Instrumentation

By the end of the sub module unit, the trainees should be able to:
 State different types of instrumentation system
 Describe the operation of various instrumentation system
 Explain the factors consider when installing an instrumentation system.
 State the methods of signal processing in instrumentation.
 Describe the methods of signal processing .
 Identify the weakness and strength of every method above.
 Identify various data processing elements.
 Describe the operation of various data processing elements.
 Explain how each data processing elements is applied.

Page 1 of 34
 Introduction

Instrumentation is the development or use of measuring instruments for

observation, monitoring or control. An instrument is a device that measures a
physical quantity, such as flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or pressure.
Instruments may be as simple as direct reading hand-held thermometers or as
complex as multi-variable process analyzers. Although instrumentation is often
used to measure and control process variables within a laboratory or
manufacturing industries, it can be found in the household as well. A smoke
detector is one example of a common instrument found in some homes.

Elements of Instrumentation System

The following are the elements of instrumentation system:

 Transducer

 Signal conditioner

Sensors and Transducers

Transducer/Sensor converts input energy from one form to another form.

According to the type, output sensors are classified in two types: digital sensors
and analog sensors.

The sensors which can produce a digital output signal, that is a digital
representation of the input signal, having discrete values of magnitude measured
at discrete times, are called digital sensors. A digital sensor must output logic
levels that are compatible with the digital receiver. Examples of digital sensors
include switches and position encoders.

Analog sensors produce an output signal that is directly proportional to the input
signal, and is continuous in both magnitude and in time. Most physical variables
such as temperature, pressure and acceleration are continuous in nature and are
readily measured with an analog sensor. For example, some common analog
sensors and the physical variables they measure are listed below.

Page 2 of 34
Table 14.2 Common analog sensors

Sensor Physical Variable

Thermocouple Temperature

Microphone Pressure

Pressure gauge Pressure

Photodiode Light intensity

Strain gauge Force

LVDT Displacement

When choosing the best analog sensor to use, you must match the characteristics
of the physical variable you are measuring with the characteristics of the sensor.
The two most important sensor characteristics are

 The sensor output

 The sensor bandwidth

Signal Conditioner

A signal conditioner is a device that converts one type of electronic signal into
another type of signal. Its primary use is to convert a signal that may be difficult
to read by conventional instrumentation into a more easily read format. In
performing this conversion, a number of functions may take place.
Most sensors and transducers generate signals that must be conditioned before a
measurement or data acquisition system (DAQ) device can reliably and accurately
acquire the signal. This front-end processing is referred to as signal conditioning. A
signal conditioner may create excitation for certain transducers such as strain
gauges and resistance temperature detectors, which require external excitation
voltages or currents. The main tasks performed by signal conditioning are as
follows:

 Filtering

 Amplification

 Linearization

 Isolation

 Excitation

Page 3 of 34
1. Filtering

In noisy environments, it is very difficult to acquire low magnitude signals

received from sensors such as signals from thermocouples and strain gauges
(in the order of mV). If the noise is of the same or greater order of magnitude
than the required signal, the noise must first be filtered out. Signal conditioning
equipment often contain low-pass filters designed to eliminate high-frequency
noise that can lead to inaccurate data.

Filtering is a process by which the unwanted noise frequencies are removed

from the source signal. This is done before the signal is amplified to feed to the
DAQ system.

Ideally, a filter should have a very sharp cut-off frequency, in order to separate
the useful frequencies from the noise frequencies. However, most practical filters
do not accurately attenuate the undesired frequencies beyond the desired range.

In general, analog filter hardware consists of two types of filters—namely active

filters and passive filters.

While active filters use components like OP-AMPs, passive filters consist of
passive components like capacitors, inductors and resistors. They provide cheap
hardware for filtering action. However, such filters are not ideal and they do not
accurately attenuate the noise amplitudes.

In intelligent signal-conditioning modules, however, integrating A/D

converters go a long way to averaging (filtering) out any cyclical noise
appearing at the input.

Alternatively, software averaging may also be used to eliminate periodic system

noises such as mains hum.

Filters have certain attributes which define them. They are as following:

i) Cut-off Frequency

It is the frequency beyond which the filter attenuates all the frequencies. It can be
high pass or low-pass cut-off frequency as required by the device. In general, cut-
off frequency is considered as frequency where the normalized gain of the signal
drops below 0.707 times the maximum gain.

ii) Roll Off

This is the slope of the amplitude versus the frequency graph at the region
of the cut-off frequency. This characteristic differentiates an ideal filter
from a non-ideal filter.

Page 4 of 34
 iii) Quality Factor
This factor determines the gain of the filter at the resonant frequency and the roll-
off of the transfer characteristics on both sides of the resonant frequency. Active
filters are more frequently used as against the passive filters due to their sharper
roll-off and better stability.

Types of Filters

There are four kinds of filters, namely

a. Low-pass filter

b. High-pass filter

c. Band-pass filter

d. Band-stop filter

a) Low-Pass Filter A low-pass filter allows the low frequencies to pass while
attenuates the higher frequencies. Figure 14.2 shows the ideal low-pass filter
characteristics, where is the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.3 shows the circuit
diagram of an active low-pass filter. The actual filter response deviates from the
original when implemented. Figure 14.4 shows the practical filter characteristics.

