GAS CONDITIONING AND PROCESSING

Volume 2: The Equipment Modules

9th Edition

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This book is based upon, and is the successor to, the classic work of the same title

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authored by Dr. John M. Campbell, Sr. from 1966-2013.

tro IG © 2017 PetroSkills, all rights reserved PetroSkills, LLC.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any
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ISBN 978-0-9703449-5-3
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Contributors: Author: John M. Campbell

Editors: Robert A. Hubbard,
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 In Memory of Dr. John M. Campbell

Dr. John Campbell passed away on 12 September, 2013. He founded John M. Campbell &
Company in 1968 and authored the first edition of Gas Conditioning and Processing which was published
in the same year. Dr. Campbell enjoyed a distinguished career in the oil and gas industry beginning in the
late 1940s and was recognized with numerous awards including the John Franklin Carll Distinguished
Professional Award from the Society of Petroleum Engineers in 1978 and the Hanlon Award from the Gas
Processor’s Association in 1987.
Dr. Campbell was not only widely acknowledged as a technical leader in the industry, but also as
an outstanding educator. He attended the University of Oklahoma from 1946-1951 receiving Masters and

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Doctoral degrees in Chemical Engineering. During this time he was first introduced to teaching when he
was given lecture responsibilities in several undergraduate classes.

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After 3 years in industry, Dr. Campbell returned to the University of Oklahoma as a professor in
the Department of Petroleum Engineering where he remained until 1968, including 12 years as head of the
department.
tro IGDuring this time Dr. Campbell developed and taught several short courses for companies in the
oil and gas business worldwide. These experiences paved the way for the success he enjoyed over the
following 25 years and as an instructor and consultant.
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"I met Dr. Campbell when I joined the company in 1980. He was a remarkable person and a natural
leader. He had the unique ability to distill complex topics into understandable pieces. He was technically
brilliant, but understood the human side of our business. I am proud to have known him and enjoyed his
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friendship. I will miss him."

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—Bob Hubbard
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 15
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING &
NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

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Sk H
A refrigeration system lowers the temperature of a fluid below that possible when using air or water
at ambient conditions. A typical building air conditioner cools air to a temperature of 10-15°C [50-59°F].
tro IG
At the other end of the scale is the liquefaction of helium at –268°C [–450°F]. The temperature produced
depends on the process objective. If the objective is to recover marketable liquids (NGLs) from a produced
gas stream, basic economics controls the temperature specified. If it is to meet a hydrocarbon dewpoint
(HCDP); the HCDP specification and the associated processing pressure sets the required temperature.
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The following processes will be discussed:
1. Mechanical Refrigeration
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2. Valve Expansion
3. Turbine Expansion
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4. Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG)

5. Other NGL Extraction Systems
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MECHANICAL REFRIGERATION
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A refrigeration system is a heat pump. Low temperature heat is removed from the process fluid and
is “pumped” to high temperature (ambient) where it is rejected to the environment. Energy is required to
pump heat. The amount of energy depends on the quantity of heat to be pumped (chiller duty) and how far
the heat has to be pumped (temperature difference between the chiller and the condenser). Energy used to
drive a refrigeration process can be in the form of heat or work.

Compression
Compression refrigeration is by far and away the most common mechanical refrigeration process.
It has a wide range of applications in the gas processing industry, including:
1. Chilling natural gas for hydrocarbon dewpoint control
2. Chilling natural gas for NGL extraction
3. Condensation of reflux in deethanizers/demethanizers
4. LPG product storage
5. Natural gas liquefaction (LNG)

CHAPTER 15 231
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Figure 15.1 shows a simple single-stage compression refrigeration system. Saturated liquid refrig-
erant at Point A expands across a valve (isenthalpically). On expansion some vaporization occurs and the
refrigerant temperature decreases. The mixture of refrigerant vapor and liquid enters the chiller (sometimes
called the evaporator) typically 3-6°C [5-10°F] lower than the temperature to which the process stream is
to be cooled. The liquid vaporizes, leaving at Point C is a saturated vapor at the P and T of the chiller. This
vapor is compressed and then enters the condenser
as a superheated vapor.
D
The refrigerant leaves the condenser as Condenser

a saturated liquid or slightly subcooled. For air

cooling, the condenser temperature will usually be
14-16°C [25-30°F] above the air dry bulb tempera- Process C
Accumulator
Stream
ture. For water cooling the condensing temperature

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will be 5-10°C [9-18°F] above the water tempera-
ture. The accumulator, sometimes called a surge tank Chiller
or receiver, merely serves as a reservoir for refriger- B Expansion Valve A

Sk H
ant as levels vary in the chiller(s) and condenser. Figure 15.1 Flow Sheet of a Simple Refrigeration System

tro IG Calculation of a Simple System

There are several discrete steps in the sizing of the system shown in Figure 15.1.
1. Determination of refrigerant circulation rate
C
Develop an energy balance around the chiller and expansion
R
Qchiller
valve shown in Figure 15.2. At point A the refrigerant is a saturated
liquid (or very close to it). At point C it is a saturated vapor. Qchiller is
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the chiller duty and is set by the process requirements.

The energy balance around the system is: B A

Figure 15.2 Chiller Energy Balance

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Qchiller + mAhA = mChC. But mA = mC = m, so…

Q
m = h chiller (15.1)
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C - hA
SI FPS
Where: Qchiller = chiller duty kW Btu/hr
hC = saturated vapor enthalpy leaving the chiller kJ/kg Btu/lbm
C

hA = saturated liquid enthalpy leaving the accumulator kJ/kg Btu/lbm

m = refrigerant circulation rate kg/s lbm/hr

2. Determination of Compressor Power C D

This is done by any appropriate method as outlined in Chapter

14. Calculate theoretical (isentropic) work and use an efficiency to W
find actual work. The circulation rate, m, from Step (1) is used.

D - h Ci
m _h isen (15.2)
-W = (A)(E) Figure 15.3 Compressor Power

SI FPS
Where: W = compressor power kW hp
hDisen = compressor discharge enthalpy for isentropic path kJ/kg Btu/lbm
E = overall compressor efficiency — —
A = conversion factor 1.0 2545

232 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

3. Determination of Condenser Heat Load (Qcond)

Qcond
There are two ways to do this. Knowing Qchiller and W, you
can write the overall balance for Figure 15.1 to find Qcond. This is
shown in Equation (15.3). (Remember, W is negative, so Qcond is
A D
the sum of two negative numbers.)

Q cond = W - Q chiller (15.3) Figure 15.4 Energy Balance on Condenser

If you are performing the calculation manually and wish an independent check of the previous
work, write the condenser energy balance given by (Equation (15.4).

Q cond = m ^h A - h Dh (15.4)

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D – h Ci
_h isen
Where: hD = hC + E isen

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hD = actual compressor discharge enthalpy
Eisen = compressor isentropic efficiency
tro IG Determination of the Enthalpies
The calculation requires the enthalpy per unit mass at points A, B, C, and D. These can be found
from a computer program or from tables and figures published for all of the common commercial refriger-
ants. Appendix 15A at the end of this chapter contains pressure-enthalpy (P-H) figures for methane, and
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propane as well as vapor pressure and physical property information on common refrigerants.
The P-H diagram is convenient for solving the energy balances for a simple system.
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Figure 15.5a is a simple representation of the P-H diagrams in Appendix 15A. The refrigerant is
liquid to the left of the saturated liquid curve, two-phase inside the envelope and vapor to the right of the
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saturated vapor curve. For a pure component, the lines of constant temperature (isotherms) are horizontal
between the saturated vapor and liquid curves and then rise almost vertically in the liquid region. There are
also lines of constant entropy plotted for each pressure, enthalpy condition.
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Figure 15.5b shows a simple refrigeration process plotted on the P-H diagram. The calculation
process starts by choosing the temperature of point A. Will water, air or some process fluid be used for
condensation of the refrigerant? What temperature can we realistically achieve in the condenser? This
C

temperature sets point A. It is on the liquid saturation curve, since it leaves the condenser as a liquid.

A D

P P
r
uid

Vapo
Liq

rated
ted

B C
ura

Satu
Sat

h h
Phase Envelope Isotherms Constant Entropy Phase Envelope Isotherm Constant Entropy

Figure 15.5a P-H Diagram Figure 15.5b P-H Diagram Showing a Simple
Refrigeration System

CHAPTER 15 233
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The temperature at points B and C will be 3-6°C [5-10°F] less than the temperature of the fluid
being cooled. Point C is on the saturated vapor curve, since it is in equilibrium with the liquid in the chiller
(evaporator).
The expansion across the valve from point A is an isenthalpic process; a vertical line on a P-H
diagram. Draw a vertical line from A to B, and then go horizontally at constant temperature (and pressure)
to C. The value (hC-hA) used in Equation (15.1) can be determined.
The theoretical compression is isentropic. Starting at point C, follow a constant entropy path until
you intersect the pressure line of point A. This is theoretical (isentropic) discharge point D. Compressor
power is calculated from Equation (15.2).
The condenser heat load can now be determined from Equation (15.3).
For a commercially pure refrigerant, use of a P-H diagram or a corresponding thermodynamic
property table is sufficiently accurate for most calculations.

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Example 15.1: A refrigeration system is designed to refrigerate a natural gas stream for the purpose
of NGL extraction. The following information applies:
Chiller duty 2 MW [6.8Btu/hr]
tro IG Process gas temperature exiting chiller 15°C [5°F]
Air temperature 35°C [95°F]
Refrig. Compressor efficiency 75%
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Calculate the refrigerant circulation rate, compressor power, and condenser duty for
this system. Use the P-H diagram for propane in Appendix 15A.
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SI Solution:
Chiller temperature is 3-6°C below required process temperature. Use a chiller
P

temperature of 20°C:
Note from Figure 15A.1(a) the chiller pressure is 240 kPa.
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Condenser temperature is 14-16°C above air temperature for aerial cooler. Use 50°C.
Note from Figure 15A.1(a) condenser pressure is 1750 kPa.
Point A is a sat. liquid at 50°C, from Figure 15A.1(a) hA = 335 kJ/kg
C

Point C is a sat. vapor at –20°C, from Figure 15A.1(a) hC = 550 kJ/kg

From Equation (15.1) calculate the refrigerant circulation rate, m

Q 2000 kJ/s
m = h -Ch = = 9.3 kg/s
C A ^550 - 335h kJ/kg

From Equation (15.2) calculate the compressor power, W

h isen
D = 644 kJ/kg @ s = 2.4 and P = 1750 kPa

9.3 ^644 - 550h

-W = 0.75
= 1170 kW
From Equation (15.3) calculate the condenser duty, Qcond
Qcond = W – Qchiller = –1170 – 2000 = – 3170 kW

234 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Example 15.1 (Cont'd):

FPS Solution:
Chiller temperature is 5-10°F below required process temperature. Use a chiller
temperature of 5°F.
Note from Figure 15A.1(b) chiller pressure is 34 psia.
Condenser temperature is 25-30°F above air temperature for aerial cooler. Use 120°F.
Note from Figure 15A.1(b) condenser pressure is 244 psia.

Point A is a sat. liquid at 120°F, from Figure 15A.1(b) hA = 144 Btu/lbm

Point C is a sat. vapor at –5°F, from Figure 15A.1(b) hC = 237 Btu/lbm

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From Equation (15.1) calculate the refrigerant circulation rate, m
Q 6.8 # 106 Btu/hr

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m = h -Ch = = 73120 lbm/hr
C A 6237 - 144@ Btu/lbm

tro IG From Equation (15.2) calculate the compressor power, W

h isen
D
= 278 Btu/lbm @ s . 0.57 and P = 244 psia
73 120 [278 - 237]
-W = = 1570 hp
^2545h^0.75h
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From Equation (15.3) calculate the condenser duty, Qcond
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Qcond = W – Qchiller = (–1570)(2545) – 6 800 000 = –10.8  106 Btu/hr

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In the previous examples, pressure drops were ignored. In an actual system some pressure drop
occurs between the compressor discharge and the accumulator as well as between the chiller and compres-
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sor suction. These pressure drops increase the required compressor power. The pressure drop on the suction
side of the compressor has the greater effect.
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Controls will be discussed later in this chapter. For now, there are a few basic points to keep in
mind. Compressor suction pressure is governed by chiller temperature, compressor discharge pressure is
governed by condenser temperature, and chiller duty is governed by the compressor capacity, and to some
degree the refrigerant temperature and level. The calculations are performed as if those factors are fixed,
but in fact they are variables.

Economizer Systems
In the simple refrigeration system presented in Example 15.1, a significant amount of vaporization
occurs across the expansion valve. For a pure component, the quality lines inside the two phase region of
P-H diagrams, are equidistant. Therefore, it is relatively easy to calculate the quality of a two-phase mixture
using the “inverse lever rule”, from point A to B.

CHAPTER 15 235
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

m h –h (15.5)
x = liquid fraction = mL = h V – h F
F V L

m h –h (15.6)
y = vapor fraction = m v = h F – hL
F V L
SI FPS
Where: mL = mass flow of liquid kg/s lbm/hr
mF = mass flow of the feed kg/s lbm/hr
hF = two-phase enthalpy of the feed kJ/kg Btu/lbm
hL = saturated liquid enthalpy kJ/kg Btu/lbm
hV = saturated vapor enthalpy kJ/kg Btu/lbm

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mvhv

Sk H
A

r
Vapo
rated
tro IG
uid
P

Liq
m Fh F

Satu
ted
hV-hF

ura
x=
B hV-hL
Sat C
R
m Lh L hL hF h hV
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Phase Envelope Isotherm Constant Entropy

Figure 15.6a Material Balance for Economizer Figure 15.6b P-H Diagram for Economizer
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Example 15.2: Calculate the fraction of liquid entering the chiller in Example 15.1.
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SI Solution:
^550 – 335h
h F = 335 kJ/kg, h v = 550kJ/kg, h L = 152 kJ/kg, x = = 0.54
^550 – 152h
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FPS Solution:
^237 – 144h
h F = 144 Btu/lbm, h v = 237 Btu/lbm, h L = 64 Btu/lbm, x = = 0.54
^237 – 64h

From Example 15.2, the quantity of vapor entering the chiller is 46%. This vapor provides no
refrigeration effect in the chiller, but must be compressed from chiller pressure to condenser pressure,
increasing the compressor power requirement.
In refrigeration systems the word “economizer” refers generally to any device or process modifica-
tion which decreases the compressor power requirement for a given chiller duty. Two types of economizers
are commonly used; flash tank economizers and heat exchanger economizers.
Figure 15.7 shows a refrigeration system employing one flash tank economizer. In this system, the
saturated liquid refrigerant leaving the accumulator is expanded across a valve to an intermediate pressure

236 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

where vapor and liquid are separated. This separator liquid is expanded across the second valve to chiller
pressure while the separator vapor goes to the compressor interstage suction. The refrigerant entering the
chiller now has a higher liquid content. This reduces the refrigerant circulation rate through the chiller as
well as the first stage compressor power requirement.

