Computer Generations classified into five types such as

following.
1. First Generation
2. Second Generation
3. Third Generation
4. Fourth Generation
5. Fifth Generation

First Generation Computers: Vacuum Tubes

First Generation Computers were working during the 1940-1956 with proper maintenance
of Vacuum Tubes on those computers. Vacuum Tubes most useful to process the data in
memory. First generation computers use more power from electricity and that produce
high heat. Those devices vulnerable to the attacks and get malfunctions. First generation
computers perform several operations bit those take more time due to the simple
programming skills. Those types of computers take the input from punched cads and give
output to the users on screens. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer design with
vacuums tubes in first generation in U.S that developed to use at U.S. census Bureau.
Second Generation Computers: Transistors
Second Generation computers were working in between the 1956-1963 with Transistors. It
little bit better than first generation computers. Actually, this type invented in the year of
1947 but that came to existence after 1950. The size of the computers decreases than first
generation and available with cheap cost. Second-generation computers maintain binary
and assembly level languages. The famous high level languages COBOL, FORTRAN and etc
developed in second generation computers. Second generation computers designed for
atomic energy industry.

Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits

Third generation computers were working during the 1964-1971 with Integrated Circuits
those IC’s placed at the place of transistors. IC’s maintain transistors along with the silicon
chips and semiconductors. They can increase the system performance and efficiency. This
generation computers use keyboard and Operating system those provide high efficiency
to the users.
Fourth Generation Computers: Microprocessors
Fourth generation computers are working from 1971 that work with the Microprocessors.
It consists of several IC’s and places them in single environment to complete operations
quickly. It has proper input and output controls so, number of people are working
with fourth generation computers. This generation design by the IBM Company in 1981
and Apple Company by 1984. Fourth generation computers occupy limited space.

Fifth Generation Computer: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computers are in designing mode with Artificial Intelligence technology.
The major applications will go to install in fifth generation computers those are voice
reorganization techniques and parallel processing techniques. Those may be useful to the
nano technology, quantum technology and etc. Fifth generation computing devices offer
self learning and self-organization features to the users.
1.1 INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, computers are an integral part of our lives. They are used for the reservation of
tickets for airplanes and railways, payment of telephone and electricity bills, deposit and
withdrawal of money from banks, processing of business data, forecasting of weather conditions,
diagnosis of diseases, searching for information on the Internet, etc. Computers are also used
extensively in schools, universities, organizations, music industry, movie industry, scientific
research, law firms, fashion industry, etc.

The term computer is derived from the word compute. The word compute means to calculate. A
computer is an electronic machine that accepts data from the user, processes the data by
performing calculations and operations on it, and generates the desired output results. Computer
performs both simple and complex operations, with speed and accuracy.

This chapter discusses the history and evolution of computer, the concept of input-process-output
and the characteristics of computer. This chapter also discusses the classification of digital
computers based on their size and type, and the application of computer in different domain
areas.

1.2 DIGITAL AND ANALOG COMPUTERS

A digital computer uses distinct values to represent the data internally. All information are
represented using the digits Os and 1s. The computers that we use at our homes and offices are
digital computers.

Analog computer is another kind of a computer that represents data as variable across a
continuous range of values. The earliest computers were analog computers. Analog computers
are used for measuring of parameters that vary continuously in real time, such as temperature,
pressure and voltage. Analog computers may be more flexible but generally less precise than
digital computers. Slide rule is an example of an analog computer.

This book deals only with the digital computer and uses the term computer for them.

1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key characteristics
of a computer. A brief overview of these characteristics are—

 Speed The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions per
second. Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete otherwise,
can be completed in a few seconds using the computer. For example, calculation and
generation of salary slips of thousands of employees of an organization, weather
forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data related to temperature,
pressure and humidity of various places, etc.
 Accuracy Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. For example, the computer can
accurately give the result of division of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
 Diligence When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or
fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy
from the start till the end.
 Storage Capability Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required. A limited amount of data can be stored,
temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk and
compact disk can store a large amount of data permanently.
  Versatility Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks with the
same ease. At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in
the next moment you may play music or print a document.

Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform tasks that it has been
programmed to do. Computer cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.

1.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTER

Until the development of the first generation computers based on vacuum tubes, there had been
several developments in the computing technology related to the mechanical computing devices.
The key developments that took place till the first computer was developed are as follows—

 Calculating Machines ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating device for
counting of large numbers. The word ABACUS means calculating board. It consists of
bars in horizontal positions on which sets of beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have
10 beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds, etc. An abacus is shown in Figure 1.1

Figure 1.1 Abacus

 Napier’s Bones was a mechanical device built for the purpose of multiplication in 1617
ad. by an English mathematician John Napier.
 Slide Rule was developed by an English mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used extensively till late 1970s. Figure 1.2 shows a
slide rule.
 Figure 1.2 Slide rule

 Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could add
and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels, gears and cylinders.
 Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing Machine was a mechanical device that could both
multiply and divide. The German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz built
it around 1673.
 Punch Card System was developed by Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801. He
invented the punched card reader that could recognize the presence of hole in the
punched card as binary one and the absence of the hole as binary zero. The Os and 1s are
the basis of the modern digital computer. A punched card is shown in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3 Punched card

 Babbage’s Analytical Engine An English man Charles Babbage built a mechanical

machine to do complex mathematical calculations, in the year 1823. The machine was
called as difference engine. Later, Charles Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also
called the father of computer.
 Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith. The
machine could read the information from a punched card and process it electronically.

The developments discussed above and several others not discussed here, resulted in the
development of the first computer in the 1940s.

1.5 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER

The computer has evolved from a large—sized simple calculating machine to a smaller but much
more powerful machine. The evolution of computer to the current state is defined in terms of the
generations of computer. Each generation of computer is designed based on a new technological
development, resulting in better, cheaper and smaller computers that are more powerful, faster
and efficient than their predecessors. Currently, there are five generations of computer. In the
following subsections, we will discuss the generations of computer in terms of—

1. the technology used by them (hardware and software),

2. computing characteristics (speed, i.e., number of instructions executed per second),
3. physical appearance, and
4. their applications.

1.5.1 First Generation (1940 to 1956): Using Vacuum Tubes

 Hardware Technology The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes (Figure 1.4)
for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory. The input to the computer was through
punched cards and paper tapes. The output was displayed as printouts.

Figure 1.4 Vacuum tube

 Software Technology The instructions were written in machine language. Machine

language uses 0s and 1s for coding of the instructions. The first generation computers
could solve one problem at a time.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in milliseconds.
 Physical Appearance These computers were enormous in size and required a large room
for installation.
 Application They were used for scientific applications as they were the fastest computing
device of their time.
 Examples UNIVersal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC), Electronic Numerical Integrator
And Calculator (ENIAC), and Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer
(EDVAC).
The first generation computers used a large number of vacuum tubes and thus generated a lot of
heat. They consumed a great deal of electricity and were expensive to operate. The machines
were prone to frequent malfunctioning and required constant maintenance. Since first generation
computers used machine language, they were difficult to program.

1.5.2 Second Generation (1956 to 1963): Using Transistors

 Hardware Technology Transistors (Figure 1.5) replaced the vacuum tubes of the first
generation of computers. Transistors allowed computers to become smaller, faster,
cheaper, energy efficient and reliable. The second generation computers used magnetic
core technology for primary memory. They used magnetic tapes and magnetic disks for
secondary storage. The input was still through punched cards and the output using
printouts. They used the concept of a stored program, where instructions were stored in
the memory of computer.