Figure 14.2 Ideal low-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.3 Circuit diagram of
an active low-pass filter

Figure 14.4 Practical low-pass filter characteristics

Page 5 of 34
 Figures 14.2 and 14.3 shows the circuit diagram and the transfer characteristics of
a low-pass filter respectively. As we can see, a low-pass filter allows the low
frequencies to pass while attenuates the higher frequencies.

b) High-Pass Filter
A high-pass filter allows the high frequencies to pass while attenuates the lower
frequencies. Figure 14.5 shows the ideal high-pass filter characteristics, where wp
is the filter cut-off frequency. Figure 14.6 shows the circuit diagram of an active
high pass filter. The actual filter response deviates from the original when
implemented. Figure 14.7 shows the practical filter characteristics

Figure 14.5 Ideal high-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.6 Circuit diagram of
an active high-pass filter

Figure 14.7 Practical high-pass filter characteristics

c) Band-Pass (selective) Filter These are filters which allow frequencies within
a certain range, bound by an upper (wp2) and a lower (wp1) cut-off frequency to
pass through, attenuating other frequencies. These are also known as selective
filters and they combine a low-pass and a high-pass filter in series to give selected
band of frequency allowance. Figure 14.8 and 14.9 shows the characteristics of
band-pass filter for an ideal and a real filter respectively.

Page 6 of 34
 Figure 14.8 Ideal band-pass filter characteristics. Figure 14.9 Practical band-
pass filter characteristics

d) Band-stop (Notch) Filters This kind of filter attenuates a certain band of

frequencies and lets all other frequencies to pass through. They use a parallel
combination of a high and low-pass filters to give the required attenuation of a
band of frequencies. They are also known as notch. Figure 14.10 and 14.11 show
the ideal and practical band-stop filter characteristics of a band-stop filter.

Figure 14.10 Ideal band-stop filter characteristics. Figure 14.11 Ideal band-
stop filter characteristics
e)

Page 7 of 34
e) Butterworth Filter This is a kind of active filter which provides a better level
of low-pass filtering. This is achieved by cascading two or more stages of low-pass
filters. The number of stages of filtering determines how sharp the roll-off is at the
cut-off frequency. Figure 14.12 shows a two-stage Butterworth filter.

Figure 14.12 A two-stage Butterworth filter

2. Amplification

It is a process by which an input signal of weak signal strength (low amplitude) is

converted into a signal of higher signal strength (high amplitude), so as to be
readable by the processing devices.

In signal conditioning, amplification serves two main purposes:

 Increases resolution of the input signal

 Increases Signal-to-Noise ratio (SNR)

Amplification mainly serves for increasing resolution of the input signal. If, for
example, a low-level signal of the order of a few mV is fed to a 12-bit ADC, there
will be a loss of precision as the resolution of the ADC is of the order of 2 mV.
However, if the signal is amplified to the order of 10 V (full scale voltage for ADC),
we get the maximum precision. The highest possible resolution can be achieved by
amplifying the input signal so that the maximum input voltage swing equals the
maximum input range of the ADC.

Another important function of amplification is to achieve high signal-to-noise ratio.

Amplifying a signal before sending it through a cable to the receiving end enables
high SNR to the noises introduced in the path having noise interference. This
ensures the improved precision of the measurement. If, however, the signal is
amplified after the noise interference causes low SNR which implies the noise
causes a considerable error in the input signal.

Page 8 of 34
 5.
3. Linearization Excita
It is the modification of a system so that its outputs are approximately linear tion
functions of its inputs, in order to facilitate analysis of the system.
The
It is seen that sometimes the data output by transducers bears a non-linear transd
relationship with the measured phenomenon over a range of the measured ucers
variable. A good example of such relation is thermocouples. Such non-linear gener
relationships need to be properly linearized for analysis of data. Typically, the DAQ
ally
software facilitates the linearization of the signals. However, if the signal has provid
a
periodic and repeatable non-linear relation, an intelligent signal conditioning e for
hardware may as well provide such linearization. This however, requires the signal the
conditioning module to be modified for a particular type of transducer. The result excitat
then can be sent directly to the host PC directly without undergoing linearization ion
as the signal is directly related to the measured phenomenon signals
requir
4. Isolation ed by
the
Signal-conditioning equipment can also be used to provide isolation of transducer DAQ
signals from the computer where there is a possibility that high-voltage transients hardw
may occur within the system being monitored, either due to electrostatic discharge are
or electrical failure. Isolation protects expensive computer equipment from damage and
and computer operators from injury. In addition, where common-mode voltage data
levels are high or there is a need for extremely low common-mode leakage manip
current, as for medical applications, isolation allows measurements to ulation be
accurately and safely obtained.
Howev
Isolation in signal conditioning refers to the transmission signal from the sourceer, in
to measuring device without physical connection. The most common methods ofsome
circuit isolation include opto-isolation, magnetic or capacitive isolation. Whilecases,
opto-isolation is used for digital signals, magnetic and capacitive isolations arethe
used for analog signals. Magnetic or capacitive isolation involves the modulationtransd
of the signal converting it from voltage to frequency signal and the transmitting itucers
over a transformer or a capacitor, when it is again converted back to a voltagerequir
signal.
extern
Isolation of the signal source is very crucial where there is a risk of high voltage
transients caused by electrostatic discharge, lightning, or high-voltage equipmentexcitat
failure, which may ruin the expensive DAQ equipment if not isolated from theion
signal source and may also cause serious injuries to humans handling thedue to
equipment. Also using isolation prevents complexities caused by common-modeweak
voltages and ground loops. signal
gener
System isolation can be carried out in the following ways: ation,
 By using isolation transformer in order to reject the common-mode voltage non-
appearing on the signal lines electri
 By using buffer amplifiers to isolate the input signals from ground noise cal
 By isolating system ground references signal
gener
ation
Page 9 of 34
 or due to noise interference and other factors. The signal-conditioning hardware
provides for such excitation signals. The transducers which convert the non-
electrical values into electrical (voltage or current) signals are known as active
transducers. These transducers do not generally require external excitation. Other
devices known as
passive transducers change an electrical network value, such as resistance,
inductance or capacitance, according to changes in the physical quantity being
measured. Strain gauges (resistive change tonstress) and LVDTs (inductance
change to displacement) are two examples of this. To be able to detect such
changes, passive devices require external excitation.

