREATES THE EARTHS CIRCULATION FOR THE OCEAN CONVEYOR BELTS.

ASTEROIDS WHICH MISS CRASHING INTO EARTH COULD EITHER: 1.) PASS ON THRU OUR SOLAR SYSTEM, 2.) DUE TO EARTHS
GRAVITY COULD BE TOSSED OUT INTO OUTER SPACE (LIKE THE ONE JUNE 27, 2011), 3.) COULD BE “CAPTURED” BY THE EARTHS
GRAVITY AND ORBIT AS OUR SECOND MOON UNTIL IT EITHER BURNS UP IN OUR ATMOSPHERE OR CRASHES INTO OUR EARTH.
In each of the three cases above, an asteroid could possibly damage earth orbiting-satellites and/or the International Space Station. There
are over 600,00 objects (19,000 tracked by NORAD) orbiting earth about 40 to 22,000 miles of new and old satellites, pieces of space junk, etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_debris . Note: There are about 10 times more Volcanoes on Venus than on earth. Venus, the hottest
greenhouse planet, has mostly rivers of hot lava instead of water; Venus’s rain is sulfuric acid instead of water like on earth. p9
5.) EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
When the earth was first formed over 4.5 billion years ago, heavy hot materials
such as iron and nickel, radioactive elements, etc. settled near the center of the
earth. It took many years for the earth’s surface to cool down to what it is today,
but the inner parts of the earth remain very hot and active, heated by various
radioactive materials. The earth is an “active planet” and Moon, Mars, and Venus
have mostly inactive magnetic fields. Venus’ very slow spin is probably the reason,
and Mars does not appear to have an active hot inner core but has some irregular
magnetic areas; the Moon has a very weak magnetic field.

Most scientists believe that the Moon was originally formed as a planet in a
similar orbit as the earth’s orbit and collided with the earth. After many years it
became the earth’s moon, causing the earth to tilt about 23 degrees from the
Sun-Earth elliptic plane. The moon has stabilized the earth’s orbital spin system.
Without the moon, the earth would just spin at random and might not have ice
caps. Due to the gravity of the Sun and Moon, the earth precesses and wobbles as
it orbits the Sun. The precession rate is about one degree per 72 years which
results in a full cycle of about 26,000 years. Some scientists, including the authors,
believe that this has a big affect on global warming and the last ten or so ice ages.
The last ice-age problem ended about 14,000 years ago. Watch sun, moon, and
earth at: http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/begin/earthsunmoon.htm (27)

As the earth spins (west to east) and rotates and reacts with the Sun’s magnetic
fields, etc. the hot liquid parts of the earth’s inner core excite the electrons and
produce convection currents, which in turn, produce circulating columns of
convection currents (generator action will be discussed in Appendix, Part 3),
which then generates most of the earth’s magnetic fields. The combined effect of
this motor turning action and generator action is called the “Dynamo Effect”.

The Geographic North pole is currently the magnetic South pole tilted about 11
degrees from the vertical alignment of the earth. So the North Pole of the
compass needle points to the current North Pole of the earth since unlike
magnetic poles attracts. There have been about 171 magnetic pole reversals in
the last 71 million years as found from evaluating the imbedded “magnetic
fossils” around the earth at different layers of the earth’s crust. The last magnetic
field pole reversal was over 750,000 years ago. We do not yet know what effects
this will have on earth and the environment when the next reversal occurs; p10
there are now signs that certain areas around the earth have no magnetic fields
and some areas have already begun to have reversals. The earth’s magnetic field
strength has decreased by about 10% and appears to be heading for another
reversal. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magearth.html
(15). The earth’s magnetic field shields and protects the earth, humans, power
systems, etc. from solar activity and outer space cosmic radiation by deflecting,
interacting, and blocking of the particles and solar flares, etc. During the next
magnetic field reversal, for some time we may not have a strong enough magnetic
field for protection until the reversal stabilizes. Now when some satellites fly over
certain areas of the earth, they are powered down to minimize spacecraft system
and component damage (i.e. South America anomaly where the earth’s magnetic
field is diminished in Space near satellite orbits, allowing protons, etc. to affect
S/C instruments). Gamma rays and x-rays from extreme solar activity can wipe
out a multi-million spacecraft and shut down electric power grids; humans,
animals, and birds, etc. could be impacted and volcanic eruptions could also affect
the magnetic field system and excite or be excited by earthquakes.
http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/magnetic.html (17)

The inner solid core of the earth is about 4,300 degrees centigrade, made mostly
of iron and is about the size of our Moon. The outer core is about 3,700 degrees
centigrade, mainly of liquid iron and is about the size of Mars. The mantle is solid
to plastic and is about 1,000 degrees centigrade, containing various types of
elements; heat from radioactive decay of some of the elements supplies the heat
to the inside of the earth. The earth’s crust is about 20 miles thick and there are
14 large ocean and land plates which are in constant motion. Some ocean plates
move under the land plates and move lots of water down into the outer earth’s
core. It has been stated that more water is under the earth’s crust then exists
above the earth’s crusts in all of the earth oceans. Due to the earth’s crusts being
brittle and the continuous moving of the earth’s plates, friction between adjacent
plates could ignite the hot liquid, gases, and magna sending hot lava and acid
gases, etc. up to the earth’s top layers and could result in volcanic activity
emptying lava, gases, and hot ashes into our atmosphere and onto our land.
http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm (16) and (53) below:
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Magnetosphere.shtml

The Bermuda Triangle (south east of Florida) and the Dragon Triangle (south east of Japan) have exhibit
very strange magnetic anomalies in the past and since they are at opposite ends of the earth, who
knows?, they may be some way connected internally inside the earth. p11
6.) VOLCANOES p12

Most of the active volcanoes can be found near the cracks or interface points
along the edges of the tectonic plates and many are still active both on land and
under the oceans. View the website below:
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanoes&FORM=IGRE&qpvt=volcanoes# (32)
The inner core heats the rocks below the surface of the earth into hot molten
magma many miles below the surface which rises and as gas pressures build up
can lead to an eruption of the Volcano. When it erupts, either hot lava and/or
volcanic ashes could be ejected and could result in major problems to the
environment, climate, and even loss of life. There are volcanoes which have for
years been covered with heavy ice and when the ice melts, the volcano could
begin to grow and become more active. Volcanoes can be either active, dormant
(expected to go active in the near future), or could become extinct (have no sign
of erupting again). View: http://www.crystalinks.com/rof.html (13). Also view the Ring
of Fire Volcanoes located in the Pacific Area: http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/infopage/ringfire.htm .
Over the past many years, several volcanoes have erupted and could have caused mass
extinctions of plants, animals, and sea life. Several have caused damage to the surrounding
homes and property and even resulted in loss of life. However volcanic eruptions can be a good
thing for during several past ice ages they melted the ice and restarted the earth’s plant and
animal life cycle. The Krakatau’s Volcano in Indonesia has erupted several times and has caused
a major impact in the surrounding areas and resulted in loss of life and displacement of
humans. In 2010 when an Iceland Volcano erupted and threw tons of ash into the clouds, many
surrounding airports had to shut down since the ashes can stop the airplanes jet engines. View
various Volcanoes, etc. at: http://standeyo.com/Geo_Solar/Geophysics.html#Oceanographic .

When the inner earth heats up, water under volcano and hot steam (geysers) can
be formed due to high pressures underground, such as found in Yellowstone
National Park in Wyoming. Geothermal steam and hot water are potential power
sources to turn turbines/generators. Iceland sits on top of an active volcano in the
Atlantic Ridge. Much of the land masses were formed by volcanoes and continue
today. http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/ (11)
Volcanoes can sometimes erupt and blow out sides of their mountains which
could slide into towns or nearby oceans causing ocean waves to move outward
producing large gravity waves called tsunamis. Tsunami waves travel several
hundreds of miles per hour and can cause major problems in nearby coastal areas
and even travel thousands of miles away across oceans, i.e. from Africa to the U.S.
7.) EARTHQUAKES AND WATER-GRAVITY WAVES (TSUNAMIES) p13

Like volcanoes, many earthquakes can occur near the cracks (fault lines)
of the tectonic plates and even as deep as ten miles in the ocean. As
the plates move against each other or move over or under each other,
forces/pressure can buildup and quickly release lots of pressure and
cause rock/ground forces to move earth materials resulting in major
property damages and even major loss of life. The Richter scale has
been adopted to assign strength to earthquakes, i.e., one to ten, where
one is lowest earthquake activity with ten being the highest and very
dangerous to be in the area. The San Francisco earthquake in 1906 was
assigned an 8.3 which caused major damage to buildings and killed
many humans. In 2010, in the Maryland-DC-VA area we had a 3.6 earthquake which did not cause any damage but
scared a lot of people; the 5.8 earthquake in Aug. 23, 2011, caused minor damages in the East Coast, but there were no known
deaths. The 2011 Japan earthquake was about 9.0 killing/relocating lots of people due to 95 foot tsunami waves.