Figure 1.5 Transistors

 Software Technology The instructions were written using the assembly language.
Assembly language uses mnemonics like ADD for addition and SUB for subtraction for
coding of the instructions. It is easier to write instructions in assembly language, as
compared to writing instructions in machine language. High-level programming
languages, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN were also developed during
this period.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in microseconds.
 Physical Appearance Transistors are smaller in size compared to vacuum tubes, thus, the
size of the computer was also reduced.
 Application The cost of commercial production of these computers was very high,
though less than the first generation computers. The transistors had to be assembled
manually in second generation computers.
  Examples PDP-8, IBM 1401 and CDC 1604.

Second generation computers generated a lot of heat but much less than the first generation
computers. They required less maintenance than the first generation computers.

1.5.3 Third Generation (1964 to 1971): Using Integrated Circuits

 Hardware Technology The third generation computers used the Integrated Circuit (IC)
chips. Figure 1.6 shows IC chips. In an IC chip, multiple transistors are placed on a
silicon chip. Silicon is a type of semiconductor. The use of IC chip increased the speed
and the efficiency of computer, manifold. The keyboard and monitor were used to
interact with the third generation computer, instead of the punched card and printouts.

Figure 1.6 IC chips

 Software Technology The keyboard and the monitor were interfaced through the
operating system. Operating system allowed different applications to run at the same
time. High-level languages were used extensively for programming, instead of machine
language and assembly language.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time was in nanoseconds.
 Physical Appearance The size of these computers was quite small compared to the
second generation computers.
 Application Computers became accessible to mass audience. Computers were produced
commercially, and were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.
 Examples IBM 370, PDP 11.

The third generation computers used less power and generated less heat than the second
generation computers. The cost of the computer reduced significantly, as individual components
of the computer were not required to be assembled manually. The maintenance cost of the
computers was also less compared to their predecessors.

1.5.4 Fourth Generation (1971 to present): Using Microprocessors

 Hardware Technology They use the Large Scale Integration (LSI) and the Very Large
Scale Integration (VLSI) technology. Thousands of transistors are integrated on a small
silicon chip using LSI technology. VLSI allows hundreds of thousands of components to
be integrated in a small chip. This era is marked by the development of microprocessor.
Microprocessor is a chip containing millions of transistors and components, and,
 designed using LSI and VLSI technology. A microprocessor chip is shown in Figure 1.7.
This generation of computers gave rise to Personal Computer (PC). Semiconductor
memory replaced the earlier magnetic core memory, resulting in fast random access to
memory. Secondary storage device like magnetic disks became smaller in physical size
and larger in capacity. The linking of computers is another key development of this era.
The computers were linked to form networks that led to the emergence of the Internet.
This generation also saw the development of pointing devices like mouse, and handheld
devices.

Figure 1.7 Microprocessors

 Software Technology Several new operating systems like the MS-DOS and MS-
Windows developed during this time. This generation of computers supported Graphical
User Interface (GUI). GUI is a user-friendly interface that allows user to interact with the
computer via menus and icons. High-level programming languages are used for the
writing of programs.
 Computing Characteristics The computation time is in picoseconds.
 Physical Appearance They are smaller than the computers of the previous generation.
Some can even fit into the palm of the hand.
 Application They became widely available for commercial purposes. Personal computers
became available to the home user.
 Examples The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. The components of the
computer like Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory were located on a single chip.
In 1981, IBM introduced the first computer for home use. In 1984, Apple introduced the
Macintosh.

The microprocessor has resulted in the fourth generation computers being smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors. The fourth generation computers are also portable and more reliable.
They generate much lesser heat and require less maintenance compared to their predecessors.
GUI and pointing devices facilitate easy use and learning on the computer. Networking has
resulted in resource sharing and communication among different computers.

1.5.5 Fifth Generation (Present and Next): Using Artificial Intelligence

The goal of fifth generation computing is to develop computers that are capable of learning and
self-organization. The fifth generation computers use Super Large Scale Integrated (SLSI) chips
that are able to store millions of components on a single chip. These computers have large
memory requirements.

This generation of computers uses parallel processing that allows several instructions to be
executed in parallel, instead of serial execution. Parallel processing results in faster processing
speed. The Intel dualcore microprocessor uses parallel processing.

The fifth generation computers are based on Artificial Intelligence (AI). They try to simulate the
human way of thinking and reasoning. Artificial Intelligence includes areas like Expert System
(ES), Natural Language Processing (NLP), speech recognition, voice recognition, robotics, etc.

1.6 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

The digital computers that are available nowadays vary in their sizes and types. The computers
are broadly classified into four categories (Figure 1.8) based on their size and type—(1)
Microcomputers, (2) Minicomputers, (3) Mainframe computers, and (4) Supercomputer.

Figure 1.8 Classification of computers based on size and type

1.6.1 Microcomputers

Microcomputers are small, low-cost and single-user digital computer. They consist of CPU,
input unit, output unit, storage unit and the software. Although microcomputers are stand-alone
machines, they can be connected together to create a network of computers that can serve more
than one user. IBM PC based on Pentium microprocessor and Apple Macintosh are some
examples of microcomputers. Microcomputers include desktop computers, notebook computers
or laptop, tablet computer, handheld computer, smart phones and netbook, as shown in Figure
1.9.

Figure 1.9 Microcomputers

 Desktop Computer or Personal Computer (PC) is the most common type of

microcomputer. It is a stand-alone machine that can be placed on the desk. Externally, it
consists of three units—keyboard, monitor, and a system unit containing the CPU,
memory, hard disk drive, etc. It is not very expensive and is suited to the needs of a
single user at home, small business units, and organizations. Apple, Microsoft, HP, Dell
and Lenovo are some of the PC manufacturers.
 Notebook Computers or Laptop resemble a notebook. They are portable and have all the
features of a desktop computer. The advantage of the laptop is that it is small in size (can
be put inside a briefcase), can be carried anywhere, has a battery backup and has all the
functionality of the desktop. Laptops can be placed on the lap while working (hence the
name). Laptops are costlier than the desktop machines.
 Netbook These are smaller notebooks optimized for low weight and low cost, and are
designed for accessing web-based applications. Starting with the earliest netbook in late
2007, they have gained significant popularity now. Netbooks deliver the performance
needed to enjoy popular activities like streaming videos or music, emailing, Web surfing
or instant messaging. The word netbook was created as a blend of Internet and notebook.
  Tablet Computer has features of the notebook computer but it can accept input from a
stylus or a pen instead of the keyboard or mouse. It is a portable computer. Tablet
computer are the new kind of PCs.
 Handheld Computer or Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) is a small computer that can
be held on the top of the palm. It is small in size. Instead of the keyboard, PDA uses a
pen or a stylus for input. PDAs do not have a disk drive. They have a limited memory and
are less powerful. PDAs can be connected to the Internet via a wireless connection. Casio
and Apple are some of the manufacturers of PDA. Over the last few years, PDAs have
merged into mobile phones to create smart phones.
 Smart Phones are cellular phones that function both as a phone and as a small PC. They
may use a stylus or a pen, or may have a small keyboard. They can be connected to the
Internet wirelessly. They are used to access the electronic-mail, download music, play
games, etc. Blackberry, Apple, HTC, Nokia and LG are some of the manufacturers of
smart phones.

1.6.2 Minicomputers

Minicomputers (Figure 1.10) are digital computers, generally used in multi-user systems. They
have high processing speed and high storage capacity than the microcomputers. Minicomputers
can support 4–200 users simultaneously. The users can access the minicomputer through their
PCs or terminal. They are used for real-time applications in industries, research centers, etc. PDP
11, IBM (8000 series) are some of the widely used minicomputers.