G H D
Condenser
1st Stage 2nd Stage
Compressor Compressor

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Accumulator
C

Sk H
F

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Process
Stream
R
Chiller
Economizer
(Flash Tank) J Expansion
Valve
A

B Expansion Valve E

Figure 15.7 Flow Sheet of a Refrigeration System with an Economizer

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The P-H diagram for an economizer system F

G
is shown in Figure 15.8. H
D
A
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The pressure at point E is typically set at a

value that minimizes the total compression power
and is compatible with the compressor design. P E J F
G
C

Total power is minimized when the first stage and H

second stage power are equal, but this leads to a

first stage compression ratio that is higher than the B C

second stage which may not be compatible with the

compressor design, particularly when a centrifugal h
compressor is used. For purposes of preliminary Phase Envelope Isotherm Constant Entropy
calculations, assuming an equal compression ratio
between compression stages is adequate. Figure 15.8 Economizer System P-H Diagram

The vapor formed across the economizer expansion valve goes to the second stage of compression
as a saturated vapor. The saturated liquid, E, leaving the economizer is expanded to pressure B. Notice that
the Δh available from B to C for this system is larger than for the simple system. This results in a reduced
circulation rate of refrigerant through the chiller.
In most systems, the addition of an economizer has minimal impact on the complexity of the
controls system. One seldom controls the pressure of the economizer. The economizer pressure floats on
the compressor interstage, 2nd stage compressor suction pressure.

CHAPTER 15 237
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Calculation of Flash Tank Economizer Systems

Determination of circulation rate, work and condenser duty for the system in Figure 15.7 follows
the same pattern as for the simple system.
The first step is to calculate the mass flow through the chiller. However, the enthalpy of the refrig-
erant entering the chiller valve, hE, is determined by compressor interstage pressure and not by condenser
pressure. By substituting hE for hA in Equation (15.1) mE, the circulation rate to the chiller, may be calcu-
lated. This is also the amount of vapor to be compressed through Stage 1 of the compressor.
The refrigeration circulation rate through the second stage is determined from a material balance
around the economizer flash tank. Using the symbols from Figure 15.7 the value of mE is known from the
circulation rate calculation at the chiller.
The second stage circulation rate, mA, (which is the same as the total refrigerant circulation rate)

ills T
may be calculated from the relationship:
m
m A = xE

Sk H
where x is the liquid fraction entering the economizer vessel and is calculated from Equation (15.5).

tro IGIn the compressor power calculation, the first stage power is calculated using flowrate “mE”. It is
added to the second stage power (using flowrate “mA”) to find total work. The resultant temperature of the
gases after they mix in the tee between stages may be found by an energy balance around that tee.
The condenser heat load, Qcond, is found as before.
R
Flash tank economizer systems are not limited to two stages (one economizer). Many installations
employ two economizers (three compression stages). An example of such a system is shown for the propane
portion of the cascade refrigeration system in Figure 15.17. In large LNG facilities it is not uncommon to
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use three economizers (four compression stages).

Another advantage of a flash economizer system is the ability to install chillers that operate at
P

interstage pressure. Figure 15.17 shows this capability. Rather than provide all of the refrigeration at –40°C
[–40°F], chillers are installed on the low-stage economizer (–19.9°C [–3.9°F]) and high-stage economizer
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(6.6°C [43.9°F]). While this scheme is not often used in a simple gas chilling plant it is frequently used in
more complex processes employing significant heat integration.
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Example 15.3: Rework the simple refrigeration system in Example 15.1 assuming a two-stage
system with one flash tank economizer (assume no pressure loss through the system).
SI Solution:
Estimate economizer pressure assuming equal compression ratios per stage
P 0.5
Pecon = P1 d P2 n = 6^P1h^[email protected] = 6^1750h^[email protected] Refer to Eqn. (14.33), pg. 192
1

= 648 kPa (use 650 kPa)

Note from Figure 15A.1(a) the economizer temperature is approximately 10°C.
1st Stage: Refrigeration circulation rate, mE = mB = mC:
Q hC = 550 kJ/kg (sat. vapor @ 20°C)
m E = h – Ch
C B hB =  kJ/kg (sat. liquid @ 650 kPa)

238 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Example 15.3 (Cont'd):

2000
m E = (550 - 224) = 6.13 kg/s
Compressor power, W1:
Refrigerant is compressed in 1st Stage from 240 kPa to 650 kPa.
m¨ h isen 6.13 (595 - 550)
- W1 = E
=
0.75
= 368 kW
2nd Stage: Refrigerant circulation rate, mH = mD = mA:
@ economizer (650 kPa)
h -h 588 - 335
x = h v - h F = 588 - 224 = 0.70

ills T
v L
m E 6.13
mA = = = 8.76 kg/s

Sk H
x 0.7
Compressor power, W2:
tro IG Note: it is difficult to locate the actual second stage suction point on the P-H diagram.
For purposes of this exercise it has been assumed that ∆h2isen is 49 kJ/kg. This results
in a total ∆hisen of 94 kJ/kg, which is identical to the single stage system.
8.76h 49h
R
mDh isen
–W2 = = = 572 kW
E 0.75
Total compressor power = 368 + 572 = 940 kW, a reduction of 19.7% from the simple
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system.
Condenser duty, Qh:
P

Q h = W - Q c = - 940 - 2000 = - 2940 kW

FPS Solution:
O

Estimate economizer pressure assuming equal compression ratios per stage.

C

P 0.5
Pecon = P1 d P2 n = 6^P1h^[email protected] = 6^250h^[email protected] Refer to Eqn. (14.33), pg. 192
1

= 92 psia, use 90 psia

Note from Figure 15A.1(b) the economizer temperature is approximately 50°F.
1st Stage: Refrigeration circulation rate, mE = mB = mC:
Q hC = 237 Btu/lbm (sat. vapor @ –5°F)
m E = h – Ch
C B hB = 95 Btu/lbm (sat. liquid @ 90 psia)

6.8 # 106
m E = (237 - 95) = 47 890 lbm/hr

Compressor power, W1:

CHAPTER 15 239
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Example 15.3 (Cont'd):

Refrigerant is compressed in 1st Stage from 34 psia to 90 psia.

m¨ h isen 47 890 (257 - 237)

- W1 = = = 502 hp
^2545h^Eh ^2545h^0.75h
2nd Stage: Refrigerant circulation rate, mH = mD = mA:
@ economizer (90 psia)
h -h (254 - 144)
x = h v - h F = (254 - 94) = 0.69
v L

ills T
47 890
m A = xE = 0.69 = 69 400 lbm/hr

Sk H
Compressor power, W2:
Note: it is difficult to locate the actual second stage suction point on the P-H diagram.
tro IG For purposes of this exercise it has been assumed that ∆h2isen is 21 Btu/lbm. This
results in a total ∆hisen of 41 Btu/lbm, which is identical to the single stage system.

m¨ h isen ^69 400h^21h

- W2 = = = 764 hp
E ^2545h^0.75h
R
Total compressor power = 502 + 764 = 1266 hp, a reduction of 19.4% from the simple
system.
Pe Y

Condenser duty, Qh:

Qh = W Q c = ^1266h^2545h 6 800 000 = 10.02 # 106 Btu/hr
P
O

Table 15.1 provides a summary of the results from Example 15.1 and Example 15.3. The result
of adding a single economizer reduces the required compression power by roughly 18%, and the required
C

condenser duty is also reduced by 7%.

Table 15.1
Effect of Flash Tank Economizer on Refrigeration System

Operating Parameter Simple System – Example 15.1 Single Economizer – Example 15.3
Condensing Temperature 50°C [120 °F] 50 °C [120 °F]
Chiller Temperature –20°C [–5 °F] –20 °C [–5 °F]
Chiller Duty 2 MW [6.8 MMBtu/hr] 2 MW [6.8 MMBtu/hr]
Duty of Condenser –3170 kW [–10.8 MMBtu/hr] –2940 kW [–10.02 MMBtu/hr]
Propane flow from Accumulator 9.3 kg/s [73 120 lbm/hr] 8.76 kg/s [69 400 lbm/hr]
Propane vapor flow from Chiller 9.3 kg/s [73 120 lbm/hr] 6.13 kg/s [47 890 lbm/hr]
Refrigeration Compression Power 1170 kW [1570 hp] 940 kW [1266 hp]

240 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Heat Exchanger Economizer

A second type of economizer configuration is the heat exchanger economizer shown in Figure
15.9. Cold, low-pressure chiller vapor is used to subcool the saturated liquid refrigerant. This decreases
the refrigerant circulation rate, and may reduce
compressor power.
C
With regard to the compressor power, two Process Compressor
factors offset the reduced circulation rate. The first Stream
is exchanger pressure drop. The pressure drop on the
D
low pressure side of the exchanger may be 20-50 kPa Chiller
[3-7 psi]. This can significantly increase compressor B A
Condenser
power, particularly when the chiller pressure is near Expansion
Valve Accumulator
atmospheric. Secondly, the refrigerant vapor entering

ills T
the compressor is now super-heated. Although this
reduces the likelihood of liquid carryover into the Figure 15.9 Flow Sheet of a Simple Refrigeration

Sk H
compressor, it results in higher power consumption System with a Heat Exchanger Economizer
per unit mass due to the higher suction temperature.
This can be seen in Figure 15A.1(a) and Figure 15A.1(b). Note the constant entropy lines are less steep at
tro IG
higher temperatures.

Calculation of Chiller Load (Qchiller)

R
The chiller duty, Qchiller, is set by process requirements and is determined by the energy balance
calculations presented in Chapters 7 and 12. Figure 12.34 in Chapter 12 is a good example of a refrigeration
application for natural gas chilling.
Pe Y

Specification of Cold Separator Temperature

P

The desired temperature of the gas-liquid stream leaving the chiller must be determined by the strategy
governing the system. If hydrocarbon dewpoint control is the primary process objective and liquid recovery
O

secondary, this temperature is often 3-5°C [5-9°F] below the temperature required to achieve the specified
dewpoint. This provides a margin of safety for process upsets and liquid carryover due to the shape of the phase
envelope from the cold separator (refer to Figure 4.17 in Chapter 4).
C

If liquid recovery is the primary function of the unit, what products can be sold? The operating
strategy is to condense the maximum amount of NGL components that can be sold and the least amount of
components that are non-saleable. Anything condensed, like methane and ethane, that must be revaporized
and possibly recompressed, adds to the operating costs without contributing to liquid revenue.
For a given set of specifications, you should investigate a series of cold separator pressures and
temperatures. The pressure for maximum liquid recovery is typically between 3.0-4.0 MPa [435-580
psia], if C3+ is the saleable product. As the pressure increases, condensation of methane, ethane, and CO2
increases. However, 3.0-4.0 MPa [435-580 psia] may not be the optimum pressure economically because of
compression requirements. The optimum pressure must minimize total system cost, not merely that of the
refrigeration and stabilization system alone. For that reason, separation is frequently carried out at the sales
gas pressure to eliminate recompression.
For the usual pressures chosen, what is a reasonable temperature? As previously noted, this depends
on the products desired. If the liquid product must have an RVP less than 1 atm or is blended with crude
oil or condensate sold as crude oil, the common separation temperature may be –20 to 0°C [–4 to 32°F].

CHAPTER 15 241
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

When propane is the lightest saleable liquid, the temperature may be –40 to –20°C [–40 to –4°F]. Choice of
temperature (and pressure) is a critical specification, and should not be chosen arbitrarily.
The materials of construction for the equipment and piping should be taken into consideration as
well. Table 15A.1 in Appendix 15A, provides example materials of construction often used in low tempera-
ture gas processing facilities. Temperatures below –40°C [–40°F] may require more expensive materials of
construction. This should be included in the analysis.

Temperature, ˚F
Effect of Temperature on Cost
–500 –400 –300 –200 –100 0 100
10 000 Figure 15.10 shows the approximate
8000
6000 Temperature, °C [°F] Refrigerant relative effect of temperature on refrigeration
4000 Ambient Cooling Water cost. The inset to Figure 15.10 shows the refriger-
ant often used at various temperature levels. The

ills T
–40 [–40] Propane
Relative Cost of Refrigeration (Cooling Water = 1.0)

2000 –89 [–128] Ethane

–101 [–150] Ethylene temperature levels are approximate. The refrigerant
–157 [–251] Methane
1000
used at a given level depends on several factors.

Sk H
800 –196 [–321] Nitrogen
600 –251 [–420] Hydrogen
–268 [–450] Helium
400

200
Choice of Refrigerant
tro IG
40
100
80
The ideal refrigerant is nontoxic, noncorro-
sive, has PVT characteristics and physical properties
60
compatible with the system needs, and has a high
latent heat of vaporization. Many substances could
R
20
be used as a refrigerant. The practical choice
10
8 reduces to one which has desirable physical proper-
6
ties and will vaporize and condense at reasonable
Pe Y

4
pressures, and at the temperature levels desired.
2 The condensing temperature is set by the heat sink
P

1 available. The vaporization temperature is set by the

–300 –250 –200 –150 –100 –50 0 50 process temperature requirement. In gas processing
Temperature, ˚C
applications the usual choice is propane for chiller
O

temperatures above about –40°C [–40°F]. At

Figure 15.10 Relative Cost of Refrigeration Compared
to the Cost of Cooling with Water at cryogenic conditions, ethylene and methane might
Ambient Conditions be used. In general, the lower practical temperature
C

limit of any refrigerant is its atmospheric boiling

point. It is desirable to carry some positive pressure on the chiller to obtain better efficiency in the compres-
sor, reduce equipment size and avoid air induction into the system. However, vacuum operation is feasible
and has been successfully implemented in some systems.
Different refrigerants will exhibit somewhat different power requirements per unit of chiller duty.
These differences are typically small, < 10%. The primary factors in refrigerant selection include initial and
replacement cost, availability, health and safety considerations, and environmental impact.
Propane is by far the most popular refrigerant in the gas processing applications. It is readily available
(often manufactured on-site), inexpensive and has a “desirable” vapor pressure curve. It is flammable, but
this is not a significant problem if proper consideration is given to the design and operation of the facility.
Freons® were widely used as commercial refrigerants. They are non-toxic and nonflammable. CFC
(Chlorofluorocarbon) refrigerants like R-11 and R-12 have been phased out. The replacement refrigerant
for R-12 is R-134a. In the past, HCFC refrigerants (Chlorofluorocarbons containing at least one hydrogen)
were considered environmentally acceptable in most locations, but phase-out has been mandated. R-22, an

242 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

HCFC, is the most commonly used Freon in gas processing. Relative to propane, Freons are expensive and
system losses can represent a significant operating cost. They are also difficult to ship to remote locations
in large quantities. Certain Freons will form hydrates so it is necessary to keep the system dry. R-22 has
not been used in new equipment in the United States since January 2010, and both production and import
of R-22 will be banned effective January 2020. Many other jurisdictions have adopted similar phase-out
schedules, in accordance with the Montreal Protocol.
Many replacements for pure CFC or HCFC refrigerants are mixtures. Some of these are aezeotropes
(designated R-5xx) and some are zeotropes (designated R-4xx). Aezeotropes act as a pure component in
the refrigeration system. Zeotropes do not. Zeotropes do not have a constant boiling temperature at a fixed
pressure; that is, the isotherms are not horizontal inside the phase envelope. The temperature difference
between the saturated liquid and saturated vapor is referred to as “temperature glide” and may be as much
as 3-6°C [5-10°F]. For kettle-type chillers, this effect increases compressor power relative to pure refriger-

ills T
ants. One current replacement refrigerant for R-22 is R438a, which is a zeotrope with a temperature glide
of about 6°C (–42 to –36°C) at atmospheric pressure.

