Unit 3
Unit 3
UNIT 3
INTEGRATION OF
How do we determine the work done by
VECTOR FUNCTIONS
a variable force such as the force of
gravitation? We need to solve line
integrals.
AND LINE INTEGRALS
Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Conservative Vector Fields
Expected Learning Outcomes Scalar Potential
3.2 Integration of a Vector Function Vector Potential
Integrals involving Scalar and Vector 3.5 Summary
Products of Vectors 3.6 Terminal Questions
3.3 Line Integral of a Vector Field 3.7 Solutions and Answers
Representation of a Curve
Parametric Representation
Other Types of Line Integrals
STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, you will learn how to integrate vector functions of a scalar variable and
solve line integrals. Line integrals are a generalization of ordinary integrals that you
have studied in school. In order to learn these concepts better, you should revise
integral calculus that you have studied in school. You must also revise the concepts of
scalar and vector products, the basic concepts of vector functions of a scalar variable
and how to differentiate them, all of which you have studied in Unit 2 of BPHCT-131.
63
Block 1 Vector Analysis
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 of BPHCT-131 and Units 1 and 2 of this course, you have studied
vector functions, scalar and vector fields, and their properties. You have learnt
how to differentiate vector functions and scalar and vector fields. You have
studied the concepts of the gradient of a scalar field, and the divergence and
curl of vector fields. These are differential operations on scalar and vector
fields that find many applications in physics. In this unit, you will learn how to
determine the integrals of vector functions, and scalar and vector fields. You
will also learn how to evaluate line integrals of vector fields.
In Sec. 3.2, you will learn how to integrate a vector function and apply it to
solve some simple problems in physics. In this section you will also learn how
to integrate the scalar and vector products of vector functions and some
applications in physics.
In this unit you will learn how to evaluate line integrals. The line integral is a
generalization of an ordinary integral over a single variable. In a line integral
the path of integration is not a straight line but an arbitrary curve in space.
Line integrals are used extensively in physics. One of the most important
applications of the line integral is to determine the work done by a variable
force. Suppose an object moves along an arbitrary curve in space, (instead of
a straight line) under the action of a force. How would you calculate the work
done by the force in moving the object between any two points on this path?
The work done is the integral of the scalar product of the force field and an
infinitesimal displacement along the path of the object. This is an example of a
line integral.
In Sec. 3.3, you will learn how to evaluate line integrals in which the integrand
is the scalar product of a vector field and a displacement along an arbitrary
path in space. You will also study other types of line integrals of scalar and
vector fields. In Sec. 3.4, you will study about conservative vector fields. You
will see that line integrals can be used to define conservative force fields, an
important concept in physics.
The integrals of vector functions being taken up in this unit involve integration
over a single variable. In physics we often need to evaluate integrals over
arbitrary surfaces and volumes. These involve integrals over two and three
variables. In Unit 4, you will study about surface and volume integrals of a
64 vector field. A brief introduction to integration over two variables is given in
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
Appendix A2 of this block. You should read Appendix A2 after completing your
study of this unit.
We lay down the basic rules for the integration of a vector function with
respect to a scalar. Consider a vector a which is a function of a scalar t. Let
a a(t ) a1(t )ˆi a2 (t )ˆj a3 (t ) kˆ (3.1a)
where a1(t ), a2 (t ) and a3 (t ) are the x, y and z components of a(t ),
respectively. If
da
b (t ) (3.1b)
dt
then the (indefinite) integral of b (t ) with respect to t is a (t ) c, where c is an
arbitrary constant vector. Symbolically, we write:
b (t ) dt a(t ) c (3.2)
In physics, we deal with quantities that generally have dimensions. Therefore, You have studied
c is a vector whose dimension is the same as that of a. In a physical integration in school
problem, c can be determined by using given initial conditions. and you know that
integration is the
In order to evaluate the integral of a vector function such as the one in reverse process of
Eq. (3.2), we express the vector b in its component form: differentiation. This is
also true for the
b(t ) b1(t )ˆi b2 (t )ˆj b3 (t ) kˆ (3.3) integration of vector
functions relative to a
where b1(t ), b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) are the x, y and z components of b(t ) , scalar.
respectively. We can now write the integral of the vector function b(t ) as:
b (t ) dt ˆi b1(t ) dt ˆj b2 (t ) dt kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.4)
da
Note that since b (t ) , we also have:
dt
da1(t ) da 2 (t ) da 3 (t )
b1(t ), b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) (3.5)
dt dt dt 65
Block 1 Vector Analysis
From our knowledge of calculus, using Eq. (3.2), we can also write,
b1(t )dt a1(t ) c1, b2(t )dt a2(t ) c2, and b3 (t )dt a3 (t ) c3 (3.6)
where c1 , c 2 and c 3 are the constants of integration.