Signal Processing Methods

i) Digital to Analog Converter (DAC)

Analog outputs commonly are used to operate final control elements in industrial
environments like valves and motors. An analog output subsystem mainly
consists of a Digital-to-Analog (D/A) converter, which is functionally opposite to
an A/D converter. Similar to analog input configurations, a common D/A
converter often is shared among multiplexed output signals. Standard analog
output ranges are often same as analog input standards: ±5 V dc, ±10 V dc, 0–
10 V dc, and 4–20 mA dc, etc.

A digital-to-analog converter, or simply DAC, is a semiconductor device that is

used to convert a digital code into an analog signal. Digital-to-analog conversion is
the primary means by which digital equipment such as computer-based systems
are able to translate digital data into real-world signals that are more
understandable to or useable by humans, such as music, speech, pictures, video,
and the like. It also allows digital control of machines, equipment, household
appliances, and the like.

Essentially, the logic circuitry for an analog voltage output uses a digital word or
series of bits, to drop in (or drop out, depending on whether the bit is 1 or 0) a
series of resistors from a circuit driven by a reference voltage. This ladder of
resistors can be made of either weighted-value resistors or an R-2R network using
only two resistor values—one if placed in series (Figure 14.16). While operation of
the weighted-value network is more intuitively obvious, the R-2R scheme is more
practical. Because only one resistor value need be used, it is easier to match the
temperature coefficients of an R-2R ladder than a weighted network, resulting in
more accurate outputs. Plus, for high resolution outputs, very high resistor values
are needed in the weighted-resistor approach.

Page 10 of 34
Figure 14.16 Weighted value and single-value resistor networks for D/A
conversion

By the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem, sampled data can be reconstructed

perfectly provided that its bandwidth meets certain requirements (e.g., a base-
band signal with bandwidth less than the Nyquist frequency). However, even with
an ideal reconstruction filter, digital sampling introduces quantization error that
makes perfect reconstruction practically impossible. Increasing the digital
resolution (i.e., increasing the number of bits used in each sample) or introducing
sampling dither can reduce this error.

ii) Analog to Digital Converter (ADC)

A process of converting an analog signal into a digital signal comprises measuring
the amplitude of the analog signal at consistent time intervals and producing a set
of signals representing the measured digital value. The information in the digital
signals and the known time interval enables one
to convert the digital signal back to the analog signal. Analog to digital conversion
of a continuous input signal normally occurs in two steps: sampling and
quantization.
The sampler takes a time-varying analog input signal and converts it to a fixed
voltage, current, electrical charge, or other output level. The quantiser takes the
constant sampled level and compares it to the closest level from a discrete range
of values called quantization levels. The performance of analog and digital
converters is typically quantified by two primary parameters, speed (in samples per
second) and resolution (in bits). Higher resolution A/D converters typically require
a large signal-to-noise ratio and good linearity. A/D converters with high sampling
rates are frequently desired, but generally have lower resolution. There are two
basic techniques for performing analog-to-digital conversion: an open-loop
technique and a feedback technique.
A/D converter includes a reference voltage generator for generating a plurality of
reference voltages, a first group of amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. Each
of these amplifies a difference voltage between each reference voltage (generated
by the reference voltage generator and a voltage of an input signal) and a second
group of amplifiers having a plurality of amplifiers. It is used when higher speed
operation is required.

Page 11 of 34
This design uses multiple comparators in parallel to process samples at more than
100 MHz with 8 to 12-bit resolution. Conversion is accomplished by a string of
comparators with appropriate references operating in parallel (Figure 14.14).

The downside of this design is the large number of relatively expensive

comparators that are required—for example; a 12-bit converter requires
4,095 comparators.

Figure 14.14 A/D Conversion by Flash/Parallel technique

Example 1

An analog to digital converter (ADC) measures voltages in the range of 0 to 25 V

and has 12-bit accuracy. What is the smallest voltage step that the ADC can
resolve?

Solution 12 bits = 212 = 4096

Therefore, the ADC can measure 4096 different values of voltage (from 0 to 4095
inclusive), the number of voltage steps is thus 4095 (one fewer than the number
of different values available).