Earthquakes can also cause tsunami waves similar to volcanoes as

happened deep in the ocean ridges near Indonesia in 2004. The U.S.
and other countries now monitor for both earthquakes and tsunamis.
Shock waves generated by earthquakes are picked up and monitored
by seismographs to estimate the amount of energy released by an
earthquake. Many ocean buoys are placed in the oceans and monitor
for vertical wave motions using satellites in an attempt to monitor and
detect tsunamis. View 2011 Japan Earthquake/Tsunami photos:
http://www.abc.net.au/news/events/japan-quake-2011/beforeafter.htm

It may be possible? that the earth’s outer layers above the hot molten
rock could contain chunks of “large magnetic rocks” near the cooler
crust, like uncrushed lumps-of-potatoes in a mixing bowl while one is
making “mashed potatoes”. These chunks could act like magnetic force
objects attacking/repelling each other as they swirl around and bang up
against the earth’s crust, causing some of the earthquakes. This theory
is documented by one of the authors and has not yet been proven.
8.) AIRFLOW JET STREAMS AND OCEAN CURRENTS p14
a.) AIRFOW JET STREAMS
Our Sun’s heat energy transforms some of its energy into wind energy
and as the earth rotates and spins from West to East, it pulls and drags
the air masses and Clouds and due to the high pressure near the North
Pole, the winds are always in motion. Winds flow from high pressure to
lower pressure areas and move eastward over the U.S. where two or
three streams of separate Jet Airflows can occur at the same time. In
the southern part of the U.S. , hot air and winds (during the summer
season) move northward over Texas and Louisiana and when the lower
eastward jet stream moves through the vertical air flow from the
south, tornadoes can form over Texas to Kansas, and nearby areas.
View at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream (25)
b.) OCEAN CURRENTS
The major ocean currents are in constant motion and are stirred up
by the ocean conveyor belts. The warm water from the equator moves
toward the north cold water, and since the cold water is heavier than
warm water; the cold water travels under the oceans as the warm
water travels near the top layers, producing the conveyor belt, see:
http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/545.html (23).
If global warming continues and glaciers melt, this could have a major
impact on sea surface temperatures and the earth’s environment. If the
conveyor belt were to shut down near the glaciers, it could result in
cooling northern regions and heating up the ocean’s waters in the
southern regions. This can increase hurricane strengths due to more
warm water fueling the hurricanes. Heavy rains could then begin to
wash out the carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere. If the
conveyor belt is shut down and air/ocean temperatures drop, glaciers
increase in size, the huge white ice surface area reflects the sun’s heat
away from the earth (called the Albedo effect) and with lower levels of
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, the earth’s temperature drops
and the earth could go into another Ice Age in a very short time frame.
Note: Vortexes in jet streams near the Polar Regions during winter months like in 2010/2011 can really change winter weather
patterns; also, “warm water ring” vortexes under the oceans, stirred up by the conveyor belts, can fuel hurricanes.
9.) TORNADOES AND HURRICANES p15
a.) TORNADOES
As discussed above, high winds in conjunction with clouds can cause
the clouds to pull together. As the hot air rises from the bottom to the
top of cloud layers, the clouds began to swirl and spin, the momentum
increases (like a slow spinning ice skater bringing their arms in to spin
faster) clouds get closer, tornadoes are formed. This same effect can
cause “waterspouts” over large water areas. http://goes.gsfc.nasa.gov/
(9). Tornadoes are rated by Fujita Scale from F0 to F6, with F6 being the
worst. GOES(Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites), in
conjunction with the National Weather Service Radar Systems detect,
locate, track, and monitor both tornadoes and hurricanes and attempt
to predict their paths to alert the public to take proper precautions.
April 2011 was a record breaking month/year in the U.S. for tornadoes with over
700 resulting in billions of dollars in property damage and many lives were lost.
Note: Cosmic Rays/particles from outer space may be the major ignition force of lightning in our clouds
and who knows? They could be a contributor to some of our migraine headaches.

b.) HURRICANES
The earth’s rotational speed is highest at the equator (about 1,040 miles per
hour) and is lower in the Northern Hemisphere and this effect, called the Coriolis
Effect, tends to produce counter clockwise air/cloud circulation. Most of the U.S.
hurricanes are formed off the coast of Africa due to both the high westerly winds
(called Trade Winds) coming off Africa and the high sea surface temperature in
the summer months. Global sea surface temperatures have been rising over the
past 50 years and this appears to have increased the number and size of
hurricanes. Hurricanes (also called cyclones and typhoons) are rated from one to
five categories. Higher number is more in strength then the preceding number.
Hurricane Katrina was a category 5 which caused major damage in the Southern
United States: view: http://rsd.gsfc.nasa.gov/rsd/images/.
Note: Planets Venus and Jupiter have hurricanes from hot winds and gases due to the Coriolis Effect. Venus may have micro life in clouds like
those found on earth near hot springs and under the oceans. Venus rotates opposite of the other planets and was probably due to an earlier
impact with other planets/asteroids. Saturn’s moon Titon has lakes of liquid methane gas. Our Solar System (Sun, Planets, etc) orbits the
Milky Way Galaxy at about 500,000 miles per hour and it takes about 230 Million earth years to make one completed orbit of the galaxy. Our
Sun is over 4.6 billion years old and rotates about once every 28 days with Solar Cycles about every 11 years: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun
10.) ASTEROIDS AND COMETS p16
a.) ASTEROID BELT: There are millions of asteroids orbiting the Sun in orbits
between Mars and Jupiter (called the Asteroid Belt). Thousands of larger
asteroids are being monitored and cataloged and hundreds of them could be
in near-earth crossing orbits, which are the current main concerns of
earthlings. view: http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov : http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/nhats/ . There are about
500 even larger earth orbit- crossing asteroids currently identified and being
monitored with many more to locate and monitor. A 900 foot Asteroid will
pass within 20,000 miles of the Earth in 2029 and if that asteroid comes within
a certain area(called keyhole, where earth’s gravity changes the asteroids
orbit for its next pass), then it would crash into the Earth in about 2036 during
that orbit. Several methods of deflecting the asteroid are being studied such
as: nuclear blasts, gravity pulling with heavy spacecraft, Sun-mirror-
amplification burning of large holes in asteroid for jetting it away, etc. View:
http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2005/13may_2004mn4/ :
A large comet (Shoemaker-Levy 9) crashed into Jupiter (took the hit instead of
Earth) on July 16, 1994. The comet/asteroid was broken into about 21 large
pieces by Jupiter’s gravity force and its atmosphere, and was the first time
earthlings viewed an object crashing into another planet. It was monitored by
the Hubble Spacecraft as pieces began crashing into Jupiter. Also, the U.S. was
the first to land a spacecraft (NEAR-Shoemaker) on an asteroid in 2001. Due to
Jupiter’s gravity affecting orbiting asteroids, they occasionally bump or collide
into each other; then debris can be sent out at all angles from the collision
impacts. In 2008, an asteroid(one too small to find with normal telescope
searching), was spotted (about the size of a school bus) by an astronomer just
looking out into space and noticed that this asteroid was only about 24 hours
away from crashing into the earth. So the astronomer asked others to confirm
his finding and they determined it would indeed strike the earth somewhere in
a desert near Asia. It broke up into many pieces and school kids were assigned
to walk in the desert for a couple of days, picking up about 20 small pieces of
“meteorites” from the asteroid. Note: In the near future, NASA is planning to put a satellite in orbit near planet Venus to look back on Earth to
search for possible incoming asteroids or comets. In 1985 an asteroid missed the earth by about 15 minutes; the asteroid in 2011 missed the earth about 7 minutes.
View Astronomical Sites at: http://standeyo.com/Astro/astronomical.html . We may see an asteroid crash into Mars: http://www.solstation.com/stars/ast2belt.gif