So to evaluate b(t )dt , we only need to integrate the scalar functions
b1(t ), b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) with respect to the scalar t, as in ordinary calculus. Note
that, we leave the unit vectors ˆi, ˆj and kˆ outside the integrals as these are
constant and do not depend on t. In the same way, we can write the
expression for the definite integral of a vector function in the interval t1, t2
as follows:
t2 t2 t2 t2
b(t )dt ˆi b1(t )dt ˆj b2 (t )dt kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.7)
t1 t1 t1 t1
1. For
a vector function in three dimensions defined as
b(t ) b1(t ) ˆi b2 (t ) ˆj b3 (t ) kˆ where b1 (t ),b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) are
continuous over the interval t1, t 2 , the indefinite integral of b(t ) with
respect to t is given by:
b (t ) dt ˆi b1(t ) dt ˆj b2 (t ) dt kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.4)
The definite integral of b(t ) over the interval t1, t 2 is:
t2 t2 t2 t2
b(t )dt ˆi b1(t )dt ˆj b2 (t )dt kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.7)
t1 t1 t1 t1
2. For a vector function in two dimensions, b(t ) b1(t )ˆi b2 (t ) ˆj where
b1(t ) and b2 (t ) are continuous over the interval t1, t 2 , the indefinite
integral of b(t ) with respect to t is given by
b(t )dt ˆi b1(t )dt ˆj b2 (t )dt (3.8)
The definite integral of b(t ) with respect to t over the interval t1, t 2
is
t2 t2
ˆ
ˆ
b(t )dt i b1(t )dt j b2 (t )dt (3.9)
t1 t1
66
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
We now write down a few properties of the integrals of vector functions.
Determine the position vector of a particle r (t ) given that its velocity
function is:
v(t ) sin t ˆi cos t ˆj t 2kˆ
and the initial position of the particle (position vector of the particle at t 0)
is r (t 0) ˆi ˆj kˆ
We
write the integral in terms of the components of the vector function
v(t ) , as defined in Eq. (3.4):
r (t ) ˆi sin t dt ˆj cos t dt kˆ t 2 dt
t3
cos t ˆi sin t ˆj kˆ C (i)
3
where C is an arbitrary constant vector.
To determine C we use the given initial condition. Substituting t 0 in
Eq. (i) we get
r (t 0) ˆi C ˆi ˆj kˆ (ii)
67
Block 1 Vector Analysis
From this we get: C 2ˆi ˆj kˆ (iii)
Substituting for C in Eq. (i), we can now write the position vector as a
function of time as:
t3
r (t ) cos t ˆi sin t ˆj kˆ 2ˆi ˆj kˆ
3
t3 ˆ
(2 cos t ) ˆi (1 sin t ) ˆj (1 )k (iv)
3
This definition holds for both definite and indefinite integrals of vector
functions.
You may now like to work out an SAQ on what you have studied so far.
4 2t
A table of standard
a) Evaluate 1 t 2 ˆi 1 t 2 ˆj dt
integrals is given at the
end of this block. b) The acceleration of an object is a 10kˆ. Obtain its position as a
function of time t if its initial velocity is v (t 0) ˆi kˆ and its initial
position is r (t 0) 2kˆ .
In Unit 2 of BPHCT-131, you have learnt that many physical quantities can be
expressed as the scalar or vector products of vectors. We now study the
integrals of scalar and vector products of vector functions.
integrals I1 at . bt dt and I 2 at b t dt , we first compute the
scalar and vector products in the integrands. Recall from Sec. 1.4 of Unit 1,
BPHCT-131 that l1 will reduce to an integral of a scalar function of t with
respect to t. Similarly, l 2 will be the integral of a vector function of t with
respect to t. Let us take an example to discuss the evaluation of l1 . After that
you can work out another example.
68
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
V
E .D B . H dt V I E I B
T
U 0 U dt (i) 1 T sin 4t 2kx
2 2 2 4 T 0
0 0
T
T T 2
where IE E .D dt and IB B.H dt . T sin4 2kx
8
0 0
sin 2kx T
Both IE and IB are integrals of the type I1. So we shall first evaluate the 2
scalar products. Given that T sin2kx sin2kx T
8 2
2
E E 0 cos ct x ˆj (ii)
T
2
2
D 0E 0E0 cos (ct x ) ˆj
(iii)
2
We get E.D 0E02 cos2 (ct x )
(iv)
Similarly, you can show that
B2 2
B.H 0 cos2 ct x (v)
0
Substituting from Eq. (iv) and Eq. (v) into Eq. (i) we get
V
2
2 B0
U0 E I (vi)
2 0
0 0
T
where (see margin remark) I cos 2 2 ct x dt T
0
2
69
Block 1 Vector Analysis
VT B2
U0 0E 2 0 (vii)
4 0 0
E 02 1
Again B02 0 0 E 2 c
c2 0
00
B02
0 E 02 (viii)
0
VT 2
Hence U 0 0E0
2
The method will be the same for integrating vector products expressed in their
component form.
W F ( x )dx
x1
(3.16)
W ( kx)dx
0
(3.17)
Let us now consider the most general case: a variable force applied on an
object moving along an arbitrary path in space. What is the work done by the
70
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
force? Refer to Fig. 3.2. A planet is moving around the Sun in an elliptical
orbit under the gravitational force. How will you calculate the work done for
such systems?