Page 12 of 34
Assuming that we set digital 0 to be equivalent to 0 V and digital 4095 to be
equivalent to 25 V, each voltage step is simply given by

25 V/4095 = 0.006105 V = 6.105 mV

Example 2 Fig

Determine the number of output bits required for an ADC so that quantising error
The
less than 1 %. ab

Solution For 1 % quantising error, count ≥ 100.

For n = 6, N = 26 – 1 = 63

For n = 7, N = 27 – 1 = 127

iii) Voltage to Frequency Conversion

An analog voltage can be converted into digital form by producing pulses whose
frequency is proportional to the analog input voltage. These pulses are counted by
a counter for a fixed duration and the reading of the counter will be proportional to
the frequency of the pulses, and hence, to the analog voltage.

A block diagram of a voltage to frequency ADC is shown in Figure 10.11. The

analog input voltage VA is applied to an integrator which in turn produces a ramp
signal whose slope is proportional to the input voltage. When the output voltage
V0 attains a certain value (a preset threshold level), a trigger pulse is produced
and also a current pulse is generated which is used to discharge the integrator
capacitor C. Now a new ramp is initiated. The time between successive threshold
level crossings is inversely proportional to the slope of the ramp. Since the ramp
slope is proportional to the input analog voltage VA, the frequency of the output
pulses from the comparator is, therefore, directly proportional to the input analog
voltage. This output frequency may be measured with the help of a digital
frequency counter.

Figure 10.11 Block diagram of a voltage to frequency

Page 13 of 34
 The above method provides measurement of the true average of the input signal
over the ramp duration, and so provides high discrimination against noise
present at the input.

However, the digitizing rates are slow because of high integration durations. The
accuracy of this method is comparable with the ramp type ADC, and is limited by
the stability of the integrator time constant, and the stability and accuracy of the
comparator.

Data Processing Elements

1. Analog Recording Elements

These kinds of recorders are used to record analog signals in the form of a chart
paper for keeping the record permanently. Despite the present emphasis by the
electronics industry on digital instrumentation, the use of analog recorders is still
popular. As they present an instantaneous visual indication of the data being
recorded, they fit it in an analog way, which is often more meaningful than digital
indication to people in the laboratory or on the production line.

There are basically three types of analog recorders available:

 graphic,

 oscillographic and

 magnetic tape recorders.

(a) Graphic Recorders

A graphic recorder is basically a measuring device which is able to produce in real

time a hard copy of a set of time functions with the purpose of immediate and/or
later visual inspection. The curves/lines are mostly drawn on a (long) strip of
paper (from a roll), often called strip chart recorder. When the curves are drawn
on a circular paper, it is called a circular chart recorder, and when two
independent variables are to be recorded on a piece of paper with respect to each
other, it is called an X-Y recorder.

i) Strip Chart Recorder

A strip chart recorder records physical variable with respect to the independent
variable time on a long paper kept in the form of a roll. The independent variable
time (t) then corresponds to the strip-length axis and the physical variables
measured (y) are related to the chart width. Tracings are obtained by a writing
process at sites on the chart short axis (y) corresponding to the physical variables
magnitudes with the strip being moved at constant velocity to generate the time
axis.

Page 14 of 34
Graphs cannot be interpreted if essential information is absent; scales and
reference levels for each physical variable recorded and for time are all
necessities. Additional information concerning the experimental conditions of the
recording is also necessary and is preferably printed by the apparatus (data,
investigated item, type of experiment, etc.). Figure 15.1 shows different
components of a strip chart recorder. A typical industrial strip chart recorder is
shown in Figure 15.2

Strip chart recorders consist of a roll or strip of paper that is passed linearly
beneath one or more pens. As the signal changes, the pens deflect producing the
resultant chart. Strip chart recorders are well suited for recording of continuous
processes.

Figure 15.1 Strip chart recorder Figure 15.2 Industrial strip

chart recorder

A strip chart consists of the following:


Chart/Paper Long graph paper kept on two rollers, lower roller drags
the paper vertically with the help of a motor.

Chart Speed Selector Controls the speed of the roller at some specified
speed selected by the operator and hence controls the time scale.

Range Selector Amplifier or attenuator which is to be adjusted
according to the amplitude level of physical variable. If the physical
variable to be recorded is of very low amplitude then it needs to be
amplified with proper gain. The gain value is adjusted by selecting
proper range.

Page 15 of 34
 motor
with
suitabl

Stylus Driving System Moves the stylus in proportion to the e gear
physical variable to be recorded, in most recorders, a synchronous assemb
motor is used for driving the paper. ly. The

radial
Stylus Create marking/impression on the moving graph paper [most positio
recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus, which (pointer) moves n of
over a calibrated scale thus showing instantaneous value of the quantity
the pen
being measured]. at any
time
The most commonly used mechanisms employed for making marks on the papers indicat
are es the
 Pen and ink: Marking with ink-filled stylus instant
aneous
 Thermal type: Marking with heated stylus on temperature sensitive paper value
(e.g., fax paper) of the
quantit
 Impact type: Marking with pressure sensitive paper (e.g., carbon paper) y under
measur
 Electrostatic stylus: Marking with charged stylus on plain paper ement.