Figure 1.10 Minicomputer

1.6.3 Mainframe Computers

Mainframe computers (Figure 1.11) are multi-user, multi-programming and high performance
computers. They operate at a very high speed, have very large storage capacity and can handle
the workload of many users. Mainframe computers are large and powerful systems generally
used in centralized databases. The user accesses the mainframe computer via a terminal that may
be a dumb terminal, an intelligent terminal or a PC. A dumb terminal cannot store data or do
processing of its own. It has the input and output device only. An intelligent terminal has the
input and output device, can do processing, but, cannot store data of its own. The dumb and the
intelligent terminal use the processing power and the storage facility of the mainframe computer.
Mainframe computers are used in organizations like banks or companies, where many people
require frequent access to the same data. Some examples of mainframes are CDC 6600 and IBM
ES000 series.

Figure 1.11 Mainframe computer

1.6.4 Supercomputers

Supercomputers (Figure 1.12) are the fastest and the most expensive machines. They have high
processing speed compared to other computers. The speed of a supercomputer is generally
measured in FLOPS (FLoating point Operations Per Second). Some of the faster supercomputers
can perform trillions of calculations per second. Supercomputers are built by interconnecting
thousands of processors that can work in parallel.

Supercomputers are used for highly calculation-intensive tasks, such as, weather forecasting,
climate research (global warming), molecular research, biological research, nuclear research and
aircraft design. They are also used in major universities, military agencies and scientific research
laboratories. Some examples of supercomputers are IBM Roadrunner, IBM Blue gene and Intel
ASCI red. PARAM is a series of supercomputer assembled in India by C-DAC (Center for
Development of Advanced Computing), in Pune. PARAM Padma is the latest machine in this
series. The peak computing power of PARAM Padma is 1 Tera FLOP (TFLOP).
Figure 1.12 Supercomputer
1.0 Objective
Objective of this lesson get acquaint the reader to the basic units of a
computer system; learn about the digit symbols, base, and
representation of various number systems, methods of number system
conversions; understand with the coding schemes for the internal
storage of characters.

1.1 Introduction
Computer is an electronic device, which accepts data, processes it and
outputs the results in the form of reports. Original objective of computer
was to make fast calculations, but the modern computers besides
performing fast calculations can store large volume of data, process and
retrieve data as and when desired. Hence computers are also known as
data processors.

Computer is a system. A system is a group of integrated parts to achieve a

common objective. Computer is made up of integrated parts (input, control,
ALU, storage and output unit) .All the parts work together to process data.

The computer accepts input and outputs data in an alphanumeric form.

Internally it converts the input data to meaning binary digits, performs
the instructed operations on the binary data, and transforms the data
from binary digit form to understandable alphanumeric form.

1.2 Usage of Computers in Everyday life

Computers have a significant impact on everyday life in nearly all areas.
Computers are used in:
Airline and Railway Reservations
Medical Diagnosis
Whether Forecasting
Payment of telephone and electricity bills
Banking
Space research
Online Education
 Sending and receiving data throughout the world using internet

Figure 1.1 Usage of Computer

1.3 Anatomy of a Digital Computer (MODEL OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER)
There are three major components of a digital computer:
(i) Input Unit
(ii) Central Processing Unit
(a) Memory
(b) ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
(c) Control Unit
(iii) Output Unit
General arrangement of various units is shown in Figure 1.2
 Basic Computer Peripherals
 Block Diagram of CPU–

Von Neumann Architecture

 Figure 1.2 Block Diagram of a Computer

INPUT UNIT
This unit contains devices with the help of which we enter data into
computer. This unit is linked between user and computer. Input devices
translate the human-being information into the form understandable by a
computer.
The input, output and storage devices are described as on line, when they
are directly connected to the CPU, when not connected directly they are
described as off-line.
Examples of input devices:
{i) Keyboard (ii) VDU ( Visual Display Unit) (iii) Mouse (iv) light pen (v)
Scanner (vi) Joystick (vii) Voice recognizer (viii) Card reader (ix)
Digitizer (x) Floppy drive (xi) Tape drive (xii) Cartridge tape drive (xiii)
OCR (Optical Character Reader) (xiv) OMR (Optical Mark Reader) etc.

OUTPUT UNIT
Output unit consists of devices with the help of which we get the
information from computer. Output unit is a link between computer and
user. Output devices translate the computer’s output into the form
understandable by user.

Examples of Output devices:

(i) VDU (ii) Line Printer (iii) Dot matrix printer (iv) Daisy wheel printer
(v) Laser printer (vi) Colour graphic terminal (vii) Graph plotter (viii)
Floppy drive (ix) Tape drive (x) Disk drive (xi) Cartridge tape drive etc.

ALU(Arithmetic and Logic Unit)

This unit consists of two subsections:
• Arithmetic section
• Logic section
Arithmetic Section: Function of Arithmetic section is to perform
arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication & division.
All complex operation are done by making repetitive use of above
operation.
Logic Section: Function of logic section is to perform logic operations
such as comparing, selecting, matching and merging of data.

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) contains a number of storage

locations referred to as registers. These registers are composed of
electronic circuitry having the capability of adding, subtracting,
multiplying rounding off etc., the number of registers in a computer vary
from model to model. However, the basic registers in any computer are the
adder and the accumulator.
An interesting side limit is that a computer can only add. It can not carry
out subtraction, Multiplication and division operating in the way it is done
manually. For these operations, it also has to take the add route. Thus if 15
to be multiplied by 10, the computer adds the data item 15 times. For
subtraction and division, it employs the 1’s complement method, which
again is a form of the addition process. The basic add & subtract operation
have been carried out by the computer by means of dedicated circuits
called micropragrams.

CONTROL UNIT
Control unit controls the operations of all parts of computers. It does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.
• It retrieves instructions from the main memory and determines what is
to be taken.
• It then retrieves the data required to be processed from the main
memory.
• It causes the CPU to actually carry out required operations and
determine whether the required operation have been carried out or not.
• It places the processed results in the output area of the memory.
• It fetches the next instruction from the memory and repeat the whole
cycle of operations outlined above.

In addition to the above, the control unit also oversees that erroneous data
does not enter into the system (for example, numeric data consisting of
alphabets or a number is divided by zero). When such an event occurs, the
control unit displays an error on the screen of the CPU to warn computer
operator.
In order to carry out these operations, the control unit also has its own set
of registers (like those of ALU). The basic register of the control unit are
the instruction register, the decoder & the address register.

MEMORY OR STORAGE UNIT

The function of storage unit is to store instruction, data and intermediate
results. This unit supplies information to the other units of the computer
when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit or main memory or
primary storage. Memory is part of the main computer system. The
processor access the main memory in direct fashion, that is, the processor
can access any location of this memory either to read information from it
or store information in it. The primary memory is implemented by two
types of memory technologies. The first is called random access memory
(RAM) an other is read only memory(ROM). Its size affects speed, power
and capabilities.
Random Access Memory
RAM directly provides the required information to the processor. It can be
defined as a block of sequential memory locations, each of which has a
unique address determining the location and those locations contain a data
element. Storage locations in main memory are addressed directly by the
CPU’s instructions. It is volatile in nature, as soon as powered turned off,
the information stored in it will lost. RAM can be further divided into two
categories:
• Dynamic Random Access Memory
• Static Random Access Memory
Dynamic Random Access Memory(DRAM):
This type of memory holds the data in dynamic manner with the help of a
refresh circuitry. Each second or even less that contents of each memory
cell is read and the reading action refreshing the contents of the memory.
Due to refreshing action, this memory is called dynamic RAM.
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM):
SRAM along with DRAM is essential for a system to run optimally,
because it is very fast as compared to DRAM. It is effective because most
programs access the same data repeatedly and keeping all this information
in the first written to SRAM assuming that it will be used again soon.
SRAM is generally included in computer system by the name of cache.