Fig. 3.3: a) An object moves under a variable force along the path PQ. The force The displacement for
is different at different points along the path; b) the path is divided into each segment of the
n segments and the displacement is defined for each segment. path has its tail at the
starting point of the
Although the force is actually different at different points of the path, we segment and its head
assume that it is constant over each of these segments. at the final point of
the segment as you
Let the force acting on the object be F1 for the first segment, F2 for the second can see in the inset of
segment, and so on. Let us consider the ith segment. What is the work done Fig. 3.3b.
by the force Fi for the displacement li ? From Eq. (3.15), it is Wi Fi .Δ li .
The total work done in moving the object over the entire path is the sum of the
work done in moving the object over each segment of the path. We can write it
as:
n
If the number of
W F1. l1 F2. l2 ... Fi . li ...Fn . ln Fi . li (3.18a) segments n is large,
i 1
we can approximate
In the limit as n , we express the sum in Eq. (3.18a) as an integral along the length of the
the path between P and Q: curve by summing
over the magnitude of
W F.d l (3.18b) the displacements.
C
Here we have defined the line integral in order to calculate the work done by
a force field in moving an object along anarbitrary path. We can define such a
line integral for any arbitrary vector field A along a path of integration C as
A.dl .
C
between two points, a and b. The function is defined at every point in the
interval
[a, b]. In a line integral, we integrate along a curve C and the integrand
( F.d l in Eq. 3.18b) is a function defined at every point on the curve. Note that
the path of integration can be any straight line or curve, in space or in a plane.
We now discuss how to calculate this integral. Let us write the force field F in
terms of its component functions as F F1(x,y,z)ˆi F2(x,y,z)ˆj F3(x,y,z)kˆ ,
and the displacement along the path as d l dx ˆi dyˆj dzkˆ . The line integral
of Eq. (3.18b) is then given by:
W F. dl F1dx F2dy F3 dz (3.19a)
C C
If the force field is two-dimensional and the object is moving in the xy plane,
we can write the line integral as:
W F. dl F1dx F2dy (3.19b)
C C
Note that in general, F1, F2 and F3 are functions of x, y and z. However, the
integrals are over either x or y or z. Therefore, you must express each
integral in terms of a single variable. This means, for example, to evaluate
the integral F1 ( x, y , z ) dx, we must express y and z in terms of x, so that F1 is
C
a function of only x.
y a2 x 2 equation of a circle of radius a with its origin at the centre. The coordinates of
a point on the curve described by Eq. (3.20a) are given by (x, f(x)).
The coordinates of each point on the curve are ( x, f ( x ), g( x )) . This is also Note that in all the
representations of a
called an explicit representation. We may also describe the curve as an
curve, there is only
intersection of two surfaces: one independent
variable. This is
F ( x, y, z) 0 ; G( x, y, z) 0 (3.20c) important, because
the line integral,
This is called an implicit representation. Note that both F ( x, y, z) 0 and unlike a double
G( x, y, z) 0 represent surfaces in space. integral or a triple
integral, is an
In the following example, we use the definition of line integral in Eqs. (3.19b) integration over one
and the representation of a curve in a plane given by Eq. (3.20a) to calculate variable.
the work done.
W 2x 3 dx y 2 dy y
0 0
These can be evaluated as ordinary integrals:
2 4 D (0,1) B (1,1)
2x 4 y3 40
W (iv) II III
4 0 3 0 3
The LHS of Eq. (i) is a function of only y and the RHS is a function of
only x. We can, therefore, equate this to a parameter t. Then
y y1 x x1
t
y 2 y1 x2 x1
or y (t ) y 1 ( y 2 y 1 )t and x(t ) x1 ( x 2 x1 )t (ii)
Eqs. (i) and (ii) are the parametric equations for x and y. Thus in
general
r (t ) [ x1 ( x 2 x1 )t ] ˆi [ y 1 ( y 2 y 1 )t ] ˆj (3.23)
Using ( x1, y1) (0,0) and ( x2, y 2 ) (1, 2) in Eq. (ii), we get
x(t ) t; y (t ) 2t (iii)
To get the end points of the straight line in terms of t, we use Eq. (iii)
as follows:
Let t = t1 for the point (0, 0) and t = t2 for the point (1, 2). Then since
x(t) = t and y(t) = 2t, we get
x1 x(t1 ) t1 0, y1 y (t1 ) 2t1 0 t1 0
and x 2 x(t 2 ) t 2 1, y 2 y (t 2 ) 2t 2 2 t2 1
Therefore, in terms of the parameter t, the initial point of the straight
line is t1 0 and the final point is t 2 1. The parametric
representation of the straight line between (0,0) and (1,2) is:
r (t ) t ˆi 2t ˆj; 0 t 1
x2 y2 x y The values of sin t
b) Note that for 1, the values of both and should lie
2 2 a b and cos t lie between
a b
between 1 and 1. This suggests (see margin remark) that we can use 1 and 1.
the identity cos2 t sin 2 t 1 to write the parametric representation:
75
Block 1 Vector Analysis
x y
cos t; sin t
a b
x(t ) a cos t and y b sin t
So, an ellipse with its centre at the origin and semi-major and semi-
minor axes a and b respectively, has the parametric representation
(Fig. 3.7a):
r (t ) a cos t ˆi b sin t ˆj 0 t 2 (3.24)
The parameter t is the angle the position vector r ( t ) makes with the
x-axis. As t changes from 0 to 2, the tip of the position vector traces
the entire ellipse starting from the point A on the x-axis. The coordinate
of each point on the ellipse is (a cost, b sint).