Sk H
Table 15.2 presents the approximate compressor power requirement and condenser duty for
propylene, propane and ammonia at various chiller and condenser pressures.
tro IG
Evaporator
Table 15.2
Comparison of Common Refrigerants

Temperature, °C  –46 –40 –34 –29 –23 –18 –12 –6 –1 4

R
Evaporator pressure Ammonia 52.9 71.6 95.8 126 163 210 265 331 411 503
in kPa Propylene 111 143 179 221 269 331 400 482 568 662
Propane 86.8 112 141 176 216 263 320 386 464 551
Pe Y

Condensed Liquid Temperature 35°C; Condenser Pressure in kPa: Ammonia 1357; Propylene 1461; Propane 1220
kg refrigerant per Ammonia 0.967 0.958 0.950 0.941 0.935 0.928 0.922 0.915 0.911 0.907
P

second per MW of Propylene 4.13 4.02 3.93 3.85 3.78 3.70 3.63 3.57 3.50 3.44
refrigeration
Propane 4.26 4.15 4.04 3.93 3.83 3.74 3.67 3.59 3.50 3.42
O

m /h of refrigerant
3 Ammonia 7197 5361 4057 3115 2415 1913 1512 1217 985 819
per MW of refrig- Propylene 5796 4434 3526 2826 2289 1855 1502 1222 1024 869
eration
Propane 7487 5796 4526 3521 2797 2304 1869 1507 1251 1029
C

Kilowatt per MW of Ammonia 793 685 594 511 441 377 318 267 218 177
refrigeration Propylene 744 657 570 498 437 369 310 254 212 176
Propane 727 642 566 492 430 371 316 263 214 170
Condensed Liquid Temperature 52°C; Condenser Pressure in kPa: Ammonia 2088; Propylene 2164; Propane 1792
kg refrigerant per Ammonia 1.047 1.038 1.027 1.019 1.008 1.001 0.995 0.989 0.982 0.976
second per MW of Propylene 5.201 5.050 4.900 4.771 4.642 4.534 4.427 4.319 4.234 4.148
refrigeration
Propane 5.437 5.244 5.072 4.921 4.771 4.642 4.513 4.384 4.277 4.169
m /h of refrigerant
3 Ammonia 7760 5796 4390 3367 2608 2058 1633 1314 1058 879
per MW of refrig-
eration Propylene 7438 5555 4540 3536 2826 2280 1840 1488 1256 1053
Propane 9515 7438 5699 4424 3478 2869 2314 1831 1517 1270
Kilowatt per MW of Ammonia 1052 929 808 706 619 538 464 403 346 293
refrigeration Propylene 1128 999 878 776 685 591 511 430 377 329
Propane 1098 975 861 761 674 596 515 439 375 318

CHAPTER 15 243
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Table 15.2 cont'd

Comparison of Common Refrigerants

Evaporator
Temperature, °F  –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40
Evaporator pressure Ammonia 7.67 10.4 13.9 18.3 23.7 30.4 38.5 48.0 59.7 73.0
in psia Propylene 16.1 20.7 26.0 32.1 39.0 48.0 58.0 70.0 82.5 96.0
Propane 12.6 16.2 20.5 25.5 31.3 38.1 46.4 56.0 67.3 80.0
Condensed Liquid Temperature 95°F; Condenser Pressure in psia: Ammonia 197; Propylene 212; Propane 177
Pounds of refriger- Ammonia 0.450 0.446 0.442 0.438 0.435 0.432 0.429 0.426 0.424 0.422
ant per minute per Propylene 1.92 1.87 1.83 1.79 1.76 1.72 1.69 1.66 1.63 1.60
ton of refrigeration
Propane 1.98 1.93 1.88 1.83 1.78 1.74 1.71 1.67 1.63 1.59
CFM of refrigerant Ammonia 14.90 11.10 8.40 6.45 5.00 3.96 3.13 2.52 2.04 1.70

ills T
per minute per ton Propylene 12.00 9.18 7.30 5.85 4.74 3.84 3.11 2.53 2.12 1.80
of refrigeration
Propane 15.50 12.00 9.37 7.29 5.79 4.77 3.87 3.12 2.59 2.13

Sk H
Brake horsepower Ammonia 3.74 3.23 2.80 2.41 2.08 1.78 1.50 1.26 1.03 0.835
per ton of refrigera- Propylene 3.51 3.10 2.69 2.35 2.06 1.74 1.46 1.20 1.00 0.830
tion
tro IG
Pounds of refriger-
Propane

Ammonia
3.43 3.03 2.67 2.32 2.03 1.75 1.49 1.24 1.01 0.800
Condensed Liquid Temperature 125°F; Condenser Pressure in psia: Ammonia 303; Propylene 314; Propane 260
0.487 0.483 0.478 0.474 0.469 0.466 0.463 0.460 0.457 0.454
ant per minute per Propylene 2.42 2.35 2.28 2.22 2.16 2.11 2.06 2.01 1.97 1.93
R
ton of refrigeration
Propane 2.53 2.44 2.36 2.29 2.22 2.16 2.10 2.04 1.99 1.94
CFM of refrigerant Ammonia 16.10 12.00 9.09 6.97 5.40 4.26 3.38 2.72 2.19 1.82
per ton of refrigera-
Pe Y

tion Propylene 15.40 11.50 9.40 7.32 5.85 4.72 3.81 3.08 2.60 2.18
Propane 19.70 15.40 11.80 9.16 7.20 5.94 4.79 3.79 3.14 2.63
P

Brake horsepower Ammonia 4.96 4.38 3.81 3.33 2.92 2.54 2.19 1.90 1.63 1.38
per ton of refrigera- Propylene 5.32 4.71 4.14 3.66 3.23 2.79 2.41 2.03 1.78 1.55
tion
Propane 5.18 4.60 4.06 3.59 3.18 2.81 2.43 2.07 1.77 1.50
O

Compressor choice is linked to refrigerant choice as well as other considerations. Where weight
C

and size are particularly important, a centrifugal or an oil-flooded screw compressor is likely to be used. A
reciprocating compressor is an alternative for accessible land locations. Lube oil selection is particularly
important for positive displacement machines. Lube oil carried into the refrigerant can congeal on chiller
tubes reducing heat transfer. Refrigeration systems using reciprocating compressors, or oil-flooded screw
compressors should be provided with a means to drain accumulated compressor lube oil from the chiller,
such as a lube oil blow-down pot. Seal oil is not an issue for centrifugal compressors equipped with dry
seals, but many older centrifugal compressors with seal oil systems are still in service.

Mechanical Refrigeration System Controls

The primary objective of refrigeration system control is to cool the process fluid to the desired
temperature (in some cases the desired temperature is the coldest temperature attainable given the compres-
sor power and/or metallurgical constraints). The primary load change on the system is typically chiller duty,
usually due to process fluid flow changes.

244 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The amount of heat transferred in the chiller is given by the relationship:

Q = UA¨ Tlm (15.7)

For control purposes, either area, A, or temperature difference, ΔTlm can be manipulated to control
Q. Area is manipulated by changing the level of refrigerant in the chiller and temperature difference by
changing chiller pressure (hence the boiling temperature of the refrigerant). Manipulation of chiller pressure
can be accomplished by installing a pressure control valve in the chiller vapor outlet line (suction throt-
tling) as shown in Figure 15.11 or by changing the compressor capacity using other methods discussed in
Chapter 14.
The most common method is to change compressor speed. For constant speed compressors other
options such as adjustable inlet guide vanes (centrifugal), clearance pockets or valve unloaders (recipro-
cating) and slide valves (screw) are used. Table 15.3 summarizes the choices. Chapter 14 provides a more

ills T
detailed description of the capacity control options mentioned here.

Sk H
Table 15.3
Chiller Pressure Control Alternatives for Compressors

tro IG Compressor Type Chiller Pressure Control

Centrifugal 1. Adjustable Inlet Guide Vanes
2. Variable Speed Driver
Oil-Flooded Screw 1. Adjustable Slide Valve
R
2. Variable Speed Driver
Reciprocating 1. Adjustable Clearance Pockets
2. Valve unloaders
Pe Y

3. Variable Speed Driver

P
O

Condenser
SC
C

Note 2

Note 1

C Accumulator
NOTES:
1. Chiller Pressure Control Using a Control Valve
PC 2. Chiller Pressure Control Using Compressor Speed Control

Process LC
Stream

Chiller B Expansion Valve A

Figure 15.11 Two Methods of Chiller Pressure Control

CHAPTER 15 245
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Chiller level controls are complicated by the active boiling of the refrigerant in the shell. Figure
15.12 shows an example level control installation on a chiller. The level bridle that connects the chiller
liquid to the instrumentation is insulated to minimize transfer between the liquid refrigerant and the
surroundings. As a result, non-boiling liquid refrigerant will be present in the bottom connection of the
bridle. The density of the liquid in the bridle will be greater than the bulk density of the boiling liquid in the
chiller, resulting in a lower level reading in the bridle than the actual level in the chiller. Both the transmit-
ter signal and the level gauge readings on the bridle should be corrected for this difference. It should be
noted that too low of a level will result in reduced chiller cooling capacity, and too high of a liquid level will
result in carry-over into the compressor suction scrubbers. In some cases this carry-over can be excessive,
filling the compressor suction scrubber and resulting in compressor damage. Level instrumentation such as
guided wave radar has been used with success to allow operation at higher levels than might normally be
used with conventional instrumentation. Capillary DP cells which have diaphragm seal between the process
fluid and the capillary fluid (glycol mixture) have been used successfully in these applications as well.

ills T
Figure 15.12 provides a schematic of the level instrumentation details on a chiller.
In climates where significant ambient

Sk H
temperature variations occur between summer and
winter, it may be necessary to restrict the condenser
tro IG cooling on the coldest winter days, especially when
Boiling Propane
air coolers are used. There are two reasons for this.
LG First, sufficient pressure differential must exist
LT LIC between the accumulator and the chiller to cause the
refrigerant to flow through the piping and valves.
R
This becomes particularly important in systems using
Level flash tank economizers. Second, if the compressor
Reading
type is a centrifugal, a low discharge pressure may
Pe Y

Clear Propane Liquid cause the compressor to operate near stonewall. For
air coolers, the most common methods of tempera-
P

Figure 15.12 Chiller Level Instrumentation Details ture control are discussed in Chapter 12.
Under normal conditions, the condensing temperature (hence compressor discharge pressure) is
O

not controlled. The refrigeration system “floats” on the available ambient cooling. Condenser tempera-
ture control is only implemented when the system (usually the compressor) operates outside of its normal
operating envelope.
C

Anti-surge control for centrifugal type refrigeration compressors is somewhat different than the
natural gas compression due to the phase behavior of the refrigerant. The cooling of the recycle steam causes
condensation of the refrigerant. A common recycle control scheme is shown in Figure 15.13.

Compressor

Condenser
Vapor Refrigerant Suction
from Chiller Scrubber

Accumulator
Recycle
Valve
Saturated Liquid
Refrigerant to Chiller or Economizer

Figure 15.13 Anti-Surge Control on a Refrigeration System

246 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Most of the recycle flow comes from the hot discharge gas leaving the compressor. Without cooling,
this would quickly cause a high discharge temperature trip on the compressor when operating in recycle.
Liquid refrigerant is injected into the recycle line to cool the recycle gas. The liquid rate is controlled by a
suction temperature controller.

Operating Issues
Refrigeration power, hence operating cost, is minimized by:
1. Maintaining the condensing temperature as close as possible to the ambient temperature, e.g., air/
water. Generally, the condensing medium will be water or air, but in some applications a cold process fluid
may provide a lower temperature condensing medium. Some gas processing facilities use the sales gas as
the cooling fluid in the condenser, particularly if the inlet gas to the facility is significantly below ambient
temperature due to ground or seabed cooling. Table 15.4 provides a summary of the effect of condensing

ills T
temperature on compressor power the refrigeration system in Example 15.1. The summer cooling enhance-
ment of spraying water under, or on the tubes of the air cooler to enhance cooling is not recommended; it

Sk H
works short term but the increased scaling of the tubes will result in fouling and decreased heat transfer in the
long run. Corrosion can also be a serious issue.
Table 15.4
tro IG Effect of Condensing Temperature on Simple Refrigeration System

Example 15.1
Example 15.1 with a lower
condensing temperature
Condensing Temperature 50°C [120°F] 38°C [100°F]
R
Chiller Duty 2 MW [6.8 MMBtu/hr] 2 MW [6.8 MMBtu/hr]
Duty of Condenser 3170 kW [–10.8 MMBtu/hr] 2800 kW [–9.60 MMBtu/hr]
Pe Y

Propane flowrate 9.3 kg/s [73 120 lbm/hr] 8.0 kg/s [63 550 lbm/hr]
Discharge Pressure 1750 kPa [250 psia] 1310 kPa [190 psia]
P

Compressor Power 1170 kW [1570 hp] 800 kW [1100 hp]

Ratio of Compression Power 100% 70%
O

2. The chiller should be operated so that the refrigerant To Propane Return to

temperature is as close as possible to the process fluid tem- Vapor Outlet Chiller Vapor
Discharge Line
perature (minimum approach). Chiller fouling increases the re-
C

quired temperature difference between the process fluid and the

refrigerant, and forces the refrigeration system to work harder Boiling Propane
to deliver the same amount of refrigeration. Fouling can occur
on the refrigerant side of the chiller due to contaminants in the
refrigerant—usually lube or seal oil from the compressor. Lube
oil blowdown pots are recommended for chillers in refrigera-
tion systems that use a reciprocating or oil-flooded screw com-
pressor. An example lube oil blowdown pot is shown in Figure
15.14. Some facilities chose to recycle the lube oil, while oth- Optional
Heating Coil

ers will drain the pot to the closed drain. A heating coil may be Lube Oil
Blowdown Pot
provided in the pot, using hot refrigerant compressor discharge
vapor, to evaporate the refrigerant from the lube-oil to mini-
mize refrigerant losses prior to draining the oil. Fouling can Drain Manually or
to Closed Drain
also occur on the process fluid side due to hydrates, wax, or
freezing of TEG carried over from a glycol dehydration sys- Figure 15.14 Lube Oil Blowdown Pot
tem. Detail

CHAPTER 15 247
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

One of the most common operating problems in refrigeration systems is refrigerant losses. Refrig-
erant losses occur due to leaks at flanges, valve packing, relief valves, etc. In addition to lubricating oil,
refrigerants can be contaminated by non-condensables, such as methane, ethane or air. Methane and ethane
can enter the system due to a leak in the chiller tubes. Air can enter the system if the suction side of the
compressor operates at vacuum. The non-condensable components reduce the efficiency of the refrigera-
tion system because they artificially increase condensing pressure. Propane refrigeration systems larger
than 4-5 MW [14-17 MMBtu/hr] are often provided with an accumulator vent cooling coil, (frequently
called a purger) as is shown in Figure 15.15. This coil is operated manually, and condenses the C3+ in the
refrigerant. Lighter components are vented to flare or fuel gas system. A cooling coil is cooled by a small
stream of liquid propane from the accumulator through a JT valve. The discharge from the coil returns to
the compressor suction scrubber.
The production of propane for refrigerant use
Light Ends to
is through fractionation of NGLs. Achieving a 100%

ills T
Flare or Fuel
purity of propane is not economic, therefore, propane
refrigerants normally contain a small fraction of

Sk H
Inter-Stage Compressor
ethanes and butanes. The composition of the propane Cooling Coil
or Suction Scrubber

refrigerant is important to system performance.

