Republic of the Philippines

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY

The National Engineering University
Alangilan Campus
Golden Country Homes, Alangilan, Batangas City, Batangas, Philippines 4200
Tel Nos.: (+63 43) 425-0139 loc. 2121 / 2221
E-mail Address: [email protected] | Website Address: http://www.batstate-u.edu.ph

College of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

GE 403
Laboratory Exercise 4:
DEM Generation using Surfer

Submitted to:
Engr. Molly D. Endaya

Submitted by:
Sherrie Mae H. Bijasa
Nala Shane M. Briones

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GRIDDING METHODS OUTPUTS
KRIGING

Contour

3D Wireframe

3D Surface

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TRIANGULATION WITH LINEAR INTERPOLATION

Contour

3D Wireframe

3D Surface

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RADIAL BASIS FUNCTION

Contour

3D Wireframe

3D Surface

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POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION

Contour

3D Wireframe

3D Surface

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EXPLANATION OF THE MATHEMATICAL OR THEORETICAL AND COMPUTER
ALGORITHM OF EACH GRIDDING METHOD (RESEARCH AND INCLUDE YOUR
SOURCES).

Kriging
Mathematical or Theoretical
Kriging is a gridding method that generates surfaces from a set of scattered points
containing the coordinates (x, y, and z). It is an interpolation method that uses geostatistical
methods based on statistical models which considers the statistical relationships among the
set of measured points. By determining the correlation between the data given, kriging has
the capability to predict and produce a surface despite having unknown points in the data
(esri, n.d.). Thus, kriging can estimate a variable that was not observed by utilizing the
relationship between the points near the unknown variable.
The general formula for kriging is Ẑ(𝑠0 ) = ∑𝑁 𝑖=1 𝜆𝑖 𝑍 (𝑠𝑖 ), wherein 𝑍(𝑠𝑖 ) is defined
as the measured value at the ith location, 𝜆𝑖 is the unknown weight for the measured value
at the ith location, s0 as the prediction location, and N as the number of measured values.
Semivariogram is a crucial component in generating a Kriging model. It is a plot of
measured variance of distances between all of the data points in a set. It depicts spatial
autocorrelation of the sample set of data, wherein it is commonly defined by a range, sill,
and nugget. Range is the value where autocorrelation among points exists based on
distance. Sill, on the other hand, is the distance at which points are no longer spatially auto
correlated, and nugget is defined as the error or random effect (Scheeres, 2016).

Computer Algorithm
Variogram of kriging has different component types a software can process that
generates different outputs. In Surfer, these types include linear, logarithmic, exponential,
gaussian, power, quadratic, rational quadratic, spherical, wave (hole effect), cubic, and
pentaspherical. Linear is the default variogram for kriging. It is a general-purpose multi-
scale option suited to sparsely and/or irregularly sampled data. Spherical, on the other hand,
is a component suitable for modelling most variables where there is a finite range beyond
which the influence of the data should fall to zero. Cubic, a piecewise model that has a
finite range beyond which the influence of the data should fall to zero, and the variogram
value is the constant sill; the exponential variogram which is used in modelling precious
metals such as gold. Then, the gaussian variogram model with an asymptotic and approach
but never quite reaches the sill (Seequent, n.d.).

Triangulation with Linear Interpolation

Mathematical or Theoretical
Triangulation utilizes Delaunay triangulation method, wherein it creates a series of
triangles from the set of points then interpolates grid nodes based on the slopes of the
triangles generated. Additionally, the triangles from connected points are made to not
intersect with other triangles. This gridding method is fast and does not extrapolate beyond
the values of the data range, so it does not create predicted data and assigns a NoData value
to the grid nodes outside its data limits (SurferHelp, n.d.).

Computer Algorithm
One of the options to modify the output of triangulation with linear interpolation
method of a set of data is the anisotropy. Anisotropy refers to the property of being
directionally dependent. It is a functional setting for interpolating grid nodes, wherein it
eliminates trends in the data. Its subcomponents include the ratio and angle. Anisotropy
ratio is the value defined as the relative weight of the points when interpolating the grid
nodes. It is highly recommended to use the default value, 1, but it can also be computed by
getting the quotient of maximum range and minimum range. Anisotropy angle, on the other
hand, is the angular direction of the major axis (Golden Software, n.d.).