 Optical type: Marking with light ray on photosensitive paper typical

industri

ii) Circular Chart Recorder circular

recorde
A circular chart recorder records data in a circular format. The paper is spun r is
beneath one or more pens as shown in Figure 15.5. The pens are deflected shown in
proportion to the varying signal resulting in a circular chart. Circular chart
recorders are ideal for batch processes where a set process time is known. The Figure
15.6.
charts are normally designed to rotate in standard time periods, such as 1 hour, 24
hours, 7 days, etc., although many recorders are flexible enough to accommodate
non-standard time periods.

These recorders were developed mainly to take advantage of the availability and
convenience of a spring-wound clock and synchronous motor movements to drive
the chart in a circular direction. The circular chart used here has concentric circles
ruled on it to form its scales as shown in Figure 15.5. In addition, there are printed
arcs extending

from the centre of the chart to the paper’s edge. As the pen of the recorder is
moved, it swings along these arcs; these arcs are called the ‘time arcs’. The speed
of the rotation of the chart is usually one revolution per 24 hours or per seven days
or any other speed, which can be conveniently obtained by using a synchronous

Page 16 of 34
Figure 15.5 Circular chart recorder. Figure 15.6 Industrial circular chart recorder

Chart diameter is limited to a maximum of 0.3 m. Speed of the chart is also limited,
resolution along the scale length is usually non-uniform and the charts do not run for
a long period. Magnitude of several variables can be recorded on a single chart which
makes it easy and convenient to analyze the interrelationship of various
measurements and also saves the panel mounting space.

The various drives for circular charts are classified as follows:

a. Mechanical (spring clock drive)

b. Pneumatic (air lock drive)

c. Electric (synchronous regulated dc motor or motor wound spring)

d. Dual powered drive (duplex), i.e., a synchronous motor and spring clock
mechanical drive

e. Externally controlled drives

Circular chart recorders are particularly suitable for direct actuation by a number of
mechanical sensors such as bellows, bourdon tubes, etc.

Page 17 of 34
iii) X-Y Recorder

With the development of the potentiometric principle, users were aware that a record
was often required as the resultant of two varying signals, and thus the X-Y plotter was
introduced (Figure 15.7). Today, X-Y plotters are as flexible as conventional
potentiometric instruments, except that they have two completely independent servo
systems to operate the X and Y channels. The two most popular sizes are A4 and A3
(297 mm × 210 mm, 420

mm × 297 mm, respectively). Sensitivities similar to those obtainable with Y-t

instruments are achieved, and, often, the more comprehensive instruments are also
fitted with a time axis t, which provides single or repetitive time sweeps against the Y
axis.

XY recorders accept two inputs and create a chart or graph of one input versus the
other. They are commonly used to determine the relationship between the two inputs.
For example, in a chemical process, an XY recorder might be used to monitor the effect
temperature has on the pressure of the process. A typical industrial XY recorder is
shown in Figure 15.7.

Figure 15.7 Industrial XY recorder

This system has a pen which can be positioned along the two axes with the writing
paper remaining stationary. There are two amplifier units, one amplifier actuates the
pen in the Y-direction as the input signal is applied, while the second amplifier actuates
the pen in the X-direction. The movements of the pen in X-and Y-directions are
automatically controlled by means of a motor, pulleys and a linear potentiometer.
Obviously, trace of the marking pen will be due to the combined effects of two signals
applied simultaneously. In these recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another
emf There are many variations of X-Y recorders. With the help of these recorders and
appropriate transducers, a physical quantity may be plotted against another physical
quantity. Figure 15.8 shows a block diagram of a typical analog X-Y recorder.

Page 18 of 34
Different components of an XY recorder are shown in the figure below.

Fig

Figure 15.8 Different components of an XY recorder

Operation

A signal enters in each of the two channels.

The signals are attenuated to the inherent full-scale range of the recorder (often
0.5 mA). The signal then passes to a balance circuit where it is compared with an
internal reference voltage.
The error signal (i.e., the difference between the input signal voltage and the
reference voltage) is fed to a “chopper” which converts dc signal to an ac signal.
The signal is then amplified in order to actuate a servomotor which is used to
balance the system and hold it in balance as the value of the quantity being
recorded changes.

The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously. Thus, we
get a record of one variable with respect of another.

Page 19 of 34
 Advantages

 The instantaneous relationship between two physical quantities can be

recorded.

 The relationship between either electrical or non-electrical quantities can

be recorded.

 In modem types of recorders, zero offset adjustments are available.

Applications of X-Y recorders

 Plotting of stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves and vibrations
amplitude against swept frequency

 Pressure-volume diagrams for LC engines

 Pressure-flow studies for lungs

 Lift drags wind tunnel tests

 Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance versus

temperature

 Plotting the output from electronic calculators and computers

 Speed-torque characteristics of motor

 Regulation curves of power supplies

 Plotting of characteristics of vacuum tubes, Zener diodes, rectifiers and

transistors, etc.

iii) Hybrid Recorders

Hybrid chart recorders represent the latest generation of chart recorder and
basically consist of a potentiometric chart recorder with an added microprocessor.
The microprocessor provides for selection of range and chart speed, and also
allows specification of alarm modes and levels to detect when measured variables
go outside acceptable limits. Additional information can also be printed on charts,
such as names, times and dates of variables recorded. Microprocessor-based,
hybrid versions of circular chart recorders also now exist. A typical industrial
hybrid recorder is shown in Figure 15.9.
A hybrid recorder can function as a recorder or data logger. Like a standard
recorder, the hybrid recorder can generate a chart of the inputs. However, it can
also produce a digital stamp of the data similar to a data logger.

