1.

Dictionaries – Their Types and Characteristics;

A dictionary is a book or computer resource that lists the words of a language and defines
them or suppliers the comparable words in another language with information about origin
usage as well as pronunciation a dictionary is essential is an essential the tool for anyone who
is trying to learn a new language with a good dictionary will be able to look up the meaning
of a word check the spelling of a word translation of the word pronunciation of a word
examples of Wardle language and grammatical information of a word in some cases a
dictionary also provide as with the background of a word and how it was used in the past
language dictionaries encyclopedias and dictionaries are the three types of dictionaries
however academics and scholars also single out explain traditional model of dictionaries and
translational bilingual dictionaries
Explanatory dictionary is a dictionary that gives us information for example on pronunciation
grammar meaning and so on
a monolinguals dictionary explains the meaning of a word in a language you are learning
finally, dictionary provide a translation or explanation using another language
however, it should be noted that ever dictionary is different and in some cases two dictionaries
may have 2 different definitions exact same word for example the word ‘’rough’’ has the
following definition ‘’a surface that is not even or smooth’’ but when we take the car
corresponding word former Georgian dictionary will be see the difference:

2.English Dictionaries; .

As we already know a dictionary is an important tool for anyone who is trying to learn a new
language, a good dictionary can provide us with the necessary information about a word, along
with is meaning, spelling, origin and many more. Everyone has a universal understanding of
what a dictionary is, however what the average person does not know is that we have many
different types of dictionary’s that are tailored to everyone’s needs, when you think of a
dictionary you think of a book that has a words and their corresponding description but as I
have already mentioned above it can contain more than that.

Dictionaries can be separated into bilingual and monolingual dictionaries, bilingual providing
us with translations form one language to another and monolingual providing all the
information in one language.

As of today we have many different types of dictionary’s that can help us learn English
however I would like to discussed the ‘’big five’’, the most academic and authoritarian
monolingual English dictionaries:

1.The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary - Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary 10th
edition builds English vocabulary better than ever before. The new Oxford 3000 and Oxford
5000 word lists provide core vocabulary that every student needs to learn. OALD is the world's
bestselling advanced level dictionary for learners of English.
2. The Cambridge International Dictionary of English - The Cambridge International
Dictionary of English (CIDE) is a dictionary for English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners
and users (intermediate and upwards) CIDE is based on data from the Cambridge Corpus,
which contains over 100 million words. The entries and examples show how to use vocabulary,
grammar, and usage.
3. The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English - The Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English is an attempt to demonstrate that the saying is not only meant at foreign
students. The key distinction is that DCE is more current than ALD.
4. The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary - COB is a computer application that
collects word definitions. It has no clear defining vocabulary, yet it claims to employ roughly
2.500 words in its definitions, which are the most prevalent words in English. Collins and
Birmingham University collaborated to build COB.
5. The Macmillan English Dictionary - The Macmillan English Dictionary is the most current,
comprehensive, and cost-effective students' dictionary available. Over 200 million words from
modern written and spoken sources are included in this collection. Over 100 lexicographers
from the United Kingdom and the United States worked on it from the ground up.

3. Vocabulary Control Movement and Learners’ Dictionaries

During the Vocabulary Control Movement in the 1920s and 1930s, a group of English
Language teachers determined a minimum core vocabulary in order to maximize their foreign
students' learning efforts. The movement thought that learning the most often used terms first
would benefit language students. Those having the highest frequencies, in other words. Three
English as a second language instructors.

Michael West, an English teacher and researcher in India, was involved in the “vocabulary
control” movement, which aimed to find the most prevalent words that would help students
acquire English more quickly. In Japan, Harold Palmer and A.S. Hornby studied grammatical
patterning, particularly for verbs, as well as collocations and idiom. Hornby, Gatenby, and
Wakefield, who had taught English as a foreign language in Tokyo, initially published the
dictionary that would become the Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English in Japan
in 1942 under the title Idiomatic and Syntactic English Dictionary. During WWII, the text
was returned to Britain and taken over by a new department of Oxford University Press. It
was photographed and published as A Learner's Dictionary of Current English in 1948.