b.) COMETS: There are millions of comets currently orbiting the Sun outside of
planet Neptune near the region of Pluto (the Kuiper Belt) and the Oort Cloud.
Comets are basically “ice like asteroids” and when they reach the vicinity of the
Sun, we can see the water vapor melting from the comet due to the reflection of
the sun light off the comets trailing areas, called the comet’s tail which points
away from the sun. Haley’s Comet takes about 76 years or so to make one orbit
around the Sun. In 2005 two U.S. spacecraft were sent to a comet. Deep Impact
sent a probe to impact the comet to study its orbit/composition, while Star Dust
intercepted a comet and sent a capsule of collected dust and particles back to the
earth for scientists to analyze. They discovered that microbes and other living
materials were inside comets. Comets are believed to have brought much of the
earth’s water and may have brought the building blocks of life to earth i.e., “life
seeds” (amino acids). Comets occasionally get pulled out of orbit, similar to the
asteroids, and go into long elliptical orbits around the sun like Haley’s Comet and
Haley-Bop Comet. http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Comets (67).
In 2015 a NASA spacecraft (named NEW HORIZON) will reach the Kuiper Belt to study the various Comets, Pluto, Eris, and other dwarf planets.
NASA Rosetta Spacecraft will land on a comet around 2014. View comet orbiting our Sun: http://www.ewart.org.uk/physics/index.php?l=61
c.)General Comments: The earth receives over 25 tons of asteroid or comet
debris daily and the earth continues to be reshaped and resized; they also bring
to earth valuable resources such as water and minerals. Our earth is bombarded
everyday with pieces of meteoroids (called meteorites when they hit the earth)
along with one basketball size per week and one car size per six months. In
addition, the earth is penetrated with cosmic rays, photon’s (light particles from
the Sun), UV rays, etc.; our atmosphere shields the earth from most of this stuff.
At night one can see some of the asteroids (meteorites) burning up since they get
very hot and breakup or dissolve by the time they reach the earth. Occasionally
large pieces still manage to penetrate through the Earth’s atmosphere. In early
2010, a basketball-size meteorite went through a house roof in Virginia. In about
2025, the U.S. may send astronauts to an asteroid to study it up closer, so that in
the future, we might be able to determine the best way or methods to either
destroy or deflect those asteroids which may be a threat to our earth. In July 2011, a NASA
spacecraft named DAWN started to orbit around a large asteroid (350 miles wide) and later will be moved to orbit/study the largest asteroid.
11.) SOLAR FLARES AND SOLAR WINDS
The earth’s outer magnetic fields protect humans from high solar activity and
space radiation. Occasionally in high solar activity and when sun spots are in
direct line of sight, highly charged particles and solar flares, etc. can penetrate the
earth’s magnetic field and damage power lines and energy systems, like in 1989.
Astronauts must take cover and some critical components in satellites need to be
turned off so they do not get damaged. Corona Mass Ejections (CME), like in 1859,
are rare but are considered the most dangerous solar flare events which could
grossly affect our earth; CME’s are like EMP (electro-magnetic pulse) from
exploding nuclear bombs and could damage earth’s electronic computers,
satellites, power systems, etc. Websites provide overview of our Sun’s activity:
http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/primer/primer.html (68); http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml(69) p17
12.) CLIMATE CONSIDERATIONS p18
The earth has been warming over the past 50 years. Due to human produced air
pollution, the ozone levels over the South Pole area getting thinner, allowing for
more Ultra Violet sun rays to pass through. Carbon dioxide and other gas levels
have increased due to our use of fossil fuels (coal burning, gas, and oil uses).
These gases in the atmosphere are blocking the reflection of sunlight from the
earth surfaces since reflections off the ice sheets and snow results in the earth
warming, called the greenhouse effect. Some amount of greenhouse is good to
prevent the earth from over cooling and becoming an Ice Age, so we need to try
to keep a balance. By using more solar, wind, and nuclear power plants, we could
help to balance this global warming process. Planting more trees and continuing
to preserve the forest and parklands will help to absorb more carbon dioxide.
http://breathingearth.net/ (40); http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/stories/nojs.html (44)
It appears from recent research efforts that the carbon dioxide in the ice, in the polar ice regions, during ice melting phases may be raising in
the atmosphere instead of dropping in the oceans to produce oxygen; this will increase the Green House Global Warming problem, and this
also could affect the Ocean Conveyor belt system. Materials will soon be made which will absorb lots of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
View current Threat Watch at: http://standeyo.com/Earth_Changes/Threat.Watch.html .

13.) EARTH ORBITING SATELLITES FOR GLOBAL MONITORING

The U.S. has many satellites in orbit for both research and operations to study our
earth and its environment. They monitor our earth to provide early warnings in
the advent of potential major problems. The U.S. has weather satellites in polar
orbits and geostationary orbits (some 22,000 thousand miles above the U.S. area)
and satellites positioned about 1.0 % of the distance between the Sun and Earth
(L1 point) to monitor solar activity. In addition, U.S. satellites monitor sea surface
temperatures, tectonic plate movements, heights of ocean waters for Tsunamis
detection, volcanic mountain changes and many other environmental science
data. http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/ (19) monitoring Tsunamis from satellites.
http://www.noaa.gov/satellites.html(70), satellite orbit monitor positions:
http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wlagran.html (71)
There are over 24 U.S. Global Positioning Satellites (GPS) orbiting the earth in
various orbits to provide location information. The user has a GPS receiver which
picks up at least three signal waves from four of the nearest GPS satellites and its
computer stores the precise time of arrival of each of the signals. Using the orbit
information of each satellite provides the user or system with its current location
to a very high accuracy. The GPS platforms also monitor for all kinds of potential
disasters. GPS systems are placed on sea buoys, tectonic plates and volcanoes to
monitor their activity and on animals, birds, etc. to monitor their motions and
environment, and on weather balloons to monitor environmental data, etc.
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html (73)
14.) GODS SYSTEM –GLOBAL OPERATIONAL DISASTER SYTEM- p19
RECOMMENDATION TO IMPROVE HEALTH AND SAFETY
The U.S., in agreement with other countries, should develop and
operate about 9 Global Operational Disaster Systems located near or
above the equator and separated by about 40 degrees east-west to
cover the complete earth to provide quick reaction response to
upcoming global disasters such as major volcanic eruptions, tsunamis,
major earthquakes, major hurricanes, and major space debris such as
the faulty earth orbiting satellite, recently shot down by the U.S. Navy.
Smaller incoming asteroids could be tracked and shot down; larger
asteroids and comets may need to be deflected by other means. It
would seem to the authors that volcanic ash could be vacuumed and
dispersed similar to the oil cleanup in the recent Gulf oil disaster. We
need to be better prepared to cope with upcoming major disasters.
15.) NEAR FUTURE CONCERNS
The author’s main concerns at this time is possibility of major earth-
quakes followed by tsunamis in the West Coast areas and Alaska and
the possibility of high volcanic activity in the Yellowstone National Park
area and other U.S. Northwest areas due to the current active status
and past eruptions and earthquakes. Also the short term and long term
effects of the next magnetic field reversal is of concern; the earth’s
magnetic field acts as a shield to protect us and we have no recent
experience with magnetic field reversals. In 2012/13 the 11-year solar
cycle may peak, the Sun may “eclipse” with the center of our galaxy
(which occurs every 26,000 years or so); the electro-magnetic centers
of the galaxy, sun, and earth will be in direct alignment. Our biggest
concern should be the rising of the earth’s temperature, which melts
glaciers and results in rising sea levels. This could cause severe weather
and flooding and could displace many humans living in or near coastal
regions. Movements of sea water bouncing up and down over the
tectonic plates could also excite earthquakes and activate volcanoes
and affect the overall weather conditions and climate. We need to
improve on balancing the Earth’s climate and prepare for disasters.
APPENDIX (Part 1) – Information below will be helpful to Students p20
“Dimensional Analysis” can be used in understanding equations
Example 1: If a car is moving at 60 miles per hour, find its rate in feet/sec.
Want feet > 60 miles = 60 miles X 1 hour = 1 mile
second Hour hour 60 minutes minute

1 mile = 1 mile X 5,280 feet X 1 minute = 5,280 feet = 88 feet

minute minute mile 60 seconds 60 second second

Example 2:
If a car is moving at 45 miles per hour, what distance will it travel in 2.5 hours?
We want miles > 45 miles X 2.5 hours = 112.5 miles
in numerator hour

Example 3:
How much time will it take one to travel 90 miles at 45 miles per hour?
We want hours> 1 hour X 90 miles = 2 hours
In numerator 45 miles

Example 4:
If a football player can run 100 yards in 9 seconds, what is the speed in miles per
hour?
want miles> 100 yards X 1mile X 3 feet X 60seconds X 60 minutes =
hour 9 seconds 5,280 feet yard minute hour

100 X 3 X 60 X 60 miles = 22.7 miles/hour

9 X 5,280 hour

Example 5: A 10 kilometer (10km) long asteroid, landing in the Gulf of Mexico

Area about 65 million years ago, may have been responsible for killing off the
Dinosaurs. How long was the asteroid in miles? Note: 1 meter = 39.37 inches.
10km =10 x 1000 x meters x 39.37 inches x 1 foot x 1 mile = 6.21 miles
1 meter 12 inches 5,280 feet

Example 6: Seventy two pints are how many gallons?