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Radial Basis Function
Mathematical or Theoretical
Radial basis functions are means to approximate multivariable (also called
multivariate) functions by linear combinations of terms based on a single univariate
function (the radial basis function). This is radialised so that it can be used in more than
one dimension. They are usually applied to approximate functions or data which are only
known at a finite number of points (or too difficult to evaluate otherwise), so that then
evaluations of the approximating function can take place often and efficiently.
Primarily in computational applications, functions of many variables often need to
be approximated by other functions that are better understood or more readily evaluated.
This may be for the purpose of displaying them frequently on a computer screen for
instance, so computer graphics are a field of practical use. Further applications include the
important fields of neural networks and learning theory. Since they are radially symmetric
functions which are shifted by points in multidimensional Euclidean space and then
linearly combined, they form data-dependent approximation spaces. This data-dependence
makes the spaces so formed suitable for providing approximations to large classes of given
functions. It also opens the door to existence and uniqueness results for interpolating
scattered data by radial basis functions in very general settings, particularly in many
dimensions (Buhmann, 2010).

Computer Algorithm
Radial basis function (RBF) networks are widely applied in function
approximation, system identification, chaotic time series forecasting, etc. To use a RBF
network, a training algorithm is absolutely necessary for determining the network
parameters. The existing training algorithms, such as orthogonal least squares (OLS)
algorithm, clustering and gradient descent algorithm, have their own shortcomings
respectively. In this paper, we propose a training algorithm based on a novel population-
based evolutionary technique, quantum-behaved particle swarm optimization (QPSO), to
train RBF neural network. The proposed QPSO-trained RBF network was tested on non-
linear system identification problem and chaotic time series forecasting problem, and the
results show that it can identify the system and forecast the chaotic time series more quickly
and precisely than that trained by the particle swarm algorithm (Lian, Huang, Chen, & Gao,
2008).

Polynomial Regression
Mathematical or Theoretical
Multivariate polynomial regression was used to generate polynomial iterators for
time series exhibiting autocorrelations. A stepwise technique was used to add and remove
polynomial terms to ensure the model contained only those terms that produce a
statistically significant contribution to the fit. An approach is described in which datasets
are divided into three subsets for identification, estimation, and validation. This produces
a parsimonious global model that is can greatly reduce the tendency towards undesirable
behaviours such as overfitting or instability. The technique was found to be able to identify
the nonlinear dynamic behaviour of simulated time series, as reflected in the geometry of
the attractor and calculation of multiple Lyapunov exponents, even in noisy systems.
The technique was applied to times series data obtained from simulations of the
Lorenz and Mackey – Glass equations with and without measurement noise. The model
was also used to determine the embedding dimension of the Mackey – Glass equation
(Vaccari & Wang, 2007).

Computer Algorithm
In simple linear regression algorithm only works when the relationship between the
data is linear. But suppose if we have non-linear data then Linear regression will not
capable to draw a best-fit line and it fails in such conditions. Polynomial regression is a
form of linear regression where only due to the Non-linear relationship between dependent
and independent variables we add some polynomial terms to linear regression to convert it
into Polynomial regression.

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 Polynomial Regression is a form of Linear regression known as a special case of
Multiple linear regression which estimates the relationship as an nth degree polynomial.
Polynomial Regression is sensitive to outliers so the presence of one or two outliers can
also badly affect the performance (Agrawal, 2021).

COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF YOUR CHOSEN GRIDDING METHODS, THEIR

INHERENT ERRORS, ASSUMPTIONS, ADVANTAGES, DISADVANTAGES, WHERE
THEY ARE USED, ETC.

Kriging
Inherent Errors
 Since kriging is default to be an exact interpolator, there is bound to have an error
in the model if there are measurement errors faced beforehand. These errors may
include uncertainty in the measurement device, location, and data integration.
 In the instance that the number of observed sample data is small, the interpolation
accuracy is decreased.

Assumptions
The two main assumptions for kriging to provide the best linear unbiased
predictions are:
Stationary: joint probability distribution does not vary across the study space
Isotropy: uniformity in all directions

Advantages
 Predictions are based on a spatial statistical analysis of the data
 Best linear unbiased estimator (BLUE)
 Provides a quantified interpolation errors or uncertainty on the estimated surface
 Can be an exact or smoothing interpolator
 May extrapolate grid values beyond the given Z-range values
 Take variation bias toward specific directions into account
 Remains efficient in condition of sparse data
 Less affected by clustering and screening effects than other methods

Disadvantages
 Requires more time to compute and process large data set
 More computationally intensive and complex than other local methods
 Assumptions may be difficult to meet in the real environmental setting and
exposure
 May cause the interpolated values to vary from the real values

Uses
Used to predict values in geographic areas from a given set of measurements. This
includes measurements for mining, soil, geology, and environmental science.

Output
Smooth Appearance

Triangulation with Linear Interpolation

Inherent Errors
Because this method heavily relies on the data to generate triangles, the gathered
set of data will determine the error in the output.