Read Only Memory (ROM)

As the name suggests, read only memory can only be read, not written.
CPU can only read from any location in the ROM but cannot write. The
contents of ROM are not lost even in case of a sudden power failure,
making it non-volatile in nature. The instructions in ROM are built into
the electronic circuit of the chip. These instructions are called firmware.
Read only memory is also random access in nature, which means that
CPU can randomly access any location within ROM. Improvement in
technology for construction flexible ROM has brought,
PROM(Programmable Read Only Memory), EPROM(Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory), and EEPROM(Electrical Erasable
Read Only Memory) into existence.
What is ROM? Types of ROM
Read-Only Memory (ROM), is a type of electronic
storage that comes built in to a device during
manufacturing. You’ll find ROM chips in computers
and many other types of electronic products; VCRs,
game consoles, and car radios all use ROM to
complete their functions smoothly. ROM chips come
built into an external unit – like flash drives and other
auxiliary memory devices – or installed into the
device’s hardware on a removable chip. Non-volatile
memory like ROM remains viable even without a
power supply.
What Does ROM Do?
ROM stores “firmware,” which is permanent software that’s hard -wired with integrated circuits. The
manufacturer fits a specifically designed ROM chip into a device during the building process.

Unlike the non-volatile memory of a hard drive, it’s difficult and time-consuming to rewrite a ROM
chip’s memory. In most cases, it’s impossible to alter integrated circuits, which may mean you can’t
update more basic forms of ROM. You may be able to reprogram some modern types of ROM, but only
at slow speeds and with special equipment. These hurdles make traditional ROM poorly-suited for
functions that require frequent feature updates or are prone to bugs or security issues .

Conventional ROM is pre-programmed to suit its intended hardware. It often controls functions that are
both integral to the utility of the device and unlikely to need modification or personalization. One kind
of data usually stored in a ROM chip is the Basic Input-Output System (BIOS). A device’s BIOS
controls the way the device responds to cues from the user at the most fundamental level, such as a
computer’s “booting-up” process that occurs when the system powers on.

Types of ROM
Here’s an overview of the different types of ROM, ranging from the most basic to more versatile .

-ROM: Classic or “mask-programmed” ROM chips contain integrated circuits. A ROM chip sends a
current through a specific input-output pathway determined by the location of fuses among the rows
and columns on the chip. The current can only travel along a fuse-enabled pathway and thus can only
return via the output the manufacturer chooses. Rewiring is functionally impossible, and so there’s no
way to modify these types of ROM chips. While producing a template for an original ROM chip is
laborious, chips made according to an existing template can be much more affordable.
-PROM: Programmable ROM, or PROM, is essentially a blank version of ROM that you can purchase
and program once with the help of a special tool called a programmer. A blank PROM chip allows
current to run through all possible pathways; the programmer chooses a pathway for the current by
sending a high voltage through the unwanted fuses to “burn” them out. Static electricity can create the
same effect by accident, so PROMs are more vulnerable to damage than conventional ROMs.

-EPROM: Erasable Programmable ROM chips allow you to write and rewrite them many times. These
chips feature a quartz window through which a specialized EPROM programmer emits a specific
frequency of ultraviolet light. This light burns out all the tiny charges in the EPROM to reopen its
circuits. This exposure effectively renders the chip blank again, after which you can reprogram it
according to the same process as a PROM. EPROM chips will eventually wear out, but they frequently
have lifetimes of over 1000 erasures.

-EEPROM: To modify an Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM chip, apply localized electrical
fields to erase and rewrite the data. EEPROMs have several advantages over other types of ROM.
Unlike the earlier forms, you can rewrite EEPROM without dedicated equipment, without removing it
from the hardware, and in specifically designated increments. We don’t have to erase and rewrite
everything to make a single edit.

Cache Memory Cache is a piece of very fast memory, made from high-speed
static RAM that reduces the access time of the data. It is very expensive
generally incorporated in the processor, where valuable data and program
segments are kept. Main reason for introducing cache in between main memory
and processor is to compensate the speed mismatch. Figure shows 1.3 the
role of cache in memory-processor communication.
 Main
Memory

Cache
Memory

Processor

Figure 1.3 Role of Cache in Memory- Processor Communication

Secondary Memory
Secondary storage provides large, non-volatile, and inexpensive storage
for programs and data. However, the access time in secondary memory is
much larger than in primary memory. Secondary storage permits the
storage of computer instructions and data for long periods of time.
Secondary storage is also called auxiliary or bulk memory. Magnetic
disks(Hard disks, floppy disks, CD-RW) and magnetic tape are examples
of secondary storage.
Hierarchy of memories
• Internal Processor Memories
These consists of set of high-speed registers that are internal to a
processor and are used as temporary storage locations to hold data
during processing.
• Primary Memory or Main Memory
This memory is large as compared to inter processor memory but
not as fast. This memory has direct link with internal processor
memory.
• Secondary Memory or Auxiliary Memory
This memory is much large in size compared to main memory but is
slower.
There is another kind of memory used in modern computers. It is called
cache memory. Though it is a part of main memory, it is logically
positioned between the internal memory, registers, and main memory.
Figure 1.4 shows the hierarchy of memories.

CPU
Registers

Cache
Memory

Main Memory

Secondary Memory

Figure 1.4 The Memory hierarchy

Unit of Memory
The various units used to measure computer memory, are as follows:
Bit: Bit, Abbreviation for binary digit, is basic unit of memory. It is
smallest unit of information. Bit is represented by a lower case b.
Byte: A unit of 8 bits is known as a byte. Hence, a byte is able to contain
any binary number between 00000000 and 11111111. It is represented by
uppercase B.
Kilobyte: One KB is equal to 1024 bytes.
Megabyte: One MB is equal to 1024 KB.
Gigabyte: One GB is equal to 1024 MB.
Terabyte: One TB is equal to 1024 GB.

1.4 HUMAN-BEING VS COMPUTER

People receive input data by seeing of hearing them. These data are then
stored in the brain, which also acts a control and logic unit. The outputs
form this type of information processing is oral or written reports and in
some cases a variety of physical actions. The human mind, acting as a
control and logic unit, can perform many operations on data: adding,
subtracting, multiplying, and dividing, storing result, repeating the
operations on different sets of data, comparing two items, outputting result
in a prearranged manner, and revising the processing as a result of
changed instruction.
The human mind is slow in performing the arithmetic computations
required and is rather erratic in applying rules of logic. On the other hand,
where judgement is required, the human mind is indispensable. Judgement
is needed to make decisions in data processing systems because of the
difficulty of planning to handle all eventualities. In summary, human
being alone are inefficient data processors, but they become a vital
element of all data processing system because of the need for decision and
judgement. Similarities and differences of a computer system with human
being is given in Table 1.1 and Table 1.2 respectively.
 TABLE 1.1`
COMPUTER VS HUMAN-BEING ( SILILARITIES )
COMPUTER OPERATION CORRESPONDING
ELEMENT PERFORMED BY ACTION PERFORMED
COMPUTER BY A HUMAN-BEING
Input 1. Reads data in machine 1. Reads data in written or
readable form and stores printed form and memorize
in internal memory or in it or file it.
file storage.
Main 2. Hold input data and 2. Data and instructions are
memory instructions temporarily stored in brain and can be
before it is processed. recalled whenever beeded.
ALU 3. Performs arithmetic 3. Perform arithmetic
computations. computations.
4. Manipulates symbols 4. Manipulates symbols.
( such as alphabetic
characters or words ). 5. Makes comparisons.
5. Makes comparisons.
Control 6. Choose a path of 6 Makes a decision as to
Unit instruction based on a further processing based
comparison or an result to that point.
examination of the result
to that point. 7. Remembers data or
7. Retrieves any data form retrieves data from a file.
internal memory or files
storage.