Want gallons> 72 pints x 1 quart x 1 gallon = 72 gallons = 9 gallons
2 pints 4 quarts 2x4
 CONCEPT OF ACRES OF LAND p21

A.) IF a football field is 48 yards wide and 100 yards long, approximately how
many acres is the football field? Note: 1 acre is 43,560 sqft (approx 44,000)

football field = ( 48 yards X 3feet X 100 yards X 3 feet )

yard yard

= 48 x 3 feet x 100 x 3 feet = 43,200 ftft = 43,200 square ft

football field = 43,200 ftft x 1 acre = 0.992 acres or about 1 acre

43,560 ftft

So, the concept of the “size of an acre” is about the same size of the “playing
area” of a football field!

B.) If a housing developer wanted to build houses on one acre of land and is
permitted by the county to have 5,400 sqft lot sizes per home, how many homes
can be built on one acre?

Homes = home X lot X 43,500 ftft = 8 homes(approx)

acre lot 5,400 ftft acre acre

C.) How many acres in a square mile? We want acres/square mile, so:
Acres > 1 Acre X 5,280 ft X 5,280 ft = 640 Acres
Mile x Mile 43,560 ft x ft mile mile square mile

See online calculators, metric, etc. at: www.metriccalculator.com (36)

VIEW A GREAT MATH-SCIENCE WEBSITE AT: www.khanacademy.org

SAMPLE WORD PROBLEMS p22
A.)If a hamburger (H) and coke(C) costs $1.40 for seniors and the hamburger costs
$1.00 MORE than the coke, how much did the coke cost? Note: 2 unknowns
require 2 equations to solve this problem.

(1) H + C = 140 and (2) H = 100 + C, putting (2) into (1), yields

(100 + C) + C = 140, then 2C + 100 = 140, then 2C = 40, or C = 20 cents

and H = 120 cents from (2) H = 100 + 20 = 120 cents or $1.20

Which indicates that the hamburger costs $1.00 MORE than the coke, since the
coke (C) costs 20 cents and the hamburger(H) costs $1.20.

B.)When Grandfather’s (G) age was four times Angela’s (A) age and Angela’s age
was twice Leanne’s (L) age, and their combined age was 99, what were their ages?
Note: 3 unknowns require 3 equations to solve the problem.

(1) G = 4 x A (2) A = 2 x L (3) G + A + L = 99

Putting (1) and (2) L = A/2 into (3) yields (4 x A) + A + (A/2) = 99

So, 4A + A + A/2 = 5.5 A = 99, so A = 18 years

From (1) G = 4 X 18 = 72 years and (2), L = A/2 = 18/2 = 9 years

Grandfather’s age = 72 years, Angela’s age = 18 years, and Leanne’s age = 9 years
C.)I could not remember the equation to convert Fahrenheit degrees to Centigrade and vice versa but
I remembered these three readings: 1.) when F = 212 degrees, C= 100 degrees, 2.) when F=32 degrees,
C=0 degrees and 3.) and both are the same at -40 degrees (when F= -40 degrees, C=-40 degrees)
and they have a “linear” relationship with each other., ie y=m X + b, so we do the following below:
F = m C + b , 1.) 212 = m x 100 + b 2.) 32 = 0 + b (so, b= 32), 3.) -40 = -40m + 32 (so, m= 9/5)
Therefore, the conversion equations become F=9/5 C + 32 and therefore C= (F – 32) x 5/9
To view on-line graph, go to: www.webgraphing.com (38), at top select “graphing”, then “graphing
functions”, then “Basic Calculator”, at y= “type in” 9/5x+32 , select “graph it” , then type in
Xmin -50 xmax 50 ymin -50 ymax 110, scroll down and view graph. Use online calculator
converter to check several conversions (39): http://www.wbuf.noaa.gov/tempfc.htm

Note: Problems opening Fig1 thru Fig11 ?, try: http://www.kidsmathsciencedigitalbook.com/read.pdf

 “ BIG BANG TO CURRENT EARTH” WEBSITES AND LIBRARY REFERENCES p32

Fig 9 scale model acive link: http://www.co-intelligence.org/newsletter/comparisons.html

1 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Continents.shtml

2 http://kids.earth.nasa.gov/archive/pangaea/Pangaea_game.html

3 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/dinosaurs/glossary/Contdrift.shtml

4 http://www.pbs.org/deepspace/timeline/index.html

5 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hSZqhqR5XKM

6 http://www.solarviews.com/eng/tercrate.htm

7 http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/accretiond.html accretion disk, solar system

8 http://www.environmentalgraffiti.com/featured/10-greatest-major-impact-craters-on-earth/1403

9 http://goes.gsfc.nasa.gov/

10 http://www.hickerphoto.com/pictures-of-volcanoes-photos.htm

11 http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/

12 http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/region.cfm?rnum=18

13 http://www.crystalinks.com/rof.html

14 http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2006/12/early-earth/video-interactive early earth

15 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magearth.html

16 http://scign.jpl.nasa.gov/learn/plate1.htm

17 http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/magnetic.html

18 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9ygYqj4rVM watch Tsunami coming in

19 http://www.tsunami.noaa.gov/

20 http://www.museum.state.il.us/exhibits/ice_ags/

21 http://culter.colorado.edu/~saelias/glacier.html

22 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milankovitch_cycles#Earth.E2.80.99s_movements

23 http://www.enviroliteracy.org/article.php/545.html earth’s conveyor belts

24 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_variation solar cycle sunspots p33

25 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_stream jet streams

26 http://ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cyc/upa/jet.rxml

27 http://library.thinkquest.org/29033/begin/earthsunmoon.htm sun, moon, earth model

28 http://www.universetoday.com/guide-to-space/earth/gravity-of-the-earth/

29 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravitation

30 http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/iceage/timeline.html ice age time line

31 http://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/elnino/el-nino-story.html El Nino and La Nina

32 http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=volcanoes&FORM=IGRE&qpvt=volcanoes#

33 http://www.learner.org/resources/series42.html#program_descriptions Great Edc. Physics Videos

34 http://news.discovery.com/space/asteroid-life-origins.html

35 http://science.discovery.com/

36 www.metriccalculator.com

37 www.calculator.com

38 www.webgraphing.com

39 http://www.wbuf.noaa.gov/tempfc.htm

40 http://breathingearth.net

41 http://www.kidsastronomy.com/earth/moons.htm

42 http://www.historyoftheuniverse.com/tl1.html universe time line

43 http://www.divediscover.whoi.edu/iceage/timeline.html ice age time line

44 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/warnings/stories/nojs.html various “climate” data graphs

45 http://www.freemars.org/jeff/planets/planets5.htm

46 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/

47 http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/more_stuff/flashlets/kepler6.htm

48 http://mistupid.com/astronomy/orbits.htm
49 http://www.go-astronomy.com/planets/planet-moons.htm p34

50 http://burro.astr.cwru.edu/stu/advanced/index.html

51 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Asteroids

52 http://windows2universe.org/earth/Magnetosphere/overview.html

53 http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/planets/earth/Magnetosphere.shtml

54 http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magearth.html

55 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zazuzkO9nNk&feature=related

56 http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/earth/magnetic.html

57 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/megavolcano/blasts.html

58 http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/oilspill/index.html gulf oil spill from GSFC/NASA Satellites

59 http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm magnetic fields and forces

60 http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html atomic numbers and elements, etc.

61 http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/3-atoms.htm hydrogen and its isotopes

62 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vi91qyjuknM over view of the electron, proton, neutron, etc.