The wordlist contained the words that were the most important for English learners and the
definitions were simplified as well. The dictionary illustrated every meaning with at least one
example, the words were more current than stylistic, it also gave information on the plurals of
nouns, the comparatives of adjectives, irregular verbal forms, countable and uncountable
nouns and recorded a great number of phrases.

The most academic monolingual dictionaries in English are the so called ‘’big five’’:

The Macmillan English Dictionary.

The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary;
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary;
The Cambridge International Dictionary of English;
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English;

4. The Comprehensive English-Georgian Online Dictionary and English Georgian Military

Dictionary;

The idea to create a Georgian - English dictionary was established in the 1960s by Georgia
Scholar and translator, Givi gatchetchiladze. At the time we did not have any Georgian –
English and English – Georgian dictionaries and lack of them was becoming very evident. The
decisions to create a comprehensive English - Georgian dictionary was not made till the 1960s
and since then the work of the dictionary has gone through many different stages well as
difficult ones, most notably lack of funding, it wasn't until 1995 that the first letter was added
and it was not until 2009 that the decision to create an online version of the dictionary was
made and ‘’ the comprehensive English - Georgian online dictionary’’ was created and posted
on the internet in 2010, the dictionary is by no means a stereotypical dictionary, the online
version of the dictionary comprises of words from Q to Z. as we already know no language is
constantly changing and comprehensive English- Georgian online dictionary is a living
dictionary and it's team is constantly updating it by adding new entries, words and etc. as of
today the dictionary contains 110,000 word and truth and the total material adds up to 800,000
units in total, which is a big achievement.
The lexicographic Centre of ivane javakhishvili state university created entries for the
‘’English-Georgian military dictionary’’. This Georgian ministry of Defense began the Project,
which was carried out in Close collaboration with experts from the Georgian national defense
Academy.
Basic 9,400 modern American, British and international words from fields such as: operations,
units, personnel, weaponry, equipment, rank and etc. are included in the dictionary. The
dictionary also includes: technical, radio technical, political, military, and NATO related terms
in addition 2 a number of historic military terms as well as military colloquial and military
slang words and expressions for military servicemen to communicate with their foreign
colleagues. It's worth noting that the entries featuring English terms and collocations are
accompanied by my transcription, which will aid in proper pronunciation.
5. Learners’ Dictionaries and Specialised Dictionaries - Similarities and Differences;

Specialized dictionaries cater to specific needs of their targeted user groups. Dictionaries aren't
just for looking up spellings and meanings of a broad selection of terms, we will be able to find:
geographical and medical dictionaries amongst many other ones. Specialized dictionary does
not provide phonetic, grammatical, or etymological information.

All other types of dictionaries are vastly outnumbered by scientific, technical, and other
specialty dictionaries. Two thousand publications having the title dictionary or similarly
designated are open access in the British Library Science section, according to estimates.

As of today we have three different types of specialized dictionary:

1. A Multi - field dictionary - A multi-field dictionary is one that covers a wide range of topics
or fields. The 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europeans, which is a commercial
lexicon, is a good example.

2. A single – field dictionary – as the name would have it covers only one area of topics

3.A sub – field dictionary - This one is more focused on a specific topic or field, such as marriage
law. The African American National Biography Project is an example of a sub-field dictionary.

The variety and diversity of specialized dictionaries is staggering. Each lexical study field, such
as etymology, pronunciation and so on could easily have a dictionary of its own. In many
industries, dictionaries of technical terms serve to standardize terminology; this prescriptive
goal is particularly relevant in newly developing countries where the language has not yet
evolved to meet modern technological needs.

Dictionaries can be specialized according to a linguistic or a thematic content, or of a speech

community.

The needs of people learning a language are met by a Monolingual Learner's Dictionary (MLD).
As a result, the learners' dictionaries were developed as innovative solution, with a new vision
and commitment to make learning more accessible.

The term "learner dictionary" usually refers to monolingual lexical reference resources meant
for second or foreign language learners. The best-known and most influential learner
dictionaries are produced in English, by prominent publishers in the United Kingdom and,
more recently, in the United States, to promote the learning of a variety of European and Asian
languages. Learner dictionaries have been a source of significant lexicographical innovation,
particularly in terms of how word meanings and use information are investigated and
presented.
The most academic monolingual dictionaries in English are the so called ‘’big five’’:

The Macmillan English Dictionary.

The Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary;
The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary;
The Cambridge International Dictionary of English;
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English;

6. Different Types of Dictionaries; Specialised Dictionaries;

Different dictionaries are required for different users and questions. To avoid getting lost, it's
important to understand the many types of dictionaries available. General dictionaries,
learner's dictionaries, historical dictionaries, and encyclopedias are the four primary types of
dictionaries.

Dictionaries are categorized into several sorts based on a variety of factors, ranging from the
nature of the lexical entry to the dictionary's intended use, so for example:

1.general dictionaries - represent the vocabulary as a whole with a degree of completeness

depending upon the scope and the bulk of the book in question.

2.restricted dictionaries - Only a small portion of the vocabulary is covered by them. Restricted
dictionaries can be separated into subcategories based on whether the terms are picked based
on the field of human activity in which they are employed, the type of units themselves, or
the relationships that exist between them.

However, all linguistic dictionaries, according to the information they provide, are divided
into additional two categories:

1.explanatory dictionaries - convey a wide range of information, particularly in terms of the

semantic component of the vocabulary items entered

2.specialized dictionaries - exclusively deal with lexical units in terms of some of their features,
such as etymology, frequency, pronunciation, and usage.

Specialized dictionaries are designed to meet the demands of specialized user groups. The
specialized dictionary lacks phonetic, grammatical, and etymological information, all of which
are linguistic criteria required to determine a headword's use. A specialized dictionary,
according to the Manual of Specialized Lexicography’s, is one that concentrates on a certain
subject area. A technical dictionary is another name for this type of dictionary.

A specialized dictionary can be one of three types:

1. A multi-field dictionary - It covers a wide range of topics or fields. A business dictionary is
a good example. The 23-language Inter-Active Terminology for Europeans is an example of a
multi-field dictionary.

2. A single-field dictionary - is one that focuses on a particular subject area. The American
National Biography Dictionary is an example of a single-field dictionary.

A sub-field dictionary is one that focuses on a certain topic or field, such as marriage law as
well as a medical dictionary (glossary) is an example of a specialist dictionary.

To sup up, a specialized dictionary comes in handy while researching specialist professions like
medicine, law, manufacturing, and other specialized fields.

7. Lexicography - Functions, Types, History;

Lexicography is a subfield of linguistics (or scolarly discipline )it is also related to lexicology,
lexicografy is derived from the Greek word and means “writing of words”. It includes editing
writing and compiling dictionaries. The word dictionary itself was first used in 13th centuryby
john Garland. he had written a book ”dictionarius” to help pupils learn Latin "diction"in the
middle ages when Latin was the lingua franca.. The earliest dictionaries in the English language
were glossaries of French, Spanish or Latin words along with their definitions in English

There are different types of dictionaries and each of them serves different needs of the society,
it may be a book that gives you a different types of information on words , for example: usage
pronunciation etimology and so on. This is the store house funqtion of a dictionary.

The second function might be so caled court house function of a dictionary, which mins that
dictionary gives you information about the proper usage of the word and it differs wrong usage
of the word from the good .

Dictionary also have clearing house function that means that the information in the dictionary
should be collected from many sourses and be correct and easyly understandable. The word
dictionary itself was first used in 13th centuryby john Garland.
Lexicography is divided into two parts. Practical lexicography and theoretical lexicography.
The act of editing and writingdictionaries is practical lexicography, the description and
analysis of vocabulary of a concrete language and meanings that connects certein words to
each other in a dictionary is hteoretical lexicography. Theoretical lexicography also includes
semantic and structural relationships of words and developing theoryes around it.