Output 8. Output the result on an 8. Write of speak the result.

output device.

TABLE 1.2
COMPUTER VS HUMAN BEING ( DIFFERENCES )
BASIC FOR HUMAN
COMPARISON BEING COMPUTER
1. Speed of Relatively slow Extremely fast.
execution.
2. Ability to Poor Very good, no
continue decrease in
processing performance even
over an after a lapse of
extended extended working
period. periods.
3. Accuracy Relatively Accurate
to remember inaccurate.
information.
4. Ability to Usually slow. Fast
retrieve
information.
5. Accuracy Makes error Makes virtually no
of work. errors.
6. Ability to Imperfect and Perfect, if properly
consistently may be programmed.
follow malicious.
instructions.
7. Ability to Fairly good. Totally absent.
innovate in
new
situation.
8. Ability to Fairly good. Totally absent.
learn by trial
and error.

1.5 Representation of Information inside a Computer

Digital Computers use Binary number system to represent all types of information
inside the computers. Binary number system is suitable for this purpose due to
following reasons:
• Electronic components in digital computers operate in binary mode. A
switch is either on (1) or off (0); a transistor is either conducting (1) or
non-conducting(0).
• Computers have to handle only two digits (bits) rather than 10. So binary
system simplifies design, reduce the cost and improve the reliability of the
computer.
• Everything that can be done with decimal system can also be done using a
binary system.

Character Codes-Representation of alphanumeric characters in bits 0 and

1 is done by character codes. There are three widely used character codes:
• Binary Coded Decimal(BCD)
• American standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
• Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code(EBCDIC)

1.5.1 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)

BCD uses 6 bits and can represent 26=64 characters.
The first three bits are used as zone bits and the last three bits indicate the
digit.

zone numeric

0 1 2 3 4 5

1.5.2 AmericanStandard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII ) Code

ASCII-7: uses 7 bits and can represent 27=128 characters. The first three bits
are used as zone bits and the last four bits indicate the digit. Hexadecimal
numbers are used as shortcut notation for memory dump.
zone numeric

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

ASCII-8: uses 8 bits and can represent 28 =256 characters. For all practical
purposes an 8-bit code is used.8th bit is added for parity.
Characters are assigned decimal values.
zone numeric

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Representation of alphabets and digits 0-9 using ASCII-7 and ASCII-8 code are
given below in table 1.3 and 1.4
TABLE 1.3

ASCII-7 ASCII-8

Character Decimal zone Numeric zone Numeric

A-O 65-79 100 0001-1111 0100 0001-1111
P-Z 80-90 101 0000-1010 0101 0000-1010

0-9 48-57 010 0000-1001 0010 0000-1001

 TABLE 1.4

Character 6-bit BCD 7-bit 8-bit 8-bit

ASCII ASCII EBCDIC

0 011 0000 1111 0000

…………. ……….. …………

9 101 1001 1111 1001

A 100 0001 1100 0001
B 100 0010 1100 0010
…………. ………..
Z 101 1010 1110 1001

1.5.3 Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC)

It is an 8 bit code. It can represent 28 =256 characters. It is two groups of 4 digits.
Each group represents a hexadecimal number, used as shortcut notation for binary
numbers.
zone numeric

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

EBCDIC
Character zone Numeric
A-I 1100 0001-1001
J-R 1101 0001-1001
S-Z 1110 0010-1001
0-9 1111 0000-1001

RAJIV in ASCII-8

65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O PQ R S T U V W X Y Z

R A J I V
Decimal 82 65 74 73 86

ASCII-8 0101 0010 0100 0001 0100 1010 0100 1001 0101 0110
There are two types of number systems
(a) Non-positional Number System- In non-positional number system 0 is
absent. One example of this system is Roman number system.
I for 1, II for 2, III for 3, IV for 4, V for 5, VI for 6,X for 10,L for 50 etc.
There is no symbol for 0
Due to absence of zero it is not sufficient for arithmetic calculations.

(b) Positional Number System- Numbers are determined by a string of digit

symbols. A number system of base or radix( r ) uses distinct r digit symbols.
It consists of two portions integer and fractional separated by a radix point.
(N) r = Integer portion . fractional portion
 = a n-1a n-2…….a 2 a 1 a 0.b-1 b-2 …… b-m.

The leftmost digit is called MSD and the right most digit is called LSD
Digits a n-1 a n-2…….a 2 a 1 a 0 b-1 b-2 …… b-m.
MSD LSD
Position n-1 n-2 2 1 0 -1 -2 -m
n-1 n-1 2 1 -1 -2
Weight r r r r 1 r r r-m
Quantity a n-1 r n-1 +a n-2 r n-1+……+a 2 r 2 +a 1 r 1+ a 0 + b- 1 r -1+ b-2 r-2+….+b-mr –m
or Value

Number system Base Symbols (Digits) Examples

or
Radix
Binary 2 0,1 1011.11
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 342.45
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 245.98
Hexadecimal 16 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F 2FAC.B98

1.9 Conversions between Number Bases

Converting Decimal to binary, octal, and Hexadecimal
r=base of system in number is to be converted.
This method involves the following steps:
a) Conversion of integer part:
Divide the decimal number by the base ( r) of the target number system. The
remainder is LSD. Continue dividing by r until the quotient is 0; the remainder is
MSD.

b) Conversion of fractional part

Multiply the fractional part by r, the integral part is MSD. Continue multiplying
by r until the fractional part is 0, the integral part is LSD. If a fractional part
repeats stop, the digits recur.
Take r=2 for binary, r=8 for octal and r=16 for hexadecimal.

Decimal to Binary Conversion

Integer Conversion
Divide by 2. Divide the quotient by 2. Repeat until the quotient is 0. Write the
remainders in order. The first remainder gives the lowest order bit.
Example 1.2 Convert (31)10 into binary.

2 31

2 15 1 (LSB)
2 7 1
2 3 1
2 1 1
0 (MSB) (31)10=(11111 )2

Fraction Conversion
Multiply the fraction by 2. Let the integral part be I1. Multiply the fraction
obtained by 2.Let the integral part be I2. Repeat till the fraction disappears. The
binary fraction is .I1 I2 I3….
Example 1.3 Convert (.125)10 into binary.

.125
x2
0.250 I1=1
x2
0.500 I2=0
x2
1.000 I3=1 (.125)10=(.101)2

Example 1.4 Find the binary equivalent of (23.8125)10.

23
11 1
5 1
2 1 (23)10=(10111)2
1 0
0 1

.8125
X2
1.6250 I1=1
X2
1.2500 I2=1
X2
0.5000 I3=0
X2
1.0000 I4=1 (.8125)10=(.1101)2

(23.8125)10=(10111.1101)2
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Conversion of a decimal into a hexadecimal is similar to that of converting a
decimal into its binary equivalent. The decimal part is divided by 16 until it
becomes 0 for integer part conversion. The remainders are than arranged in
reverse order. Similarly the fraction part is converted by multiplying by 16 until
the fraction part reduces to 0. Then the integer part in these multiples is collected
in the order of appearance.

Example1.5 : Convert decimal number 755.9375 to its hexadecimal equivalent.

