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Unit 3

This document discusses integrating vector functions and line integrals. It begins by introducing the concepts of integrating a vector function with respect to a scalar variable. The key rules are that the integral of a vector function is equal to the vector function plus an arbitrary constant vector. To evaluate the integral, the vector function is expressed in its component form and each component is integrated separately. The document then discusses how to evaluate line integrals, which generalize ordinary integrals to integration over arbitrary curves. It notes that important applications of line integrals include determining the work done by a variable force. The remainder of the document outlines how conservative vector fields and other types of line integrals will be covered.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
65 views34 pages

Unit 3

This document discusses integrating vector functions and line integrals. It begins by introducing the concepts of integrating a vector function with respect to a scalar variable. The key rules are that the integral of a vector function is equal to the vector function plus an arbitrary constant vector. To evaluate the integral, the vector function is expressed in its component form and each component is integrated separately. The document then discusses how to evaluate line integrals, which generalize ordinary integrals to integration over arbitrary curves. It notes that important applications of line integrals include determining the work done by a variable force. The remainder of the document outlines how conservative vector fields and other types of line integrals will be covered.

Uploaded by

David Timothy
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

UNIT 3
INTEGRATION OF
How do we determine the work done by
VECTOR FUNCTIONS
a variable force such as the force of
gravitation? We need to solve line
integrals.
AND LINE INTEGRALS

Structure
3.1 Introduction 3.4 Conservative Vector Fields
Expected Learning Outcomes Scalar Potential
3.2 Integration of a Vector Function Vector Potential
Integrals involving Scalar and Vector 3.5 Summary
Products of Vectors 3.6 Terminal Questions
3.3 Line Integral of a Vector Field 3.7 Solutions and Answers
Representation of a Curve
Parametric Representation
Other Types of Line Integrals

STUDY GUIDE
In this unit, you will learn how to integrate vector functions of a scalar variable and
solve line integrals. Line integrals are a generalization of ordinary integrals that you
have studied in school. In order to learn these concepts better, you should revise
integral calculus that you have studied in school. You must also revise the concepts of
scalar and vector products, the basic concepts of vector functions of a scalar variable
and how to differentiate them, all of which you have studied in Unit 2 of BPHCT-131.

“The miracle of the appropriateness of the language of


Eugene Paul
mathematics for the formulation of the laws of physics is
a wonderful gift ...”
Wigner

63
Block 1 Vector Analysis
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 2 of BPHCT-131 and Units 1 and 2 of this course, you have studied
vector functions, scalar and vector fields, and their properties. You have learnt
how to differentiate vector functions and scalar and vector fields. You have
studied the concepts of the gradient of a scalar field, and the divergence and
curl of vector fields. These are differential operations on scalar and vector
fields that find many applications in physics. In this unit, you will learn how to
determine the integrals of vector functions, and scalar and vector fields. You
will also learn how to evaluate line integrals of vector fields.

There are several problems in physics where we need to calculate the


integrals of vector functions and vector fields. For example, we may want to
know what path a cricket ball will take after it leaves the bowler’s hands with a
given acceleration. Finding the path of the cricket ball involves solving a
differential equation and integrating vector functions. The actual integration is
essentially the same as in ordinary calculus which you have studied as a part
of your school curriculum. However, integrals of vector functions and fields are
different in the way in which the integrand is handled, as well as in the
physical meanings of the quantities obtained. This will become clear as you
study this unit.

In Sec. 3.2, you will learn how to integrate a vector function and apply it to
solve some simple problems in physics. In this section you will also learn how
to integrate the scalar and vector products of vector functions and some
applications in physics.

In this unit you will learn how to evaluate line integrals. The line integral is a
generalization of an ordinary integral over a single variable. In a line integral
the path of integration is not a straight line but an arbitrary curve in space.
Line integrals are used extensively in physics. One of the most important
applications of the line integral is to determine the work done by a variable
force. Suppose an object moves along an arbitrary curve in space, (instead of
a straight line) under the action of a force. How would you calculate the work
done by the force in moving the object between any two points on this path?
The work done is the integral of the scalar product of the force field and an
infinitesimal displacement along the path of the object. This is an example of a
line integral.

In Sec. 3.3, you will learn how to evaluate line integrals in which the integrand
is the scalar product of a vector field and a displacement along an arbitrary
path in space. You will also study other types of line integrals of scalar and
vector fields. In Sec. 3.4, you will study about conservative vector fields. You
will see that line integrals can be used to define conservative force fields, an
important concept in physics.

The integrals of vector functions being taken up in this unit involve integration
over a single variable. In physics we often need to evaluate integrals over
arbitrary surfaces and volumes. These involve integrals over two and three
variables. In Unit 4, you will study about surface and volume integrals of a
64 vector field. A brief introduction to integration over two variables is given in
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
Appendix A2 of this block. You should read Appendix A2 after completing your
study of this unit.

Expected Learning Outcomes


After studying this unit, you should be able to:

 evaluate the integral of a vector function with respect to a scalar;

 evaluate the integrals of scalar and vector products of scalar functions;


and

 evaluate line integrals of scalar and vector fields.

3.2 INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR FUNCTION


Let us begin our study by asking: How do we integrate a vector function
with respect to a scalar?

We lay down the basic rules for the integration of a vector function with

respect to a scalar. Consider a vector a which is a function of a scalar t. Let
 
a  a(t )  a1(t )ˆi  a2 (t )ˆj  a3 (t ) kˆ (3.1a)

where a1(t ), a2 (t ) and a3 (t ) are the x, y and z components of a(t ),
respectively. If
 
da
 b (t ) (3.1b)
dt
   
then the (indefinite) integral of b (t ) with respect to t is a (t )  c, where c is an
arbitrary constant vector. Symbolically, we write:
  
b (t ) dt  a(t )  c (3.2)

In physics, we deal with quantities that generally have dimensions. Therefore, You have studied
 
c is a vector whose dimension is the same as that of a. In a physical integration in school

problem, c can be determined by using given initial conditions. and you know that
integration is the
In order to evaluate the integral of a vector function such as the one in reverse process of
Eq. (3.2), we express the vector b in its component form: differentiation. This is
 also true for the
b(t )  b1(t )ˆi  b2 (t )ˆj  b3 (t ) kˆ (3.3) integration of vector
 functions relative to a
where b1(t ), b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) are the x, y and z components of b(t ) , scalar.

respectively. We can now write the integral of the vector function b(t ) as:

   
b (t ) dt  ˆi b1(t ) dt  ˆj b2 (t ) dt  kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.4)
 
da
Note that since  b (t ) , we also have:
dt
da1(t ) da 2 (t ) da 3 (t )
 b1(t ),  b2 (t ) and  b3 (t ) (3.5)
dt dt dt 65
Block 1 Vector Analysis
From our knowledge of calculus, using Eq. (3.2), we can also write,

 b1(t )dt  a1(t )  c1,  b2(t )dt  a2(t )  c2, and  b3 (t )dt  a3 (t )  c3 (3.6)
where c1 , c 2 and c 3 are the constants of integration.

So to evaluate  b(t )dt , we only need to integrate the scalar functions
b1(t ), b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) with respect to the scalar t, as in ordinary calculus. Note
that, we leave the unit vectors ˆi, ˆj and kˆ outside the integrals as these are
constant and do not depend on t. In the same way, we can write the
expression for the definite integral of a vector function in the interval t1, t2 
as follows:
t2 t2 t2 t2

   
b(t )dt  ˆi b1(t )dt  ˆj b2 (t )dt  kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.7)
t1 t1 t1 t1

The integration of the two-dimensional vector function with respect to scalar is


also carried out in the same way. So, let us now  write down the formal
definitions of the integral of a vector function b(t ) in two and three-
dimensions:

INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

1. For

a vector function in three dimensions defined as
b(t )  b1(t ) ˆi  b2 (t ) ˆj  b3 (t ) kˆ where b1 (t ),b2 (t ) and b3 (t ) are

continuous over the interval t1, t 2  , the indefinite integral of b(t ) with
respect to t is given by:

  
b (t ) dt  ˆi b1(t ) dt  ˆj b2 (t ) dt  kˆ b3 (t ) dt  (3.4)

The definite integral of b(t ) over the interval t1, t 2  is:

t2 t2 t2 t2

   
b(t )dt  ˆi b1(t )dt  ˆj b2 (t )dt  kˆ b3 (t ) dt (3.7)
t1 t1 t1 t1

2. For a vector function in two dimensions, b(t )  b1(t )ˆi  b2 (t ) ˆj where
b1(t ) and b2 (t ) are continuous over the interval t1, t 2  , the indefinite

integral of b(t ) with respect to t is given by

  
b(t )dt  ˆi b1(t )dt  ˆj b2 (t )dt (3.8)


The definite integral of b(t ) with respect to t over the interval t1, t 2 
is
 t2 t2

 ˆ
ˆ
b(t )dt  i b1(t )dt  j b2 (t )dt  (3.9)
t1 t1
66
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
We now write down a few properties of the integrals of vector functions.