We must understand what is lexicon to get better knowlage about lexicography. A lexicon is
avocabulary of a language or it can also be a branch of knowlage, for instance: low or biological
lexicon. Lexicon also points out the archive of lexemes , The term lexeme comes from Greek
and means word or speech lexemes are smallest components of a language and are used to refer
to a word with distinctive meaning and often this word heve specific cultural concept attached
to it.
8. The Development of the European Lexicography;

1. Development of the lexicography in Europe first started in the middle ages when the
latin was widely spread through out the Europe it basicaly was the lingua franca of
europe . During this period there was mainli glosses of words in latin manuscript , later
this glosses were sorted into alphabrtical order , in this period many latin glosses were
compiled by scholars because latin was main language for scholarship , Christian
religion and philosophy. The first example that is known for us was 8th century glosses
wich contained around 5000 words . England also has an great example of such glossary
called Promptarium Parvulorum and created by Galfridus Anglicus in 1440. It was
consist of 10000 entries and they were copied by hand and only, it was the only way
back then cause printing machines were not invented yet. Only in 1500 printing
machine was invented by Gutenberg which made the huge change in compiling the
dictionaries , printing became avaliable and it made possible to copy as many scripts as
wanted so dictionaries and glosses became available for anyone who could buy them .
after this lexicographic work became very popular becouse of the rise of national
languages such as French, Ialian, inglish and so on. Even academies were founded for
this porpuses in some countries Mainly scholars and publishers also some individuals
were compiling dictionaries with the help of many scholars.
A major contribution in development of lexicography had Dr Samuel Johnson, he
created a dictionary called “A Dictionary of the English language” in less than 8 years.
This was the first scholarly description of English language, there are 114,000
quotations in the dictionary and he’s method that greatly influenced the style of future
dictionaries. The process of making dictionaries continued and in 19th century Jacob
Grimm and he’s brother created a dictionary ‘Deutsches Worterbuch” helped by a
 hundred scholars. But finished only letters from A to F and this dictionary inspired
many scholars and dictionaries became more consistent. In 18th-19th centurys Oxford
English Dictionary was created by Richard trench, more than 200 scholars and 2000
people participated in this work. Later online dictionaries were inwented which made
esier the usage of the dictionaries for many people.

Dictionaries and glossaries were compiled and used from the early ages in Greece from 5th
century BC and onwards. The earliest examples were insert glosses into manuscript copies of
the Homer and they were explaining unusual and ancient words to readers. As a result of the
puristic linguistic movement (Atticism) a new form of Greek lexicography appeared in the
second century AD. The precursors of this movement wanted to change some words which
they considered as incorrect or impure. A dictionary therefore needed that would present
correct forms of words.

9. A Brief History of the Georgian Lexicography;

Georgian has more than 1,500 years of continuous literacy, greatly outnumbering languages
like Russian or German. The history of written Georgian can be roughly divided into three
periods:

Old Georgian - from the 5th to the 12th century A.D

Middle Georgian - from the 12th to the 18th century

Modern Georgian - since the 19th century.

As old of a history as Georgian lexicography has, it can still be understood by modern

speaker.in Georgia we have many different types of dictionaries, but today I would just like to
focus on the two, that are very important in our country’s history.

The Dittionario Giorgiano e Italiano – this was the first dictionary of Georgian ever published
and it was compiled by Stefano paolini, in collaboration with Georgian nobleman Niceforo
Irbachi, however looking at the first page of this dictionary you will be able to tell that it was
compiled without the full knowledge of the Georgian language. It contains 3,084 word printed
in three columns, the left column contains Georgian words, the middle column contains Italian
transliterations, and the right column contains an explanation of each word's meaning in
Italian.

The Sacred Congregation of Propaganda, which was founded in Rome in the early 17th
century with the goal of propagating Catholicism to non-Catholic countries, issued the
dictionary. The congregation began sending missionaries to Georgia in 1628, and the
dictionary was created for missionaries who needed to learn Georgian.
Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani’s Dictionary - The first dictionary from Georgia that has survived is
the Kartuli leksiḳoni by sulkhan – saba orbeliani, a man who plays a big part in the
development of Georgian lexicography. He wrote the first Georgian translation of the Indian
Pacatantra (under the title Kilila da Damana,) and the famous “Book of Wisdom and Lies”
(Sibrdzne Sitsruisa), a collection of fables and tales from various Oriental sources, while
traveling to Europe as a missionary.

From 1685 to 1716, he worked on his dictionary, which he called Sikvis kona, or "bunch of
words" and produced six handwritten redactions, all of which are extensively recorded in the
scholarly version of 1966.