Increasing amounts of ethane and butanes increase
tro IG
the required compression power and condenser duty.
The effect of butanes on compression power is nearly Accumulator
double that of ethane for the same concentration.
It is important to ensure that the make-up propane
R
composition is adequate for required refrigeration
system performance. Figure 15.15 Accumulator Vent Condenser
Pe Y

Cascade Refrigeration
When refrigeration must be provided at very low temperatures, below about –40°C [–40°F],
P

cascade refrigeration systems are sometimes used. Cascade systems employ more than one refrigerant and
provide refrigeration at multiple levels. An example Ethane-Propane system is shown in Figure 15.17.
O

Refrigeration Levels in Figure 15.16

C

°C °F
7 44
–20 –4
–40 –40
–61 – 80
–84 –120

The propane at [–40°F] is used to

condense the ethane refrigerant. All of the heat
picked up in the process is ultimately rejected
to the cooling water at the propane condenser. A
hypothetical cooling curve for the process fluid
has been developed to show the amounts and
levels of refrigeration shown in Figure 15.16.
Figure 15.16 Cascade Refrigeration

248 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

1.1 bara
[15.7 psia] 1 2
-40.0°C 9000 kW
[-40.0°F] 1.2 bara 3.5 bara 10.5 bara [30.71 MMBtu/hr]
[17.0 psia] [51.0 psia] [153.0 psia] 10.2 bara
[148.0 psia]

1.3 bara 3.6 bara

[18.5 psia] [52.5 psia] -31.7°C
[-25°F]
-84.4°C -61°C
[-120°F] [-78.5°F]

4395 kW 2930 kW

ills T
[15 MMBtu/hr] [10 MMBtu/hr]

Sk H
Ethane System
Propane System
Cooling Water
1 2 3 31.1°C [88°F]

tro IG 1.0 bara

[14.2 psia]
2.4 bara
[34.2 psia]
5.7 bara
[82.3 psia]
13.7 bara
[198.3 psia]

1.1 bara 2.5 bara 5.8 bara

[15.7 psia] [35.7 psia] [83.8 psia]
R
-40°C -19.9°C 6.6 °C
[-40°F] [-3.9°F] [43.9 °F]
Pe Y

6740 kW 2930 kW 2050 kW 880 kW

[23 MMBtu/hr] [10 MMBtu/hr] [7 MMBtu/hr] [3 MMBtu/hr]
P

Figure 15.17 Ethane-Propane Cascade Refrigeration System (Courtesy GPSA Databook)

O

Cascade refrigeration systems employing propane, ethylene, and methane are used in ethylene
plants and in many LNG processes, but are not common in gas processing. In these applications, low level
refrigeration is typically provided using expansion or mixed refrigerants.
C

Mixed Refrigerants
An alternative to cascade refrigeration is
to use a mixed refrigerant. Mixed refrigerants are
a mixture of two or more components. The light
components lower the evaporation temperature and P
Liquid
the heavier components allow condensation at higher
temperatures. The evaporation process takes place
over a temperature range rather than at a constant Vapor

temperature as with pure component refrigerants.

This is illustrated in the P-H diagram (Figure 15.18)
for a mixed refrigerant. h
Phase Envelope Isotherms Constant Entropy

Figure 15.18 Example P-H Diagram for a Mixed

Refrigerant

CHAPTER 15 249
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The composition of the mixed refrigerant is sometimes adjusted so that its evaporation curve
matches the cooling curve for the process fluid. Heat transfer occurs in a countercurrent exchanger, often an
aluminum plate-fin, rather than a kettle-type chiller.
Mixed refrigerants often have a higher thermal efficiency than a cascade system, because the temperature
approach between the refrigerant and process fluid are smaller.
The amount of equipment is also reduced compared to a cascade system. Disadvantages include a more
complex design and the tendency for the heavier components to concentrate in the chiller unless the refrigerant is
totally vaporized. The mixed refrigerant process is used in some low-temperature NGL extraction gas processing
plants and is the most common process in large base-load LNG plants. LNG processes will be discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.

ills T
EXPANSION REFRIGERATION

Sk H
The two common types of expansion refrigeration processes used in gas processing are:
1. Valve expansion—often referred to as LTS, LTX or J-T process.
tro IG 2. Turbine expansion—turboexpanders.
Valve expansion processes have been used in the industry for over 60 years. They are simple,
robust, and relatively inexpensive, but have a low thermodynamic efficiency and generally require high
pressure feed gas (10 000 kPa [1500 psia] or higher) to be economically viable. These processes are most
R
commonly used in processing of gas to meet a hydrocarbon dewpoint.
The turboexpander was first used in gas processing in the late 1960s. It is now arguably the most
popular gas processing method. Turboexpanders can be used for very low temperature NGL extraction as
Pe Y

well as for hydrocarbon dewpoint control. Turboexpanders (expanders) are very efficient, reliable, and
relatively inexpensive.
P

Valve Expansion
O

Figure 15.19 shows an example Joule-Thomson (J-T) process. Feed gas enters a gas-gas exchanger
where it is cooled by heat exchange with the cold sales gas stream. The gas is often not dehydrated, so
hydrate formation in the exchanger and piping must be prevented. This is typically done by injecting an
C

inhibitor (usually MEG) into the gas upstream of the exchanger. Water can also be removed using a gas
dehydration unit upstream of the process and J-T processes that employ inhibition or gas dehydration are
often referred to as Low Temperature Separation (LTS) plants.
Liquid hydrocarbons and the water-inhibitor mixture are removed from the gas in the Cold
Separator. The cold, dry sales gas flows back through the gas-gas exchanger and on to the sales gas system.
The temperature at the cold separator is usually controlled by bypassing a portion of cold sales gas
around the gas-gas exchanger (as shown in Figure 15.19).
An LTX process (as opposed to LTS) generally refers to a process where no hydrate inhibitor is
injected into the gas. The process is designed so that any hydrate formation occurs downstream of the
J-T valve and the cold separator liquid is heated by heat exchange with a warm fluid to melt any hydrates
which formed as a result of the valve expansion. The warm fluid is often the inlet gas to the process. LTX
processes will not achieve as low a temperature as LTS, but they are simpler and less expensive. They have
proven useful for field processing of gas to meet transportation or downstream processing specifications.
Figure 15.20 shows an example LTX process.

250 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Dry, Lean Gas Out Steam to Atmosphere

Free Water Injection

Knockout Nozzle
PC
Ethylene Glycol
Regeneration Skid
Wet, Rich Gas In Gas/Gas
Exchanger

LC

(Lean Glycol)

J-T Expansion
Valve

ills T
Water to Disposal TC

Lean Glycol
Injection Pump

Sk H
LC

LC

tro IG NGL Hydrocarbons

to Stabilization (Rich Glycol)

Figure 15.19 Process Flow Diagram for a Typical LTS-Type J-T Process
R
Pressure drop across a valve is an isenthalpic process, as noted previously. If no liquid forms, the
following equation applies:
Pe Y

:T a k - VD
2V
ȝ = a 2P k =
2T 2T P (15.8)
H CP
P

The symbol “n” is known as the Joule-Thomson coefficient. It is positive or negative, depending
on the relative size of the two terms in the numerator.
O
C

Sales Gas

Gas to Gas Separator

Exchanger

Hydrocarbon
By-Pass Condensate
Stream
Water Off Valve

(Alternate Line) High Pressure Water to

Wellstream Disposal

Figure 15.20 Example LTX Process

CHAPTER 15 251
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

For most gases the J-T coefficient is positive, i.e., the gas cools upon expansion. However for most
liquids and high pressure hydrocarbon gases the J-T coefficient is negative, i.e., the fluids warms upon
expansion. This behavior is illustrated in Figure 15.21 for methane.

110
T = -73 ˚C [-100˚F] T = -18 ˚C [0˚F] TT == -38
38 ˚C
˚C [100˚F]
[100˚F]
100

90

80
( G7G5 ) < 0
70
Pressure, MPa

ills T
60

50

Sk H
40

tro IG 30 ( G7G5 ) = 0
20
( G7G5 ) > 0
10
R
0
-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Temperature, ˚C
Pe Y

Figure 15.21 Constant Enthalpy Lines for Methane Showing Positive and Negative J-T Coefficients
P

Example 15.4: Using the P-H diagram for methane, on page 279 and 280, estimate the temperature
O

drop across a valve for a pressure drop from 7000 kPa [1015 psia] to 2000 kPa [290
psia]. Inlet gas temperature is 10°C [50°F].
SI Solution:
C

h1 @ 7000 kPa and 10°C = 805 kJ/kg

h2 = h1, so at P2 = 2000 kPa and h2 = 805 kJ/kg
T2isen 14°C P1, T1 P2, T2

FPS Solution:
h1 @ 1015 psia and 50°F = 341 Btu/lbm
h2 = h1, so at P2 = 290 psia and h2 = 341 Btu/lbm
T2isen +7°F

252 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Turboexpanders
Turboexpanders are single-stage radial-inflow turbines. A cutaway of a turboexpander/compres-
sor assembly is shown in Figure 15.22. Gas enters the expander impeller radially and leaves axially. Work
generated at the expander wheel is absorbed by a single stage centrifugal compressor in most installations.
This is because compression is almost always required downstream of the expander to restore the gas to
sales gas pressure. In those cases where compression is not required, the expander can drive a generator to
produce electricity.
Expander efficiencies are quite high, approaching 90% (isentropic) for new installations operating at
design conditions. Since their introduction in the gas processing industry in the late 1960s several thousand
expanders have been installed and have generally proven reliable and robust.
Bearings (2-radial and 1-thrust) have historically been oil lubricated. The first magnetic bearings

ills T
were installed in turboexpanders in 1991. A number of expanders currently use magnetic bearings(15.1)
and this technology is becoming increasingly popular; however, magnetic bearings require a larger rotor

Sk H
assembly both in terms of length and shaft diameter as well as more complex electronic controls.
Seal gas is required to provide a barrier between the wet, cold process gas and the lube oil or magnetic
tro IG
bearings inside the rotor case. Adequate seal gas flow is necessary to prevent process gas from mixing with
the lubricating oil and lubricating oil leaking into the process stream. Early seals were labyrinth. Dry gas
seals were first used in turboexpander's in 1989 and are commonly used today. They differ somewhat from
the design used on centrifugal compressors in that a single seal (rather than tandem seals) is used due to
R
space limitations. Regardless of the seal type, the seal gas must be clean and dry. Several turboexpander
failures have been attributed to poor seal gas quality.
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Compressor
P

Wheel Seal
Compressor Bearing
O

Expander Wheel Seal

C

Shaft

Compressor Wheel
Inlet Vane

Compressor Shaft Seal

Hydrodynamic Oil Bearings

or Magnetic Bearings
Expander Bearing
Expander Wheel

Figure 15.22 Cross-Section of an Expander-Compressor (Courtesy Atlas Copco)

CHAPTER 15 253
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The flowrate through the expander is controlled by inlet guide vanes. These are arranged radially
around the expander impeller and their movement is synchronized by rotation of a guide vane ring which is
attached to an actuator. The guide vane position,
hence expander flowrate, is usually manipulated by
a flow or pressure controller. Figure 15.23 shows
expander inlet guide vanes.
Turboexpanders are applied both in deep
NGL Extraction (C2+, C3+) plants and hydrocarbon
dewpoint control. The primary difference in these
applications is the expansion ratio.
For deep NGL extraction, expansion ratios
are typically 3.0-4.0, and for dewpoint control

ills T
expansion ratios are usually about 1.3-1.5. The
maximum expansion ratio is set by the enthalpy

Sk H
change. For a single impeller, the isentropic enthalpy
change seldom exceeds 140 kJ/kg [60 Btu/lbm].
Higher enthalpy changes require multiple expanders. Figure 15.23 Expander Inlet Guide Vanes
tro IGAn example hydrocarbon dewpoint plant using a turboexpander is shown in Figure 15.24. A simple
deep recovery NGL extraction process is shown in Figure 15.25. The current technology employed in deep
recovery processes is more complex than Figure 15.25, employing significantly more heat integration as
R
well as cooling techniques at the top of the demethanizer/deethanizer to increase NGL recovery. Some of
these process schemes will be discussed in more detail later in this chapter.
Pe Y

Sales
P
O
C

Expander /
Compressor
Dehydrated
Feed Gas

Expander Inlet Cold Separator

Gas / Gas Exchanger Separator

To Stabilizer

Figure 15.24 Expander Process for Hydrocarbon Dewpoint Control

254 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Residue Gas Out

J-T Valve

Recompressor

Dry Gas Feed Expander /

From Mol Sieve Compressor Demethanizer
Dehydration or Deethanizer

ills T
Gas / Gas Exchanger
Expander Inlet Heat Medium
Separator Supply / Return

Sk H
Bottom Reboiler
tro IG NGL Product Out
Product Pump
R
Figure 15.25 Simple Expander Process for Deep NGL Extraction
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Expander Calculations
The theoretical thermodynamic path through an expander is isentropic. Approximately 50% of
P

the enthalpy change occurs across the guide vanes and 50% across the impeller. Figure 15.26 shows the
example actual and theoretical paths through an expander plotted on an H-S diagram.
O

The theoretical work is calculated from an isentro-

Radial inflow - 50% reaction
pic path and corrected to the actual work by use of expander
efficiency. For multicomponent streams and condensation
C

Pi
n across the expander, the calculation is iterative and tedious,
and is almost always done on a computer.
1/2 IGV
The known variables will typically be feed compo-
el
whe sition, T1, P1, and P2. The calculations proceed as follows:
'Hact o
'Hs int
Enthalpy, H

P 1. From P1 and T1, calculate h1 and s1

2. s2 = s1, using a thermodynamic property correlation
1/2 wheel calculate T2isen at s2 and P2
3. Using the thermo property correlation, calculate h2isen
ut
Po at P2 and T2isen
4. Calculate expander power, W = mΔhisen Eisen
5. Calculate h2actual = h1 + (h2isen – h1)Eisen
Entropy, S 6. From the thermo property correlations determine T2act
Figure 15.26 Actual vs. Theoretical Paths at P2 and h2act
Through an Expander

CHAPTER 15 255
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Example 15.5: Using the information in Example 15.4, calculate the outlet temperature and work if
the methane gas was expanded across a turboexpander rather than a valve. Eisen = 0.82
and the gas flowrate is 1  106 std m3/d [35.4 MMscfd] and MW = 16.