Note that if you want to take only a part of the ellipse, you have to
choose the range of t accordingly. For example, for the part of ellipse
in the first quadrant we write;
r (t ) a cos t ˆi b sin t ˆj 0 t /2
(a) (b)
z
r (t)
a t
x
(c)
Fig. 3.7: Parametric representation of the a) ellipse; b) circle; c) right circular
2 2 2
helix, in which the curve lies on the cylinder x + y = a .
76
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
dr
dt dt
d
x(t ) ˆi y (t ) ˆj z(t ) kˆ By replacing x,y,z in
the
vector function
F F1 (x,y,z)ˆi F2(x,y,z)ˆj
dx (t ) ˆ dy (t ) ˆ dz(t ) ˆ F3 (x,y,z)k̂
i j k (3.28)
dt dt dt by the parametric
functions x x(t );
Using F(r (t )) F1(t )ˆi F2 (t ) ˆj F3 (t ) kˆ (see margin remark) and Eq. (3.27) we y y (t ); z z(t ), we
get: can write the vector
function as a function
t2 t2 of the parameter t.
dr dx (t ) dy (t ) dz(t )
F . dt dt F1(t ) dt F2 (t ) dt F3 (t ) dt dt (3.29a)
t1 t1
C3
For a two-dimensional force field F F1(t ) ˆi F2 (t ) ˆj , we can write the line
B
integral as:
t2 t2
dr dx (t ) dy (t )
F . dt dt F1(t ) dt F2 (t ) dt dt (3.29b) C2
t1 t1
Note that the quantity in the bracket in Eq. (3.29b) is a scalar function of a
C1
single variable t. We can say that the integral is along the t-axis, in the A
direction of increasing t. It exists when C is a smooth curve or even a Fig. 3.8: The curve
piecewise smooth curve. In Fig. 3.8 you can see an example of a curve which between A and B is
is piecewise smooth. piecewise smooth. It is
made up of the smooth
Let us now write down a formal definition of the line integral of a vector field curves C1,C2 and C3 .
using the parametric representation of the path of integration. 77
Block 1 Vector Analysis
Determine the work done by the force field F ( x, y, z) xy ˆi yz ˆj zx kˆ in
moving an object along the curve r (t ) t ˆi t 2ˆj t 3kˆ from (0,0,0) to (2,4,8).
SOLUTION We use Eq. (3.29a) to calculate the work done by the force
field. Comparing the expression for r (t ) with Eq. (3.21b), we can write:
x (t ) t , y (t ) t 2 , z(t ) t 3 (i)
Note that we have to determine the limits t1 and t 2 of t for the path of
integration as these are not given in the problem. The coordinates of the
starting and ending points of the path are (0,0,0) and (2,4,8). Putting these
values in the parametric expressions for the coordinates in Eq. (i) we can
determine t1 and t 2 as follows:
and
x (t 2 ) t 2 2, y (t 2 ) t 2 2 4, z(t 2 ) t 2 3 8 t 2 2 (iii)
To calculate the work done we now have to evaluate the line integral
2
dr
W F.
dt
dt (iv)
0
t
2
3 6
t 4 t7
W 5t dt 5
0 4 7
0
668
units
7
79
Block 1 Vector Analysis
It is convenient to use the parametric representation when the path of
integration is a circle, an ellipse, a helix or a parabola. However, it is not
always necessary to use a parametric representation to evaluate a line
integral. In Example 3.4 the integral was evaluated using Eq. (3.19b). In some
questions, as in SAQ 3, the path of integration may be along the x, y or z-axes
or a combination of all these. In that case, using Eq. (3.19a or b) to evaluate
the line integral will be more convenient than using Eq. (3.30).
In evaluating line integrals we can use any of the equations: 3.19a, 3.19b,
3.29a, 3.29b or 3.30.
A 1. For a constant ,
Fig. 3.9: The curve C
between points A and
F.d l F.d l (3.31)
C is made up of the C C
curves C1 between A
2. F G .d l F.d l G.d l (3.32)
and O and C2 between
C C C
O and C.
where G is another vector field which is continuous over the curve C.
Note that the orientation of the curve is the same in all the three
integrals. If the orientation of the path is reversed in any line
integral, as in Fig. 3.10, the integral gets multiplied by a negative
sign.
Fig. 3.10: The line
So far we have discussed line integrals of the form A.dl . There are other
C
integral over the path types of line integrals. Here we only state these forms.
C2 will be the negative
of the line integral
over the pathC3
3.3.3 Other Types of Line Integrals
F.d l F.d l There are mainly two other types of line integrals that you may need to use.
C2 C3
These are:
80
i) f dl
C
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
and
ii) A dl
C
where f and A represent a scalar and vector field, respectively. While (i) gives
a scalar, (ii) gives a vector. Q
C2
In the next section we discuss conservative vector fields, which are an
important concept in physics. In your mechanics course BPHCT-131 you have
C1
studied about central conservative forces which are an example of a
conservative vector field.