755 divide by 16 remainder 3 (Quotient 47)
47 divide by 16 remainder 15 (i.e.F) (Quotient 2)
2 divide by 16 remainder 2 (Quotient 0)
hence (755)10 = (2F3)16
Now we convert the fraction part .9375
0.9375
Fraction × 16 Integer part=15 i.e. F
15.0000
Fraction 0.0000
Hence (0.9375)10 = (F)16
Therefore (755.9375)10 = (2F3.F)16

Converting Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal to Decimal

Conversion of a binary, octal, and hexadecimal number to decimal number
involves each digit of the binary, octal, or hexadecimal number to be multiplied
by its weighted position, and then each of the weighted values is added together to
get the decimal number.
an an-1an-2….a0. a-1 a-2…..a-m
n n-1 n-2 0 9 -1 -2 -m
can be obtained as
2n × an+2n-1 × an-1+……+20 × a0 +2-1 × a-1+……2-m × a-m

Example 1.6 Convert the binary number (0110.001)2 into decimal.

Sol.
The decimal equivalent is
23 × 0+22 × 1+21 × 1+20 × 0+2-1 × 0+2-2 × 0 +2-3 × 1=6.125
Thus the decimal equivalent of (0110.001) is 6.125
Example 1.7 Determine decimal equivalent of (456)8
Sol.
82 × 4+81 × 5+80 × 6= 256+40+6
 = 302
Thus the decimal equivalent of (456)8 is (302)10

Example1.8 Determine decimal equivalent of (B14)16

Sol.
162 × B+161 × 1+160 × 4
= 162 × 11+161 × 1+160 × 4
= 2816+16+4=2836
Thus the decimal equivalent of (B14)16 is (2836)10

Converting among Binary, Octal, and Hexadecimal

Converting among binary, octal, and hexadecimal can accomplished easily without
converting to decimal, since base numbers(2, 8, and 16) of all three number systems are
powers of 2. Any octal digit can be written as group of three binary digits while a
hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits. So the conversion is accomplished
by partitioning the binary number into group of three or four digits.

Example 1.9 Determine octal equivalent of (010111)2

Sol
010 111
2 7
Thus the octal equivalent of (010111)2 is (27)8
Example 1.10 Determine binary equivalent of (231)8
Sol
2 3 1
010 011 001
Thus the binary equivalent of (231)8 is 010011001

Example 1.11 Convert (11011101.11010101)2 into its hexadecimal equivalent

1101 1101.1101 0101

hence (11011101.11010101)2= (DD.D5)16
13 13 13 5
Thus the hexadecimal equivalent of 1101 1101 . 1101 0101 is DD.D5

Hexadecimal to Binary conversion

Replace each digit by a set of four binary digits and group these together.
Example1.12 Convert (765.3)16 into binary
Sol
7 6 5 . 3
=0111 0110 0101 .0 011
=011101100101.0011
Thus the binary equivalent of 756.3 is 011101100101.0011

Converting between octal and hexadecimal

The method involves following steps:
1. Convert each octal to 3-bit binary form
2. Combine all the 3-bit binary numbers
3. Segregate the binary numbers into 4- bit binary form by starting the first number
from right bit(LSB) towards the number on the left bit(MSB)
4. Finally, convert these 4-bit blocks into their respective hexadecimal symbols.

Example 1.13 Determine the hexadecimal equivalent of (2327)8

Sol
Octal Number 2 3 2 7
Binary Value 010 011 010 111
Combine all the 0100 1101 0111
3-bit binary
values
Separating the 0100 1101 0111
groups of binary
numbers into the
4-bit binary
number
Hexadecimal 4 D 7
Equivalent
Thus hexadecimal equivalent of (2327)8 is (4D7)16

Example 1.14 Determine octal equivalent of (2B6)16

Sol
Hexadecimal 2 B 6
Number
Binary Value 0010 1011 0110
Combine all the 0010 1011 0110
4-bit binary
values
Separating the 001 010 110 110
groups of
binary numbers
into the 4-bit
binary number
Octal 1 2 6 6
Equivalent
 Thus, octal equivalent of (2B6)16 is (1266)8

1.10 Summary
Computer is an electronic device that performs mathematical and non-
mathematical operations in order to achieve the results. Computer have enters
almost in every field of human life and found applications in various fields such
as medicine and health care, business, science, technology, engineering,
entrainment. Number systems are very important to represent the quantity.
Number systems are of two types viz. non-positional and positional. Non-position
number system (Roman Number system) is not so much popular due to absence
of zero. Positional number system(decimal, binary, octal, hexadecimal) is used
very much now a days. Since a computer can understand only 0 or 1, therefore
binary coded schemes(BCD,ASCII,EBCDIC) are used to represent internal
storage area of the computers. In this scheme each character is represented by
combination of bits.
2.0 Objective
A computer accepts (input) information and manipulates (processes) it to
get desired result (output) on a sequence of instructions. In the previous
lesson, we discussed that a computer system essentially consists of three
components: input devices, central processing unit, and output devices.
Input devices are used to provide data to the central processing unit for
processing. The aim of this lesson is to familiarise you with the various
types of input devices along with their advantages, disadvantages, and
applications.
2.1 Introduction
Input devices are used to provide data to the central processing unit for
processing. After processing, the input data is converted into meaningful
information and this output is presented to the user with the help of output
devices. In computer terminology devices can be refereed as a unit of
hardware, which is capable of providing input to the computer or receiving
output or both. An input device captures information and translates into
form understandable by computer and output devices translate
information into form understandable by human-being as shown in fig
2.1. Input devices let the user talk to the computer. Output devices let
the computer communicate to the user.
The common input devices are keyboards and mouse. The output devices
are monitors and printers.

Input Device Output Device

Data coded in CPU Data coded in

computer human
Understandable Understandable
form form

Figure 2.1 Interrelationship between Input device, CPU and Output

Device
2.2 Input Devices
Input devices can be broadly classified into the following categories:
2.2.1. Keyboard
2.2.2 Pointing Devices
2.2.3. Speech Recognition
2.2.4. Digital Camera
2.2.5 Scanners
2.2.6. Optical Scanners
2.2.1 Keyboard
Keyboard is designed to resemble a regular typewriter with a few
additional keys. A keyboard is the most common data entry device. Using
a keyboard, the user can type text and execute commands. Data is entered
into computer by simply pressing various keys. The layout of a keyboard
come in various styles such as QWERTY, DVORAK, AZERTY but the
most common layout is the QWERTY. It is named so because the first six
keys on the top row of letters are Q,W E, R, T, and Y. The number of keys
on a typical keyboard varies from 82 keys to 108 keys. Portable computers
such as laptops quite often have custom keyboards that have slightly
different key arrangements than a standard keyboard. In addition, many
system manufacturers add special buttons to the standard layout.
Keyboard is the easiest input device, as it does not require any special
skill, it is supplied with a computer so no additional cost is incurred. The
maintenance and operation cost of keyboard is also less. However, using a
keyboard for data entry may be a slow process.