SI Solution:

1. at P1 and T1, h1 = 805 kJ/kg and s1 = 4.2 kJ/kg·K

2. s2 = s1, so at P2 = 2000 kPa and s2 = 4.2 kJ/kg·K

T2isen = –70°C and h2isen = 672 kJ/kg

3. Δhisen = 762 – 900 = –133 kJ/kg

a k = 7.83 kg/s
1 # 106 std m3 m 1d 16 kg
4. m = c a k kmol
86 400s c 23.64 std m3 m kmol

ills T
d
–W = mΔhisen Eisen = (7.83)(805 – 672)(0.82) = –850 kW

Sk H
W = 850 kW (work is positive)
tro IG 5. Δhactual = 805 + (672 – 805)(0.82) = 696 kJ/kg
6. at P2 = 2000 kPa and h2 = 696 kJ/kg T2actual = –70°C

FPS Solution:
R
1. at P1 and T1, h1 = 341 Btu/lbm and s1 = 0.98 Btu/lbm-°R
2. s2 = s1, so at P2 = 290 psia and s2 = 0.98 Btu/lbm-°R
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T2isen = –100°F and H2isen = 282 Btu/lbm

3. Δhisen = [282 – 341] = –59 Btu/lbm

P

35.4 # 106 scf m 1 d a1 lb - mol k 16 lbm

4. m = c a k c m = 62 200 lbm/hr
d 24 hr 379.5 scf lb- mol
O

^62 200h^- 59h^0.82h

-W = 2545
= - 1180 hp
C

W = 1180 hp (work is positive)

5. Δhactual = 341 + [282 – 341](0.82) = 293 Btu/lbm

6. at P2 = 290 psia and h2 = 293 T2actual = –82°F

Estimation of Expander Efficiency

The best way to estimate efficiency is from actual performance data.
It is difficult to correlate efficiency data because many factors affect actual performance. As with
compressors, normal manufacturing tolerances can affect performance measurably. Erosion can alter the
shape of a wheel and thus efficiency. The presence of liquids likewise may have a dramatic effect. For all
of these reasons, there may be significant errors in the estimated efficiency.

256 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

In correlating efficiency data, you may use the basic similarity parameters governing all turboma-
chinery. Similar to centrifugal pumps and compressors, expander efficiency can be correlated against the
specific speed of the impeller. Figure 15.27 shows such a correlation.
Specific speed is one of the criteria for determining performance. It was discussed previously in the
centrifugal pump section. The basic equation for expanders is:
N ^q 2h0.5
Ns = (15.9)
6^Ah^¨ [email protected]
SI FPS
Where: Ns = expander specific speed — —
N = shaft speed rpm rpm
Δh = isentropic Δh kJ/kg Btu/lbm

ills T
q2 = turbine exhaust volume m3/s ft3/sec
A = conversion factor 31 778

Sk H
For a radial inflow turbine, the optimum efficiency occurs at a specific speed between 70 and 100.
However, operation in this range may not always be possible because of the limitation in available standard
tro IG
expander frame and other parameters which affect performance.
Figure 15.27 is for expanders where the amount of liquid formed is minimal. The effect of liquid
condensation on expander efficiency depends on where, and how, it was formed.
R
For hydrocarbon gas processing applications, experience has shown that radial inflow turboexpanders
can tolerate a significant amount of liquid formation during the expansion process. Operations with equilib-
rium liquid content as high as 50 weight percent at
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the expander outlet have been reported for expander 1.0

applications with dense phase inlet conditions. For Radial Inflow Turbine
typical applications where the expander feed is at its
P

dewpoint, it is common to see equilibrium values of 0.8

Isentropic Efficiency, E

15-25 weight percent liquid at the outlet.

O

Small amounts of liquid at the expander

inlet can be accepted as long as the liquid particles 0.6

are finely atomized. It would not be unusual to

C

tolerate one wt% liquid at the expander inlet, as

long as the droplet diameter was less than 30-50 0.4
microns. In general, the larger the machine the larger
the droplet size that can be tolerated. Expander
suppliers should be contacted to provide allowable 0.2
values for specific applications. In all cases, liquid 10 20 40 60 80 100
Specific Speed, Ns
200

slugs at the inlet must be avoided.

Figure 15.27 Example Efficiency of Expansion Turbines
Expander efficiency will deteriorate over as a Function of Specific Speed
time due to normal wear and tear. This deteriora-
tion is accelerated by any erosion caused by droplets and particulates in the feed gas. Efficiency can also
decline due to variation in flow from the design rates. Figure 15.28 provides an efficiency correction factor
for operation at other than the design point of the machine.
Q Outlet Volumetric Flow/Shaft Speed @ Acutual Conditions
Where: % =
N Outlet Volumetric Flow/Shaft Speed @ Design Conditions

CHAPTER 15 257
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

100%
Efficiency Correction Factor

80%

60%

40%

ills T
20%

Sk H
0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120% 140% 160%
tro IG
Figure 15.28
R %Q/N Relative to Design Condition

Expander Efficiency Correction for Off-Design Operation

(Courtesy of Atlas Copco Mafi-Trench Company LLC)

Example 15.6: Estimate the expander efficiency for the following expander operating conditions:
Outlet flow = 0.66 actual m3/s [23.4 acfs], Expander Speed = 12 000 rpm
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The design conditions for the expander are given below:

Design Flow Rate = 1.1 actual m3/s [39 acfs], Design Speed = 12 000 rpm
P

The expander efficiency @ design conditions is 85%.

O

SI Units:
Calculate %Q/N

Q a12 000 k
0.66
C

% N = 1.10 ^100h = 60%

a k
12 000
From Figure 15.28, Efficiency Correction Factor = 84%
Efficiency @ actual conditions = (0.84)(85%) = 71%
FPS Units:
Calculate % Q/N

Q a12 000 k
23.4
%N = ^100h = 60%
a 39 k
12 000
From Figure 15.28, Expander Efficiency = 84%
Efficiency @ actual conditions = (0.84)(85%) = 71 %

258 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

In the early planning stages there is uncertainty in flow rates and gas compositions. When estimat-
ing performance it is common to use a design efficiency 5-10% below that specified by the manufacture.
Obviously, the efficiency affects outlet temperature, liquid condensation and the composition of both phases
which, in turn, affects all equipment downstream of the expander.
In addition to specific speed there are other parameters affecting expander performance. Specific
diameter is one of these and is defined in Equation (15.10):

^dh6^Ah^¨ [email protected]
ds = (15.10)
^q 2h0.5
SI FPS
Where: ds = specific diameter
d = turbine diameter m ft

ills T
Δh = isentropic Δh kJ/kg Btu/lbm
q2 = turbine outlet volume m3/s ft3/sec

Sk H
A = conversion factor 31 778

The specific diameter should be approximately 1.2 to 1.4 to achieve maximum efficiency. This is a
tro IG
useful number for estimating impeller size and shaft speed.
Expander efficiency can be calculated using measured process data. The most convenient method
is to use the expander compressor as a dynamometer. The following data is required:
R
• Expander Inlet: gas composition, T and P, and flowrate
• Compressor Suction: gas composition, T, P, and flowrate
• Compressor Discharge: T and P
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The calculation procedure is:

1. Accurately measure the pressures and temperature at the suction and discharge of the compressor.
P

2. Use a thermodynamic property correlation to calculate hsuct and hdisch for the compressor.
3. Compressor Work = m (hdisch – hsuct).
O

4. Add 2-3% to the work in step 3 to account for bearing and seal losses. This represents the actual
work generated by the expander.
5. Use a thermodynamic property correlation to estimate the theoretical (isentropic) work from
C

the expander.
6. Eisen = (Wactual)/(Wisen).

APPLICATIONS OF REFRIGERATION IN GAS PROCESSING

The most common application of refrigeration in gas processing is the cooling of natural gas to
meet a sales gas specification and/or the extraction of NGL components for recovery and sale. Selection of
a suitable process scheme is based on several parameters including:
1. Process objective (hydrocarbon dewpoint control or NGL extraction).
2. NGL products to be recovered, sales revenue.
3. Inlet pressure.
4. Sales gas pressure.
5. Capital and operating costs.
6. Plant location, site conditions.

CHAPTER 15 259
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Hydrocarbon Dewpoint Applications

Processing gas to meet a hydrocarbon dewpoint specification does not typically require low levels
of refrigeration. Most specifications can be met by removal of the heavier C5+ components from the gas.
Extraction of lighter components (C2-C4) may not be economic due to a lack of NGL markets or transporta-
tion and storage infrastructure. In addition, extraction of lighter NGLs may lower the HHV of the gas below
the contract specification.
If the process inlet pressure is less than about 8000 kPa [1160 psia] and the sales gas pressure is
6900 kPa [1000 psia] or higher, the most common process choice is mechanical refrigeration. There are
exceptions to this, particularly for very lean gases where a silica gel adsorption system may be a better
choice. (Silica gel is discussed in Chapter 18).
If the sales gas pressure is low, e.g., gas turbine fuel (3500-4100 kPa [500-600 psia]) an expansion

ills T
process is often more economic due to the availability of “free” pressure drop.
Expansion processes are the preferred alternative when the inlet gas pressure is at least 20-30%

Sk H
greater than the sales gas pressure. This is particularly true at pressure above about 8000 kPa [1160 psia]
because mechanical refrigeration systems are generally not effective at high pressure due to the retrograde
tro IG
phase behavior of the gas. If the inlet pressure is provided by the reservoir and no inlet compression is
required the valve expansion process might be more economical when inlet pressure to sales gas pressure
ratio exceeds about 1.5.
If the inlet pressure is provided by compression or when the ratio of inlet to sales gas pressure
R
falls to about 1.1 to 1.5 an expander process is often preferred. Table 15.5 provides a comparison between
mechanical refrigeration, LTX, LTS, JT processes, and expander compressor designs.
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Table 15.5
NGL Recovery Process Option Comparison
P

Mechanical Refrigeration LTX, LTS, J-T Processes Expander / Compressor Processes

Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages Advantages Disadvantages
O

• Simple, proven • Not suitable when • Primarily used in • Low thermal • High thermody- • Higher CAPEX as
• Best choice when feed gas pressure gas conditioning efficiency namic efficiency compared to LTS,
facility inlet and exceeds about applications (Eisen = 0%) (Eisen = 85-88%) LTX, J-T processes
outlet pressures are 8000 kPa • Low CAPEX • Not optimum • Applicable for both • Turndown limita-
C

the same [1160 psia] process when “free” gas conditioning tions
• Best choice when
• Propane most • Not the optimum significant “free” pressure drop is not (HDCP) and deep • Liquids in the feed
common gas condition- pressure drop is available NGL recoveries. to the expander can
refrigerant ing process when available • Optimum process result in excessive
“free” pressure for gas condition- impeller erosion
• Can provide drop is available • No rotating equip-
reasonable NGL ment required for ing when the “free” • Sophisticated
(C4+) recoveries • Limited to about cooling gas pressure drop lubrication system,
when feed gas is 40°C [40°F] available results in and seals required
rich chiller temperatures • Can be used an expansion ratio for Expander /
for deep NGL of 1.1-1.5
• Requires refrigerant extraction on small Compressor
“makeup” supply volume systems

Figure 15.29 through Figure 15.31 shows process temperatures, pressures and phase behaviors for
three of the refrigeration schemes previously discussed. The process path is also plotted on a phase envelope
to better visualize the process differences. In each case the sales gas pressure is 6900 kPa [1000 psia], the
minimum approach on the gas-gas exchanger is 5°C [9°F] the HCDP specification is –3°C [26.6°F].

260 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Temperature, °F

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

14 000 2000

1800
12 000
as e
d G lop 1600
Fee Enve
10 000 ase
Ph Sales Gas Chiller 1400
Phase Envelope

Pressure, psia
Pressure, kPa

8000 Gas-Gas Exchanger Feed Gas 1200

Conditions:
27°C, 7050 kPa 1000
Cold Separator
Sales Gas [86°F,
[81°F, 1023 psia]
6000 Conditions:
Conditions: 800

ills T
-17.2°C, 6950 kPa
[1°F, 1008 psia] 22°C, 6900 kPa
4000 [72°F, 1000 psia] 600

Sk H
400
2000
200
-3°C [27°F]
tro IG
R 0
-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20

Temperature, °C
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0

Figure 15.29 P-T Path for a Mechanical Refrigeration Process

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Temperature, °F

-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

P

14 000 2000

1800
O

12 000
as
d G ope
Fee Envel 1600
se Feed Gas
10 000 Pha Conditions:
Sales Gas 1400
C

Gas-Gas Exchanger 27°C, 8960 kPa

Phase Envelope

Pressure, psia
lve

[81°F,
[80°F, 1300 psia]
Pressure, kPa

1200
Va

8000
Gas-Gas Exchanger
1000
6000 Cold Separator Sales Gas
Conditions:
800
Conditions:
-17.2°C, 6950 kPa 22°C, 6900 kPa
4000 [1°F, 1008 psia] [72°F, 1000 psia] 600

400
2000
200
-3°C [27°F]

0 0
-90 -80 -60 -70 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Temperature, °C

Figure 15.30 P-T Path for a Valve Expansion Process

CHAPTER 15 261
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Temperature, °F
-120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
14 000 2000
Expander Inlet
Separator Conditions 1800
12 000 s -4.6°C, 7420 kPa
d Ga
Fee velope [24°F, 1076 psia]
e En Feed Gas 1600
s
Pha Conditions
10 000 Expander 27°C, 7470 kPa
Inlet Separator [80°F, 1083 psia]
1400
Phase Envelope