PROPERTIES OF INTEGRALS OF VECTOR


FUNCTIONS

1. For a vector function f (t ) and a constant :
 
 
 f (t ) dt   f (t ) dt (3.10)
 
2. For any two vector functions f (t ) and g(t ) and constants  and :
   
  
[f (t )   g(t )]dt   f (t )dt   g(t )dt (3.11)
 
3. For a vector function f (t ) and a constant vector a :
   
 
a . f (t ) dt  a . f (t ) dt (3.12)
 
4. For a vector function f (t ) and a constant vector a :
   
 
a  f (t ) dt  a  f (t ) dt (3.13)

Let us now work out a simple example on integration of vector functions.

XAMPLE 3.1: POSITION VECTOR


Determine the position vector of a particle r (t ) given that its velocity
function is:

v(t )  sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj  t 2kˆ
and the initial position of the particle (position vector of the particle at t  0)

is r (t  0)  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ

SOLUTION  Using the definition of velocity, we can write the position


vector of the particle as the integral of its velocity as follows:

 d r (t )  
v(t ) 
dt
 r (t )  v(t )dt  (3.14)

We
 write the integral in terms of the components of the vector function
v(t ) , as defined in Eq. (3.4):

  
r (t )  ˆi sin t dt  ˆj cos t dt  kˆ t 2 dt

t3 
  cos t ˆi  sin t ˆj  kˆ  C (i)
3

where C is an arbitrary constant vector.

To determine C we use the given initial condition. Substituting t  0 in
Eq. (i) we get
 
r (t  0)   ˆi  C  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ (ii)
67
Block 1 Vector Analysis

From this we get: C  2ˆi  ˆj  kˆ (iii)

Substituting for C in Eq. (i), we can now write the position vector as a
function of time as:
 t3
r (t )   cos t ˆi  sin t ˆj  kˆ  2ˆi  ˆj  kˆ
3

t3 ˆ
 (2  cos t ) ˆi  (1  sin t ) ˆj  (1  )k (iv)
3

Before we go further, let us summarize what you have studied so far:

INTEGRATION OF A VECTOR FUNCTION

 The integral of a vector function is defined as the integral of each


scalar component of the function.

 This definition holds for both definite and indefinite integrals of vector
functions.

You may now like to work out an SAQ on what you have studied so far.

SAQ 1 - Integrating a vector function

 4   2t  
A table of standard
a) Evaluate   1  t 2 ˆi   1  t 2 ˆj dt
integrals is given at the

end of this block. b) The acceleration of an object is a   10kˆ. Obtain its position as a

function of time t if its initial velocity is v (t  0)  ˆi  kˆ and its initial

position is r (t  0)  2kˆ .

In Unit 2 of BPHCT-131, you have learnt that many physical quantities can be
expressed as the scalar or vector products of vectors. We now study the
integrals of scalar and vector products of vector functions.

3.2.1 Integrals involving Scalar and Vector Products of


Vectors
 
Let a(t ) and b(t ) be two vector functions of a scalar t. Then for evaluating the

   
   
integrals I1  at . bt  dt and I 2  at   b t  dt , we first compute the

scalar and vector products in the integrands. Recall from Sec. 1.4 of Unit 1,
BPHCT-131 that l1 will reduce to an integral of a scalar function of t with
respect to t. Similarly, l 2 will be the integral of a vector function of t with
respect to t. Let us take an example to discuss the evaluation of l1 . After that
you can work out another example.
68
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

XAMPLE 3.2: INTEGRAL OF A SCALAR PRODUCT

In free space a transverse electromagnetic (EM) wave propagating in the


 2
x-direction has an electric field E  E0 cos ct  x  ˆj and a magnetic field

 2
B  B0 cos ct  x kˆ . Here c and  are, respectively, the velocity and the 2c  2   cT 
  T
wavelength of the EM wave and E0  B0c. The energy flowing through a 2 2c
cos ct  x 
volume V per unit time is given by 

V      cos 2  2t  kx ,


U  (E . D  B. H),  T 
2 2 
where k 
    
where D  0 E and B  0 H.   2t  kx    1
 1cos2  
2   T  
Here 0 and 0 are permittivity and the magnetic permeability, respectively, T
2 ct  x dt
1 . Compute the total energy flowing through V 
 cos
2
of free space and c  
00 0
T

 1 cos 4 t  2kx dt


in one complete cycle of EM wave if its time period is T.
2 
 T 
SOLUTION  The energy flow during time dt is given by U dt. So the total 0
T
energy will be the definite integral of U from t  0 to t  T , i.e.  1 dt
2 
0
T T


V
 E .D  B . H dt  V I E  I B 
T
U 0  U dt  (i)  1 T sin 4t  2kx 
2 2 2 4  T  0
0 0
T
T  T   2

where IE  E .D dt and IB  B.H dt .   T sin4  2kx 
8
0 0
 sin 2kx   T
Both IE and IB are integrals of the type I1. So we shall first evaluate the 2
scalar products. Given that  T  sin2kx  sin2kx   T
8 2
 2
E  E 0 cos ct  x ˆj (ii)
 T
2
  2
D  0E  0E0 cos (ct  x ) ˆj
 (iii)
  2
We get E.D  0E02 cos2 (ct  x )
 (iv)
Similarly, you can show that
  B2 2
B.H  0 cos2 ct  x  (v)
0 

Substituting from Eq. (iv) and Eq. (v) into Eq. (i) we get

V 
2
2 B0 
U0   E  I (vi)
2 0 
0 0
 
T
where (see margin remark) I  cos 2 2 ct  x dt  T

0
 2
69
Block 1 Vector Analysis

VT  B2 
 U0   0E 2  0  (vii)
4  0  0 

E 02  1 
Again B02    0  0 E 2 c  

c2 0
 00 

B02
   0 E 02 (viii)
0
VT 2
Hence U 0  0E0
2

The method will be the same for integrating vector products expressed in their
component form.

You may like to solve an SAQ before studying further.

SAQ 2 - Integrals of scalar and vector products


 
Given two vector functions a(t )  t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ and b(t )  3t 2ˆi  t ˆj,
evaluate the integrals:

 a(t ). b(t )dt  a(t )  b(t )dt


1 1
a) and b)
0 0

   We now discuss line integrals of scalar and vector fields.


W  F.d
F
3.3 LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD

d
In Unit 2 of BPHCT-131, you have studied that for a constant force, when the
Fig. 3.1: Work done by a displacement is not along the force (Fig. 3.1), the work done is the scalar
force when the force and product of force and displacement:
displacement are not  
along the same
W  F. d = (F cos ) d (3.15)
direction. In your school physics, you have learnt about work done by a constant force
and variable force. You may recall that when a variable force F(x) is applied
on an object along the x-axis, the work done in moving the object between any
two points x1 and x 2 is an integral given by
x2


W  F ( x )dx
x1
(3.16)

A well-known example of this is the work done in stretching a spring by a


length d. The spring force is a restoring force: F(x) =  kx, where k is the
spring constant. The work done is:
d


W  ( kx)dx
0
(3.17)

Let us now consider the most general case: a variable force applied on an
object moving along an arbitrary path in space. What is the work done by the
70
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
force? Refer to Fig. 3.2. A planet is moving around the Sun in an elliptical
orbit under the gravitational force. How will you calculate the work done for
such systems?

Consider an object moving along an arbitrary path in space between  the


points P and Q. Note that the path is a curve and the force F  F ( x, y , z ) is a
variable force (Fig. 3.3a). Let us calculate the work done by the force in
moving the object from P to Q along the path shown in Fig. 3.3a. We first Fig. 3.2: A planet moves
around the Sun in an
divide the path PQ in n tiny segments as shown in Fig. 3.3b. We define the
elliptical orbit. The force
displacement
  of
 the object for each of these  segments of gravitation on the
as  l1,  l2 ,..,  li ,...  ln , respectively. Let  li be the displacement for the ith planet is a variable force.
segment. The magnitude of the displacement for each segment of the curve
is almost equal to its length (read the margin remark) (inset of Fig. 3.3b).
z 
 ln Q

F ( x2 , y 2 , z2 ) Q

 l3 
  l i
F ( x1, y1, z1 )  l2

F ( x3 , y 3 , z3 )

y P  l1
P
(a) (b)
x

Fig. 3.3: a) An object moves under a variable force along the path PQ. The force The displacement for
is different at different points along the path; b) the path is divided into each segment of the
n segments and the displacement is defined for each segment. path has its tail at the
starting point of the
Although the force is actually different at different points of the path, we segment and its head
assume that it is constant over each of these segments. at the final point of
  the segment as you
Let the force acting on the object be F1 for the first segment, F2 for the second can see in the inset of
segment, and so on. Let us consider the ith segment. What is the work done Fig. 3.3b.

by the force Fi for the displacement  li ? From Eq. (3.15), it is Wi  Fi .Δ li .
The total work done in moving the object over the entire path is the sum of the
work done in moving the object over each segment of the path. We can write it
as:
    n 

If the number of
W  F1. l1  F2. l2  ...  Fi . li  ...Fn . ln  Fi . li (3.18a) segments n is large,
i 1
we can approximate
In the limit as n   , we express the sum in Eq. (3.18a) as an integral along the length of the
the path between P and Q: curve by summing
 over the magnitude of
W  F.d l  (3.18b) the displacements.
C

This is an example of a line integral along a path of integration C. It is the


path between the points P and Q along which the object moves. It should be a
71
Block 1 Vector Analysis
smooth curve. We will explain what is meant by a smooth curve in the next
section.