Page 20 of 34
They are commonly available in multichannel designs although one print head
normally handles all channels.

Figure 15.9 Industrial hybrid recorder. Figure 15.10 Industrial paperless

recorder.

This makes the hybrid recorder a cost-effective solution for multichannel systems
although the response time is not as fast as recorders which have a unique pen for
each channel.

v) Paperless Recorders
Paperless recorders are one of the latest types of recorders to emerge on the
market. Paperless recorders display the chart on the recorders’ graphic display
rather than print the chart on paper. The data can normally be recorded in internal
memory or to a memory card for later transfer to a computer. The major benefit of
paperless recorders is conservation of paper and easy transfer to a computer. A
typical industrial paperless recorder is shown in Figure 15.10 above.

vi) Ultraviolet Recorders

The limited bandwidth problem of galvanometric recorders are due to system

moment of inertia and spring constants can be reduced limited to the maximum
bandwidth to about 100 Hz. Ultraviolet recorders work on very similar principles to
standard galvanometric chart recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in
system inertia and spring constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a
pen system on the moving coil. This mirror reflects a beam of ultraviolet light onto
ultraviolet sensitive paper. It is usual to find several of these mirror-galvanometer
systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to provide a multi-channel
recording capability, as illustrated in Figure 15.11.

Page 21 of 34
Figure 15.11 Internal recording components of UV recorder

This arrangement enables signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with

a typical inaccuracy of ±2% full scale, while it is possible to obtain satisfactory
permanent signal recordings by this method. Special precautions are necessary to
protect the ultraviolet sensitive paper from light before use and to spray a fixing
lacquer on it after recording. Such instruments must also be handled with extreme
care, because the mirror galvanometers and their delicate mounting systems are
easily damaged by relatively small shocks. In addition, ultraviolet recorders are
significantly more expensive than standard chart recorders.

Page 22 of 34
b) Magnetic Disk Tape Type Recorder

At present, magnetic recording technology dominates the recording industry. It is

used in the forms of hard disk, floppy disk, removable disk, and tape with either
digital or analog mode. In its simplest form, it consists of a magnetic head and a
magnetic medium, as shown in Figure15.12. The head is made of a piece of
magnetic material in a ring shape (core), with a small gap facing the medium and
a coil away from the medium. The head records (writes) and reproduces (reads)
information, while the medium stores the information. The recording process is
based on the phenomenon that an electric current I generates a magnetic flux f as
described by Ampere’s law. The flux f leaks out of the head core at the gap, and
magnetises the magnetic medium which moves from left to right with a velocity V
under the head gap. Depending on the direction of the electric current i, the
medium is magnetized with magnetization M pointing either left or right. This
pattern of magnetization is retained in the memory of the medium even after the
head moves away.

Magnetic tapes are still popular in several areas such as

 Medical research

 Patient monitoring

 Surveillance

 Spying

 Production control

Figure 15.12 Magnetic tape recording

(B) Digital Recording

Digital recorder records the data in the form of ‘1’ and ‘0’. There are several
types of digital recorders. The following section discusses data loggers and
magnetic-type digital recorders.

Page 23 of 34
i) Data Logger

Data loggers are is a stand-alone device that can record information electronically
from internal or external sensors or other equipment that provide digital or serial
outputs.

Key Features of Data Loggers

a. Stand-alone Operation Most data loggers are normally configured with a

PC, some models can be configured from the front panel provided by the
manufacturer. Once the data loggers are configured, they don’t need the
PC to operate.

b. Support for Multiple Sensor Types Data loggers often have universal
input type which can accept input from common sensors like
thermocouple, RTD, humidity, voltage, etc.

c. Local Data Storage All data loggers have local data storage or internal
memory unit, so all the measured data is stored within the logger for
later transfer to a PC.

d. Automatic Data Collection Data loggers are designed to collect data at

regular intervals, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year if necessary, and
the collection mode is often configurable.

Data logging and recording are both analog terms in the field of measurement.
Data logging is basically measuring and recording of any physical phenomena or
electrical parameter over a period of time. The physical phenomena can be
temperature, strain, displacement, flow, pressure, voltage, current, resistance,
power, and many other parameters. Typical industrial data loggers are shown in
Figure 15.16.

Figure 15.16 Typical data loggers

Page 24 of 34
The data logger collects information about the state of any physical system from the
sensors. Then the data logger converts this signal into a digital form with the help of an
A/D converter. This digital signal is then stored in some electronic storage unit, which
can be easily transferred to the computer for further the analysis, the schematic
diagram of a data-logging application in industrial environment is shown in Figure
15.17.

Figure 15.17 Industrial data logging and display

A few basic components that every data logger must have are shown in Figure 15.17,
which are:

 Hardware components like sensors, signal conditioning, and analog-to- digital

converter, etc.