Pressure, psia
Pressure, kPa

8000 1200
Gas-Gas Exchanger
Expander
Gas-Gas Exchanger Sales Gas
Conditions
1000
6000 Cold Separator 26.5°C, 6900 kPa
Conditions [80°F, 1000 psia] 800

ills T
Expander
-12°C, 6600 kPa
Compressor
4000 [10°F, 957 psia] 600

Sk H
-3°C
-3°C [27°F]
400
Dew Point Specification
2000
200

tro IG
R 0
-90 -80 -70 -60 -50 -40 -30 -20 -10

Temperature, °C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0

Figure 15.31 P-T Path for an Expander Process

NGL Extraction
Pe Y

The preferred processes for deep NGL extraction have historically been mechanical refrigeration,
refrigerated lean oil absorption, and turboexpander. Mechanical refrigeration is generally not effective in
P

achieving high extraction levels unless the gas is relatively rich in C2+ hydrocarbons and the cold separator
temperatures are below –70 to –80°C [–94 to –112°F]. This requires a cascade or mixed refrigerant type
O

refrigeration system.
Expander plants are the preferred process for deep NGL extraction. These processes are relatively
simple, compact, can achieve ethane recoveries in excess of 90% (propane 99%+), and have the lowest
C

capital cost relative to other options. If the sales gas must be returned to the pipeline, at high pressure, the
largest plant operating cost is compression. Dehydration upstream of deep NGL recovery plants is almost
always adsorption, using molecular sieves, although methanol injection has been used in some designs.
Early processes used a simplified scheme where the overhead demethanizer gas cooled the inlet gas
feed to the plant as shown in Figure 15.25. Expansion ratios across the expander were 3 to 3.5 and expander
outlet temperatures were typically –90 to –100°C [–130 to –148°F]. While simple, this process scheme had
limited thermodynamic efficiency. Temperature approaches in heat exchangers were large and the potential
refrigeration effect of methane revaporization in the demethanizer was not exploited. Because of inefficient
heat integration the demethanizer top temperature was not as cold as it could have been in a more efficient
process. This limited ethane recovery and made it difficult to maintain high propane recovery when the
process was operated in an ethane rejection mode.
The use of side reboilers on the demethanizer improves heat integration. Most of the liquid feed
to the demethanizer column is methane which must be revaporized in the distillation process. A portion
of the feed gas is used as the heating medium in the side reboiler. This not only provides heat to boil-up

262 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

the methane it also provides refrigeration for the feed gas, resulting in lower expander outlet tempera-
tures (hence higher NGL recovery levels) for the same expansion ratio. In addition, the use of plate fin
brazed aluminum heat exchangers (BAHXs) decreases temperature approaches in heat exchangers to 2-3°C
[4-6°F]. Figure 15.32 shows a standard expander plant using a side reboiler and BAHXs.
External refrigeration is sometimes used to assist in feed gas cooling. The chiller is typically
installed upstream of the expander inlet separator. It may be separate from the gas-gas exchanger or in the
case of BAHXs it could be integrated into the gas-gas exchanger. This scheme is often used when the feed
gas is quite rich in C2+ components. For rich gas, the cooling heat load upstream of the expander is high
because of increased condensation of liquids. Conversely, the residue gas rate leaving the demethanizer is
lower because more liquids were extracted from the gas. This means there is less cooling available in the
gas-gas exchanger. The shortfall between the cooling required by the feed gas and the cooling supplied by
the residue gas can be provided in the chiller.

ills T
Basic turboexpander plants, like the one shown in Figure 15.32 are limited to about 70% ethane
recovery and 95% propane recovery. In addition, they are subject to CO2 freezing and cannot maintain high
levels of propane recovery during those periods of operation when ethane is rejected.

Sk H
The design of turboexpander plants has evolved further for the following reasons:
1. The need for increased ethane recovery
tro IG 2. Increased process tolerance for CO2
3. Maintaining high propane recovery during periods of ethane rejection
4. Improved energy efficiency
5. Lower emissions
R
Several process designs have emerged, but they all share the common theme of better heat integra-
tion and colder temperatures at the top of the demethanizer.
Pe Y

Residue Gas
P

Residue
O

Compression

Booster
Compressor
C

Expander

A
Inlet Gas
Demethanizer
Separator
Heat Exchanger B
A Gas-Gas
B Side Reboiler

Bottom Product
Reboiler

Figure 15.32 Flow Sheet for Simple Expander Plant with Side Reboiler

CHAPTER 15 263
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Residue Gas

Subcooler

Residue
Compression

Booster
Compressor

A Expander

ills T
Inlet Gas
Demethanizer

Heat Exchanger

Sk H
A Gas-Gas C B Separator
Note 1
B Side Reboiler
C Bottom Reboiler

tro IG
Bottom Product Trim Reboiler
Note 1
R
Note 1: Not included for Ethane Recovery Designs.

Figure 15.33 Flow Sheet for a Gas Subcooled Process (GSP)

Pe Y

Temperature, ˚F
P

-250 -200 -150 -100 -50 0

8000
1125
3
O

Subcooler 1
7000 1000
3 Sub Cooler
1
6000 4 875
C

Expander
Expander Inlet Expander
Scrubber
Control 750
5000 2
Valve
Pressure, psia
Pressure, kPa

To DeC1
625
4000

500
3000
Cold Quench 375
Feed 4
2000 2
250

1000
125

0 0
-180 -160 -140 -120 -100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0

Temperature, ˚C

Figure 15.34 Thermodynamic Paths for Expander and Cold Quench Feed in a GSP Plant

264 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

One process which has gained wide acceptance in industry was originally patented by Ortloff and
is referred to as the Gas Subcooled Process (GSP). A GSP process flow diagram is shown in Figure 15.33.
In this process, a portion (typically 20-30%) of the high pressure gas from the expander inlet separator is
bypassed around the expander into a heat exchanger that uses the demethanizer overhead stream to cool the
HP gas converting it from a saturated vapor to a subcooled liquid. The subcooled liquid is then expanded
across a flow control valve and fed to the top of the demethanizer column. This liquid feed is colder than
the turboexpander outlet and acts as a “cold quench feed” to the column resulting in a colder demethanizer
top temperature and higher ethane recovery. This process can also provide higher propane retention during
operation in an ethane rejection mode.
Figure 15.34 shows the thermodynamic paths of selected GSP process streams on a P-T diagram.
In this case, the subcooled liquid enters the demethanizer at 103°C [153°F] while the expander outlet
feed enters the column at 92°C [134°F]. The section of the column where the subcooled liquid contacts
the vapor from the expander outlet and the boil-up vapor from the bottom of the column is typically packed

ills T
with a high efficiency ring packing. It has a larger diameter than the lower portion of the column because the
vapor traffic is much greater. The subcooled liquid feed not only lowers the demethanizer top temperature,

Sk H
but also provides an “absorption” effect in the top section.
There are several variations of this process which are generally associated with the stream that is
actually subcooled. Other versions subcool the feed gas stream and/or the liquid stream from the expander
tro IG
inlet separator.
This type of process can achieve ethane recoveries in the 90-95% range and propane recoveries of
99% with no increased energy consumption relative to the simpler processes. One additional characteristic
R
of a high ethane recovery process such as GSP is that the bottom product from the demethanizer is quite
cold due to its high ethane concentration. This often means that the feed gas can be used as the reboiler
heating medium rather than an external heat source. In the GSP example used in this chapter the reboiler
Pe Y

feed temperature is 6°C [21°F] and the bottom product temperature is 7°C [47°F].
Table 15.6 shows a comparison of operation conditions for a simple expander process with and
P

without a side reboiler as well as a GSP type plant.

Table 15.6
O

Comparison of Operating Conditions and Recoveries for Expander Plants

Simple Expander Process without Side-Reboiler Simple Expander Process with Side-Reboiler GSP Process
Feed Gas
C

Pressure 7150 kPa [1040 psia] 7150 kPa [1040 psia] 7150 kPa [1040 psia]
Temperature 30°C [86°F] 30°C [86°F] 30°C [86°F]
Demethanizer
Pressure 1800 kPa [260 psia] 2000 kPa [290 psia] 2150 kPa [310 psia]
Top Temperature 88°C [126°F] 96°C [140°F] 102°C [152°F]
Sales Gas
Pressure 7000 kPa [1040 psia] 7000 kPa [1040 psia] 7000 kPa [1040 psia]
Temperature 40°C [104°F] 40°C [104°F] 40°C [104°F]
Expander Power 5.6 MW [7510 hp] 3.6 MW [4830 hp] 2.5 MW [3350 hp]
Export Comp
17.4 MW [23 333 hp] 17.4 MW [23 333 hp] 17.6 MW [23 600 hp]
Power
C2 Recovery 57.6 78.0 93.2
C3 Recovery 93.7 97.7 99.4
iC4 Recovery 98.8 99.6 99.9
nC4 Recovery 99.5 99.8 100.0

CHAPTER 15 265
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

There are a number of processes that have been developed over the past 15-20 years designed
to increase NGL extraction levels with lower energy input, higher CO2 tolerance, and improved propane
retention in the ethane rejection mode. Additional information about these processes can be found in refer-
ences 15.2 and 15.7.

LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS (LNG)

In 2012, approximately 31% of all the gas consumed worldwide was transported internationally.
About two thirds this gas was transported via pipeline (21% of the total) and approximately one third was
transported as LNG (10% of the total). Most of the gas transported internationally by pipeline was from
Russia and Norway to Western Europe and from Canada to the U.S.. The largest LNG importing region was
in the Pacific Basin, mainly Japan and South Korea. Most of this LNG was supplied from the Middle East,
Australia, Indonesia and Malaysia.

ills T
Sk H
LNG Value Chain

tro IG
R
E&P Liquefaction LNG Shipping Terminal & Regas Market
Capital Cost, % of Total Cost Total
Pe Y

~23% 45-46% 15-18% 14-15% 100%

Fuel Usage: 9-12% 1-2% 0.5-1.5% 10-15%
P

Figure 15.35 LNG Value chain

O

LNG is often the first choice for natural gas transportation when the distances are large and when
the supplier and buyer are separated by an ocean. Figure 15.35 provides an overview of the LNG value
chain. The LNG value chain requires 1) large natural gas reserves and production system, 2) a liquefac-
C

tion plant, 3) LNG transport ships and associated marine facilities, 4) a regasification facility at the buyer’s
location, and 5) pipeline transportation from the regas facility to the market. Arguably, the most expensive
and complex component in the value chain is the liquefaction plant. The discussion that follows will focus
on the refrigeration technology employed in the liquefaction facilities.
A block flow diagram for an LNG liquefaction facility is shown in Figure 15.36.
The liquefaction facility consists of a gas reception area where produced gas and associated liquids
are received by the plant. Condensate produced with the gas is collected, stabilized and sent to storage. The
produced gas stream is sent to the gas pretreatment area where contaminants in the gas are removed. These
contaminants include H2O, CO2, Hg, H2S and other sulfur compounds. Most of the C5+ hydrocarbons must
be removed from the gas as well, but this is typically done in the liquefaction process.

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 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Acid Gas
Treatment

Dehydration
Gas Acid Gas
Reception Mercury Liquefaction LNG
Wells Removal
Removal

Condensate Fractionation
Stabilization

ills T
Condensate LPG

Sk H
Storage
Utilities
and Loading

tro IG
Figure 15.36 Block Flow Diagram for an LNG Facility

When the gas leaves the pretreatment section it enters the liquefaction area. Several technologies
are used to liquefy natural gas. One of the most common is a propane pre-cooled mixed refrigerant process
R
which is shown in Figure 15.37
The pre-cooling step utilizes three or four levels of propane refrigeration. The first stage of C3
Pe Y

refrigeration cools the gas to approximately 20°C [68°F]. The condensed water is separated from the gas
and the gas enters the mol sieve gas dehydration unit where it is dried to < 1 ppmv H2O to prevent freezing
P

in the low temperature portion of the plant. In most liquefaction plants a mercury removal bed is installed
downstream the gas dehydration system. The gas is then further cooled in the remaining stages of C3 refrig-
eration.
O

In most plants, a scrub column is installed downstream of the C3 refrigeration system. This is where
most of the C5+ hydrocarbons are separated from the gas. With the exception of some N2 flashing that
C

occurs in the pressure let-down and the storage tanks, the composition of the gas leaving the scrub column
will be the composition of the LNG product. The HHV of the LNG can be adjusted by changing the scrub
column temperature. Lower temperatures result in a lower HHV. The ability to change the scrub column
temperature provides the plant operator with the flexibility to “tune” the LNG composition to match market
requirements. The scrub column temperature for most liquefaction plants producing LNG for the European
and Asian market will be –30 to –40°C [–22 to –40°F]. For markets with a lower HHV specification, such
as North America, the scrub column may operate as cold as –70°C [–94°F].
In addition to the C5+ components, C2, C3 and C4 condense in the Scrub Column as well. These
are separated in a fractionation train. C2 and C3 are typically used for refrigerant make-up. C4 and excess C3
are sold as an LPG product. The C5+ is typically blended into the condensate.
Gas exiting the scrub column enters the Main Heat Exchanger (MHE) which is typically a vertical
spiral wound exchanger manufactured from aluminum (see Figure 12.40 in Chapter 12).

CHAPTER 15 267
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

C3
C3

Acid
Gas
Natural Gas C3
Heavies
50.6 barg Removal
[734 psig] Column
21°C [70°F] Regenerator Sweetening H2O Drier -32°C
Unit [-26°F]
Fuel Gas
N2

Refrigerant Make-Up

ills T
Fuel Gas

C1 C2 C3 C4 Reinjection

Sk H
Refrigerant Make-Up Unit

tro IG Gasoline 0 barg

[0 psig]
-161°C
[-258°F]
LNG
R
CW
Propane Cycle
15.7 barg
[227 psig] -163°C [-261°F]
43.9 barg [635 psig]
Pe YP

6.41 barg [93.0 psig]

Cryogenic
2.83 barg [41 psig] Heat Exchanger
O

0.12 barg [1.8 psig]

C

MR Cycle

CW CW C3 C3

-32°C
[-26°F]

Figure 15.37 Basic LNG Process (Courtesy Air Products and Chemicals, Inc.)

The refrigerant used in the MHE is typically composed of N2, C1, C2, and C3. The composition
varies depending on the composition of the gas being liquefied so that the vaporization curve for the refrig-
erant matches as closely as possible to the condensation curve for the gas being liquefied. The mixed
refrigerant compressor takes suction off the bottom of the MHE at a pressure slightly above atmospheric.

268 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The refrigerant is compressed to about 3500-4000 kPa [500-580 psia] and is partially condensed in several
heat exchangers including 3-4 levels of C3 refrigeration. The liquid portion of the mixed refrigerant is called
the “heavy” refrigerant and consists mainly of C2 and C3. The vapor portion is referred to as the “light”
refrigerant and consists mainly of N2, C1 and C2.

Mixed Refrigerants in LNG

An example of a mixed refrigerant might be a 50:50 mixture of ethane and propane. This refrigerant
will vaporize (boil) over a temperature range, not at a single temperature as is the case for pure compo-
nents. Figure 15.38 shows a P-H diagram for the C2-C3 mixture. At 200 kPa [29 psia] this refrigerant
starts boiling at –60°C [–76°F] and finishes boiling
at –40°C [–40°F]. The beginning of the boiling
process is set by the saturated liquid temperature at

ills T
the system pressure and the end of the process is set
by the saturated vapor temperature.