We may say that Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani's "The Georgian Dictionary" is a veritable gold mine
of "strange" words, containing both obsolete and foreign terminology, as well as some "ghost
words" resulting from misinterpretations of Biblical and other text passages. However, there is
no obvious linguistically based framework for verbal forms, with finite forms of all types
coexisting.

10. Lexicography in Georgia; Donald Rayfield’s Comprehensive GeorgianEnglish Dictionary;

There have been (selectively) used about thirty dictionaries of various dialects of modern
Georgian and dictionaries from various branches of science and technology. The Georgian-
English Dictionary has also incorporated a substantial body of modern colloquial, including
vulgar expressions. The Dictionary is, in the first place, intended for Englishspeaking readers,
interested in the Georgian literary texts, Georgian historical sources, Kartvelian languages.
This is why the Dictionary has comprised the vocabulary from Old Georgian and Middle
Georgian periods, dialectal material, etc. The Dictionary is also intended for Georgian users
Donald Rayfield’s Comprehensive GeorgianEnglish Dictionary =-The Dictionary is published
in two volumes and comprises 140,000 word-entries. The Georgian-English Dictionary
presents an English equivalent for practically the entire lexical corpus of the Georgian
language, ancient, classical and modern, as well as literary, colloquial and dialectal. The
Dictionary includes virtually all the entries from the eight-volume Explanatory Dictionary of
the Georgian Language. The second major source is a database listing about two million word
forms and their frequency of the Georgian daily and weekly press .Thirdly, there have been
used a searchable electronic version and a list of all word forms, of forty substantial texts by
contemporary writers, predominantly novelists, such as Grigol Robakidze, Konstantine
Gamsakhurdia, Mikheil Javakhishvili, Otar Chiladze, Guram Dochanashvili, Tamaz
Chkhenkeli, Vakhushti Kotetishvili, Aka Morchiladze and others. The fourth major source
were Ilia Abuladze’s and Zurab Sarjveladze’s compilations and dictionaries of Old Georgian.
11. Meaning and Equivalency

Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given
for each word, usually including meaning, pronunciation, and etymology. There are several
types of dictionaries: explanatory dictionaries, monolingual ,dictionaries, bilingual
dictionaries, etc. explanatory dictionary and monolingual dictionary are usually meant for the
native speakers of the language.
They give additional information (pronounciation, meaning,etymology etc) and explanations
In the same language. Bilingual also known as a translation dictionaries used to translate
words or phrases from one language to another and this type of dictionary is very important
for language learners, also they provide equivalents. Equivalency indicates the relarionship
between words from two or more languages which have the same meaning. Its also very
interesting detail that how two words belonging completely different languages have
equivalence.for example a word bright has different meanings in English
1. A very intens light( sun was shining brightly)
2. Smart( bright student)
3. It mey be referred to colors( bright red)
But in Georgian we have a word ნათელი ( meaning that the light is shining upon
everything). But the components of the English word sharp are not represented in the
explanation of Georgian word ნათელი, for instance we can not say ნათელი
მოსწავლე.That’s the difficulty of equivalency.
Lexical meanings of words contains donotatum and designatum. donotatum implies different
concrete meanings of an actually existing object referred to by a word, sign, or linguistic
expression. Designatum something that is referred to by a word, sign, or linguistic
expression, the class of objects referred to by a sign, whether actually existing or not. So
complexity of meaning makes it harder to develop equivalency while compiling a
dictioanary. But later in the 19th and 20th centuries Georgian linguists created the so-called
definitiononal method of analysis. They considered meaning as a structure components of
which were arranged in a hirercial order.(it consists of core and potentiall semes.)According
to Mary Iankoshvili’s theory The potential semes are arranged around the core.
In the late 19th century Traditional lexicographic practice regarded word meaning with the
same way and analytically defined the words by breaking them down into more basic semantic
components. The methodology of defining meaning on the one hand described hyponymic
and differential features of meaning, on the other hand described supplementary features of
meaning, different potential semes, which served as the basis for the development of
transferred meanings of polysemous words and were the basis of metaphor, metonymy and
other mechanisms of semantic change.433

12. The Principles of Forming a Word-entry in a Dictionary;

Dictionary is a reference work containing an alphabetical list of words, with information given
for each word ,When compiling a dictionary , corect principles of forming a word-entry is very
important , a typical dictionary entry should include : speling of a word , the word or a phrase
broken into syllables. Gramatical characterization of a word,that tells if a word is a noun , a
verb, an ajective or an adverb. Transcription of a word , which helps a user to understand the
corect pronaunciation of a word(the way how a word sounds) . different forms of a word , like
plural forms of nouns and past tenses of a verb. The corect definition of a word or a prase this
is especially needed in a bilingual dictionaries . Also the origin of a word , for example: if the
word has Latin origin or France or else.