 Long-term data storage, typically onboard memory or a PC

 Software for collecting data, analysing and viewing

Functions of Data Loggers

Beyond the acquiring and storing data, a data logger often performs various kinds of
other jobs like offline and online analysis, display, sharing data with other devices
connected with the network, reporting events and providing alarm whenever some
critical situation arises. A complete data-logging application typically requires most of
the elements shown in Figure 15.18.

Figure 15.18 Different components of data loggers

ii) Digital Tape Recording

The very mention of the name digital tape recording brings the picture of hard drives,
flash memories, etc. to our mind, but this also refers to another method of recording
on the good old magnetic tape as well. Figure 15.19 shows the digital tape-recording
mechanism.

Figure 15.19 Digital tape-recording mechanism

The only difference is that the signals are recorded in the form of 0s and1s which are
typical of the digital world. Obviously, it would require modulation of some form or
the other, to convert analog to digital signals and hence there are several methods of
magnetic tape recording which fall under the category of digital recording.

Some of these methods are

 Return-to-bias method

 Return-to-zero method

 Non-Return-to-zero method

The detailed description of these methods would be a bit too complicated here so we
will just go through the basics of one of these, let us say the Return-to-Bias (RB)
method. Figure (15.19) schematically shows the digital recording/reproducing process.
First, all user data are encoded into a binary format—a serial of 1s and 0s. Then a write
current i is sent to the coil. This current change its direction whenever a 1 is being
written. Correspondingly, a change of magnetization, termed a transition, is recorded in
the medium for each 1 in the encoded data. During the reproducing process, the
electric voltage induced in the head coil reaches a peak whenever there is a transition
in the medium. A pulse detector generates a pulse for each transition. These pulses are
decoded to yield the user data. The minimum distance between two transitions in the
medium is the flux change length B, and the distance between two adjacent signal
tracks is the track pitch W, which is wider than the signal track width w. The flux
change length can be directly converted into bit length with the proper code
information. The reciprocal of the bit length is called linear density, and the reciprocal
of the track pitch is termed track density.
The information storage area density in the medium is the product of the linear density
and the track density. This area density roughly determines how much information a
user can store in a unit surface area of storage medium, and is a figure of merit for a
recording technique. Much effort has been expended to increase the areal density. For
example, it has been increased 50 times during 90’s.

Display System

The display system acts as a final link between the measuring process and the user. If
the display is not easy to see and easy to understand then that process is
compromised. The user’s sensory capabilities and cognitive characteristics, therefore,
must both be addressed in display-system selection. Furthermore, display technologies
and performance capabilities are easier to evaluate in the context of their intended
application. The following are the various kind of commonly used display system.

1) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) was developed for television in the 40s. Now it has wide
range of applications in oscilloscopes, radar and monitors, etc. It consists of a glass
envelope made from a neck and cone. All air has been extracted so that it contains a
vacuum. At the narrow end are pins which make connection with an internal electron
gun, as shown in Figure 15.20. Voltages are applied to this gun to produce a beam of
electrons. This electron beam is projected towards the inside face of the screen.
Different basic component of CRTs is electron gun, electron accelerating anode,
horizontal and vertical electric field coils, electron beam and a screen coated with
phosphor. The electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons. The anodes
accelerate the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low-frequency electric
field that allows for constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. There are
two sets of deflecting coils: horizontal and vertical. (In the figure, only one set of coils is
shown for simplicity). The intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam
produces a tiny, bright visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen.

The screen is covered with a fine layer of phosphorescent elements, called phosphors,
which emit light by excitation when electrons strike them, creating a lit-up dot called a
pixel.

Figure 15.20 Internal components of a CRT

To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting coils,
and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the electron beam. This causes
the spot to race across the screen from right to left, and from top to bottom, in a
sequence of horizontal lines called the raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the
spot moves in a pattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-
column page of text. But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye
sees a constant image over the entire screen.

The illustration shows only one electron gun. This is typical of a monochrome, or single-
colour CRTs. However, virtually all CRTs today render colour images. These devices have
three electron guns, one for the primary colour red, one for the primary colour green,
and one for the primary colour blue. The CRT thus produces three overlapping images:
one in red (R), one in green (G), and one in blue (B). This is the so called RGB colour
model.

2) Light Emitting Diode (LED)

One of the cheapest and convenient ways to display information electronically is by

using Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs). It is basically a p-n junction photodiode when
excited at forward-bias condition emits. It can be easily interfaced with a simple
electronic circuit and is durable and reliable. These LEDs are often arranged in different
formats to display information. Among these, the seven segments configuration and dot
matrix display are very common and widely used. The seven-segment configuration of
an LED arranged in the form of the digit 8 can be restrictive in that it does not
adequately allow the display of some alphanumeric characters. By contrast, the
versatility of a dot-matrix arrangement allows an LED unit to display more complicated
shapes. There are two common methods of LED unit display: seven-segment and dot-
matrix LED display.

i) The Seven Segment Display

One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual display.
Individual LEDs can of course display the binary states, i.e., ‘ON’ or OFF’. But when
some numbers or characters are to be displayed then some arrangement of the LEDs
are required. One possibility is a matrix of LEDs in a 7 × 5 array. However, if only
numbers are to be displayed then this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to
arrange the minimum possible number of LEDs in such a way that it can represent a
number requiring only 7 LEDs. A common technique is to use a shaped piece of
translucent plastic to operate as a specialized optical fibre, to distribute the light from
the LED evenly over a fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off
figure “8”. The result is known as a seven-segment LED.
Seven-segment displays having a wide range of applications. They used in clocks,
watches, digital instruments, digital balances and many household appliances
already have such displays.
There are basically two type of seven-segment displays—common cathode and
common anode. The common-anode type is shown in Figure 15.21, where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’,
‘d’, ‘e’, ‘f’ and ‘g’ represent individual LEDs which are arranged as shown in the
figure. In order to display numbers often decimal point have to be displayed. For
that, another LED has been added, which is represented by ‘dp’ (decimal point).