Here we have defined the line integral in order to calculate the work done by
a force field in moving an object along anarbitrary path. We can define such a
line integral for any arbitrary vector field A along a path of integration C as

 A.dl .
C

The line integral is a generalization of the concept of a definite integral. In a


b
definite integral  f ( x ) dx , we integrate a function f(x) along the x- axis
a

between two points, a and b. The function is defined at every point in the
interval
 [a, b]. In a line integral, we integrate along a curve C and the integrand
( F.d l in Eq. 3.18b) is a function defined at every point on the curve. Note that
the path of integration can be any straight line or curve, in space or in a plane.

We now discuss how to calculate this integral. Let us write the force field F in

terms of its component functions as F  F1(x,y,z)ˆi  F2(x,y,z)ˆj  F3(x,y,z)kˆ ,

and the displacement along the path as d l  dx ˆi  dyˆj  dzkˆ . The line integral
of Eq. (3.18b) is then given by:


W  F. dl   F1dx  F2dy  F3 dz (3.19a)
C C

If the force field is two-dimensional and the object is moving in the xy plane,
we can write the line integral as:


W  F. dl   F1dx  F2dy  (3.19b)
C C

Note that in general, F1, F2 and F3 are functions of x, y and z. However, the
integrals are over either x or y or z. Therefore, you must express each
integral in terms of a single variable. This means, for example, to evaluate

the integral F1 ( x, y , z ) dx, we must express y and z in terms of x, so that F1 is
C
a function of only x.

This is what you will learn about in the next section.

3.3.1 Representation of a Curve


In a plane, a curve can be described by an equation of the form:
To write the equation of
the circle in the form of y  f (x ) (3.20a)
Eq. (3.20a), we write it
as:
For example, y  4x 2 is the equation of a parabola and x 2  y 2  a 2 is the

y  a2  x 2 equation of a circle of radius a with its origin at the centre. The coordinates of
a point on the curve described by Eq. (3.20a) are given by (x, f(x)).

In three-dimensional space, we may describe a curve using a set of equations


72
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
y  f ( x ); z  g( x ) (3.20b)

The coordinates of each point on the curve are ( x, f ( x ), g( x )) . This is also Note that in all the
representations of a
called an explicit representation. We may also describe the curve as an
curve, there is only
intersection of two surfaces: one independent
variable. This is
F ( x, y, z)  0 ; G( x, y, z)  0 (3.20c) important, because
the line integral,
This is called an implicit representation. Note that both F ( x, y, z)  0 and unlike a double
G( x, y, z)  0 represent surfaces in space. integral or a triple
integral, is an
In the following example, we use the definition of line integral in Eqs. (3.19b) integration over one
and the representation of a curve in a plane given by Eq. (3.20a) to calculate variable.
the work done.

XAMPLE 3.3: LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD IN A


PLANE

Calculate the work done by a force field F  2xyˆi  y 2ˆj in moving an object
along the curve y  x 2 in the xy plane from (0,0) to (2,4).

SOLUTION  Using Eq. (3.19b) for the work done by a 2-dimensional


force field in moving an object in the xy plane with F1  2xy and F2  y 2
we can write:
W   2xydx  y 2dy  (i)
C
The equation of the curve y  x 2 tells us how x and y are related along the
path C. Using this in Eq. (i) we get:
W  2x( x 2 )dx  y 2dy  (ii)
C
Note that each of the
Since the coordinates of the initial and final points of the path are (0,0) and integrals in Eq. (ii) is
(2,4) we can write the limits on x and y along the path as: over a single variable.
0x2; 0y 4 (iii)
And the integral of Eq. (ii) reduces to:
2 4


W  2x 3 dx  y 2 dy  y
0 0
These can be evaluated as ordinary integrals:
2 4 D (0,1) B (1,1)
 2x 4  y3  40
 W       (iv) II III
 4  0  3  0 3

SAQ 3 - Work done by a force x


O (0, 0) A (1, 0)
 

Calculate the line integral of the force field F  xyˆi  x 2  1 ˆj from (0,0) to (1,1) I
along the three paths labeled I,II and III in Fig. 3.4. Fig. 3.4
73
Block 1 Vector Analysis
In the next section we discuss another representation of a curve in space
z which is useful for evaluating line integrals.
( x(t0 ), y (t0 ), z(t0 ))
P 3.3.2 Parametric Representation
There is yet another representation of the space curve called the parametric
 representation. In a Cartesian coordinate system, we may represent a curve

r (t ) using the position vector function r t  and a real parameter t, as follows:
y 
r (t )  x(t )ˆi  y (t )ˆj  z(t )kˆ (3.21a)
x 
r (t ) is the position vector of a point on the curve, as you can see in Fig. 3.5.
Fig. 3.5: Parametric As the value of t changes, the head of the vector traces out a curve in space.
representation of a
curve. At the point P, A point on the curve has the coordinates [x(t), y(t), z(t)]. The coordinates are
the value of the functions of the parameter t and for each value of t, we get a different point on
parameter is t 0 , the the curve.
position vector is Let us now learn how to evaluate line integrals using the parametric

r t 0  and the representation of the path of integration. Sometimes, it is convenient to use
coordinates are the parametric representation rather than Eqs. (3.19a or 3.19b) as you will see
( x(t0 ), y (t0 ), z(t0 )).
in Example 3.4.
Let us first write down the path of integration in the parametric representation.
The parametric representation of the path of integration C between two points
P and Q (Fig. 3.6a) is,

r (t )  x(t )ˆi  y (t )ˆj  z(t )kˆ,
1 2t t t (3.21b)
where t 1 and t 2 are the values of the parameter t at P and Q, respectively.
P t̂ The coordinates of P and Q are P [x(t1), y(t1), z(t1)] and Q [x(t2), y(t2), z(t2)].
C Remember that we have said earlier in this section that the path of integration
 in a line integral should be a smooth curve. You may now like to know: When
r (t1 ) Q
can we say that C is a smooth curve? C is said to be a smooth curve if

  d r (t )
  
r (t ) as defined in Eq. (3.21b) has a continuous derivative r (t ) 
r (t 2 ) dt
y
x
which is not equal to zero anywhere on C (t1  t  t 2 ) , and

(a)  r (t ) is directed along the tangent to the curve at every point (Fig. 3.6a).
The unit tangent vector at each point on the curve is:


ˆt  r (t ) (3.22)
r (t )
Since we are integrating from P to Q, the path of integration also has a
specific direction (is oriented). We take the direction from P to Q as the
positive direction along the curve (Fig. 3.6a). We mark the positive direction
on the curve by an arrow. If the path is such that the initial and final points of
 
(b) the curve coincide, as in Fig. 3.6b, r t1   r t 2  , then the curve is a closed
curve or closed contour. When the integration is over a closed path C, the
 
Fig. 3.6: a) Parametric
symbol of integration is replaced by .
representation of the
C C
path of integration;
and b) a closed path. Before you learn how to evaluate the line integral using the parametric
representation, we illustrate the parametric representation of a few simple
curves.
74
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

XAMPLE 3.4: PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF


CURVES

Write down the parametric representation for the following:


a) A straight line between the points (0,0) and (1,2).
x2 y2
b) The ellipse  1
a2 b2
c) The circle x 2  y 2  a 2
d) A circular helix
SOLUTION  In all four parts, we will express the equations of the
curves in terms of a single parameter, say t.
a) From school mathematics, you know that the equation of the straight
line between any two points ( x1, y1) and ( x2, y 2 ) is:
 y  y1 
y  y 1   2  ( x  x1 )
 x 2  x1 
y  y1 x  x1
or  (i)
y 2  y1 x2  x1

The LHS of Eq. (i) is a function of only y and the RHS is a function of
only x. We can, therefore, equate this to a parameter t. Then
y  y1 x  x1
 t
y 2  y1 x2  x1
or y (t )  y 1  ( y 2  y 1 )t and x(t )  x1  ( x 2  x1 )t (ii)
Eqs. (i) and (ii) are the parametric equations for x and y. Thus in
general

r (t )  [ x1  ( x 2  x1 )t ] ˆi  [ y 1  ( y 2  y 1 )t ] ˆj (3.23)
Using ( x1, y1)  (0,0) and ( x2, y 2 )  (1, 2) in Eq. (ii), we get
x(t )  t; y (t )  2t (iii)
To get the end points of the straight line in terms of t, we use Eq. (iii)
as follows:
Let t = t1 for the point (0, 0) and t = t2 for the point (1, 2). Then since
x(t) = t and y(t) = 2t, we get
x1  x(t1 )  t1  0, y1  y (t1 )  2t1  0  t1  0
and x 2  x(t 2 )  t 2  1, y 2  y (t 2 )  2t 2  2  t2  1
Therefore, in terms of the parameter t, the initial point of the straight
line is t1  0 and the final point is t 2  1. The parametric
representation of the straight line between (0,0) and (1,2) is:

r (t )  t ˆi  2t ˆj; 0  t  1
x2 y2 x y The values of sin t
b) Note that for   1, the values of both and should lie
2 2 a b and cos t lie between
a b
between 1 and 1. This suggests (see margin remark) that we can use 1 and 1.
the identity cos2 t  sin 2 t  1 to write the parametric representation:
75
Block 1 Vector Analysis

x y
 cos t;  sin t
a b
 x(t )  a cos t and y  b sin t

So, an ellipse with its centre at the origin and semi-major and semi-
minor axes a and b respectively, has the parametric representation
(Fig. 3.7a):

r (t )  a cos t ˆi  b sin t ˆj 0  t  2 (3.24)