The word entry usually starts with the description of the speling of a word,which is much
needed for English, cause English words have a different variation for writing and often
different options of speling of a word is separated by comma or word “or”.

Transcription is essential because often especially in English language writen word and it’s
pronaunciation is completely different from each other. Transcriprion is also presented in
modern (online) dictionaries, it is usually written in square brackets . Italian and French as
well as Georgian language do not need transcription because they all have clear rules of
reading. But in the studing dictionaries even this languages may have transcription to help
languge learners.

The next very important thing in forming a word-entry is a grammatical characterisation of a

word. In dictionaries word is followed by the correct grammatical description,in some
languades the gender should also be indicated for example:in French.

Polysemy is when a form of a word has more then one meaning ,thus it has many related senses
for example: CHAIR .n

First meaning may be- a seat for a person htat has a back , two arms and four lags

Second meaning is official position of a person in charge of meating or organization.

Third meaning is the position of a person in charge of university or college department.

I should mention that Englihs has a large stock of words so it is free of polysemy unlike many
other languages.Its also worth to mention that English polysemy can be influenced by
metaphor. A metaphor is an imaginative manner of describing something by reffering to
something else which is the same in a particular way. For example, if you want to say that
someone is very strong you might say htat they are like a bull.

Beside above mentioned things ,wile compiling a dictionary homonymy and qualifications are
also very important.
Homonymy is when two or more words have different meanings but are pronounced or spelt
the same,they also have different origins for example: word “book” can mean 1)something to
read for instance “a romantic book”
2)The act of making a reservation, like “ I have already booked a table at the restaurant”
BOW
1) she bowed to the king (verb)
2) she was wearing a red bow on her hed(noun)
3) she aimed her bow quickly (noun)
Qualification is also necessary when forming a word-entry, there are different types of
qualifications: temporal, local and stylistic.
Twmporal qualification shows if the word is outdated, archaic or rarly used in our modern
society. In English dictionaries there are varieties of qualifications : old-fashioned, obsolete,
archaic, dated etc. Archaic and obsolete are word qualifications and not of an object or event
refered by it.
Local qualification is also very important for forming a word entry, as we know there are many
variants of English but among them four are the main ones-American, British, Australian and
New zeland , acording to the above mentioned informations these are the qualifications htat
can be found in the dictionaries but there also may be Canadian and South African because
they are one of the ofitial languages. Local qualification is also important for other languages
as well because they are offitial languages for other countris for example: french, spanish,
german etc.
It is known that English dictionary is stylistically colored , some words are for writing in the
book , some words are for use in speech. bookishvocabulary contains word classes such as 1)
general colloquial vocabulary; 2) slang; 3) jargon; 4)
dialects; 6) vulgarisms; 7) colloquial neologisms. The bookish vocabulary contains words
which do not have dialectial and local properities. For example 2) terms; 3) poetic words; 4)
archaisms; 5)foreign words and borrowings; 6) neologisms and occasional words.
Bookish and colloquial vocabulary consists of three main types of colorings : colloquial neutral
and literary words.
Most common stylistic qualifications are: Bookish, Colloquial, Slang, vulgar, derogatory. 514

13. Corpus Linguistics;

Corpus linguistics is a sub-discipline of linguistics, it is one of the most developing and growing
methodologies in today’s linguistics ,it looks at language from a social perspective and
developes acording to the needs of modern society. The term corpus linguistics first appeared
in 1980s , corpus is a collection of words and their definitions , we can say that corpus
linguistics have been existing around a century.At the beginning of the creating of thre corpus
dictionary makers and lexicographers were collecting examples of language in use (words and
its definitions grammatical use etc) and these examples were written on a small pice of paper ,
organized in pigeon holes, because computers were not invented, after the development of the
technology modern-day corpora eas created.The first online corpus was Brown corpus created
in 1961 conteining 1 million words. Todays generalized corpora conteines 100 of millions of
words. Many scholas participated in creating and developing modern-day corpora , but John
Sinclair is considered one of the most influential scholar of modern-day corpus linguistics.He
said that “a word in and itself does not carry meaning, but that meaning is made through
several words in a sequense” this is the most important thing ( backbone) of corpus linguistic.