Advantages
 Fast interpolator
 Handles large numbers of sample points efficiently

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  Provides appraisal of unknown value by the value of linearity
 Preserves the precision of the input data while simultaneously modeling the values
between known points

Disadvantages
 May generate distinct triangular surface on the map with the areas containing sparse
data sets
 Does not extrapolate grid values beyond the given Z-range values

Uses
Best used when data are evenly distributed over the grid
Output
Triangular Facets

Radial Basis Function

Inherent Errors
All data points on both sides of the line are used when interpolating the grid nodes,
regardless of the position on either side of the line. However, if a grid node is
located on the boundary line then the value of the grid node becomes the value of
the boundary file.

Advantages
 It can handle large sets of data and produce a smooth surface.
 Takes the user-specified function and fits it through the data values.

Disadvantages
 Not an ideal method if the data has large changes in surface values within short
distances.

Uses
It generates an accurate interpretation of most data sets.

Output
Smooth Appearance

Polynomial Regression
Inherent Errors
 "The system of regression equations is singular" could be caused by a number of
factors:
1. The data you are trying to grid is collinear (that is, data all in a line). Add
some additional data points off the existing line of points, or choose a
different method.
2. If you don't have enough data points, you may not be able to go as high as
third order (cubic). Try a quadratic polynomial.
3. There is a high discrepancy between the X and Y data values and the Z data
values. For example, your X data and Y data is in the range of a hundred
thousand or million range (i.e. UTM or State Plane values), but your Z data
is roughly around 0.01 or some other very small number. This causes the
polynomial equation coefficients to be extremely small, which introduces
instabilities into the fit equation and illustrates the limitations of computer
precision.

Advantages
 Very fast for any amount of data.
 Can extrapolate grid values beyond your data's Z range.

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 Disadvantages
 Not really an interpolator because it does not attempt to predict unknown Z values.

Uses
It define large-scale trends and patterns in your data.

Output
Titled Plane

INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTION

Bijasa
 Generate contour, 3D Surface, and 3D Wireframe in Polynomial Regression
Method
 Create the mathematical or theoretical explanation, as well as the computer
algorithm in Radial Basis Function and Polynomial Regression Methods
 Create the comparative analysis and their inherent errors, uses, advantages,
disadvantages, and output in Radial Basis Function and Polynomial Regression
Methods
 Compiled the paper to be submitted after its completion

Briones
 Generate contour, 3D Wireframe, and 3D Surface in Kriging, Triangulation with
Linear Interpolation, and in Radial Basis Function Methods
 Create the mathematical or theoretical explanation, as well as the computer
algorithm in Kriging and Triangulation with Linear Interpolation Methods
 Create the comparative analysis and their inherent errors, assumptions, uses,
advantages, disadvantages, and output in Kriging and Triangulation with Linear
Interpolation Methods
 Compile the 12 images containing the generated contour, 3D Wireframe, and 3D
Surface in selected Gridding Methods

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REFERENCES:
Agrawal, R. (2021, July 9). Retrieved from Analytics Vidhya:
https://www.analyticsvidhya.com/blog/2021/07/all-you-need-to-know-about-polynomial-
regression/#:~:text=Polynomial%20Regression%20is%20a%20form%20of%20Linear%2
0regression%20known%20as,also%20badly%20affect%20the%20performance.

Buhmann, M. (2010). Retrieved from Scholarpedia:

http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Radial_basis_function

esri. (n.d.). How Kriging works. Retrieved from ArcGIS for Desktop:
https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/10.3/tools/3d-analyst-toolbox/how-kriging-
works.htm

Golden Software. (n.d.). A Basic Understanding of Surfer Gridding Methods – Part 1. Retrieved
from Golden Software: https://support.goldensoftware.com/hc/en-us/articles/231348728-
A-Basic-Understanding-of-Surfer-Gridding-Methods-Part-1#trilininter

Lian, G., Huang, K., Chen, J., & Gao, F. (2008, September 29). Retrieved 2010, from Taylor and
Francis Online: https://doi.org/10.1080/00207160802166465

Scheeres, A. (2016, September 12). Kriging: Spatial Interpolation in Desktop GIS. Retrieved
from azavea: https://www.azavea.com/blog/2016/09/12/kriging-spatial-interpolation-
desktop-gis/

Seequent. (n.d.). Experimental Variography and Variogram Models. Retrieved from leapfrog:
https://help.seequent.com/Geothermal/5.0/en-GB/Content/estimation/variograms.htm

SurferHelp. (n.d.). Triangulation with Linear Interpolation. Retrieved from SurferHelp:

https://surferhelp.goldensoftware.com/griddata/idd_grid_data_triangulation.htm#:~:text=
The%20Triangulation%20with%20Linear%20Interpolation,are%20intersected%20by%2
0other%20triangles.

Vaccari, D., & Wang, H. (2007, August 3). Retrieved from Taylor and Francis Online:
https://doi.org/10.1080/13873950600883691

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