From the examples you have worked out so far, you have seen that the
equation of the path of integration (either in a parametric form or in terms of
the Cartesian coordinates) is used to evaluate the line integral. In general, P
then, the value of the line integral depends on the path (as in SAQ 3). Fig. 3.11: Three different
However you will find that in some cases the value of the line integral of a paths of integration
vector field between any two points does not depend on the path of between two points P
integration between these points. This notion of path independence of the and Q, C1, C2 and C3. If
line integral of a vector field is used to define a conservative vector field: the line integral of a
A vector field F , for which the line integral F.d l between any two
vector field F has the
same value for all these
points P and Q, has the same value for all paths that begin at the point P paths then F is a
conservative vector
and end at the point Q is called a conservative vector field.
field.
In other words, the line integral of a conservative force is path
independent (Fig. 3.11).
The force of gravity is an example of a conservative force field. You know that If the line integral of
the work done in lifting an object of mass m to a height is the same. F depends on the
Irrespective of the path taken, the work done is ( mgh). Thus, the force of path between the two
gravity is a conservative force. The electrostatic force field is also points, then it is
called a non-
conservative, as you have also studied in Unit 10 of BPHCT-131.
conservative vector
There are three different ways of saying that a vector field F is conservative. field.
And all of these are equivalent to saying that the line integral of the
vector field is path independent. These are as follows:
Determine the scalar potential for an electric field due to a point charge q
placed at the origin.
SOLUTION The electric field due to a charge q placed at the origin of
the coordinate system at a point P (x, y, z) which is at a distance r from the
origin is the force on the unit charge placed at that point and is given by:
r̂ is the unit vector along
q qr q( x ˆi y ˆj z kˆ )
the position vector r from E rˆ
r2 r 3 ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )3 / 2
the origin to the point P.
We can check that the electric field is conservative by calculating the curl of
the the field. Using Eq. (2.7a) for the curl, we get:
ˆi ˆj kˆ
F
x y z
x y z
x 2 y 2 z 2 3 / 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 3 / 2 x 2 y 2 z 2 3 / 2
82
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
i
ˆ z y
y
x 2
y 2
z 2
3 / 2
z 2
x y 2
z 2 3 / 2
j
x z
z
2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
x
2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
ˆ y x
k
x 2 (i)
x y 2
z 2 3 / 2
y
x
2
y 2
z 2 3 / 2
Calculating the partial derivatives in the first term in Eq. (i) we get:
z 3yz
y 2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
x 2 y 2 z2
5/2
y 3yz
z 2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
x 2 y 2 z2
5/2
z y
0
y 2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
y 2 2
x y z
2 3 / 2
Similarly, the remaining two terms in Eq. (i) are also zero.
E 0
To determine the scalar potential associated with the field we calculate the
negative of the work done in bringing the unit charge from infinity to the
point P, which is:
r r r
q q
V E. d r r2
rˆ . dr rˆ r2
dr
You will learn about
r electric potential in detail
q q
in Units 8 and 9.
r r
You have seen that when a vector field is irrotational (curl of the vector field is
zero), it can be written as the gradient of a scalar function, which we call the A vector field with a zero
scalar potential. What if the vector field were to be solenoidal? This brings us divergence is called a
to the concept of a vector potential, which finds many applications in Physics. solenoidal vector field.
Let us now study about this.
3.5 SUMMARY
Concept Description
and vector products of
evaluate the integrals I1 at .bt dt and I2 at bt dt , we
vector functions
first compute the scalar and vector products in the integrands. We
then integrate the result.
Line integral A line integral of a scalar or a vector field is a generalization of the
single integral where the path of integration may be any curve in
space. It can appear in three forms:
f dl , A .d l and A d l
C C C
Work done by a force The work done by the force field F in moving an object along a
field F path C between the points P and Q is given by the line integral
W F.d l
C
The
line integral of a two-dimensional force field
F F1(x,y) ˆi F2(x,y) ˆj along a path C in the xy plane can be
written as:
W F.d l F1dx F2dy
C C
Line integral of a vector The line integral of the vector field F along the curve C which has
field using the parametric a parametric representation r (t ) with t1 t t 2 where r (t ) is
representation of the differentiable is:
path
t2
W F.d l F[r (t )].
d r (t )
dt
dt
C t1
5.
k xˆj y ˆi
A two-dimensional force field is defined as F 2
, where k is a
x y2
constant. Compute the work done by this force in taking a particle from
point P(1,0) to Q(0, 1) along a straight line.
z
6. Determine the work done by a force F x 3y ˆi 2x y ˆj in moving a
particle along a curve in the xy plane given by x 2t; y 3t 2 from t = 0 to
Q(1,1,1)
t = 2.
C3
7. Calculate the line integral of the vector field
C1 P (0,0,0) y F (6x 2 6y ) ˆi 14yz ˆj 10 xz 2 kˆ over the path C (PABQ) between the
A(1,0,0) B(1,1,0) points P(0,0,0) and Q(1,1,1) defined by three straight line segments PA,
x AB and BQ shown in Fig. 3.12.