63 http://www.dinosauria.com/dml/maps.htm view recent- ancient earth-land mass changes

64 http://hubblesite.org/

65 http://cass.ucsd.edu/public/tutorial/MW.html

66 http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/space/solar-system

67 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/planets/profile.cfm?Object=Comets

68 http://www.swpc.noaa.gov/primer/primer.html

69 http://solarscience.msfc.nasa.gov/SolarWind.shtml

70 http://www.noaa.gov/satellites.html

71 http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wlagran.html

72 http://maps.nationalgeographic.com/maps/print-collection/milky-way.html Milky Way Map

73 http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps_f.html GPS System

 From Germantown MD Library (great references): p35

R1.)NUCLEUS- A TRIP INTO THE HEART OF MATTER BY

RAY MACKINTOSH, JIM AL-KHALILI, BOJORN HONSON AND TERESA PENA
R2.) THE WORLD OF ATOMS AND QUARKS BY ALBERT STEWERTKA
R3.) ONE UNIVERSE-AT HOME IN THE COSMOS BY
NEIL DEGRASSE TYSON, CHARLES LIU, AND ROBERT LRION
R4.) BEYOND EARTH-Mapping the Universe edited by David De Vorkin
R5.) PREHISTORIC PAST REVEALED-The four billion year history of life on Earth by Douglas Palmer
R6.) HUBBLE REVISTED-New Images from the Discovery Machine by Fischer and Hilmar Duerbeck
R7.) NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC – ATLAS OF THE OCEAN- THE DEEP FRONTIER bySyliva A. Earle
R8.) The Historical Atlas of the Earth – A Visual Celebration of Earth’s Physical Past
By Stephen Jay Gould, Roger Osborne and Donald Tarling
R9.) SECRETS OF SPACE- EXPLORING THE ORGINS OF THE UNIVERSE, Stuart A. Kallen
R10.) GREAT INVENTIONS: THE TELESCOPE AND MICROSCOPE, ROBIN DOAK
R11.) FARAWAY WORLDS- PLANETS BEYOND OUR SOLAR SYSTEM – PAUL HALPERN AND
ILLUSTRATIONED BY LYNETTE R. COOK
R12.) SCHOLASTIC ATLAS OF EARTH, SCHOLASTIC REFERENCE AN IMPRINT OF SCHOLASTIC
R13.) WHY DO VOLCANOES ERUPT? DR. PHILIP WHITFIELD WITH THE NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM
R14.) THE HISTORICAL ATLAS OF THE EARTH –A VISUAL CELEBRATION OF EARTH’S PHYSICAL PAST
STEPHEN JAY GOULD, CONSULTANT EDITOR AND ROGER OSBORNE & DONALD TARLING,

GENERAL Comments/Websites from viewers:

David P. Stern, http://www.phy6.org/readfirst.htm and http://www.phy6.org/stargaze/Scalend.htm

A CONCEPT OF GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION/FORCE and BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT MOONS by Tom Karras
A CONCEPT OF GRAVITATIONAL ATTRACTION/FORCE: Place a very light “ping pong ball” at the center of
a circular-level trampoline and it will not deflect the center and when one places a “marble” at the edge
it will stay there. However when one places a very heavy bowling ball at the center, the “warping of the
fabric of the trampolines cover” will push on the marble and the marble will roll towards the center
(Note: On earth the marble rolls downhill toward the bowling ball due to gravity of the earth but in
outer space, it is the warping of the space-time which produces the attraction/forces). See Website:
http://library.thinkquest.org/25886/ywarpspac.htm . If the marble were given enough push/circular
energy to overcome the “gravitational effects of the trampolines cover against the marble” and
overcome any frictional effects, then the marble could remain rotating around the edge of the
trampoline: Note: This is how planets continue to rotate around the sun or the moon rotating around the earth, etc. due to
either their potential and/or kinetic energy; our earth orbits the sun at about 66,600 miles/hr and with lots of kinetic energy.
BRIEF DISCUSSION ABOUT MOONS: A moon is a large object/satellite which orbits a planet. An asteroid
over 1Km in size orbiting either a planet or another asteroid would be considered a “moon” around that
object. Planets are large spherical objects which orbit the Sun. Asteroids are too small, like Pluto, to be
called a planet. Planet Neptune’s Moon(Triton) probably was a large asteroid(size of Pluto)captured by
Neptune’s gravity since its orbit is retrograde (opposite) to Neptune’s rotation, and due to gravity, may
eventually be broken up and/or crash into Neptune. Uranus rotates on its side and was probably due to
the angle and direction of an asteroid’s collision path. Saturn’s rings and small moons are thought to be
caused by collisions of an incoming icy-comet crashing into orbiting asteroids/moons of Saturn. The
observed rings’ brightness is due to the light from our Sun’s reflection off the many millions of
objects/moons orbiting Saturn for most of these objects are like large-smooth reflecting blocks of ice.
Note: Our Solar System orbits the Milky Way Galaxy about 500,000 miles/hr and takes about 230 Million years to complete one orbit rotation.
Part 2:INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND MEASURING TECHNIQUES
(ELEMENTS TO GALAXIES) – September 1, 2010 Version by Tom Karras p36

1.) BACKGROUND:
Elements are made of atoms consisting of a specific number of protons (+ charged particles)
and neutrons (uncharged) in the nuclei and surrounded by a specific number of electrons (-
negative charged orbiting the nuclei). Most atoms in nature are considered to be stable when
the net charge is zero; however, others are unstable because extra neutrons give the atoms
extra energy. The neutrons are “like” glue holding two or more protons in the nuclei together
to keep them from flying apart. Since like charges repel each other; each proton can attract and
pull in one electron to attach to the atom. The electrons orbit in one or more specific energy
levels in a cloud surrounding the nucleus. The first element is Hydrogen and has one electron
and one proton; with only one proton in the nucleus there is no need to have a neutron.
However, Helium, second element, has two protons in the nucleus and two neutrons are
required to hold the two protons together. View atomic structure on the internet at:
http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/3-atoms.htm (1).

The standard acceptable model for particle physics is for each of the protons and neutrons in
the nuclei to have three sub-atomic particles; these sub-atomic particles are called “quarks”
and there are even more sub-sub-atomic particles being discovered but will not be the subject
of this article, view website at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vi91qyjuknM (2)

An “ion” is an atom or molecule carrying a net positive or net negative charge when the atom
either loses or gains electrons. An “isotope” is a form of chemical element with varying
numbers of neutrons but with the same (unchanged) number of protons. The number of
protons never changes in an atom. When an atom loses an electron by external or internal
forces, it emits and gives off energy in forms of heat, light, etc. and when the atom gains an
electron, it gains energy and can be unstable and very energetic. The “Unstable isotopes” emit
various forms of radioactivity; there are both stable and unstable isotopes.

The atomic number of an element is the number of protons in the atom, i.e. hydrogen is 1 and
helium is 2. The atomic weight (mass number) of an element is the sum of the proton and
neutrons, so hydrogen mass number is 1 and helium is 4. If the element has isotopes, the
atomic weight in the periodic table is the average of the weight of the isotopes, view at:
http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html (3). Heavier elements are formed when large
Sun’s exploded and die. There are various forms of the periodic table on the internet and each
provides different levels of Information, view some of these websites: http://www.chemicool.com/
(4) : http://periodictable.com/ (5): http://www.ptable.com/ (6): http://www.periodicvideos.com/
Each element of the periodic table has unique spectra of colors/ fingerprint. Scientists have
developed instruments to determine and measure amounts of elements, oxygen, hydrogen,
etc. for objects both inside and outside the earth’s atmosphere and outer space. An element
is a substance which cannot be broken down by chemical reaction but by rays and particles;
most elements (92) are naturally made in the Universe and some (currently 25) are made
artificially by humans. http://members.misty.com/don/spectra.html (7)
 p37
The earth’s atmosphere generally filters out or blocks the higher frequency rays and particles of
radiation from the sun. “High” energy x-rays and gamma rays can penetrate earth’s external
magnetic field and atmosphere during periods of high sun spot activity. Also high energy
cosmic rays from outer space, such as exploding black holes or stars, can penetrate our
atmosphere; particles in the atmosphere break up cosmic rays (mostly protons) into gamma
rays, electrons, and other particles which in turn can penetrate the earth, planes, etc. We will
examine how emissions, absorption, and how electromagnetic radiation of particles and rays
can be detected. http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html (8).