A typical seven-segment display unit is shown in Figure 15.22. Figure 15.23 shows the
pin diagram of a common anode type seven-segment display. That means that the
positive leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is the Pin 3 in this case.
Each LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To
make it work, you need to connect the pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment
light up, connect the ground pin for that LED to ground. A resistor is required to limit
the current. Rather than using a resistor from each LED to ground, you can just use
one resistor from Vcc to the pin 3 to limit the current.

Figure 15.21 Common anode connection of seven segment display unit

Figure 15.22 Typical seven segment display unit. Figure 15.23 Pin diagram of
seven segment display unit
Table 15.1 shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, d, E,
and F. ‘0’ means that pin is connected to ground. ‘1’ means that pin is connected
to Vcc.

Table 15.1 Forming numbers and letters.

3) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)

The Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the
current electronic revolution. It is an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop
and every personal organizer. Liquid crystal is an organic compound that polarizes any
light that passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field by
changing the alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the
light polarization that it introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel
sheets of glass, with a matching pattern of transparent electrode on each sheet. Figure
15.27 shows different layers of a typical LCD display. When a voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern
appears in the crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based
on seven segment digits or dot matrix formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms.
Many general-purpose displays are available commercially.

The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists
of a very large number of elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is
sandwiched between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of glass has a transparent
conductive pattern bonded to it.
The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric field is impressed on the
conductors.

Figure 15.27 Different layers of a typical LCD display

A sheet of polarizing material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front and
rear glass covers. As incident light of random polarization enters the top polarizer, it is
stopped except for that which is polarized in the proper direction. With no electric field
applied, the light is twisted or its polarization is changed by the spiral pattern of the
crystals. The bottom polarizer is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light
is now aligned with the bottom polarizer and passes through. The display is now
transparent and appears light.

A simple black-or-white LCD display works by either allowing daylight to be reflected

back out at the viewer or preventing it from doing so—in which case the viewer sees a
black area. The liquid crystal is the part of the system that either prevents light from
passing through it or not.

The crystal is placed between two polarizing filters that are at right angles to each other
and together block light. When there is no electric current applied to the crystal, it
twists light by 90°, which allows the light to pass through the second polarizer and be
reflected back. But when the voltage is applied, the crystal molecules align themselves,
and light cannot pass through the polarizer: the segment turns black, this phenomenon
is shown in Figure 15.28.

Many other types Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop
and CRT replacement market including full colour versions. These include double and
Triple Twisted Nematic (DSTN and TSTN) displays and the Active-matrix Thin-film
Twisted Nematic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted Nematic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN)
displays. Unfortunately, these advanced displays are too expensive for most of the
calculator market.
TN LCDs almost completely dominates today’s calculator market due to their
extremely low power requirements, thin size and low cost.

Figure 15.28 Working principle of LCD

Table 15.3 Comparison of CRT and LCD

 4) Flat Panel Display

Flat-screen monitors, often termed Flat Panel Displays (FPDs), are becoming more
and more popular, as they take up less space and are less heavy than traditional
CRT monitors. Other greater advantages of FPDs are they consume less energy
when compared to CRT monitors, and also have less electromagnetic radiation.
There are basically two types of Flat Panel Display (FPD)—the popular one is Liquid
Crystal Display (LCD) and the other one is Plasma Display Panel (PDP).

The theory of Liquid Crystal Displays was discussed in the LCD section. Here,
Plasma Display Panel (PDP) will be discussed in brief.

i) Plasma Display Panel (PDP)

A Plasma Display Panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display now commonly used
for large TV displays (typically above 32 ¢¢). It is often used in the home
environment and is becoming increasingly popular in modern cultures.

Figure 15.29 Working principle of plasma display

A plasma display panel is based on emitting light by exciting gases. The gas used
in plasma screens is a mixture of argon (90%) and xenon (10%). Gas is contained
within cells, each one corresponding to a pixel that corresponds to a row electrode
and column electrode, which excite the gas within the cell. A typical green colour
cell is shown in Figure 15.29, where red and blue colour cells are located nearby.
By modulating the voltage applied across the top and bottom electrodes and by
changing the frequency of excitation, the inert gas can be excited.
The gas excited this way produces ultraviolet radiation (which is invisible to the
human eye). With blue, green, and red phosphors distributed among the cells, the
ultraviolet radiation is converted into visible light, so that pixels (made up of 3
cells) can be displayed in up to 16 million colors (256 × 256 × 256). Plasma
technology can be used to create large-scale high-contrast screens, but plasma
screens are still expensive. What’s more, power consumption is more than 30
times higher than for an LCD screen. A typical plasma TV of SAMSUNG Corp. is
shown in Figure 15.30.