Elementary Knowledge on Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems
Chapter 2- Minerology
Mineralogy is the systematic study that extensively covers description, crystallography, physical,
chemical and environmental features of all minerals.
Elementary Knowledge on Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems
Crystallography is the branch of science concerned with the formation, structure, and properties of crystals.
Also known as study of crystals and crystal formation.
5 Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems
1. Identity (E)
2. Proper Axis/Rotational axis of Symmetry (Cn)
3. Plane of Symmetry/Mirror Plane (σ)
4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center(i)
5. Rotoinversion (n )
The mirror plane of symmetry and the axis of rotational symmetry are the easiest to see. Also, when
viewing a crystallized mineral specimen they are the most important in determining the system to which a
crystal belongs. The axis of rotatory inversion and the center of symmetry are somewhat less important for
diagnostic use and often difficult to see in a real mineral specimen. In the case of most crystals, the lower
termination does not exist because often the crystal is attached to the matrix. As we shall see in a moment,
this severely limits our ability to characterize the full symmetry of the crystal.
1. Identity(E)
Simplest symmetry element
Corresponds to the operation of doing nothing to the object
Every object has identity
Asymmetric objects are defined as having just identity.
2. Proper Axis/Rotational axis of Symmetry (Cn)
An imaginary line passing through the center of mass around which a rotation by 360°/n leaves an
object in an orientation indistinguishable from the original.
C1=E
a. 1-Fold Rotation Axis - An object that requires rotation of a full 360° in order to restore it to its
original appearance has no rotational symmetry.
b. 2-fold Rotation Axis - If an object appears identical after a rotation of 180° that is twice in a 360°
rotation, then it is said to have a 2-fold rotation axis (360/180 = 2). A filled oval shape represents the
point where the 2-fold rotation axis intersects the page.
c. 3-Fold Rotation Axis - Objects that repeat themselves upon rotation of 120° are said to have a 3-
fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/120 =3), and they will repeat 3 times in a 360° rotation. A
filled triangle is used to symbolize the location of 3-fold rotation axis.
d. 4-Fold Rotation Axis - If an object repeats itself after 90° of rotation, it will repeat 4 times in a
360° rotation, as illustrated previously. A filled square is used to symbolize the location of 4-fold
axis of rotational symmetry.
e. 6-Fold Rotation Axis - If rotation of 60° about an axis causes the object to repeat itself, then it has
6-fold axis of rotational symmetry (360/60=6). A filled hexagon is used as the symbol for a 6-fold
rotation axis.
3. Plane of Symmetry/Mirror Plane (σ)
An imaginary plane divides the crystal in two parts in such a way that one part is mirror of the
other, the crystal is said to have a plane of symmetry.
Reflection Operation: Two parts on object after reflection through the plane produce the
indistinguishable orientation.
σ²=E
a. Rectangular Plane of Symmetry
b. Diagonal Plane of Symmetry
4. Center of Symmetry/Inversion Center(i)
Center of symmetry is such a point that any line drawn through it touches the surface of crystal at equal
distance in both directions.
5. Rotoinversion (n )
A combination of rotation with a center of inversion.
a. A 1-fold rotoinversion axis is the same as a center of symmetry,
b. 2-fold Rotoinversion - The operation of 2-fold rotoinversion involves first rotating the
object by 180o then inverting it through an inversion center.
c. 3-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotating the object by 120 o (360/3 = 120), and
inverting through a center.
d. 4-fold Rotoinversion - This involves rotation of the object by 90 o then inverting
through a center.
e. 6-fold Rotoinversion - A 6-fold rotoinversion axis ( ) involves rotating the object by
60o and inverting through a center.
Seven Primitive Crystal System
A crystal system is a set of axes. In other words, the structure is an ordered array of atoms, ions or
molecules. Crystal Structure is obtained by attaching atoms, groups of atoms or molecules. This structure
occurs from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to produce symmetric patterns.
1. Isometric (cubic)
All three axes are equal in length and all are perpendicular to one another.
2. Tetragonal
Two of the three axes are equal in length and all three axes are perpendicular to one another.
3. Orthorhombic
All three axes are unequal in length and all are perpendicular to one another.
4. Hexagonal
Of four axes three are equal in length, are separated by equal angles and lie in the same plane. The fourth
axis is perpendicular to the plane of the other three axes. Hexagonal cells have lattice points in each of the
two six-sided faces.
5. Triclinic
All three axes are unequal in length and none is perpendicular to another.
6. Monoclinic
All three axes are unequal in length and two axes are perpendicular to each other.
7. Rhombohedral (trigonal)
All three axes are of equal length and none of the axes is perpendicular to another but the crystal faces all
have the same size and shape.
Importance of Crystallography in Engineering
Crystallography is useful in phase identification. When manufacturing or using a material, it is generally
desirable to know what compounds and what phases are present in the material, as their composition,
structure and proportions will influence the material's properties.
Reporter: Castro, Lesther James G.
Section: BSCE-2A