2.) OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

The electromagnetic spectrum begins from the very low frequency like low vibrating sounds which our
ears can just barely receive and hear; to those which require antennas to detect ; to those which we can
see with our eyes; to those which we can feel/absorb heat(fireman find humans with IR goggles); to
those which can be reflected or refracted off mirrors; up to extremely very high vibrating gamma rays or
particles which require special materials and atoms to react with in order to detect and measure. Our
ears can hear and discriminate different sounds/frequencies of a guitar or piano while a spectroscope
can discriminate energy spectrums: http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/ems1.html#c2
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/mod3.html#c1
Light/visible spectrum range is the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which humans can see with
their eyes. There are three main colors, blue, green, and red which can make white light and all other
colors we can see in the Visible Spectrum. Electromagnetic radiation energy travels at the speed of light
in forms of waves and particles: http://www.geo.mtu.edu/rs/back/spectrum/

3.) INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Antenna are employed to receive the lower frequency portion of the spectrum such as radio and micro-
waves; the Spitzer Space Telescope sees/absorbs the heat from the infrared light from outer space; the
Hubble Space Telescope sees the visible light from Stars and planets; sensitive ultraviolet telescopes
detected UV rays from galaxies/stars; the Chandra X-Ray Observatory is a special telescope designed to
absorb and detect X-Rays, and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory is designed to detect gamma rays
from their interactions with atoms. See websites: http://www.nasa.gov/ great starting point, NASA
http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsphttp://www.nasa.gov/missions/past/index.html
http://www.spacetoday.org/SolSys/Spectrometers/Spectrometers.html spectrometers, watch IR movie
http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/video-audio/145-ask_ir-Infrared-More-Than-Your-Eyes-Can-See, view websites:

http://www.spacetoday.org/DeepSpace/Telescopes/GreatObservatories/Chandra/ElectromagneticSpectrum.html
http://coolcosmos.ipac.caltech.edu/cosmic_classroom/multiwavelength_astronomy/multiwavelength_astronomy/activities.html
http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=electromagnetic+spectrum&FORM=IGRE&qpvt=electromagnetic+spectrum#

There are special instruments sent into space along with telescopes, above the clouds (to remove their
distortions), to detect the presence of the elements from the color footprints. The data are transmitted
to earth and scientific community using antenna in the lower frequency portion of the spectrum. So the
complete electromagnetic spectrum is used for many applications and experiments. Some earth based
telescopes now have digital adaptive optics capability for removing atmospheric distortions.
Many instruments are used to diagnose and treat patients in the medical field from routine X-rays to
injection/detection of radioactive materials in internal body analysis/gamma imaging to brain PET scans
to DNA analysis. View website: http://eeweb.poly.edu/~yao/EL5823/NuclearPhysics_ch7.pdf
4.) NUCLEAR FUSION AND FISSION p38
a.) NUCLEAR FUSION: On the Sun, when two or more atoms of hydrogen collide at very high pressures
and temperatures, enormous amounts of energy in form of heat, light, etc are released in all directions
from the Sun. Helium three(H3) is also produced in this process and travels outward. Some of the helium
three (H3) makes its way through the earth’s atmosphere but most of it has been piled up on the Moon.
Helium three(H3) can be a good source of future fuel if we could somehow manufacture it on the moon
and bring it back to the earth to produce Solar Energy; this could supply the earth’s fuel needs for many
years. Our Sun produces more energy in one second than all of the earth’s current nuclear bombs.
Scientists are working on producing on earth, on a small scale, Sun’s interior activity as a future source
of earth’s energy. Hopefully it will be operational by 2040, phasing out the need for fossil fuels.
b.) NUCLEAR FISSION: Scientists have discovered that if beams of neutrons traveling at high speeds are
absorbed by Uranium 235, the collisions transform/produce other radioactive atoms and more
neutrons. This process releases vast amounts of energy and a pineapple size uranium material can
produce, during a chain reaction, a large explosion in an atomic bomb.
5.) RADIATION/CARBON DATING (DETERMINING AGES OF MATERIALS, ETC)
Radioactive Carbon 14 is found every day in the upper atmosphere where cosmic rays from outer space
strike atoms of Nitrogen gas (N14) and change atoms of nitrogen gas to atoms of radioactive Carbon 14.
In the atmosphere C14 joins with oxygen to form radioactive carbon dioxide. Regular carbon dioxide
mixes with radioactive carbon dioxide with plants, trees, etc. After a plant or tree dies, the radioactive
carbon dioxide in materials made from the tree wood or vegetation eaten by animals or people or
decaying rocks begin to decay and from that time on, the ratios of the amounts of good carbon dioxide
to radioactive carbon dioxide (with half-life analysis and final decay products remaining) can determine
the age of death from carbon dating of people’s bones and determining the ages of other materials. The
carbon element is part of all living things and is one of the essential building blocks of life. Most Uranium
isotopes are radioactive and decay into lead, etc. after many million years and provides for useful “age dating” for cosmos and earth materials.
6.) ENDING STATEMENT
Who knows? Does our solar system “Sun and Planets” resemble the Atom “Nucleus and Electrons” and
do the galaxies resemble “molecules and compounds”? Let’s take a look! For the atom, over 99% of its
mass is at the center nuclei compared to the mass of the complete atom, including all orbiting electrons.
Who knows? Maybe some orbiting electrons in atoms have small positive particles, let’s call them
“moontrons” orbiting an electron? Who knows? Maybe other particles which crashed into the atoms
may resemble asteroids and comets? Our Sun’s mass is about 99% of the total mass of our solar system
consisting of all known orbiting planets, asteroids, comets, etc. During the early formation of our solar
system, many mini-planets were forming and combining in various orbit/energy levels like electrons in
atoms. Our Solar system is surrounded by an Oort cloud and atoms are surrounded by electron clouds.
Does our solar system resemble macro atoms? Who knows? Our Solar systems could be like elements
combining with other solar systems, forming molecules and combining with other molecules in a galaxy
forming compounds. Our solar system with 9+ planets (with Pluto or the missing planet which may have
decomposed into the asteroid belt), could represent a Na (Sodium w/11 electrons) to form “NaCl (a salt
molecule). This could combine and react with molecules of “dark matter and dark energy producing dark
flows of substances” with other solar systems to form a compound “salt” and molecules from salt could
combine and form a different compound within the galaxy. Who knows? If we could look at the spectra
from deep space, maybe we could see a fingerprint of sodium element and further back see that our
solar system is just a molecule of “salt” and in a mountain in another planet in another universe?
Galaxies have at their centers large massive black holes with other stars, etc. orbiting the center. Could
our Milky Way galaxy be a compound or mixture? Most of the Universe is made up of dark matter and
dark energy and galaxies appear to be clustered in groups interconnecting with dark flows. Who knows
what the scientist will discover with particle accelerators and as we venture out into the cosmos?
OUTLINE p39
1.) BACKGROUND
2.) OVERVIEW OF THE ELECTROMAGETIC SPECTRUM
3.) INSTRUMENT MEASUREMENTS TECHNIQUES
4.) NUCLEAR FUSION AND FISSION
5.) RADIATION/CARBON DATING (DETERMINING AGES OF MATERIALS, ETC)
6.) ENDING STATEMENT
WEBSITE REFERENCES

http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/science/know_l1/emspectrum.html

http://science.hq.nasa.gov/kids/imagers/ems/waves3.html

http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/nasa/space-telescopes/space-telescopes.html

http://www.amateurspectroscopy.com/color-spectra-of-chemical-elements.htm

http://www.800mainstreet.com/spect/emission-flame-exp.html

http://members.misty.com/don/spectra.html

http://periodictable.com/ (5)

http://www.chemicool.com/ (4)

http://www.rsc.org/chemsoc/visualelements/pages/pertable_fla.htm

http://www.periodicvideos.com/

http://www.ptable.com/ (6)

http://www.chemicalelements.com/

http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm magnetic fields and forces

http://education.jlab.org/qa/pen_number.html atomic numbers and elements, etc. (3)

http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acarpi/NSC/3-atoms.htm hydrogen and its isotopes (1)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vi91qyjuknM over view of the electron, proton, neutron, etc. (2)

http://www.lbl.gov/MicroWorlds/ALSTool/EMSpec/EMSpec2.html

http://www.bing.com/images/search?q=electron+shells&qpvt=electron+shells&FORM=IGRE : Great!!!