The parameter t is the angle the position vector r ( t ) makes with the
x-axis. As t changes from 0 to 2, the tip of the position vector traces
the entire ellipse starting from the point A on the x-axis. The coordinate
of each point on the ellipse is (a cost, b sint).
Note that if you want to take only a part of the ellipse, you have to
choose the range of t accordingly. For example, for the part of ellipse
in the first quadrant we write;

r (t )  a cos t ˆi  b sin t ˆj 0  t  /2

c) Substituting a = b in Eq. 3.24, we get the parametric equation of a


circle x2 + y2 = a2 (Fig. 3.7b):

r (t )  a cos t ˆi  a sin t ˆj 0  t  2 (3.25)
The coordinate of each point on the circle is (a cos t, a sin t).
d) The parametric equation for a circular helix (Fig. 3.7c) is:

r (t )  a cos t ˆi  a sin t ˆj  bt kˆ; b  0, 0  t  2π (3.26)
y

y r (t)

r (t)
a t
b
tA x
x
a

(a) (b)
z


r (t)

a t

x
(c)
Fig. 3.7: Parametric representation of the a) ellipse; b) circle; c) right circular
2 2 2
helix, in which the curve lies on the cylinder x + y = a .
76
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

SAQ 4 - Parametric representation of a parabola

Write down the parametric representation for the parabola y  x 2 between


the points (0,0) and (2,4).

The parametric representation of a curve has several applications. In Usually in Physics we



Mechanics the parameter t in Eq. (3.21b) may be used to represent time and use the symbol F to

we can use the vector function r (t ) to determine the velocity and acceleration denote force fields and

of an object moving along a curve. We now use the parametric representation d r to indicate
of the path of integration to define the line integral of a vector function along displacement. Here we

use the d l instead
the path as:
merely to highlight that
 we are talking about an
  t2  
W  F.d l  F[r (t )].
d r (t ) 
   dt 
dt (3.27) infinitesimal
displacement
C t1
along a curve.
  
F(r (t )) is a vector function , r (t ) is defined in Eq. (3.21b), t1 and t2 are the end
points of the path.

This is now the definite integral of a scalar function. We can write


dr

dt dt
d

x(t ) ˆi  y (t ) ˆj  z(t ) kˆ  By replacing x,y,z in
the

vector function
F  F1 (x,y,z)ˆi  F2(x,y,z)ˆj

dx (t ) ˆ dy (t ) ˆ dz(t ) ˆ  F3 (x,y,z)k̂
 i j k (3.28)
dt dt dt by the parametric
  functions x  x(t );
Using F(r (t ))  F1(t )ˆi  F2 (t ) ˆj  F3 (t ) kˆ (see margin remark) and Eq. (3.27) we y  y (t ); z  z(t ), we
get: can write the vector
function as a function
t2  t2 of the parameter t.
  dr   dx (t ) dy (t ) dz(t ) 
 
F . dt dt  F1(t ) dt  F2 (t ) dt  F3 (t ) dt dt (3.29a)
t1 t1
C3

For a two-dimensional force field F  F1(t ) ˆi  F2 (t ) ˆj , we can write the line
B
integral as:

t2  t2
  dr   dx (t ) dy (t ) 
 
F . dt dt  F1(t ) dt  F2 (t ) dt dt (3.29b) C2
t1 t1

Note that the quantity in the bracket in Eq. (3.29b) is a scalar function of a
C1
single variable t. We can say that the integral is along the t-axis, in the A
direction of increasing t. It exists when C is a smooth curve or even a Fig. 3.8: The curve
piecewise smooth curve. In Fig. 3.8 you can see an example of a curve which between A and B is
is piecewise smooth. piecewise smooth. It is
made up of the smooth
Let us now write down a formal definition of the line integral of a vector field curves C1,C2 and C3 .
using the parametric representation of the path of integration. 77
Block 1 Vector Analysis

LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD



If a vector field F is continuous on a curve C which has a parametric
 
representation r (t ) with t1  t  t 2 and r (t ) is differentiable, we define the

line integral of the vector field F along the curve C as:
   
 d r (t ) 

W  F.d l  F[(t )].
 
dt 
dt (3.30)
C C

Remember that there can be more than one way of parametrizing a


curve.
For example, a circle x 2  y 2  a2 can be represented either as
 
r t   a cos t ˆi  a sin tˆj or r t   a sin t ˆi  a cos tˆj
The value of the line integral does not depend on the chosen parametric
representation of the path of integration.
In the following example, we calculate the line integral for a two-dimensional
vector field.

XAMPLE 3.5: LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR FIELD



Calculate the line integral of the vector field F( x, y )   y ˆi  x ˆj over the

curve r t   cos t ˆi  sin t ˆj with 0 t   .
SOLUTION  We use Eq. (3.30) to calculate the line integral. Let us
write down the steps of this calculation.

dr
Step 1: Calculate .
dt

dr d
 [cos t ˆi  sin t ˆj]   sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj (i)
dt dt

Step 2: Write F[r (t )] in terms of the parameter t.
  
F is the vector field F( x, y )   y ˆi  x ˆj . We write F in terms of the

parameter t by replacing x and y in F( x, y ) by
x  x t   cos t , y  y (t )  sin t.

 F   sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj (ii)
 dr
Step 3: Determine F . .
dt
Using Eqs. (i) and (ii), we can write :
 dr
F.
dt
  
  sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj .  sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj  sin 2 t  cos 2 t  1 (iii)
t2  
 dr 
Step 4: Evaluate F . dt . 
 dt 
t1
The limits of integration are the limits of the parameter t for the path of
integration. These are given as t1  0 and t 2  . So using Eq. (iii), we get:
t2   
 dr 

F . dt dt  dt   
t1 0
78
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
Let us now work out another example of a line integral of a vector field. We
calculate the work done by a three-dimensional force field in moving an object
along a given path.

XAMPLE 3.6: WORK DONE BY A FORCE FIELD


Determine the work done by the force field F ( x, y, z)  xy ˆi  yz ˆj  zx kˆ in

moving an object along the curve r (t )  t ˆi  t 2ˆj  t 3kˆ from (0,0,0) to (2,4,8).

SOLUTION  We use Eq. (3.29a) to calculate the work done by the force

field. Comparing the expression for r (t ) with Eq. (3.21b), we can write:

x (t )  t , y (t )  t 2 , z(t )  t 3 (i)

Note that we have to determine the limits t1 and t 2 of t for the path of
integration as these are not given in the problem. The coordinates of the
starting and ending points of the path are (0,0,0) and (2,4,8). Putting these
values in the parametric expressions for the coordinates in Eq. (i) we can
determine t1 and t 2 as follows:

x (t1 )  t1  0, y (t1 )  t12  0, z(t1 )  t13  0  t1  0 (ii)

and

x (t 2 )  t 2  2, y (t 2 )  t 2 2  4, z(t 2 )  t 2 3  8  t 2  2 (iii)

To calculate the work done we now have to evaluate the line integral

2
dr
W  F. 
dt
dt (iv)
0

following the steps outlined in Example 3.5. Here



dr d
 [t ˆi  t 2 ˆj  t 3kˆ ]  ˆi  2t ˆj  3 t 2 kˆ (v)
dt dt

We next write F terms of the parameter t by substituting x, y, z from Eq. (i)
to get:
 
F [r (t ) ]  t 3 ˆi  t 5 ˆj  t 4 kˆ (vi)

Using Eqs. (v) and (vi), we calculate:


  
dr
F r (t ).  (t 3 ˆi  t 5 ˆj  t 4 kˆ ) . ( ˆi  2t ˆj  3 t 2 kˆ )  t 3  5t 6 (vii)
dt
The work done is:
2

 t 
2
3 6
t 4 t7 
W   5t dt    5 
0  4 7 
0
668
 units
7
79
Block 1 Vector Analysis
It is convenient to use the parametric representation when the path of
integration is a circle, an ellipse, a helix or a parabola. However, it is not
always necessary to use a parametric representation to evaluate a line
integral. In Example 3.4 the integral was evaluated using Eq. (3.19b). In some
questions, as in SAQ 3, the path of integration may be along the x, y or z-axes
or a combination of all these. In that case, using Eq. (3.19a or b) to evaluate
the line integral will be more convenient than using Eq. (3.30).
In evaluating line integrals we can use any of the equations: 3.19a, 3.19b,
3.29a, 3.29b or 3.30.