C2
Fig. 3.12: The path of
8. An object of mass m moves along a curve
integration between r (t ) t 2 ˆi cos t ˆj sin t kˆ, 0 t 1. Calculate the total force acting on the
the points P and Q for object and the work done by the force.
TQ 7.
9. Show that the line integral of the vector field A (2xy 1) ˆi ( x 2 2y ) ˆj
between the points (0, 0) and (2,1) is independent of the path between
86 these points.
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
10. Calculate the circulation of the vector field F y 2ˆi xyˆj around the closed y
path along the parabola y = 2 x2 from (0,0) to (1,2) and back from (1, 2) to
(0, 0) along the straight line y = 2x as shown in Fig. 3.13.
4 tan1 t ˆi ln 1 t 2 ˆj C Fig. 3.13: Figure for
TQ 10.
b) We use Eq. (3.4) to write down the expression for the velocity of the
object as:
vt a dt 10 kˆ dt 10t kˆ C1
(i)
To determine C1 (the constant vector) we use the initial condition on
Let u 1 t 2 then
the velocity v (t 0) ˆi kˆ . Substituting t = 0 in Eq. (i) we get:
du
2t dt
vt 0 C1 ˆi kˆ (ii) dt
2t du
Substituting for C1 from Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i) we get
and
1 t 2
dt
u
ln u ln(1 t 2 )
vt ˆi (1 10t ) kˆ
To determine the position vector r (t ) we use Eq. (3.4) to write:
r (t ) v(t ) dt ˆi (1 10t )kˆ )] dt
t ˆi t kˆ 5t 2 kˆ C2 (iii)
To evaluate C2 we substitute t = 0 in Eq. (iii) and using the given initial
position vector r (t 0) 2kˆ we get:
r (t 0) C2 2kˆ (iv)
Substituting for C 2 from Eq. (iv) into Eq. (iii) we get the position vector
of the object:
r (t ) t ˆi (2 t 5t 2 ) kˆ
2. a) a(t ).b(t ) [t ˆi (1 t ) ˆj t 2 kˆ ] . [3t 2 ˆi t ˆj] 3t 3 t (1 t ) 3t 3 t 2 t
a b
3t t
1
1 4 3
t 2
7
3
t 2 t dt ˆi ˆj kˆ
0 0 4 3 2 0 12 t (1 t ) t 2
b) a(t ) b(t ) t ˆi (1 t ) ˆj t 2 kˆ 3t 2ˆi t ˆj t 3 ˆi 3t 4 ˆj ( 3t 3 4t 2 )kˆ
3t 2 t 0
1
1 3 7
or a(t ) b(t ) dt ˆi ˆj kˆ
0
4 5 12
Along OD,
0 y 1; x 0 dx 0 (v)
Along DB,
0 x 1; y 1 dy 0 (vi)
Along the path III the integral is the integral along the straight line
segment OB:
I III F. d l F. d l Fx dx Fy dy xydx ( x 2 1)dy
III OB OB OB
(vii)
The equation of the straight line OB is y = x. The limits on x and y are
0 x 1; 0 y 1 (viii)
So substituting from Eqs. (viii) and y= x into Eq.(vii) and using the
methods of Example 3.3 we get:
88
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
1 1
I III xydx ( x 2 1)dy x 2dx ( y 2 1)dy
OB 0 0
As you can see, the value of the line integral along each of these paths is
different.
x(t ) t, y (t ) t 2
You can check that this satisfies the equation y x 2 . To obtain the end
points, we write y
5. We use Eq. (3.27) to evaluate the line integral with: Fig. 3.15
r x ˆi y ˆj z kˆ
F ; r (t ) t ˆi t ˆj t kˆ ; x(t ) y (t ) z(t ) t;
r3 ( x 2 y 2 z 2 )3 / 2
and t1 1; t 2 3
The derivative of r is:
dr d ˆ
dt dt
t i t ˆj t kˆ ˆi ˆj kˆ (i)
In terms of t, we can write F as:
F ( r (t )
t ˆi t ˆj t kˆ
t ˆi t ˆj t kˆ 1
ˆi ˆj kˆ (ii)
(t t t )
2 2 2 3/2 2 3/2
(3t ) 3 3t 2
Using the results of Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (3.27) we get:
3
dr
3 ˆ ˆ
i j kˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 3
1
2 3
I F. dt
dt 2
. i j k dt
2
dt
1
3 3t 3t 9
1 1
6. Using Eq. (3.25) we write the parametric equation for the circle C
x 2 y 2 4 as:
r (t ) 2 cos t ˆi 2 sin t ˆj, 0 t 2 (i)
Writing down A in terms of t using x(t ) 2 cos t; y (t ) 2 sin t we get:
89
Block 1 Vector Analysis
A (r (t )) 4 cos t sin t ˆi (12 cos2 t 2 sin t )ˆj (ii)
2
2
2
A .d l 4 cos t sin t ˆi (12 cos2 t 2 sin t )ˆj . 2 sin t ˆi 2 cos t ˆj dt
cost dt sin t 0 C 0
0
0
8 sin
2
2
2 2 t cos t 24cos3 t 4 sin t cos t dt
sin2 t
sin t cos t dt
2
0
0 0
8 sin
0 2
2
t cos t 24 (1 sin 2 t ) cos t 4 sin t cos t dt