GERMANTOWN MD LIBRARY REFERENCES

R1 UNDERSTANDING RADIOACTIVITY BY LORUS J. AND MARGERY MILNE

R2 GREAT INVENTIONS: THE TELESCOPE AND MICROSCOPE BY ROBIN DOAK
R3 THE INVENTORS (Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, Physics, and Medicine) by NATHAN AASENG
Part 3: RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM- AN OVERVIEW,
September 3, 2010 by Tom Karras
A.) INTRODUCTION:
It has been a scientific fact for many years that the movements of electrons can cause electric
currents (electricity) to flow in a wire which makes a completed circuit connection when a
voltage from a power source such as a battery is in the line of flow of the connected circuit, i.e.
simple flashlight. When electric currents flow they induce or cause magnetic field lines to circle,
perpendicular to the current flow in a clockwise direction, around the conducting wire carrying
the electric currents or the movements of electrons. The definition of direction of current flow
in the scientific community is opposite to the direction of the movement of the electrons and
the “right hand rule” is used to determine magnetic field rotation direction and thumb point’s
direction of current flow. This is to say, electrons are attracted and flow toward the positive (+)
terminal of a battery while current flows out of the positive terminal of a battery in the
opposite direction. When a compass is placed over a wire carrying the electric current, the
compass needle will deflect, indicating the presence of a magnetic force field at the instant
when the battery is initially switched on or turned off. Note, flowing electric current is
analogous to water flowing in a river: the battery voltage/power source is analogous to the
change is elevation of the river causing the potential difference in the water pressure to cause
the water to flow downhill due to force of gravity; the resistance of the conducting wire to
allow the electricity to flow(copper wire vs. a wire type which has a higher resistance to the
release of electrons from the atoms to be release/energized) is analogous to the river floor’s
resistance to the flow of water such as rocks, valleys in the river floor, curves in the river, etc
which impedes or affects the flow of water. The copper atoms only have one electron in their
outer energy orbital shells and make for an easier release of electrons when they are excited
with heat, etc. Hence, copper wire is a good conductor of electricity.
http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magcur.html (1)
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hX7TKEBGUXk (2)
The chart on the next page (fig. 10) shows some basic concepts of Electricity and Magnetism and to help
understand their relationships with each other. a.) Bar magnet: The magnetic field lines of a magnet exit
the North Pole (N) and enter the South Pole(S); b.) Electro-Magnet: Shows how a magnetic field can be
produced by winding a coil of wire around magnetic type material (such as iron), and can be temporarily
magnetized and to find the direction of the magnetic (using right hand rule, circle the coil of wire in the
direction of the current), the thumb points the direction of N pole; c.) Generator action: Two magnetic
fields can interact with each other to produce/generate electricity. Example shows a coil of wire around
a doughnut shaped iron solid cylinder connected to a light bulb. While moving a permanent magnet “in
and out” of the cylinder, the magnetic field lines interact to energize the electrons in the copper wire to
cause them to move, producing electricity and light up the bulb. d.) Hydro-Electric Power System: When
a motor in c.) above can be made to turn a magnet inside the coil of wire, then electric power can be
produced using gravity from damming up water and turning turbine wheels. This is basically how power
plants near rivers/dams work today. Note: if one adds a battery to the rotor windings on the shaft and
reconfigures both the fixed and shaft magnets, motor action can occur, i.e. like a simple direct current
hand drill. p40
B.) EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD AND FORCES p42

The following website shows how magnets attract and repel and provides an overview of the earth’s
magnetic field: http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm (3) along with several
examples of items previously discussed above. Note in the website, that the present geographic north
pole of the earth is actually the South Pole of a magnetic, so a compass needle’s North Pole would line
up with the earth’s magnetic fields lines to point to the northern portion of the earth. The earth has
undergone many magnetic pole reversals and the last one was over 750,000 years ago. The earth’s
magnetic fields protect us from the solar radiation and cosmic rays from outer space. Without a strong
magnetic field, the Sun’s energy could strip away our atmosphere and could result in an inhabitable
earth like our sister planet Mars. The earth’s magnetic field is produced by the effects of a hot inner iron
core melting the materials inside the earth and due to the earth’s rotation action (motor action) and the
movements of the electrons and circulating currents (generator) action; the earth’s magnetic field is
then produced. view: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field .
When charged particles from the Sun enter the earth’s magnetic field, the protons can be trapped in the
inner layer of the Van Allen belt while the electrons are trapped in the outer Van Allen belt. During high
Solar activity, particles can get to the North and South Poles areas of the earth and provide a connection
circuit through the magnetic field lines lighting up the atmosphere, called (Aurora Borealis).
http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys03/cdeflecte/default.htm. Magnetic fields (and
Electric fields) can be used to trap, deflect, or even speed up the flow of particles, i.e. high voltage
sources in a particle accelerator. Unlike poles of magnets attract (pull in) each other and like poles repel
(pushes away). These magnetic forces(Fm) have been known to be directly related/proportional to the
strengths of each pole(P1, P2) and the force in “inversely” related to the “square” of the distance(d) and
a universal constant has been developed and measured and is labeled Km, so the basic equation for the
force is Fm= Kmx (P1 x P2)/dxd . http://magician.ucsd.edu/Essentials/WebBookse7.html (5)
An example would be to have two unlike large magnets separated lying on a table and hold down one
with your left hand and the other with right hand separated by “2 inches”: Let’s assume your total force
exerted to keep them separated is 16 pounds of force. If you separate the magnets on the table to “4
inches”, the total force needed to hold down the magnets would not be 8 pounds but only 4 pounds.
Like manner, if you move the magnets “1 inch apart”, the total force is keep them separated would be
64 pounds. This is one concept of the meaning of “inversely proportional to the square of the distance”.

A simple example of the constant associated with equations (i.e. Km above), is the circumference of a
circle is directly related or proportional to the diameter of the circle; C = Kc x d, so any circle, take the
ratio of the circumference to its diameter Kc= C/d, you would obtain a constant number of about
3.1416 which has the symbol “pie” in mathematics. The magnetic constant above for Km = 1 x 10^-7.

C.) ELECTRIC FIELDS AND FORCES

Positive and negative particles (i.e. protons and electrons) have electric fields radiating from all
directions away from the positive charges and flow into the negative charges. View website below:
http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch12/ch12.htm (6). Positive charges attract and try to combine with
negative charges and like charges repel. The force between the charges is Fe= Ke x(q1 x q2)/dxd ,
where the electric charge constant for Ke= 9 x 10^9 .

D.) SPEED OF LIGHT AND ELECTRICITY/MAGNETISM RELATIONSHIP

It was determined that if one takes the ratio of Ke/Km = 9 x 10^9/1x10^-7 = 9 x 10^16 and by taking
the square root of both sides, yields 3 x 10^8 meters/sec or 186,000 miles per sec which is the speed of
light. So there are both mathematical and physical relationships between electricity and magnetism.
 WEBSITE REFERENCES p43

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magcur.html (1)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hX7TKEBGUXk (2)

http://www.regentsprep.org/Regents/physics/phys03/cdeflecte/default.htm MF deflects particles

http://www-istp.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/wmfield.html examples of magnetic fields

http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch12/ch12.htm (6) electric fields

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elefor.html electric force/charge constant

http://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/2003/29dec_magneticfield/MF reversal

http://magician.ucsd.edu/Essentials/WebBookse7.html (5) p1p2 magnetic poles force constant

http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/PHYS1169/beilby/magnetism.html (4)

http://www.physics.sjsu.edu/becker/physics51/mag_field.htm (3)

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/spin.html math for electron spin

http://www.physics.ucla.edu/plasma-exp/beam/ magnetic field applications

A THEORY WHY THERE ARE DIFFERENT NATIONALITIES AND DIFFERENT FORMS OF LIFE:
by Tom Karras, Feb. 17, 2011
In the early stages of Earth’s development, different forms of life, plants, animals, mammals, fish,
humans etc. were formed near “hot water” areas of volcanoes by the interaction of different types of
molecules, RNA, and DNA, etc. Since the volcanic materials in each of the areas of Earth are different,
different types/forms of animals, mammals, fish, and humans etc. were formed. Volcanoes probably
first started in Africa and that is why humans appeared first in Africa. They then migrated to different
continents. Interbreeding occurred amongst each of the different species making even more versions of
life. Also, there could be even different forms of life developed on the earth from different materials
from comets, asteroids, etc which had crashed on the earth in the early days. Is it possible? that “Cave
People” may have originally been produced through the mating processes, in the colder months, in the
caves with gases or radioactive elements by “Apes and Bears, etc.” of different male/female DNA
combinations” and evolved into today’s humans over time with future mating of the different “Cave
People” male/female’s. Would Charles Darwin be “rolling over in his grave” with this theory?