SAQ 5 - Line integral of a vector field


 
Calculate the line integral of the vector field F   r / r 3 along the curve

C2 r (t )  t ˆi  tˆj  tkˆ , with 1 t  3 .
C
Before you study further, you should learn some properties of line integrals.

PROPERTIES OF LINE INTEGRALS


C1 B 
The line integral of a vector field F along a curve C has the following
general properties:

A 1. For a constant  ,
Fig. 3.9: The curve C    
between points A and 
 F.d l   F.d l  (3.31)
C is made up of the C C

 
      
 
curves C1 between A
2. F  G .d l  F.d l  G.d l (3.32)
and O and C2 between
C C C
O and C. 
where G is another vector field which is continuous over the curve C.

3. If the curve C is made up of two curves C1 and C2 as shown in


Fig. 3.9, we have:
     
C2 C3  
F.d l  F.d l  F.d l  (3.33)
C C1 C2

Note that the orientation of the curve is the same in all the three
integrals. If the orientation of the path is reversed in any line
integral, as in Fig. 3.10, the integral gets multiplied by a negative
sign.

Fig. 3.10: The line
So far we have discussed line integrals of the form  A.dl . There are other
C
integral over the path types of line integrals. Here we only state these forms.
C2 will be the negative
of the line integral
over the pathC3
3.3.3 Other Types of Line Integrals
 
 F.d l    F.d l There are mainly two other types of line integrals that you may need to use.
C2 C3
These are:

80
i)  f dl
C
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
and
 
ii)  A dl
C

where f and A represent a scalar and vector field, respectively. While (i) gives
a scalar, (ii) gives a vector. Q
C2
In the next section we discuss conservative vector fields, which are an
important concept in physics. In your mechanics course BPHCT-131 you have
C1
studied about central conservative forces which are an example of a
conservative vector field.

3.4 CONSERVATIVE VECTOR FIELDS C3

From the examples you have worked out so far, you have seen that the
equation of the path of integration (either in a parametric form or in terms of
the Cartesian coordinates) is used to evaluate the line integral. In general, P
then, the value of the line integral depends on the path (as in SAQ 3). Fig. 3.11: Three different
However you will find that in some cases the value of the line integral of a paths of integration
vector field between any two points does not depend on the path of between two points P
integration between these points. This notion of path independence of the and Q, C1, C2 and C3. If
line integral of a vector field is used to define a conservative vector field: the line integral of a


  
A vector field F , for which the line integral F.d l between any two
vector field F has the
same value for all these

points P and Q, has the same value for all paths that begin at the point P paths then F is a
conservative vector
and end at the point Q is called a conservative vector field.
field.
In other words, the line integral of a conservative force is path
independent (Fig. 3.11).
The force of gravity is an example of a conservative force field. You know that If the line integral of

the work done in lifting an object of mass m to a height is the same. F depends on the
Irrespective of the path taken, the work done is ( mgh). Thus, the force of path between the two
gravity is a conservative force. The electrostatic force field is also points, then it is
called a non-
conservative, as you have also studied in Unit 10 of BPHCT-131.
 conservative vector
There are three different ways of saying that a vector field F is conservative. field.
And all of these are equivalent to saying that the line integral of the
vector field is path independent. These are as follows:

1. The vector field can be written as the gradient of a scalar field  :


 
F   (3.34)
2. The curl of the vector field is zero or the vector field is irrotational:
  
 F  0 (3.35)
3. The line integral of the vector field along a closed path is zero:
 

F .d l  0 (3.36)
C
The line integral of a vector field over a closed path is also called a closed
contour integral or a loop integral. It is denoted by a small circle
superimposed on the sign of the integral as shown below:
 

F .d l (3.37)
C
81
Block 1 Vector Analysis

For any vector field F the closed contour
 integral along a curve C is also
called the circulation of the vector F around the path C.

SAQ 6 - Circulation of a vector field



Calculate the circulation of a vector field A  xy ˆi  (3x 2  y ) ˆj around the circle
x2  y 2  4 .
Note that we can add a
constant V0 to the scalar
Let us now introduce another concept which is used very often in physics, that
potential V, to find
another potential function, of the scalar potential associated with a conservative force.
V + V0. This is because 3.4.1 Scalar Potential
for any constant

V0,  V0 = 0 and In mechanics we define the potential energy as the negative of the work done
therefore we can write in a process. For example, if we lift a mass m to a height z the work done by
 
F    (V +V0). So the the force of gravity is W     mgz . However, the potential energy of the
scalar potential is mass increases, and if the potential energy on the surface of the Earth is
arbitrary up to an additive taken to be zero, the increase in the potential energy V = mgz. In other words,
constant. the potential energy is the negative of the work done. So,
 
V  W     F.d l  (3.38)
C

For every conservative force F , we, therefore,
 define a function V which is the

scalar potential function V    such that F   V .
Let us now work out an example in which we determine the scalar potential for
a vector field by evaluating the line integral.

XAMPLE 3.7: SCALAR POTENTIAL FOR A


CONSERVATIVE FORCE FIELD

Determine the scalar potential for an electric field due to a point charge q
placed at the origin.
SOLUTION  The electric field due to a charge q placed at the origin of
the coordinate system at a point P (x, y, z) which is at a distance r from the
origin is the force on the unit charge placed at that point and is given by:

r̂ is the unit vector along

 q qr q( x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ )
the position vector r from E rˆ  
r2 r 3 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 )3 / 2
the origin to the point P.
We can check that the electric field is conservative by calculating the curl of

the the field. Using Eq. (2.7a) for the curl, we get:

ˆi ˆj kˆ
    
 F 
x y z
x y z
x 2  y 2  z 2 3 / 2 x 2  y 2  z 2 3 / 2 x 2  y 2  z 2 3 / 2
82
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

    
     
i 
ˆ z y
   
 y


x 2
 y 2
 z 2

3 / 2


z  2
 x  y 2
 z 2 3 / 2

 
    
     
j 
x z
   
 z
 
2 2
 x y z 
2 3 / 2


x  
2 2
 x y z
2 3 / 2

  
    
ˆ    y    x 
k 
 x  2   (i)
 
 x  y 2
  z 2 3 / 2

 
y 
 x 
2
 y 2
 z 2 3 / 2



Calculating the partial derivatives in the first term in Eq. (i) we get:

 
  z  3yz
 

y  2 2
 x y z
2 3 / 2

 
x 2  y 2  z2
5/2
 
 
  y  3yz
 

z  2 2
 x y z
2 3 / 2

 
x 2  y 2  z2
5/2
 
   
  z    y 
    0

y  2 2
 x y z
2 3 / 2

 
y  2 2
 x y z
2 3 / 2

 
Similarly, the remaining two terms in Eq. (i) are also zero.
  
  E  0

To determine the scalar potential associated with the field we calculate the
negative of the work done in bringing the unit charge from infinity to the
point P, which is:
r   r r
q q
V   E. d r    r2
rˆ . dr rˆ    r2
dr
  
You will learn about
r electric potential in detail
q  q
   in Units 8 and 9.
 r  r

You have seen that when a vector field is irrotational (curl of the vector field is
zero), it can be written as the gradient of a scalar function, which we call the A vector field with a zero
scalar potential. What if the vector field were to be solenoidal? This brings us divergence is called a
to the concept of a vector potential, which finds many applications in Physics. solenoidal vector field.
Let us now study about this.

3.4.2 Vector Potentials


  
Consider a solenoidal vector field F . So  .F  0 . Recall that you have
   

studied in Unit 2 that for any vector field A ,  .   A  0 . Therefore we can 
write:
83
Block 1 Vector Analysis
    
 .F  0  F    A (3.39)
 
A is called the vector potential associated with a solenoidal vector field F .
Just as the scalar potential for a conservative field is not unique and you can
add an arbitrary constant to it, similarly the vector potential for a solenoidal
field is also not unique. You can add the gradient of an arbitrary function,

f (x, y, z) to the vector potential, and the result would not change because
 
the curl of a gradient of a scalar field is zero (   f  0 ) .So:  
  A   f    A  F (3.40)

3.5 SUMMARY

Concept Description

Integral of a vector  For


 a vector function in three dimensions defined as 
function
b(t )  b1(t )ˆi  b2 (t )ˆj  b3 (t )kˆ the indefinite integral of b(t ) is given by:

  
b (t ) dt  ˆi b1(t ) dt  ˆj b2 (t ) dt  kˆ b3 (t ) dt

The definite integral of b(t ) over the interval t1, t 2  is:
t2 t2 t2 t2

 ˆ
 ˆ

ˆ

b(t )dt  i b1(t )dt  j b2 (t )dt  k b3 (t ) dt
t1 t1 t1 t1

 For a vector function in two dimensions defined as b(t )  b1(t )ˆi  b2 (t )ˆj , the

indefinite integral of b(t ) is given by

 
b (t ) dt  ˆi b1(t ) dt  ˆj b2 (t ) dt 

The definite integral of b(t ) over the interval t1, t 2  is
t2 t2 t2


t1
ˆ

t1
ˆ

b(t )dt  i b1(t )dt  j b2 (t )dt
t1
 
Properties of integrals  For any two vector functions f (t ) and g(t ) we can write
of vector functions
 f (t )  g(t )dt   f (t )dt   g(t ) dt