German professor Jost Cipper created the first electronic resources for the Georgian language.
He collaborated with Georgian scholars while creating Georgian corpora. The Georgian
national corpus is comprehensive corpus of the Georgian language covering all stages of its
historical development. The corpus witch is still under development contains subcorpora of
old , middle and modern Georgian also transcribed records of spoken language . there is a
important fact that Georgian national corpus combines the work of scholars and students of
Tbilisi state university. They generally worked on two fields digitalization of Georgian literary
monuments and annotation of already-existed texts
Annotation is the act of adding explicit information to a corpus. Different types of information
can be added: textual, such as part of speech information ,syntactic annotation , semantic
annotation etc;. Depending on the type of information, annotation takes place at word,
sentence or paragraph. The most complete form is a multi-level annotation, which
characterizes a word from a lingual point of view, presents the data of alliteration and
equivalency.

There are different tipes of corpora: 1)general corpora- General corpora' consist of general
texts, texts that do not belong to a single text type or subject field. An example of a general
corpus is the British National Corpus. The earliest electronic corpora of written language used
to contain one million words, while those of spoken language were generally much smaller,
but the British National Corpus contains 100 million words or more and often comprise both
written and spoken language. 2)A Specialized corpus is a corpus which includes a particular
type of texts. Such corpus is used to study how the specialized language is used. Nottingham
Corpus of Discourse in English and the Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English are the
popular examples of specialized corpora. 3)Parallel corpora are those consisting of texts with
their translations into two or more languages, eg. a medical article translated into Spanish,
Finnish, and French. They can be of great help in searching equivalent expressions in each
language. 4)Comparable corpus is a corpus consisting of texts of the same type and content in
different languages. For example a various corpora made from Wikipedia are examples of
comparable corpora. 5)Historical also known as a diachronic corpora is containing texts from
different periods and is used to study the development or change in language. The most famous
diachronic corpora are the Helsinki Corpus with 1.5-million words and the ARCHER with
1.7 million words . 6)A monitor corpus is used to monitor the change in language. It is a corpus
which is regularly updated, new texts are added as they are produced. 7)The final ones are the
heterogeneric and monogeneric corpora. Heterogenic corpora contain texts of many different
types, generally as many different types as the compilers can practically and legally get.
However monogenic corpora easy to compile and created by individual researchers with a
special interest in a particular text-type.

14. Machine Translation - Types and Usefulness

Machine translation as well as CAT and human translation are several ways of translating a
text into another language. Machine translation, however, is one of the most prominent ways
of translating a text. The use of machine translation was first introduced in the 17th century,
however, it was not until the 20th century that the first concrete proposal what was made by
my George astrouni and pert troyanski, however, even though they both contributed it was
troyanski’s proposal that was the most significant one, as he envisioned both bilingual and
multilingual Translation. significant changes were made after World War II when technology
developed enough. In 1954, Georgetown University in collaboration with IBM Where Eagles
Dare Translate 49 Russian sentences into English, with the usage of 250 words and only 6
grammatical Rose, this was where everything began and has come from since then.
Is it today we have several different types of machine translation:
machine translation for watches – this is for readers who want to translate a foreign word who
are also prepared to accept A bed translation that nothing at all.
machine translation for receivers – translation with a quality comparable to that of the
first draft produced by humans
Machine translation for translators – provide translators with online dictionaries, translation
memories, tools and so on to help them to the work
Machine translation for authors – helps authors around the world to translate their work
from one language to another.
To sum up, I would like to say that machine translation, though not always and completely
accurate or correct, has been of a huge help to linguists around the world and that only to
linguist.