ASTEROIDS IN THE ASTEROID BELT AND SOME NEAR EARTH CROSSING ASTEROIDS LOCATED SO FAR:
A math sample (view: http://www.sdss.org/data/ast_belt.web1.gif ): If two asteroids in the Asteroid Belt
at 2.7 AU (1 AU= 93,000,000 miles, the distance from the Earth to the Sun) collide and one asteroid,
traveling at 40,000 miles per hour is on a direct collision path to the Earth. How many days before it
crashes into the earth? Answer: 1.7 x 93,000,000 miles x 1hr/40,000 miles x 1 day/24 hr = 165 days.
SO IF THIS WERE TO HAPPEN, WE WOULD ONLY HAVE ABOUT 5.5 to 6 MONTHS TO TAKE APPROPRIATE ACTION!
Note: View some earth crossing asteroids by selecting “what” at: http://users.tricity.wsu.edu/~hudson/Research/Asteroids/index.htm
Part 5: GRAVITY, SPACE-TIME, AND ENERGY-OVERVIEW, September 5, 2010 by Tom Karras p45

A.)GRAVITY: It has been determined by Sir Isaac Newton that the force which a moving object exerts on
another object which may be at rest is: F=MA, where “M” is the mass of the moving object and “A” is its
acceleration. As in billiard balls, most of the energy from the white (cue ball) is transferred to the other
billiard balls. It has also been determined that the force of gravity between two planets or say the
gravitation force (Fg) between the Earth and Moon is Fg = Kg x (Me x Mm)/dxd where (Me) is the mass
of the Earth and (Mm) is the mass of the moon. As in the magnetic and electric forces, the gravitation
force between two masses is inversely proportional to the square of the distance (d) between the
two masses. The gravitation constant Kg = 6.67x10^-11. The moon and earth’s gravity forces keep the
two objects stable since the moon’s rotational energy/momentum offsets the net gravitational force
between them and for the Sun/Earth-Moon. http://library.thinkquest.org/10796/ch12/ch12.htm
Newton’s equations also proved Galileo’s theory that when dropped in a vacuum from the same
distance, both a “feather and a hammer” would fall/arrive at the same time on the ground; this was
demonstrated during one of the Apollo moon landings by an astronaut. View also Albert Einstein’s
Gravity equivalence principal: http://www.astronomynotes.com/relativity/s3.htm

B.)SPACE-TIME: About 100 years ago Albert Einstein’s “General Relativity” showed that the effect of
gravity in the Universe is to bend the fabric of Space-Time as light or particles or even large objects as
they travel near them. http://www.ws5.com/spacetime/. This bending of space-time was first proven
during a solar eclipse (where the moon blocks the sunlight on the earth).The light from the stars directly
behind the Sun can be seen on the Earth where the maximum moons shadow appears. This proved
Einstein’s “gravitational lensing” theory to be correct. That is, the Sun’s gravity bends/steers the
starlight rays around and back in front of the Sun as they head toward the Earth. The experiment
showed that all 92 or so of the Stars known at that time to be directly behind the eclipsed Sun showed
up in the ground telescope system. Einstein did not receive the Nobel Prize for this discovery!?
Einstein showed that Newton’s F=MA should be modified due to gravity by F=MA (1-V^2/C^2)^3/2 which also explained Mercury’s Orbit.
C.)TIME: Einstein showed that the effects of gravity are to slow clocks down. Clocks in tall buildings run
slightly faster than those near the ground; time nearly stops as one approach’s a black hole due to the
excessive gravity. The clocks in orbiting satellites runs faster with respect to the time clocks on the
earth; in the case of the GPS satellites, this time change is small but must be adjusted to obtain precise
location on the earth since the GPS receivers mark the time of arrival from the nearest four GPS
satellites for position location, see: http://einstein.stanford.edu/content/faqs/gpa_vessot.html . Einstein
showed in his “Special Relativity” analysis, with Lorentz Transformation , if an astronaut could survive in
a space rocket for 30 years at 80% of the speed of light, that 50 years of time would elapsed on the
earth; upon returning, the astronaut would be 20 years younger and will have traveled into the future.
This is computed by t=t’/(1-V^2/C^2)^1/2 = 30/(1-.8C^2/C^2)^1/2 = 30/(1-.64)^1/2 = 30/0.6 = 50 years
D.)ENERGY: A car battery has “potential energy” and when the car ignition is turned on, the potential
energy is converted to “mechanical energy” and when in motion, car fuel transfers to “kinetic energy”.
A water dam has “potential gravitational energy” and when the floor gates are opened up, the water
begins to flow, and converts water energy to “electric power energy”. So, various forms of energy are
always in constant transformation. Einstein showed that even small atomic particles can produce large
amounts of energy (E) under certain conditions with E=mc^2 (or E= M x C x C), where “M” is the mass of
the object and “C” is the speed of light. In this formula, energy is directly proportional to the square of
the speed of light, i.e. energy increases as mass increases. Energy can be very high even though the mass
is small since energy is directly affected by the speed of light times the speed of light (directly
proportional to the square of the speed of light). This resulted in the creation of the Atomic Bomb
which helped to end World War II, view: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein :
Part 6: Overview of the Standard Model of an Atom– Oct. 5, 2010 by Tom Karras p46

The older original model of the Atom consists of electrons orbiting the nucleus which contained only
protons and possibly neutrons. The current accepted model for the Atom in Physics is for each of the
protons and neutrons to have three quarks and the quarks are connected together with smaller particles
called gluons. A gluon has no mass and acts “like glue” holding the nucleus together and is a carrier of
the strong nuclear force and acts only in very small ranges within the nuclei. The proton has two up
quarks and one down quark while the neutron has two down quarks and one up quark. An up quark has
an electric charge of +2/3’s and the down quark electrical charge is -1/3; so the net charge of the proton
is preserved at +1 and the neutron charge is 0. View the website below for the Helium element with two
electrons; the two protons and two neutrons each have three quarks:
http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/cern/ideas/standard.html .

Who knows?, “the author is assuming for a very short time the neutrons can have reverse anti-quark
charges for the purposes of figures 12, 13, and 14, so this would be reversed to -2/3 and +1/3 charges
for neutrons”. Note: This may violate current Standard Model Laws but is only being introduced as a
possible theory. Figure 12 below is the author’s concept of how the nuclear forces may work within and
between the quarks for this assumption and how they may interact with the two orbiting electrons for
the helium element with each of the quark’s electric charges. As one can see, both the strong internal
nuclear forces and the electric forces with the electrons all appear to be balanced. Since unlike charges
attracts, it appears that this concept could be what is occurring inside the nuclei of the atom; particle
spin, mass, and various particle states/colors, etc. have not been taken into account and is assumed to
cancel out. Figures13 and 14 is the authors concept of how Helium may become unbalanced and
unstable, who knows? for Figure 13 could mean that one of the neutrons (N2)could be released by the
electric forces of both electrons, for it appears that there could be a situation where no bond exists with
P2/N2 and the bond of the quarks is weak with P1/N2. Who knows?, Figure 14 also shows a situation
where both electrons could result in pulling out proton P2 in conjunction with no bond with N1/P2 along
with weak forces between P2 and N2, who knows what the particle accelerators will find?

The four fundamental forces of nature are: Strong and Weak nuclear forces, electromagnetic forces, and
gravity: For more information, view: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/particles/proton.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fundamental_interaction

http://www.egglescliffe.org.uk/physics/particles/mkquark/quarks.html

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/forces/funfor.html

http://aether.lbl.gov/elements/stellar/strong/strong.html

http://www.vias.org/physics/bk4_03_04.html

A great book and easy to read is “Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle
Physics” by Martinus Veltman
To: President Obama (via fax) Oct. 24, 2010 p50
From: Tom Karras, [email protected], 301-353-9507
P.O. Box 1205, Germantown, MD 20875

Reference: www.KidsMathScienceDigitalBook.com

Subject: Suggestion for Planet Earth’s 100 year plan

The global community needs to develop a 100 year plan and I am providing my
input to you for your consideration to present at one of your upcoming global
meetings.

The above reference website provides background information for why the
“GODS SYSTEM-Global Operational Disaster System” should be implemented. We
all know why we need to get our climate under control and get off fossil fuels.

We know that stars can explode such as the WR104 Star (gamma rays were
detected about 1965) and this star appears to be pointed toward the Earth. Our
Earth could be disintegrated within 8,000 years or even sooner (since we may not
know when star explosions began) by gamma ray bursts which could be a million
times more severe than our Sun’s Corona Mass Ejection(CME); other stars may be
or have already been identified which could pose similar threats. Note:
Gamma ray bursts may have caused Mars to lose its atmosphere many years ago.

1.) Implement the GODS(Global Operational Disaster System) by 2025

2.) Get Earth’s climate under control by 2030
3.) Convert most of Earth’s energy to Solar, Nuclear, and Sun’s Fusion*
Implementation on Earth by 2040
4.) Establish Moon Colonies by 2050*
5.) Establish Mars Colonies by 2075
6.) Establish Colonies on Potential Moons around Jupiter by 2090
7.) Establish Colonies on “Earth-Like Planets” or Other Moons by 3010

Note: We should “not burn any bridges” and should always to able to fall back to
living in Colonies 4.) to 7.), including planet Earth.*See Page 38, a) Nuclear Fusion:
Whoever controls the Moon with its Helium3 from the Sun could control a major
future energy source for the Earth and to support future launches from the moon.
 ACKNOWLEGEMENTS p51

A.) The authors wish to thank Anthony Kirlew, [email protected], in getting this Math-
Science Digital Book on the internet.

B.) The following NASA-GSFC and Univ. Professor comments and inputs are appreciated.
1.) Ray Hartenstein
2.) David P. Stern
3.) Dr. Dan Lathrop