0
2
[ 32 sin2 t cos t 4 sin t cos t 24 cos t ] dt 0
0
A.d l 0
C
Terminal Questions
1. i)
0
I ˆi 4 sin t dt ˆj cos t dt kˆ
0
2 t dt
0
t2
ˆi 4 cos t 0 ˆj sin t 0 kˆ 2t
2 0
2 ˆ
8 ˆi 2 k
2
t
2
ii) I 2 ˆi t et ˆj ln t kˆ dt
1
2
t 3
= ˆi tet et 1 ˆj t ln t t 12 kˆ ˆi e2ˆj 2 ln 2 1kˆ
2 7
3 1 3
4
2. Using Eq. (3.4) with b(t) t ˆi cos t ˆj kˆ we can write:
t
a(t ) t ˆi cos t ˆj kˆ dt C
4
90 t
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
where C is a constant vector. Then
2 sin t ˆ
a(t ) t 3 / 2 ˆi j 4 ln t kˆ C (i)
3
Substituting t = 1 in Eq. (i) and given that a(1) 2 ˆi 3 ˆj 4 kˆ we get:
2
a(t 1) ˆi C (ii)
3
2 ˆi 3ˆj 4 kˆ
4
C ˆi 3ˆj 4 kˆ (iii)
3
Substituting for C in Eq. (i) we get:
2 sin t
a(t ) (t 3 / 2 2) ˆi 3 ˆj ( 4 ln t 4) kˆ
3
3. For any vector a(t ) we can write:
d da(t ) da(t ) da(t )
a(t ).a(t ) a(t ). .a(t ) 2a(t ) . (i)
dt dt dt dt
or
da(t ) 1 d
a(t ). a(t ).a(t ) (ii)
dt 2 dt
4. For any vector a(t ) we can write:
d da(t ) da(t ) da(t ) d 2a(t ) d 2a(t )
a(t ) a(t ) a(t ) (i)
dt dt dt dt dt 2 dt 2
da(t ) da(t )
as 0 . So we can write:
dt dt
d 2a(t ) d da(t )
a(t ) a(t ) (ii)
dt 2 dt dt
Therefore,
1
d 2a(t )
1
d da(t )
1
da(t )
a(t )
0
dt 2
dt
0
dt
a(t )
dt 0
dt d a(t )
dt
(iii)
91
Block 1 Vector Analysis
The integral is then:
d 2a(t )
1 1
da(t )
a(t )
0
dt 2
dt a(t )
dt 0
(iv)
Given that a(t ) 2t ˆi (1 t ) ˆj t 2 kˆ we can write:
da
a(t ) da(t )
dt 2 ˆi ˆj 2t kˆ
dt
ˆi ˆj kˆ
2t 1 t 2
t
a(t )
da(t )
dt
2t ˆi (1 t ) ˆj t 2 kˆ 2 ˆi ˆj 2t kˆ (2t t 2 ) ˆi 2t 2ˆj 2 kˆ
2 1 2t
(v)
1
d 2a(t )
1
da(t )
a(t ) 2
dt a(t )
dt 0
0
dt
ˆi 2 ˆj
5. In order to evaluate the integral we have to express d r and F as a
y function of the same parameter, say t. The equation of PQ (Fig. 3.16)as
r (t )
explained in Example 3.4 is:
Q (0,1)
x y 1 y 1 x (i)
t ˆj t 1ˆi
Fk 2
t 1 t
2
F.
d r k t 1ˆi tˆj . ˆi ˆj
k 2
t 1 t k
t 1 t 2t 2t 1 2t 2t 1
2 2 2
Let dt
1
ut du dt
2 The work done is calculated using Eq. (3.30) as:
0 0
dt
2 W k 2t
dt
2t 1
1 t 1 1
2
1 (ii)
2 4 0 0
k dt k dt
1/ 2
du
2 1
21 1
2
t2 t 1
1
1
2 t
1/ 2 u 2 2 4
4
k k
2 tan12u 1/ 2
1 / 2 ( ) (read the margin remark)
2 2
Alternative Method
92
The integral can be evaluated using Eq. (3.19b) as well, as follows:
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
y x
F1 ; F2
y
x2 2 x y2
2
ky kx
as :
PQ
F.d r
PQ
x 2 2
y
dx 2
PQ
dy
x y2
(iii)
Using the results of Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (3.29b) we get:
2 2
I (F1 x (t ) F2 y (t ) )dt (4t 18t 2 24t 2 18t 3 )dt
0 0
2
9t 4
2t 2 2t 3 48
2 0
7. We calculate the line integral of the vector field using Eq. (3.19a) with:
Fx (6x 2 6y ), Fy 14 yz, Fz 10 xz2 . Then
Along PA, 0 x 1, y z 0 dy dz 0 93
Block 1 Vector Analysis
1
1 6x 3
I PA 6 x 2 dx
3
2
0
(ii)
x 0
Along AB : 0 y 1, x 1, z 0 dx dz 0
1
I AB 14 yzdy 0
y 0
(iii)
Along BQ, 0 z 1, x 1, y 1 dx dy 0
1
1
10z 3 10
10 xz dz
2
And IBQ (iv)
z 0 3 0 3
10 16
I 2 0
3 3
d 2r
8. We first derive an expression for the acceleration of the object: a 2
dt
dr d 2 ˆ
dt dt
t i cos t ˆj sin t kˆ 2t ˆi sin t ˆj cos t kˆ (i)
d 2r d
dt 2
dt
2t ˆi sin t ˆj cos t kˆ 2ˆi cos t ˆj sin t kˆ
W m 2ˆi cos t ˆj sin t kˆ . 2t ˆi sin t ˆj cos t kˆ dt
0
1 1
m 4t sin t cos t sin t cos t dt m 4t dt m 2t 2
1
0 2m
The equation of a straight
0 0
line between two points
(x1,y1) and (x2,y2) in the xy
plane is: 9. Refer to Fig. 3.18. Let us calculate the line integral of the field A between
y y1 the points A(0,0) and B(2,1), along two different paths: One is the straight
y y 1 2 x x1
line AB and the other is ACB. Let us first consider the path of integration
x 2 x1
x
AB. The equation of the straight line AB is y (read the margin remark).