 For the product of a vector function f (t ) and a constant  we can write
 
 f (t ) dt    f (t ) dt
 
 For a vector function f (t ) and a constant vector a , we can write
   
 a.[ f (t )] dt  a  f (t ) dt
   
 a  [ f (t )(t )] dt  a   f (t )(t ) dt
84
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
 
Integrals of the scalar  For any two vector functions of a scalar t, a(t ) and b(t ) , to

   
   
and vector products of
evaluate the integrals I1  at .bt  dt and I2  at   bt  dt , we
vector functions
first compute the scalar and vector products in the integrands. We
then integrate the result.
Line integral  A line integral of a scalar or a vector field is a generalization of the
single integral where the path of integration may be any curve in
space. It can appear in three forms:
   
 
f dl , A .d l and A  d l 
C C C

Work done by a force  The work done by the force field F in moving an object along a
field F path C between the points P and Q is given by the line integral
 
W  F.d l 
C

Line integral in the  The line integral of a three-dimensional force field



component form F  F1(x,y,z)ˆi  F2(x,y,z)ˆj  F3(x,y,z)kˆ along a path C in space can
be written in terms of its component functions as:
 
 
W  F.d l  F1dx  F2 dy  F3 dz 
C C

 The
 line integral of a two-dimensional force field
F  F1(x,y) ˆi  F2(x,y) ˆj along a path C in the xy plane can be
written as:
 

W  F.d l   F1dx  F2dy 
C C

Line integral of a vector  The line integral of the vector field F along the curve C which has
 
field using the parametric a parametric representation r (t ) with t1  t  t 2 where r (t ) is
representation of the differentiable is:
path 
  t2  
W  F.d l  F[r (t )].
d r (t ) 
   dt 
dt
C t1

Properties of the line  For a constant  ,


   
 
integral
F.d l   F.d l
C C

 F  G.d l   F.d l   G.d l


        
 for two vector fields G and F .
C C C

 If the path of integration C is split into two curves C1 and C2


     
 
F.d l  F.d l  F.d l 
C C1 C2

 If the orientation of the path of integration is reversed in any line


integral, the integral gets multiplied by a negative sign.

Circulation of a vector  For any vector field F the closed contour integral along a curve C
  
field
 F.d l is also called the circulation of the vector F around the path C.
C
85
Block 1 Vector Analysis

Conservative vector fields  There are three different ways of saying that a vector field F is
conservative or that the line integral of the vector field is path
independent:
 Thevector field can be written as the gradient of a scalar field

: F  
  
 The curl of the vector field is zero:   F  0
 
 The circulation of the vector field is zero:  F.d l  0
C

3.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS


1. Evaluate the following integrals:

i) I  4 sin t ˆi  cos t ˆj  (2  t )kˆ dt
0
2
ii) I  t 2 ˆi  te t ˆj  ln t kˆ  dt
1

2. Obtain a function a(t ) which satisfies the relation

4 
 t ˆi  cos  t  ˆj    kˆ , given that a(1)  2 ˆi  3 ˆj  4 kˆ .
da(t)
dt t 
2
  da(t )  
3. Evaluate a(t ).


dt  dt given that a (2)  2 ˆi  3 ˆj  4 kˆ and
1

a(1)  ˆi  ˆj  5 kˆ .
1 
 d 2a(t )  
4. Evaluate a(t )   2
 dt given that a(t )  2t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ .
0 
dt 

5.
 k xˆj  y ˆi
A two-dimensional force field is defined as F  2

, where k is a

x  y2
constant. Compute the work done by this force in taking a particle from
point P(1,0) to Q(0, 1) along a straight line.

z
6. Determine the work done by a force F  x  3y  ˆi  2x  y  ˆj in moving a
particle along a curve in the xy plane given by x  2t; y  3t 2 from t = 0 to
Q(1,1,1)
t = 2.
C3
7. Calculate the line integral of the vector field

C1 P (0,0,0) y F  (6x 2  6y ) ˆi  14yz ˆj  10 xz 2 kˆ over the path C (PABQ) between the
A(1,0,0) B(1,1,0) points P(0,0,0) and Q(1,1,1) defined by three straight line segments PA,
x AB and BQ shown in Fig. 3.12.
C2
Fig. 3.12: The path of
8. An object of mass m moves along a curve

integration between r (t )  t 2 ˆi  cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ, 0  t  1. Calculate the total force acting on the
the points P and Q for object and the work done by the force.
TQ 7. 
9. Show that the line integral of the vector field A  (2xy  1) ˆi  ( x 2  2y ) ˆj
between the points (0, 0) and (2,1) is independent of the path between
86 these points.
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

10. Calculate the circulation of the vector field F  y 2ˆi  xyˆj around the closed y
path along the parabola y = 2 x2 from (0,0) to (1,2) and back from (1, 2) to
(0, 0) along the straight line y = 2x as shown in Fig. 3.13.

3.7 SOLUTIONS AND ANSWERS 


r (t )
Self-Assessment Questions
4 2t x
1. a) I  ˆi  1 t 2
dt  ˆj  1 t 2
dt O(0 ,0)

   
 4 tan1 t ˆi  ln 1  t 2 ˆj  C  Fig. 3.13: Figure for
TQ 10.
b) We use Eq. (3.4) to write down the expression for the velocity of the
object as:
  
vt   a dt   10 kˆ dt  10t kˆ  C1
  (i)

To determine C1 (the constant vector) we use the initial condition on
 Let u  1  t 2 then
the velocity v (t  0)  ˆi  kˆ . Substituting t = 0 in Eq. (i) we get:
 du
  2t dt
vt  0  C1  ˆi  kˆ (ii) dt
 2t du
Substituting for C1 from Eq. (ii) into Eq. (i) we get
and 
1 t 2
dt 
u 
  ln u  ln(1  t 2 )
vt   ˆi  (1 10t ) kˆ

To determine the position vector r (t ) we use Eq. (3.4) to write:

 
 

r (t )  v(t ) dt  ˆi  (1 10t )kˆ )] dt

 t ˆi  t kˆ  5t 2 kˆ  C2 (iii)

To evaluate C2 we substitute t = 0 in Eq. (iii) and using the given initial

position vector r (t  0)  2kˆ we get:
 
r (t  0)  C2  2kˆ (iv)

Substituting for C 2 from Eq. (iv) into Eq. (iii) we get the position vector
of the object:

r (t )  t ˆi  (2  t  5t 2 ) kˆ
 
2. a) a(t ).b(t )  [t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ ] . [3t 2 ˆi  t ˆj]  3t 3  t (1  t )  3t 3  t 2  t
 
a b 

 a(t ).b(t )dt   3t


1

  3t t 
1
  1 4 3
t 2
7
 3
 t 2  t dt       ˆi ˆj kˆ
0 0  4 3 2  0 12  t (1  t ) t 2
 
  
b) a(t )  b(t )  t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ  3t 2ˆi  t ˆj  t 3 ˆi  3t 4 ˆj  ( 3t 3  4t 2 )kˆ
3t 2 t 0

 a(t )  b(t )dt   t 3 ˆi  3t 4ˆj  ( 3t 3  4t 2 )kˆ  dt


1 1

0 0
1
t 4 3t 5 ˆ  3t 4 4t 3  ˆ 
  ˆi  j  k (i)
 4 5  4 3  
 0
87
Block 1 Vector Analysis

 
1
  1 3 7
or a(t )  b(t ) dt  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ
0
4 5 12

3. We evaluate these integrals using Eq. (3.19b) with


F1  xy and F2  x 2  1
y
Along the path I the integral is the sum of the integrals along the straight
D B line segments OA and AB (see Fig. 3.14):
(1, 0)      
I I  F. d l  F. d l  F. d l  Fx dx  Fy dy   Fx dx  Fy dy 
(1,1)
II III     
l OA AB OA AB

  xydx  ( x 2  1)dy    xydx  ( x 2  1)dy  (i)


OA AB
O x
A Along OA,
(0 , 0 ) I (1, 0) 0  x  1; y  0  dy  0 (ii)
Fig. 3.14: Path of Along AB
integration for SAQ 3.
0  y  1; x  1  dx  0 (iii)

So substituting from Eqs. (ii) and (iii) into Eq.(i) we get


1
II   (x 2  1)dy   (1  1) dy  2y 10  2

AB 0
Along the path II the integral is the sum of the integrals along the straight
line segments OD and DB:
     
I II  F. d l  F. d l  F. d l  Fx dx  Fy dy   Fx dx  Fy dy 
    
ll OD DB OD DB

  xydx  ( x 2  1)dy    xydx  ( x 2  1)dy  (iv)


OD DB

Along OD,
0  y  1; x  0  dx  0 (v)
Along DB,
0  x  1; y  1  dy  0 (vi)

So substituting from Eqs. (v) and (vi) into Eq.(iv) we get


1 1 1
x2  3
I II   dy   xdx  dy   xdx  y 10   
 2 0 2 -
OD DB 0 0

Along the path III the integral is the integral along the straight line
segment OB:
   
I III  F. d l  F. d l  Fx dx  Fy dy   xydx  ( x 2  1)dy 
   
III OB OB OB

(vii)
The equation of the straight line OB is y = x. The limits on x and y are
0  x  1; 0  y  1 (viii)

So substituting from Eqs. (viii) and y= x into Eq.(vii) and using the
methods of Example 3.3 we get:
88
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
1 1
I III   xydx  ( x 2  1)dy    x 2dx   ( y 2  1)dy
OB 0 0

On evaluating these integrals we get


1 1
 x3   y 3  1 4 5
IIII       y    
 3 0  3 0 3 3 3

As you can see, the value of the line integral along each of these paths is
different.