Sk H
The temperature range is determined by the
system pressure and the composition of the refrig-
tro IG erant. Figure 15.39 shows the P-H diagram for a
mixed refrigerant containing N2, C1, C2, and C3. At
200 kPa [29 psia] this refrigerant starts boiling at
a temperature below –160°C [–256°F] and finishes
P-H Diagram for Simple Mixed boiling at about –65°C [–85°F]. Imagine a process
R
Figure 15.38
Refrigerant, 50% C2, 50% C3
where gas is chilled using these two refrigerants as
shown in Figure 15.40.
Pe Y

In an LNG plant, this cooling would take

place in brazed aluminum plate-fin exchangers
P

shown in Figure 12.32 or in coil wound aluminum

exchanger shown in Figure 15.41. Depending on the
design of the heat exchanger, mixed refrigerants can
O

produce a smaller temperature difference between

the process fluid and the refrigerant. These smaller
differences lead to a more thermodynamically
C

efficient liquefaction process which, in turn, reduces

the refrigeration compressor power requirements.
Figure 15.39 P-H Diagram for Example Mixed
Refrigerant, N2, C1, C2, C3

-35°C [-31°F] -57°C [-71°F] ~ -160°C [-256°F]

LNG
Feed Gas From Precooling

C2-C3 refrigerant N2,C1,C2,C3 refrigerant

-40°C [-40°F] -60°C [-76°F] -65°C [-85°F] -165°C [-265°F]

Figure 15.40 Example Process Cooling with MR Refrigerants

CHAPTER 15 269
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

Cryogenic Heat Exchanger

The main heat exchanger (MHE) shown in Figure 15.41 is the cryogenic exchanger that efficiently
condenses the pre-cooled natural gas to LNG. It is a coil wound aluminum exchanger. In its simplest
form it contains two heat exchanger bundles with extremely large surface area. Standing vertically it is
fed two mixed refrigerant (MR) streams: “Light MR” to the cold bundle on top and “Heavy MR” to the
warmer bottom bundle. Today most MHEs contain
P three bundles.
LNG
Referring to Figure 15.41, the high-pressure
MR supply (T) is already partially condensed in
O
coolers downstream of the MR compressor. The
AA
Light saturated vapor (U) is the light MR containing predom-
Refrigerant Z inantly the lighter components C1 and C2 plus any

ills T
Cryogenic
Cold
Bundle
nitrogen, if present. The heavy MR is a saturated liquid
Heat Exchanger (V), predominantly C2 and C3 which is subcooled in

Sk H
the warm or bottom bundle of the MHE (W) before
X
Y
BB
N
being depressurized at point X and distributed across
Heavy the warm bundle cross-section. The heavy MR then
tro IG Refrigerant

U
W CC
Warm
Bundle
progressively vaporizes in downflow to the bottom
outlet which in turn leads to the MR compressor
suction. The refrigerating effect of the heavy MR is
Mixed T applied to the following three streams:
R
Refrigerant
Supply
V M LNG 1. subcooling itself, points V to W
Mixed Refrigerant
Feed
Gas 2. first stage of cryogenic natural gas cooling and
condensing, M to N
Pe Y

Back to Compressor DD
3. condensing the light MR stream, U to Y
Figure 15.41 Main Heat Exchanger (MHE)
P

The light MR, predominantly C1, having been condensed at point Y is further subcooled in the
top bundle to point Z. It is then depressured (AA) and distributed across the cold top bundle. As it flows
O

downward through the top bundle it progressively vaporizes to point BB. The refrigerating effect of the
light MR is used on two streams:
1. subcooling itself, Y to Z
C

2. final stage of cryogenic natural gas cooling, N to O

Note that the refrigeration effect generated in the warm (bottom) bundle is actually due to the
combined cooling effect of the heavy refrigerant (X) and the vaporized light refrigerant leaving the cold
bundle (BB). This combined refrigeration effect in the warm bundle broadly comes from:
a. boiling (vaporizing) of the heavy MR
b. superheating of the already vaporized light MR
The vaporized light MR (BB) and the liquid heavy MR (Y) that combined at the top of the warm
bundle exit the bottom as vapor stream, DD. In large, base-load LNG plants this vapor line leading to the
MR compressor suction may be as large as 72-84 inches [1830-2130 mm] in diameter and the low pressure
section of the MR compressor is often an axial machine.
The stream at point “O” is a subcooled LNG at high pressure, 4500-5000 kPa [650-725 psia]. It
is expanded to atmospheric pressure at point P for transfer to the LNG storage tanks. This is often call the
“end flash” and some vapor is released as a result of this pressure reduction. This vapor from the flash is
compressed and used as fuel gas. Figure 15.41 shows that the pressure letdown occurs across a valve. It is
more common today to use an expander for pressure letdown.

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Cascade Refrigeration for LNG

A second type of LNG refrigeration system is the ConocoPhillips Optimized Cascade LNG Process.
As the name suggests, it is a cascade system and employs three refrigerants: propane, ethylene, and methane.
A simplified process flow diagram for the ConocoPhillips Process is shown in Figure 15.42.
Following the typical front-end treatment (acid gas removal, dehydration and mercury removal) the gas
enters the propane refrigeration cycle. Here the gas is cooled to about –40°C [–40°F]. The scrub tower (not
shown) is in the ethylene refrigeration section or located downstream of the C3 refrigeration section. The
propane refrigeration system also condenses the ethylene refrigerant and cools the methane refrigerant. The
gas then enters the ethylene refrigeration system where it is further cooled to about –90°C [–130°F]. At this
point the feed gas stream is a liquid. The ethylene refrigerant also condenses the methane refrigerant. The
final refrigeration step (methane) subcools the LNG to about –155 to –160°C [–247°F to –256°F] before it

ills T
is let down to storage tank pressure.

Sk H
Inlet
Inlet Meter
Raw Gas

tro IG Inlet
Scrubber
Propane
Mercury
Removal

Chiller
Amine
R
Treater
Dry Gas
Dehydrator Filter
Pe Y

Air Fin Heat

Exchanger
Air Fin Heat
Exchanger
P

Plant Fuel
Air Fin Heat
Exchanger
O

Methane Ethylene Propane

Compressor Compressor Compressor
Propane
Gas Gas Gas Surge
Turbine Turbine Turbine
C

Heat Exchangers, Heat Heat

Flash Tanks, and Exchanger Exchanger
Pressure Letdown Valves Ethylene
Surge
Vapors From Ship
When Loading

Tank Vapor
Blower Ship Vapor
Blower
Storage
Tanks
and
Loading To Ship Loading Facilities
Pumps

Figure 15.42 COP Optimized Cascade LNG Process (Courtesy of ConocoPhillips)

CHAPTER 15 271
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The methane refrigeration system is open-cycle, i.e., the methane refrigerant stream is taken from
the gas being liquefied. This allows the rejection of nitrogen (if required) and allows boil-off gases to be
reintroduced back into the liquefaction process without the necessity for a large boil-off gas compressor.
If necessary, NGLs can be removed from the gas downstream of the propane refrigeration system.
Fuel gas is taken off the methane refrigeration compressor.
Rather than one large proprietary spiral wound exchanger, the Conoco Phillip’s process uses
conventional BAHXs. This allows more flexibility in design capacity and may reduce major equipment
delivery time.
As in the case of the mixed refrigerant process the primary energy input is refrigeration compres-
sion. Modern LNG plants typically have an overall efficiency (“LNG out” vs. “feed gas in”) of about
90-92% depending on feed composition and pretreatment requirements.

ills T
Important Liquefaction Technologies:
• Nitrogen Cycle

Sk H
• Single Mixed Refrigerant (SMR)
• Cascaded Process (COP)
tro IG • Propane Pre-cooled (C3MR)
• Dual Mixed Refrigerant (DMR)
The overall figure represents the total
R
fuel required for the LNG facility. The fuel for the
balance of the LNG facility, outside of refrigeration,
Gas
Pe Y

is typically 2-3% depending on scale and the level of Cooling

Temperature

Curve
treatment required. Propane
P

The refrigeration and liquefaction process is Ethylene

the primary unit of interest in an LNG facility. To Mixed

Refrigerant
optimize the liquefaction process, the cooling and
O

Methane
heating curves of the process gas and the refriger-
ants are matched as closely as possible. Figure 15.43 Heat Flow
shows a comparison of the cooling curves for a
C

mixed refrigerant and a cascade LNG process. Figure 15.43 Cooling Curves for MCR and Cascade
LNG Process
The lost work (process inefficiency) is
proportional to the area between the process gas cooling curve and the refrigeration heating curves. There
are similar inefficiencies due to the temperature approach of other exchangers, including the refrigeration
condensers (not shown on the cooling curve). The process efficiency of different LNG technologies is
similar if the overall UAs of the liquefaction processes are similar.
Matching the cooling and heating curves of the process gas and refrigerants as closely as possible,
and reducing the temperature approach on the refrigeration condensers reduces the required power per unit
of LNG produced.

272 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

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Other LNG Technologies

Other processes employed include a Dual Mixed Refrigerant (DMR) which uses a mixed refriger-
ant to replace the C3 refrigeration system used to pre-cool the gas. Rather than C3 chillers, the DMR process
uses a vertical spiral-wound aluminum heat exchanger in addition to the MHE. One advantage of the DMR
process is that it is more adaptable to changing ambient conditions and it can achieve a wider range of scrub
tower temperatures.
The size of base load liquefaction plants has increased over the past 40 years to take advantage of
economies of scale. However, at some point the construction of larger plants is constrained by the ability to
manufacture the equipment in the size required. This is particularly true of the MHE and the low pressure
section of the MR compressor. For the mega-trains installed in Qatar (7.8 mtpa) the feed gas rate to the
liquefaction process is approximately 1.1 Bscfd and the total compression power required approaches 300

ills T
MW [400 000 HP]. For these trains, Air Products added a N2 refrigeration loop to sub-cool the LNG exiting
the MHE thus reducing the size of both the MHE and the MR compressor. This process is referred to as
AP-X.

Sk H
Other manufacturers have developed process designs to improve heat integration, increase the
efficiency of compressors and drivers, and increase the operating flexibility of the process to meet a wider
tro IG
range of LNG specifications.

OTHER LIQUID RECOVERY SYSTEMS

R
Lean Oil Absorption
Pe Y

Lean oil absorption was the most common NGL extraction technology before turbo-expanders
became popular. Although new installations are rare, there are still many older units in service. As the name
P

suggests the primary principle of NGL extraction is physical absorption and virtually all plants employ a
refrigeration system to chill the gas and lean oil in order to increase NGL recovery.
O

Lean oil is not an “oil” at all. It is a “gasoline or petrol-like” mixture hydrocarbons with a MW in
the 100-130 range. There are several variations on the process and it requires substantially more equipment
than an expander plant, but the basic flow diagram is relatively simple.
C

NGLs are absorbed into the lean oil at low temperature in the absorber or contactor. Methane is
absorbed in the largest quantity because it is the dominant component in the natural gas mixture. Absorber
operating pressures are typically 4000-8000 kPa [580-1160 psia] range. The rich oil leaving the bottom of
the absorber is sent to a lower pressure column operating at 2000-3000 kPa [290-435 psia] called the Rich
Oil Demethanizer (ROD) where almost all of the methane is driven out of the oil by application of high
temperature heat.

CHAPTER 15 273
274
Flash Gas to Recycle Compressor or Lean Oil Presaturator
C
Propane
Refrigerant
Lean Oil
O Still Overhead
Condenser CW To Total Product
Condenser
Rich Rich Oil
Oil
P Lean Oil
Chiller
Still
Reflux LC
Absorber Rich Oil Drum
FC FC Demethanizer
Inlet Gas (ROD)

Gas/Gas
Pe Y
Exchanger Gas Chiller Reflux Pump
R
3-Phase
LC LC
Glycol
Separator ROD TC
Reboiler
tro IG
L.O.
FC
Residue Gas Rich Glycol Rich/Lean CW Still
to Regenerator Exchanger Feed/Bottoms
Exchanger Fuel Gas
Lean Oil Lean Oil Still Bottoms
Circulation Pumps Cooler Circulation Pumps Still Bottoms
Sk H
Heater (Reboiler)
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

ills T
Figure 15.44 Example Lean Oil Process Flow Diagram

VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

The rich oil now consists of lean oil and NGLs. These are separated in a third, lower pressure
distillation column referred to as the “still column”. The operating pressure on the still is typically around
1300-1500 kPa [180-220 psia] and the “reboiler” on the still column operates at temperatures approaching
315°C [600°F]. The NGLs leaving the top of the still are condensed and sent to a fractionation train. The hot
lean oil leaving the bottom of the still supplies heat to several heat exchangers: Still Feed Preheater, ROD
Reboiler, ROD Preheater. It is then cooled to ambient temperature with air or water and is chilled to low
temperature in a lean/rich exchanger and the lean oil chiller. Refer to Figure 15.44.
Refrigeration improves propane and ethane recovery. Ethane recoveries as high as 50% and propane
recoveries of 98-99% have been achieved. Lean oil plants have high capital costs and are considerably more
complex than mechanical refrigeration and expansion type processes. They are more expensive to build and
operate than expander or simple refrigeration plants. They are generally more effective than an expander
plant at maintaining high propane recoveries when operating in an ethane rejection mode.

ills T
REFERENCES

Sk H
15.1 Agahi, R. A., “Turboexpanders with Dry Gas Seals and Active Magnetic Bearings in Hydrocarbon Processing,” 78th
Annual GPA Convention, Nashville, Tennessee (Mar. 1999).15.1
tro IG
15.2 McIntire, R., “Increased Productivity of Turboexpanders,” 61st Annual GPA Convention, Dallas, Texas (Mar. 1982).
15.3 Mehra, Y. R., “Mehra Process Flexibility Improves Gas Processing Margins,” 66th Annual GPA Convention, Denver, Colo-
rado (Mar. 16-18, 1987).
15.4 Limb, D. I. and B. A. Czarnecki, “The Petroflux Process in NGL Recovery - Experience to Date and New Developments,” 6th
R
Annual GPA Convention, Denver, Colorado (Mar. 16-18, 1987).
15.5 Finn, A. J. et.al, “Modern Process Designs for Very High NGL Recovery,” 78th Annual GPA Convention, Nashville, Tennes-
Pe Y

see (Mar. 1-3, 1999).