Fig 2.2
Layout of the Keyboard
The layout of the keyboard can be divided into the following five sections:
Typing Keys: These keys include the letter keys (1, 2, A, B, etc.), which
are generally laid out in the same style that was common for typewriters.
Numeric Keypad: Numeric keys are located on the right hand side of the
keyboard. Generally, it consists of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in the
same configuration used by most adding machines and calculators.
Function Keys: The functions keys (FI, F2, F3, etc.) are arranged in a row
along the top of the keyboard and could be assigned specific commands by
the current application or the operating system.
Control Keys: These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes
four directional arrows(← ↑ → ↓ ). These keys allow the user to move the
cursor on the display area one space at a time in either an up, down, left or
right direction. Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page
Up, Page Down, Control (Ctrl), Alternate (A It), and Escape (Esc).
Special Purpose Keys: Apart from the above-mentioned keys, a keyboard
contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock, Num
Lock, Spacebar, Tab, and Print Screen.
Working of a Keyboard
A keyboard is series of switches connected to a small keyboard
microprocessor. When the user presses a key, it causes a change in the
amount of current flowing through the circuit associated specifically with
that key. The keyboard microprocessor detects this change in current flow.
By doing this, the processor can tell when a key has been pressed and
when it is being released. The processor generates the associative code,
known as scan code, of the key and sends it to the operating system. A
copy of this code is also stored in the keyboard's memory.
2.2.2 Pointing Devices
In some applications, keyboard is not convenient. For example, if the user
wants to select an item from a list, the user can identify that items position
by selecting it through the keyboard. However, this action could be
performed quickly by pointing at correct position. A pointing device is
used to communicate with the computer by pointing to location on the
screen. Some of the commonly used pointing devices are mouse,
trackball, joystick, light pen, and touch panel.
2.2.2.1 Mouse
Mouse is a small hand-held pointing device, which is rectangular-shaped
with a rubber ball embedded at its lower side and buttons on the top.
Usually a mouse contains two or three buttons, which can be used to input
commands or information. Figure 3.3 shows a mouse with three buttons.

Figure 2.3 Mouse

The mouse may be classified as a mechanical mouse or an optical mouse,
based on technology it uses.
A mechanical mouse uses a rubber ball at the bottom surface, which
rotates as the mouse is moved along a flat surface, to move the cursor.
Mechanical mouse is the most common and least expensive pointing
device. Microsoft, IBM, and Logitech are some well-known makers of the
mechanical mouse.
An optical mouse uses a light beam instead of a rotating ball to detect
movement across a specially patterned mouse pad. As the user rolls the
 mouse on a flat surface, the cursor on the screen also moves in the
direction of the mouse's movement.
An optical mouse has the following benefits over the mechanical mouse:
• No moving part means less wear and a lower chance of failure.
• Dirt cannot get inside the mouse and hence no interference with the

tracking sensors.
• They do not require a special surface such as a mouse pad.
The cursor of the mouse can be text cursor or graphic cursor. The text
cursor(I) is used for text while the graphic cursor( )is used for pointing
and drawing.
A mouse allows us to create graphic elements on the screen, such as lines,
curves, and freehand shapes. Since it is an intuitive device, it is much
easier and convenient to work as compared to the keyboard. Like keyboard,
usually it is also supplied with a computer; therefore, no additional cost is
incurred. The mouse cannot easily be used with laptop, notebook or
palmtop computers. These need a track ball or a touch sensitive pad called
a touch pad.
Working of a mouse
A mechanical mouse has a rubber ball in the bottom. When the user
moves the mouse, the ball rolls along the surface of the mouse pad, and
the mouse keeps track of how far the ball rolls. This allows it to tell how
far it has moved. Inside the bottom of the mouse are three rollers. These
rollers are mounted at a 90° angle to the one other, one roller measures
how fast the ball is turning horizontally, and the other measures how fast
it is turning vertically. When the ball rolls, it turns these two rollers. The
rollers are connected to axles, and the axles are connected to a small
sensor that measures how fast the axle is turning. Both sets of information
are passed to the electronics inside the mouse. This little processor,
usually consisting of little more than a single chip, uses the information to
determine how fast the mouse itself is Processor Chip moving, and in
what direction. This information is passed to the computer via mouse cord,
where the operating system then moves the pointer accordingly.
The optical mouse uses an infrared light and special mouse pads with fine
grid lines to measure the rotation of the axle. The axle in optical mouse is
connected to a little photo-interrupter wheel with a number of tiny holes in
it. In front of this wheel is a light and on the other side of the wheel is a
light meter. As the wheel turns, the light flashes through the holes in the
wheel. By measuring how often these flashes occur, the light sensor can
measure how fast the wheel is turning and sends the corresponding
coordinates to the computer. The computer moves the cursor on the screen
based on the coordinates received from the mouse. This happens hundreds
of times each second, making the cursor appear to move very smoothly.
2.2.2.2 Trackball
Trackball is another pointing device that resembles a ball nestled in a
square cradle and serves as an alternative to a mouse. In general, a
trackball is as if a mouse is turned upside down. It has a ball, which can be
rotated by fingers in any direction, the cursor moves accordingly. The size
of the ball of the trackball varies from as large as a cue ball, to as small as
a marble. Since, it is a static device so rather than rolling the mouse on the
top of the table, the ball on the top is moved by using fingers, thumbs, and
palms.
This pointing device comes in various shapes and forms but with the same
functionality. The three shapes, which are commonly used, are a ball, a
button, and a square.
 Figure 2.4 Trackball
2.2.2.3 Joystick
Joystick is a device that moves in all directions and controls the movement
of the cursor. The joystick offers three types of control: digital, glide, and
direct.
Digital control allows movement in a limited number of directions such as
up, down, left, and right.
Glide and direct control allow movements in all directions (360 degrees).
Direct control joysticks have the added ability to respond to the distance
and speed which user moves the stick.
A joystick is generally used to control the velocity of the screen cursor
movement rather than its absolute position. Joysticks are mainly used for
computer games, for other applications, which includes flight simulators,
training simulators, CAD/CAM systems, and for controlling industrial
robots.

Figure 2.5 Joystick

2.2.2.4 Light Pen
It is the pen like device, which is connected to the machine by a cable. A
light pen (sometimes called a mouse pen) is a hand-held electro-optical
pointing device which when touched to or aimed closely at a connected
computer monitor, will allow the computer to determine where on that
screen the pen is aimed. It actually does not emit light; its light sensitive-
diode would sense the light coming from the screen. The light coming
from the screen causes the photocell to respond by generating a pulse. This
electric response is transmitted to the processor that identifies the position
to which the light pen is pointing. With the movement of light pen over the
screen, the lines or images are drawn.

Figure 2.6 Light Pen

It facilitates drawing images and selects objects on the display screen by
directly pointing the objects with the pen.
2.2.2.5 Digital Camera
Digital camera stores images digitally rather than recording them on a
film. Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a
computer system and then manipulated with an image editing software
and printed. The big advantage of digital cameras is that making photos
is both inexpensive and fast because there is no film processing.
 Figure 2.7 Digital Camera
All digital cameras record images in an electronic form, that is, the image
is represented in computer's language, the language of bits and bytes.
Essentially, a digital image is just a long string of 1's and 0's that represent
all the tiny colored dots or pixels that collectively make up the image. Just
like a conventional camera, it has a series of lenses that focus light to
create an image of a scene.
Basic difference between digital camera and film-based cameras is that the
digital camera does not have a film; it has a sensor that converts light into
electrical charges.
2.2.2.6 Scanners
There are a number of situations when some information (picture or text)
is available on paper and is needed on the computer disk for further
manipulation. The simplest way would be to take a photograph of the
image directly from the source and convert it into a form that can be saved
on the disk. A scanner scans an image and transforms the image to ASCII
codes (the code used by a computer to represent the characters you find on
your keyboard - letters of the alphabet, numbers, punctuation marks, etc.)
and graphics. These can be edited, manipulated, combined, and then
printed.
Scanners use a light beam to scan the input data. If the data to be scanned
is an image, it can be changed by using the special image editing software.
If the image is a page of text, then the special optical character recognition
software must be used to covert the images of letters in text and this can
be edited by using a word processor.
The two most common types of scanners are hand-held scanner and flat-
bed scanner.
Hand-Held Scanner
A hand-held scanner consists of light emitting diodes, which are placed
over the material to be scanned. This scanner performs the scanning of the
document very slowly from the top to the bottom, with its light on. In this
process, all the documents are converted and then stored as an image.
While working, the scanner is dragged very steadily and carefully over the
document and it should move at a constant speed without stopping, or
jerking in order to obtain best results. Due to this reason, hand-held
scanners are widely used where high accuracy is not of much importance.
The size of the hand-held scanners is

(a) Hand-held scanner (b) Flat-Bed scanner

Figure 2.8
small shown in fig 2.10(a). They come in various resolutions, up to about
800 dpi (dots per inch) and are available in either grey scale or colour.
Flat-Bed Scanner
Flat-bed scanners look similar to a photocopier machine. It consists of a
box containing a glass plate on its top and a lid that covers the glass plate.
This glass plate is primarily used for placing the document to be scanned.
The light beam is placed below the glass plate and when it is activated, it
moves from left to right horizontally. After scanning one line, the beam of
light moves in order to scan the next line and thus, the procedure is
repeated until all the lines are scanned. For scanning, an A4 size document
takes about 20 seconds. These scanners are capable of scanning black and
white as well as colour images. The flat-bed scanners are larger in size
and more expensive than the hand-held scanners shown in fig. 2.10(b).
However, they usually produce better quality images because they employ
better scanning technology.