4. The parametric equation of the parabola y = x2 (Fig. 3.15) is:

x(t )  t, y (t )  t 2

You can check that this satisfies the equation y  x 2 . To obtain the end
points, we write y

x(t1)  t1  0; y (t1)  t12  0  t1  0 


r t 
and
(t , t 2 )
x(t 2 )  t 2  2; y (t 2 )  t 22  4  t 2  2

So the parametric representation is


x

r (t )  t ˆi  t 2 ˆj; 0t 2

5. We use Eq. (3.27) to evaluate the line integral with: Fig. 3.15

 r x ˆi  y ˆj  z kˆ 
F   ; r (t )  t ˆi  t ˆj  t kˆ ; x(t )  y (t )  z(t )  t;
r3 ( x 2  y 2  z 2 )3 / 2

and t1  1; t 2  3

The derivative of r is:

dr d ˆ

dt dt
 
t i  t ˆj  t kˆ  ˆi  ˆj  kˆ (i)


In terms of t, we can write F as:

 
F ( r (t )  
t ˆi  t ˆj  t kˆ  
t ˆi  t ˆj  t kˆ    1
 
ˆi  ˆj  kˆ (ii)
(t  t  t )
2 2 2 3/2 2 3/2
(3t ) 3 3t 2

Using the results of Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (3.27) we get:

3 
  dr 
3 ˆ ˆ

 i  j  kˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ   3
1
 2 3

I  F.  dt   
 dt  2 
. i  j  k  dt  
2
dt   
1 
3 3t 3t 9
1 1

6. Using Eq. (3.25) we write the parametric equation for the circle C
x 2  y 2  4 as:

r (t )  2 cos t ˆi  2 sin t ˆj, 0  t  2 (i)

Writing down A in terms of t using x(t )  2 cos t; y (t )  2 sin t we get:
89
Block 1 Vector Analysis
 
A (r (t ))  4 cos t sin t ˆi  (12 cos2 t  2 sin t )ˆj (ii)

2 Differentiating Eq. (i) w.r.t. t we get


 sin2 t cos t dt 
dr
0
  2 sin t ˆi  2 cos t ˆj
0 dt
  u 2du  0 (using   
0 Using Eq. (3.27), with F  A, we get the circulation of A as (read the see
u  sin t and du  cos t dt ) margin remark):

  2
2
2   
A .d l  4 cos t sin t ˆi  (12 cos2 t  2 sin t )ˆj .  2 sin t ˆi  2 cos t ˆj dt 
 cost dt   sin t 0 C 0
0
 0
  8 sin 
2
2
2 2  t cos t  24cos3 t  4 sin t cos t dt
sin2 t
 sin t cos t dt 
2
0
0 0

  8 sin 
0 2
2
 t cos t  24 (1  sin 2 t ) cos t  4 sin t cos t dt
0

2
  [  32 sin2 t cos t  4 sin t cos t  24 cos t ] dt  0
0
 
  A.d l  0
C

The circulation of the vector field is zero.

Terminal Questions
  
1. i) 
0

I  ˆi 4 sin t dt  ˆj cos t dt   kˆ
0
 2  t dt
0


 t2 
 ˆi  4 cos t 0  ˆj sin t 0  kˆ 2t  
 2 0

 2 ˆ
 8 ˆi   2   k
 2 

 t 
2
ii) I  2 ˆi  t et ˆj  ln t kˆ dt
1

 
2
 t 3
=   ˆi  tet  et 1 ˆj  t ln t  t 12 kˆ  ˆi  e2ˆj  2 ln 2 1kˆ
2 7
 3 1 3

 4
2. Using Eq. (3.4) with b(t)  t ˆi  cos  t  ˆj    kˆ we can write:
t 
 
a(t )   t ˆi  cos  t  ˆj    kˆ  dt  C
4
90   t  
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals

where C is a constant vector. Then
 2 sin  t ˆ 
a(t )  t 3 / 2 ˆi  j  4 ln t kˆ  C (i)
3 

Substituting t = 1 in Eq. (i) and given that a(1)  2 ˆi  3 ˆj  4 kˆ we get:

 2 
a(t  1)  ˆi  C (ii)
3

 2 ˆi  3ˆj  4 kˆ
 4
 C  ˆi  3ˆj  4 kˆ (iii)
3

Substituting for C in Eq. (i) we get:
 2  sin  t 
a(t )  (t 3 / 2  2) ˆi    3  ˆj  ( 4 ln t  4) kˆ
3   

3. For any vector a(t ) we can write:
  
d    da(t ) da(t )   da(t ) 
a(t ).a(t )  a(t ).  .a(t )  2a(t ) . (i)
dt dt dt  dt 

or 
 da(t ) 1 d  
a(t ).  a(t ).a(t ) (ii)
dt 2 dt

Then we can write:


2  2 2
 da(t )  1d   1   1   2
 a(t ). dt  dt  2 dt a(t ).a(t ) dt  2 d a(t ).a(t )  2 a(t ).a(t )1
 
1 1 1
 
Using a(2)  2 ˆi  3 ˆj  4 kˆ and a(1)  ˆi  ˆj  5 kˆ, we get:
2 
  da(t )  1    
a(t ). dt  dt  2 a(2).a(2)  a(1).a(1)  2 [29  27]  1
1
  
1


4. For any vector a(t ) we can write:
    
d  da(t )  da(t ) da(t )  d 2a(t )  d 2a(t )
a(t )     a(t )   a(t )  (i)
dt  dt  dt dt dt 2 dt 2
 
da(t ) da(t ) 
as   0 . So we can write:
dt dt
 
 d 2a(t ) d   da(t ) 
a(t )   a(t )  (ii)
dt 2 dt  dt 

Therefore,
  
1
 d 2a(t ) 
1
d  da(t ) 
1
 da(t ) 
a(t ) 
0
dt 2 
 dt 
0

dt 
a(t ) 
dt  0 

dt  d a(t ) 
dt 
(iii)
91
Block 1 Vector Analysis
The integral is then:
 
 d 2a(t ) 
1 1
 da(t ) 
a(t ) 
0
dt 2 
 dt  a(t ) 
 dt  0
(iv)


Given that a(t )  2t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ we can write:
 
 da
a(t )  da(t )
dt  2 ˆi  ˆj  2t kˆ
dt
ˆi ˆj kˆ 
 2t 1  t 2
t

a(t ) 
da(t )
dt
  
 2t ˆi  (1  t ) ˆj  t 2 kˆ  2 ˆi  ˆj  2t kˆ  (2t  t 2 ) ˆi  2t 2ˆj  2 kˆ
2 1 2t
(v)
1  
d 2a(t ) 
1
  da(t ) 
 a(t )  2
 dt  a(t ) 
 dt  0
0 
dt 

 ˆi  2 ˆj
 
5. In order to evaluate the integral we have to express d r and F as a
y  function of the same parameter, say t. The equation of PQ (Fig. 3.16)as
r (t )
explained in Example 3.4 is:
Q (0,1)
x  y  1  y  1 x (i)

x This can be expressed in the parameteric form as x(t )  t ; y (t )  1 t ,


P (1, 0)
where t goes from 1 to 0. Following the steps in Example 3.5, we first write
Fig. 3.16: Figure for TQ 5. the position vector:


r  x i  yj  t i  1  t  j and
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ dr ˆ ˆ
i  j
dt
 
Next we write F  F(t)

 t ˆj  t  1ˆi
Fk 2
t  1  t 
2

 F. 

 d r k t  1ˆi  tˆj . ˆi  ˆj
k 2
 
t  1  t   k
t  1  t  2t  2t  1 2t  2t  1
2 2 2
Let dt
1
ut  du  dt
2 The work done is calculated using Eq. (3.30) as:
0 0
dt
  2 W  k  2t
dt
 2t  1
1  t  1   1
2
1 (ii)
 2 4 0 0
k dt k dt
1/ 2
du