For the line AB, we get 2
1
y x We use Eq. (3.19b) for the line integral along AB with
2
(x1 0, y1 0, x2 2, y 2 1) F A and F1 2xy 1; F2 x 2 2y (i)
We get the integral of A along AB as:
94
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
I AB A. d l (2xy 1) dx ( x 2 2y ) dy (ii) y
AB AB AB B
( 2,1)
The limits on x and y are as follows:
0 x 2; 0 y 1 (iii)
x
To evaluate the line integral over AB, we need to write each one of the A C
integrals in Eq. (ii) as an integral over one variable. So we write (read the (0 , 0 ) (2 , 0)
margin remark):
Fig. 3.18: Paths of
2 1 integration for TQ 9.
I AB (2 xy 1) dx ( x 2 2y ) dy
0 0
2 1 Note that the integration
2 2
( x 1) dx ( 4 y 2y ) dy (iv) is along the line AB given
0 0 x
by y and not along
2 1 2
x3 4y 3
x y2 5 the x or y axes.
3 0 3 0 Therefore, when we
evaluate Eq. (ii), to
integrate over x, we must
Next we evaluate the integral along ACB, which is the sum of the line
write y in terms of x (i.e
integrals over AC and CB.
x
y ) in the integrand.
I ACB
A.d l A.d l A.d l
(v) 2
Similarly, when we
ACB AC CB
integrate over y, we write
Along AC, the value of y is a constant (y = 0) and therefore dy = 0. x in terms of y (i.e.,
x 2y ).
2 1
A. d l (2xy 1) dx (2x(0) 1) dx x 02 2 (vi)
AC 0 0
1 1
A.d l ( x 2y ) dy ( 4 2y ) dy 4y y 2 0 3
1
2 (vii)
CB 0 0
Substituting from Eq. (vi) and (vii) into Eq. (v), we get:
I ACB 2 3 5. (viii)
Since the value of the integral is same for two different paths AB and ACB, y
we can say that the line integral is path independent. C2
A(1, 2)
10. The closed path of integration C is made up of the curves C1 and C2
between the points O(0,0)and A (1,2) (see Fig. 3.14 reproduced here as (t , 2t 2 )
Fig. 3.19). C1 is described by the parabola y 2x 2 between the points O r (t)
drˆ ˆ
Therefore i 4t ˆj, F y 2ˆi xy ˆj 4t 4ˆi 2t 3 ˆj (i)
dt
Using Eq. (3.30) we then get:
1 1
dr 4 ˆi 2t 3 ˆj . ˆi 4t ˆj dt 4t 4 8t 4 dt
I1 F.
dt dt 4t
C1 0 0
1 1
12t
12t 4 dt
5 12
Here we have used the 5
parametric representation to 0 5 0
evaluate the integral along
AO. Alternatively we can
write, using Eq. (3.19b) and
We next calculate I2 F. d l . The parametric representation for the
C2
y = 2x:
straight line C2 is
I2 y 2dx xydy
r (t ) t ˆi 2t ˆj ; x(t ) t, y (t ) 2 t, 1 t 0
C2
dr ˆ
y2 i 2ˆj, F y 2 ˆi xyˆj 4t 2 ˆi 2t 2 ˆj
4 x 2dx 2
dy
Then,
dt
(ii)
C2
Using Eq. (3.30) we get:
0 0
y2
4 x 2dx dy 1 0
dr
F. dt dt 4t i 2t j . i 2 j dt 4t 4t dt
2 I2 2 ˆ 2 ˆ ˆ ˆ 2 2
1 2
C2 1 1
8
3 0
8t
0
8t 3 8
2
dt
1 3 1 3
12 8 4
Finally, adding I1 and I2 we get: I I1 I2
5 3 15
96