15.6 Wilkinson, J. D. and Hank M. Hudson, “Improved NGL Recovery Designs Maximized Operating Flexibility and Product
Recoveries,” 71st Annual GPA Convention, Anaheim, California (Mar. 16-18, 1992).
P

15.7 Pitman, R. N. et.al, “Next Generation Processes for NGL/LPG Recovery.” 77th Annual GPA Convention, Dallas, Texas
(Mar. 16-18, 1998).
O
C

CHAPTER 15 275
 REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

APPENDIX 15A – PROPERTIES OF COMMON REFRIGERANTS

(See also Appendix B at the back of this book.)

ills T
Sk H
tro IG
R
Pe YP
O
C

276 VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 -9
°C
Specific Entropy = kJ/kg•K, Density = kg/m3, Temperature = °C
10 000
17
13 14 16 0°
12 C

/m³
11 0 15 0°
8000 0 0° 0°

-90 °C
C

-80 °C
C C

-70 °C
°C 0°

100
°C C

CHAPTER 15
³
°C

600 kg
m³
³

³
6000 m³ ³

kg/
g/m

³
kg/

/m
k

kg/m
kg/m
150

/m
kg
2 50 200 g/m³

400
5000

kg
100 k

00

450
3

0
C

35

500 kg/m³
4000
90 °C g-K

550 kg/m³
³
kJ/k

80 °C
3000
O 2 4
1.5
50 kg/m
40 kg
70 °C ³
40 kg/m
2000 60 °C
P 50 °C
30 kg/m³

40 °C
20 kg/m³
30 °C
1000
Pe Y
R
g-K

800 20 °C

Pressure (kPa)
g-K

kJ/k

g-K
J/k

10 kg/m³
k

21.65

10 °C
8
5

600
kJ/k
21.

2
g-K

1.5
2

kJ/kg-K
500
g-K
tro IG
J/k

0.2 kJ/kg-K
kJ/kg-K
0 °C
K

0.4 kJ/kg-K
0.5
3k

g--K

0.6 kJ/kg-K
400

0.5
1 kJ/k
2
Propane Pressure Enthalpy Diagram - SI

-K

0.8 kJ/kg-K
-10 °C
.5 kJ/k

5 kg/m³
1.8

300 .5 kJ/kg
1.6
4 kg/m³
Sk H
-20 °C

.4 kJ/kg-K
200
1.5
3 kg/m³
20 °C
°C

-30 °C -30 °C
110 °C
100 °C
90 °C
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

60 °C
80 °C

0.5 kJ/kg-K
1.2
50 °C
40 °C

-50 °C

-80 °C
-70 °C
-80 °C
-70 °C
-50 °C

-60 °C
-60 °C
30 °C

10 °C

ills T
0 °C

1 kJ/kg-K
70 °C
130 °C
120 °C

-10 °C
-20 °C

-40 °C -40 °C
100
0 100
100. 200
200. 300
300. 400
400. 500
500. 600 700 800
800.
Lemmon, E.W., McLinden, M.O., Wagner, W.,"Thermodynamic Properties of Propane.
III. A Reference Equation of State for Temperatures from the Melting Line to 650 K Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O. NIST Standard Reference Database 23:

277
and Pressures up to 1000 MPa,", J. Chem. Eng. Data, 54:3141-3180, 2009. Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National
Reference State: Enthalpy = 200 kJ/kg, Entropy = 1 kJ/kg•K for the saturated liquid at 0°C Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.
Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
 F
26

-1
-10
Specific Entropy = Btu/lbm-°R, Density = lbm/ft3, Temperature = °F 0°
F
1000 ³

f t³

t³
³

/
/f t

t³
32

f t³
³ /f t

/f
/
³
m

/ft³
lb ³ /f t lbm
0°
F

/f t

lbm
/f t / f t³

278
bm
bm 30
12

m / f t³
lbm
800

m-°R
20 4l bm

bm
0°

24
bm 1 10 l f t³ F
6l

26 l
8l

22
1 m/

34 lbm/ft³
32 lbm/f
30 lbm
tu/lb

28 lb
8 lb

28
0°
F
600 t³

0.6 B
200°F m/f
6 lb

0.15 Btu/lbm-°R
26
500
0°F
180°F ³
m/f t

0.1 Btu/lbm-°R

0.05 Btu/lbm-°R
4 lb
-°R

400 240
160°F
°F
lbm

220
tu/

°F
B

300
C 140°F
0.65

36 lbm/ft³
2 lbm/ft³
120°F

38 lbm/ft³
200
O 100 °F

1 lbm/ft³
80°F
P
-°R
lbm

60 °F
/

100
Btu
0.7

80 40 °F
³

Pressure (psia)
0.5 lbm/ft
Pe Y
60
R R

0.4 lbm/ft³
20 °F
°R-°

50
mlb-m

-°R
t³
-°R
0.3 lbm/f

°R
°R
°R

Bt ut/ulb/

lb-m
b-m

mR-°R
Propane Pressure Enthalpy Diagram - FPS

B
m-

40
5

b-°
0 °F
/lb/lm
/lb

utu
tro IG
tut/lub/m
tu

/lb/lm
Bt
0..555
0

tu
5B

.455BB
m/ft³
0..55B

30
0.7

.4BBtu
0.4
0
0.2 lb

0
0.4

-°R
/lbm-°R
-20 °F

20

0.35 Btu

0.3 Btu/lbm
Sk H
-40 °F
-°R

0.25 Btu/lbm-°R
0.1 lbm/ft³

-80°F
-60°F

-120°F
-100°F
/ lbm
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

0.2 Btu/lbm-°R
Btu
0.8

10
ills T
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Lemmon, E.W., McLinden, M.O., Wagner, W.,"Thermodynamic Properties of Propane.
III. A Reference Equation of State for Temperatures from the Melting Line to 650 K
Enthalpy (Btu/lbm) Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O. NIST Standard Reference Database 23:
and Pressures up to 1000 MPa,", J. Chem. Eng. Data, 54:3141-3180, 2009. Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National
Reference State: Enthalpy = 200 kJ/kg, Entropy = 1 kJ/kg-K for the saturated liquid at 0°C
Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.

VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 C

10
-20

2.5
°C

°C
Specific Entropy = kJ/kg•K, Density = kg/m3, Temperature = °C
10 000
³ ³ ³ ³

³
³
120

³
³
³ /m³

³
m /m g/m °C

³
60 kg

m³
g/m 0 kg/m
8000 0 80 k

/m

/m³
110
k g/ kg/m 0 kg 120 k 1

g
0

k
kg ³
14

kg/m
0

kg/

kg/m
kg/m
°C

kg/m
0

0
0k
18 16

0k
100°
³

20 g/m
6000

26
22 /m³
C

340
280

320
24 g/m³

360
40 kg/m

380 kg
300
90°C

CHAPTER 15
400 kg/m³

440 kg/m³
420 kg/m
5000
80°C
70°C
60°C
4000

50°C
-90°C 20 kg/m³

40°C
3000
C
30°C
20°C
-100°C

10°C
0°C
-10°C
2000

-20°C
-110°C 10 kg/m³

-30°C

-80
-50°

°
O
-40°C

-70
C

C
-60°C
8 kg/m³

°C

g-K

-0.5 kJ/kg-K
-120°C

J/k
6 kg/m³

4k
55
-K

5
1000

44..22
kg

g-K
5 kg/m³

g-K
3.7

k
J/
P

5
800

5k
5
-130°C

kJ/k
4.
4 kg/m³

3 kJ/
3.2
4.7
K

3.5

-0.25
g-

2.75
600

J/k
3 kg/m³

5k
500

/kg-K
-140°C 5
400 5.2

2.5 kJ
K 2 kg/m³
g-
J/k

2.25

Melting Line
300 5k
Pe Y
5.

g-K
R 5

0 kJ/kg-K
-150°C
5.7

2 kJ/k
200

Pressure (kPa)
K
g- 1 kg/m³
J/k
6k

1.75
5
-160°C 6.2
tro IG
100 K 0.5 kg/m³

1.5 kJ/kg-K
g-
/k
kJ
Methane Pressure Enthalpy Diagram - SI

80
6.5

1.25
60 5
6.7
50 -170°C 0.25 kg/m³
-K

1 kJ/kg-K
40 kg

0.75
Sk H
7 kJ/

30 5
7.2
-K

0.5 kJ/kg-K
kg
kJ/
20 7.5

0.25
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

-180°C 5
7.7 K
g-
ills T
k J/k
Triple Point Line: 11.7 kPa, -182.46 °C 8 5
8.2
10
10.0
-100
-100. 0.0
0.000 100
100. 200
200. 300
300. 400
400. 500
500. 600
600. 700 800
800. 900
900. 1000
1000. 1100
1100.
"Setzmann, U. and Wagner, W., "A New Equation of State and Tables of Enthalpy (kJ/kg)

279
Thermodynamic Properties for Methane Covering the Range from the Melting Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O. NIST Standard Reference Database 23:
Line to 625 K at Pressures up to 1000 MPa," J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 20(6):1061-1151, 1991." Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National
Reference State: Enthalpy, Entropy = 0 for the saturated liquid at the normal boiling point (NBP) Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.
E th l (kJ/k )
 ft
2
22 1

lb m/
3
Specific Entropy = Btu/lbm-°R, Density = lbm/ft , Temperature = °F
280

26
2000

80
³

22
240

°F

280
60
°F
³ /ft /ft³ t³

°F
/ft

16
m/f

40
lbm

200
bm

0°F
260 F

³
l

180
20

°F
bm 10 8 lb

14
°F
°F

/ft
12

0°F
°F

12
4l 0°

m
1 F

0°F

10

b
-20

0°F

/ft³
/ft³

6l
0°F
1000 4 lbm

1
t³ -40 °F

t³
°F

ft³

t³
lbm
m/f -6
6 lb 0°
F

/ft³
800 /ft³

18
-8 2 lbm/ft³

bm/
0° 3 lbm
-1 F

20 l

26 lbm/f
600 -120°F 00

28 lbm/ft³
24 lbm/f
°F

22 lbm
500
-140°F
400 1 lbm/ft³

300
C -160°F 0.75 lbm/ft³

200 -180°F 0.5 lbm/ft³

O 0.4 lbm/ft³

-0.1 Btu/lbm-°R
-200°F 0.3 lbm/ft³
100
80
P 0.2 lbm/ft³
-220°F
60

ting Line
50

Melting
Mel
40 0.1 lbm/ft³
-240°F
30

Pressure (psia)
Pe Y
20
R °RR 0.05 lbm/ft³
m--°
/llbbm
u/
-260°F BBttu
11..22
10
Methane Pressure Enthalpy Diagram - FPS

tro IG R

8
--°°R
R

mm

°RR
--°°R

//llbb

6
bmm

m--°
m
/llb

R
R

ttuu

--°°R
utu/

//llbb
--°°R

5
4 BB
Bt

-280°F mm
mm

b
l b
b

/l
8B

11..4
lb

Bttuu
/l

tu/ R
R
°R
11..5

R
R
tu

-°R

°R
utu/

R
4
R

-°RR
8 BB m--°
BBt

11..38

l/blbm

-°R
m-°-°RR
6

m-°-°RR
/

m-°R

m--°R
11..7

m-°-°RR
m--°°R

m-°
m--°°R
m--°°R
ut u

m--°°R
11..6

m--°°R

bm
bm
BBt

lbm

/lbm
lbm

/lbbm
/lbm
//llbbm

3 11..88

u/l/lb

tu/l/lb
u//lb

/lbm-°R
tu//llbbm

tu/l/lbbm
u//lb

tu/lb
u//llbbm

Btu/l
Sk H

Btu/lb
Bttu
Bttu
BBtutu

Bttu
8

Btu/lbm
1

3 BBtu
.

8B

.6 BBtu
.

.7 B

.5 BBtu
8B
11 BBttu

0.2Btu
11

0.8
00.6

0.

0.2

00 Btu
0.1 Btu
00.8

0.8
00.8
00..8
-°R

00.4.4 BBtu
2 00..9 m
Triple Point Line: 1.7 psia, -296.42 °F /lb
Btu
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

1.9
-300 °F
1
ills T
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
"Setzmann, U. and Wagner, W., "A New Equation of State and Tables of
Thermodynamic Properties for Methane Covering the Range from the Melting Enthalpy (Btu/lbm) Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O. NIST Standard Reference Database 23:
Line to 625 K at Pressures up to 1000 MPa," J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 20(6):1061-1151, 1991." Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National
Reference State: Enthalpy, Entropy = 0 for the saturated liquid at the normal boiling point (NBP) Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.

VOLUME 2: THE EQUIPMENT MODULES

 Specific Entropy = kJ/kg•K, Density = kg/m3, Temperature = °C
20 000
g/m³ 100 kg/m³
40
500 k

55 kJ/kg-K
0.65
300 kg/m³
10 000

CHAPTER 15
10000.

³
³

24
³

/m³
g/m

22
8000

g/m³
g/m
g/m

0°

k
0k 100 kg/m³
20

0k
0k

20
C

0 kg
690

18
70

°C

890
0
0°

1100

1100
C
6000

°C
260

³
14
°C

5000
C

0.75 kJ/kg-K
120 0°
C

kg/m
°C

16
4000 100 kg/m³

0°

900
100 °C

C
3000 50 kg/m³
75
O 80 °C
50 kg/m³
2000
60 °C
P

1500 kg/m³
1200
1000 50 kg/m³
25
1000. 40 °C
800

g-K
/kg-

kJ/ k
15 kg/m³
g-K

600
g-K

5 kJ
J/k

20 °C

1.75
J/k
500

-K
1.8

J/kg-K
5k

5k

1300 kg/m³
50 kg/m³
10
2.0

0.65 kJ/kg-K
400 1.9

kJ/kg

K
Pe Y

1.45 k
g-K

-K
R
J/k

1.55

K
300
5k

0 °C

kJ/kg

Pressure (kPa)
2.1

1.25 kJ/kg-
1.65

Pressure (kPa)
5 kg/m³
200

1.35 kJ/kg-

1500 kg/m³
1400
g-K

3 kg/m³
4
J/k

1.15 kJ/kg-K
5k

1500 kg/m³
3 kg/m³
2.2

-20 °C
tro IG
-K

100
/kg

100.
R134a Pressure Enthalpy Diagram - SI

kJ

3 kg/m³
2
5

80
-K

2.3
-K
/kg
kJ

/kg
5

60
kJ

1.05 kJ/kg-K
5
2.5

50 -40 °C
2.4

1 kg/m³

0.95 kJ/kg-K
Sk H
40
K
g-
J/k

30
k
2.6

160

0.5
1 kg/m ³ ³
kg/m
140 °C

120 °C
140 °C

100 °C

80 °C

60 °C

20

0.85 kJ/kg-K
40 °C
REFRIGERATION IN GAS CONDITIONING & NGL EXTRACTION FACILITIES

20 °C

0 °C

-60 °C
-40
-20 °C
260

180

ills T
240

220

200

-20 °C
140 °C

140 °C
140 °C

140 °C

140 °C

10
10.0
100
100. 200
200. 300
300. 400
400. 500
500. 600
600. 700
700.
Tillner-Roth, R. and Baehr, H.D., "An international standard formulation of the Enthalpy (kJ/kg)
thermodynamic propertiesof 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (HFC-134a) for temperatures Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O. NIST Standard Reference Database 23:

281
from 170 K to 455 K at pressures up to 70 MPa," J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data, 23:657-729, 1994. Reference Fluid Thermodynamic and Transport Properties-REFPROP, Version 9.0, National
Reference State: IIR: Enthalpy = 200 kJ/kg, entropy = 1 kJ/kg-K for saturated liquid at 0°C
Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Institute of Standards and Technology, Standard Reference Data Program, Gaithersburg, 2010.