2.2.2.7 Optical Scanners

There are four types of optical recognition: optical character
recognition (OCR), optical mark recognition (OMR), magnetic ink
character recognition (MICR), and bar code reader.
Optical Character Recognition (OCR)
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) is a process of scanning printed
pages as images on a flatbed scanner and then using OCR software to
recognise the letters as ASCII text. The OCR software has tools for
both acquiring the image from a scanner and recognising the text. In the
OCR system, a book or a magazine article is fed directly into an
electronic computer file, and then this file is edited by using a word
processor. Advanced OCR systems can read text in a large variety of
fonts, but they still have difficulty with handwritten text. OCR works
best with originals or very clear copies and mono-spaced fonts like
Courier.

Figure 2.9 OCR System

Optical Mark Recognition
(OMR)
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) is the process of detecting the presence
of intended marked responses. A mark registers significantly less light
than the surrounding paper. Optical mark reading is done by a special
device known as optical mark reader. The OMR technology enables a
high speed reading of large quantities of data and transferring this data to
computer without using a keyboard. The OMR reader scans the form,
detects the presence of marks, and passes this information to the computer
for processing by application software. Generally, this technology is used
to read answer sheets (objective type tests). In this method, special printed
forms/documents are printed with boxes, which can be marked with dark
pencil or ink. These forms are then passed under a light source and the
presence of dark ink is transformed into electric pulses, which are
transmitted to the computer.

Figure 2.10 Optical Mark Recognition

Optical mark recognition is also used for standardised testing as well as

course enrolment and attendance in education.
OMR has a better recognition rate than OCR because fewer mistakes are
made by machines to read marks than in reading handwritten characters.
Large volumes of data can be collected quickly and easily without the need
for specially trained staff. Usually, an OMR reader can maintain a
throughput of 1500 to 10000 forms per hour. It requires accurate alignment
of printing on forms and need a paper of good quality.

Optical mark recognition is traditionally performed using reflective light

method where a beam of light is reflected on a sheet with marks, to capture
the reflection (presence of mark) or absence of reflection (absence of
mark).
Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
Specifically, it refers to the special magnetic encoding, printed on the
bottom of a negotiable check. This information is machine readable via
bank reader/sorters, which read the visual patterns and magnetic
waveforms of the MICR encoding.
The characters are printed using special ink, which contains iron particles
that can be magnetised. Magnetic ink character readers are used generally
in banks to process the cheques. In case of bank cheques, the numbers
written at the bottom are recorded in MICR (using special magnetic ink),
representing unique cheque numbers, bank, and branch code, etc. A MICR
reads these characters by examining their shapes in a matrix form and the
information is then passed on to the computer.

Figure 2.11 Magnetic-Ink Character Recognition

The banking industry prefers MICR because as compared to the OCR, it
gives extra security against forgeries such as colour copies of payroll
cheques or hand-altered characters on a cheque. The reading speed of the
MICR is also higher. This method is very efficient and time saving for data
processing.
Bar Code Reader
Bar code is a machine-readable code in the form of a pattern of parallel
vertical lines of varying widths. They are commonly used for labelling
goods that are available in super markets, numbering books in libraries,
etc. These codes/stripes are sensed and read by a photoelectric device (bar
code reader) that reads the code by means of reflective light. The
information recorded in bar code reader is then fed into the computer,
which recognises the information from the thickness and spacing of bars.
Bar code readers are either hand-held or fixed-mount. Hand-held scanners
are used to read bar codes on stationary items. With fixed-mount scanners,
items having a bar code are passed by the scanner - by hand as in retail
scanning applications or by conveyor belt in many industrial applications.
A bar code scanner can record data five to seven times faster than a
skilled typist can record. A bar code data entry has an error rate of about I
in 3 million. Bar coding also reduces cost in terms of labour and reduced
revenue losses resulting from data collection errors.

Figure 2.12 Hand-held bar code reader

2.4 Summary
An input device is an electromechanical device which accepts converts the
data or information from user and translates the information into form
understandable by machine. Keyboards are the most commonly used data
entry input devices. Pointing devices (Mouse, Light pen, Touch panel) are
very much popular in GUI software.
 Basic Computer Peripherals
 Output Device –
 Electronic or electromechanical equipment connected to a computer and
used to this device presents the results of the processing in human
readable format.

 examples of input devices

 Monitor (LED, LCD, and CRT etc.)
 Printers (all types)
 Plotters.
 Projector.
 LCD Projection Panels.
 Computer Output Microfilm (COM)
 Speaker(s)
 Head Phone.
 Basic Computer Peripherals

 Computer Monitor -
 A computer monitor is a visual screen display unit
and it is the most common example of an output
device.

 All monitors work with your computer video card

to show a real-time picture of what your
computer’s operating system, programs, and
doing.

 For example, when you type a letter using your

keyboard connected to your computer, it displays
or outputs on your monitor
 Basic Computer Peripherals
 Computer Monitor –
 CRT Monitor –
 The cathode-ray tube is a vacuum tube that contains one or
more electron guns and a phosphorescent screen and is
used to display images.
 Basic Computer Peripherals
 Computer Monitor –
 LCD Monitor –
 A liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor is a
computer monitor or display that uses LCD technology to
show clear images, and is found mostly in laptop computers
and flat panel monitors.
 Basic Computer Peripherals
 Computer Monitor –
 LED Monitor –
 A LED display is a flat panel display that uses an array of
light-emitting diodes as pixels for a video display.
 Basic Computer Peripherals

 Printers -
 a printer is a peripheral device which makes a persistent
representation of graphics or text, usually on paper.
 While most output is human-readable, bar code printers are
an example of an expanded use for printers.

 Types of Printer
 Laser Printers.
 Solid Ink Printers.
 LED Printers.
 Business Inkjet Printers.
 Home Inkjet Printers.
 Multifunction Printers.
 Dot Matrix Printers.
 3D Printers.
 Basic Computer Peripherals

 Printers -
Different Types of Printer

PRINTER

IMPACT PRINTER NON-IMPACT PRINTER

INJET PRINTER
LINE PRINTER DOTMATRIX PRINTER LASER PRINTER

THERMAL PRINTER
PLOTTERS
PHOTO PRINTER

PENBASED PLOTTER ELECTROSTATIC PLOTTERS

 Basic Computer Peripherals

 Speakers -
 Computer speakers are hardware devices that transform the
signal from the computer's sound card into audio.

 Projector -
 A projector or image projector is an optical device that
projects an image onto a surface, commonly a projection
screen.

 Headphone -
 A headset is a hardware device that connects to a telephone
or computer that allow the user to talk and listen while
keeping their hands free.