2  1

21 1
2


 t2  t  1
1
1
2 t   
1/ 2 u 2   2 4
4
k k
 2 tan12u 1/ 2   
1 / 2   (  )  (read the margin remark)
2 2
Alternative Method

92
The integral can be evaluated using Eq. (3.19b) as well, as follows:
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
y x
F1  ; F2 
y
x2 2 x  y2
2

   ky   kx 
as : 
PQ
F.d r 
PQ
  x 2 2
y  
dx   2
PQ 
dy
x  y2 
(iii)

The equation of the straight line PQ is x + y = 1


 y = 1 x and dy =  dx, (iv)
x2 + y2 = x2 + (1  x)2 = 2x2 – 2x + 1 (v)
Note that the integral
Substituting from Eqs. (iv) and (v) into Eq.(iii) we get (see margin remark):
evaluated in Eq. (vi) is the
0
   xdx   x  1dx dx k same as the integral you
 F.dr   2x 2  2x  1
 k  2x 2

 2x  1 2
(vi) evaluated in Eq. (ii).
PQ PQ x 1

6. We use Eq. (3.29b) to evaluate the line integral with:



F  ( x  3y ) ˆi  (2x  y ) ˆj, x(t )  2t, y (t )  3t 2, t1  0 ; t 2  2 (i)
From Eq. (i) we write:
x (t )  2, y (t )  6t (ii)

In terms of t, we can write the components of F as:
F1  ( x  3y )  2t  9t 2, F2  (2x  y )  4t  3t 2 (iii)

Using the results of Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq. (3.29b) we get:
2 2


I  (F1 x (t )  F2 y (t ) )dt   (4t  18t 2  24t 2  18t 3 )dt
0 0
2
 9t 4 
 2t 2  2t 3   48
 2  0
7. We calculate the line integral of the vector field using Eq. (3.19a) with:
Fx  (6x 2  6y ), Fy  14 yz, Fz  10 xz2 . Then

I  (6 x 2  6y )dx  (14 yz )dy  10 xz2 dz 



C
We use the path C between P and Q shown in Fig. 3.17. It consists of the
z
straight line C1 from P (0,0,0) to A (1,0,0), then the straight line C2 from
A (1,0,0) to B (1,1,0) and finally the straight line C 3 from B (1,1,0) to
Q(1,1,1)
Q (1,1,1) . Using the property of the line integral given in Eq. (3.33), we can
write the line integral along the path C as: C3

I  IPA  I AB  IBQ P (0,0,0)


C1 y
  (6 x 2  6y )dx  (14 yz )dy  10 xz2 dz  A(1,0,0) B(1,1,0)
PA

 (6 x 2  6y )dx  (14 yz )dy  10 xz2 dz 


(i)
 x
C2
AB
Fig. 3.17: The path of
  (6 x 2  6 y )dx  (14 yz )dy  10 xz2 dz  integration between the
points P and Q for TQ 7.
BQ

Along PA, 0  x  1, y  z  0  dy  dz  0 93
Block 1 Vector Analysis
1
1  6x 3 
 I PA  6 x 2 dx  
 3
 2
 0
(ii)
x 0 

Along AB : 0  y  1, x  1, z  0  dx  dz  0
1
 I AB   14 yzdy 0
y 0
 (iii)

Along BQ, 0  z  1, x  1, y  1  dx  dy  0
1
1
10z 3  10

 10 xz dz    
2
And IBQ (iv)
z 0  3 0 3

10 16
I  2  0  
3 3

 d 2r
8. We first derive an expression for the acceleration of the object: a  2
dt

dr d 2 ˆ

dt dt
 
t i  cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ  2t ˆi  sin t ˆj  cos t kˆ (i)


d 2r d
dt 2

dt
 
2t ˆi  sin t ˆj  cos t kˆ  2ˆi  cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ

The force acting on the object is:


 
F  ma  m (2ˆi  cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ ) (ii)

Using Eq. (3.30), the work done is:


1  
 dr 

W  F. dt (iii)
0
dt 

Using the results of Eqs. (i) and (ii) in Eq.(iii):


1

  
W  m 2ˆi  cos t ˆj  sin t kˆ . 2t ˆi  sin t ˆj  cos t kˆ dt
0

 
1 1
 m 4t  sin t cos t  sin t cos t  dt  m 4t  dt  m 2t 2
 
1
0  2m
The equation of a straight
0 0
line between two points
(x1,y1) and (x2,y2) in the xy 
plane is: 9. Refer to Fig. 3.18. Let us calculate the line integral of the field A between
 y  y1  the points A(0,0) and B(2,1), along two different paths: One is the straight
y  y 1   2 x  x1 
 line AB and the other is ACB. Let us first consider the path of integration
 x 2  x1 
x
AB. The equation of the straight line AB is y  (read the margin remark).
For the line AB, we get 2
1
y x We use Eq. (3.19b) for the line integral along AB with
2
 
(x1  0, y1  0, x2  2, y 2  1) F  A and F1  2xy  1; F2  x 2  2y (i)

We get the integral of A along AB as:
94
Unit 3 Integration of Vector Functions and Line Integrals
 
I AB   A. d l   (2xy  1) dx   ( x 2  2y ) dy (ii) y
AB AB AB B
( 2,1)
The limits on x and y are as follows:

0  x  2; 0  y  1 (iii)
x
To evaluate the line integral over AB, we need to write each one of the A C
integrals in Eq. (ii) as an integral over one variable. So we write (read the (0 , 0 ) (2 , 0)
margin remark):
Fig. 3.18: Paths of
2 1 integration for TQ 9.

I AB  (2 xy  1) dx  ( x 2  2y ) dy 
0 0
2 1 Note that the integration
 
2 2
 ( x  1) dx  ( 4 y  2y ) dy (iv) is along the line AB given
0 0 x
by y  and not along
2 1 2
x3   4y 3 
  x    y2  5 the x or y axes.
 3  0  3  0 Therefore, when we
evaluate Eq. (ii), to
integrate over x, we must
Next we evaluate the integral along ACB, which is the sum of the line
write y in terms of x (i.e
integrals over AC and CB.
x
      y  ) in the integrand.
 I ACB  
A.d l  A.d l  A.d l  
(v) 2
Similarly, when we
ACB AC CB
integrate over y, we write
Along AC, the value of y is a constant (y = 0) and therefore dy = 0. x in terms of y (i.e.,
x  2y ).
  2 1

  
A. d l  (2xy  1) dx  (2x(0)  1) dx  x 02  2 (vi)
AC 0 0

Along CB, the value of x is constant (x = 2), so dx = 0.

  1 1

 A.d l  ( x  2y ) dy  ( 4  2y ) dy  4y  y 2 0  3
 
1
 2 (vii)
CB 0 0

Substituting from Eq. (vi) and (vii) into Eq. (v), we get:

 I ACB  2  3  5. (viii)

Since the value of the integral is same for two different paths AB and ACB, y
we can say that the line integral is path independent. C2
A(1, 2)
10. The closed path of integration C is made up of the curves C1 and C2
between the points O(0,0)and A (1,2) (see Fig. 3.14 reproduced here as (t , 2t 2 )

Fig. 3.19). C1 is described by the parabola y  2x 2 between the points O r (t)

and A. C2 is the straight line y  2x from A to O, so the circulation of



F is: x
O(0 ,0)
     
 
I  F. d l  F. d l  F. d l  C1
C C1 C2
Fig. 3.19: Figure for TQ 10.
We parameterize the parabola y  2x 2 as : 95
Block 1 Vector Analysis

r (t )  t ˆi  2t 2 ˆj; x(t )  t ; y (t )  2 t 2 ; 0  t 1

drˆ ˆ 
Therefore  i  4t ˆj, F  y 2ˆi  xy ˆj  4t 4ˆi  2t 3 ˆj (i)
dt
Using Eq. (3.30) we then get:
 1 1

  
  dr  4 ˆi  2t 3 ˆj . ˆi  4t ˆj dt  4t 4  8t 4 dt
I1   F.
 dt  dt  4t 
C1 0 0

1 1
12t 
 12t 4 dt  
5 12
Here we have used the    5
parametric representation to 0  5 0
evaluate the integral along  
AO. Alternatively we can
write, using Eq. (3.19b) and
We next calculate I2   F. d l . The parametric representation for the
C2
y = 2x:
straight line C2 is
I2   y 2dx  xydy  
r (t )  t ˆi  2t ˆj ; x(t )  t, y (t )  2 t, 1 t  0
C2
 
  dr ˆ
y2  i  2ˆj, F  y 2 ˆi  xyˆj  4t 2 ˆi  2t 2 ˆj
   4 x 2dx  2
dy 

Then,
dt
(ii)
C2
Using Eq. (3.30) we get:
0 0
y2

 4 x 2dx   dy  1 0

  
  dr 
 F. dt dt  4t i  2t j . i  2 j dt  4t  4t dt

2 I2  2 ˆ 2 ˆ ˆ ˆ 2 2
1 2
C2 1 1
8

3 0

 8t 
0
 8t 3  8
 2
dt    
1  3 1 3
12 8 4
Finally, adding I1 and I2 we get: I  I1  I2   
5 3 15

96

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