See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/6672036

Bilingualism as protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia

Article  in  Neuropsychologia · February 2007

DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS

787 9,030

3 authors, including:

Fergus I M Craik Morris Freedman

Baycrest Baycrest
338 PUBLICATIONS   54,215 CITATIONS    150 PUBLICATIONS   11,812 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Profiles of early dementia in patients with co-morbidities View project

Cognitive Reserve and Bilingualism: Evidence from Neuroimaging View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Fergus I M Craik on 18 November 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464

Note

Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia

Ellen Bialystok a,b,∗ , Fergus I.M. Craik b,c , Morris Freedman b,d,e
aDepartment of Psychology, York University, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M3J 1P3
b Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest, Canada
c Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Canada
d Division of Neurology, Baycrest, Canada
e Department of Medicine, Division of Neurology, Mt. Sinai Hospital, University Health Network, and University of Toronto, Canada

Received 19 June 2006; received in revised form 23 October 2006; accepted 24 October 2006

Abstract
This study examined the effect of lifelong bilingualism on maintaining cognitive functioning and delaying the onset of symptoms of dementia in old
age. The sample was selected from the records of 228 patients referred to a Memory Clinic with cognitive complaints. The final sample consisted of
184 patients diagnosed with dementia, 51% of whom were bilingual. The bilinguals showed symptoms of dementia 4 years later than monolinguals,
all other measures being equivalent. Additionally, the rate of decline in Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) scores over the 4 years subsequent
to the diagnosis was the same for a subset of patients in the two groups, suggesting a shift in onset age with no change in rate of progression.
© 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Bilingualism; Cognitive reserve; Dementia

Factors that may delay onset of dementia are of great impor- conflicting results. The overall notion is that some factors allow
tance given the social and economic burden of this disorder. a person to function within a normal cognitive range, despite
According to Brookmeyer, Gray and Kawas (1998), a 2-year the presence of brain pathology that would usually be associ-
delay in onset of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) would reduce the ated with dementia. For example, Mortimer (1997) found that
prevalence in the United States by 1.94 million after 50 years, between 10 and 40% of autopsy cases showing brain pathology
and delays as short as 6 months could have substantial public exceeding the criteria for AD had shown no signs of cognitive
health implications. Many of the factors predisposing a person impairment before death. Similarly a population-based study
to dementia are biological (Corder et al., 1993), so the search for carried out by the UK Medical Research Council (quoted by
methods to delay onset has focused largely on pharmacological Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a) found that more than 30% of
and other biologically-based therapies. There is growing evi- individuals with mild and severe AD pathology at autopsy had
dence, however, that some environmental factors can maintain shown no previous signs of cognitive impairment. Valenzuela
cognitive functioning in older adults and mitigate the effects of and Sachdev (2006a) distinguish between, ‘neurological brain
illnesses that produce dementia. Notably, research on “cognitive reserve’ and ‘behavioral brain reserve.’ Proponents of neurologi-
reserve” has demonstrated that lifestyle factors, such as physical cal brain reserve argue that peak brain volume can ameliorate the
activity, stimulating leisure involvement, and social engagement effects of brain pathology on cognitive performance and signs of
play a role in postponing the onset of AD and other demen- dementia. This type of brain reserve is thus presumably biologi-
tias (Alexander et al., 1997; Scarmeas, Levy, Tang, Manly, & cal and possibly genetic in origin. On the other hand, behavioral
Stern, 2001; Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Singh-Manoux et al., brain reserve (also referred to as cognitive reserve, the term used
2003; Stern, 2002). in the present report) suggests that sustained complex mental
The literature on brain reserve is somewhat contentious, but activity protects against dementia in terms of both incidence
several recent large-scale reviews have provided a context for (Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a) and the rate of cognitive decline
in elderly individuals (Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006b).
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 416 736 5115x66109; fax: +1 416 736 5814. In their review of behavioral brain reserve, Valenzuela and
E-mail address: [email protected] (E. Bialystok). Sachdev (2006a) found strong evidence for protection against

0028-3932/$ – see front matter © 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.10.009
460 E. Bialystok et al. / Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464

dementia provided by education, high occupational status, the context of dementia. This hypothesis was examined in the
high levels of premorbid intelligence, and mentally stimulat- present study.
ing leisure activities. Importantly, most of the studies included Cognitive reserve is considered to provide a general pro-
in the review found significant effects of the protective vari- tective function, possibly due to enhanced neural plasticity,
able in question after co-varying out age and other brain-reserve compensatory use of alternative brain regions, or enriched brain
measures. One surprising conclusion of the review was that “it vasculature (Fratiglioni et al., 2004). Since cognitive reserve
is evident that mentally stimulating leisure activity is the most occurs independently of any specific conditions, such as AD,
robust brain-reserve measure, since all these studies showed a our study sample included all cases of dementia regardless of
significant protective effect even after controlling for age, educa- diagnosis.
tion, occupation and other potential confounds” (Valenzuela &
Sachdev, 2006a, p. 447). The authors found an overall decrease 1. Method
in incident dementia of 46% after a median follow-up interval
of 7.1 years; these figures are based on a total of over 29,000 We examined the records of consecutive 228 patients who were referred to
individuals from 22 studies. It is important to note the authors’ the Memory Clinic at Baycrest in Toronto, Canada, between 2002 and 2005 with
cognitive complaints. In addition to a medical history, physical examination, and
caution that higher levels of behavioral brain reserve may simply
mental status evaluation, patients were usually assessed with CT, SPECT, and
delay the onset of dementia, rather than reduce incidence in an screening blood tests. There were two exclusion criteria that reduced this sample
absolute manner. In a comparison piece, the same authors con- by 44 patients, leaving a final sample of 184. First, 23 patients (12 monolin-
ducted a review of studies of longitudinal cognitive change and guals and 11 bilinguals) received a diagnosis that did not include dementia (e.g.,
factors ameliorating cognitive decline in the elderly (Valenzuela depression, mild cognitive impairment), so were not considered further. Second,
21 patients could not be clearly classified as monolingual or bilingual (see below)
& Sachdev, 2006b). This second review was based on a new
and were therefore excluded as well. Of the remaining 184 patients, 132 patients
sample of 18 studies involving more that 47,000 individuals; the met criteria for probable AD by consensus among a group of medically qualified
main finding was that higher levels of behavioral brain reserve Clinic staff, including at least one neurologist, using NINCDS–ADRDA criteria
were related to decreased rates of cognitive decline. The contrib- (McKhann et al., 1984). A further 52 patients were diagnosed with other demen-
utors to behavioral brain reserve were again higher levels of edu- tias, including possible AD, dementia due to other neurodegenerative disorders,
and cerebrovascular disease.
cation, occupation, and stimulating leisure and social activities.
The age of onset of cognitive impairment was determined by the interview-
A review of longitudinal studies by Fratiglioni, Paillard-Borg, ing neurologist at the first clinic visit who asked patients and their families or
and Winblad (2004) also found strong evidence for the role of caregivers when symptoms were first noticed. Although this approach involves
social, mental, and physical activities in protecting against all a subjective estimate by patients and their families, it was applied equally to
types of dementia. Similarly, Staff, Murray, Deary, and Whalley all cases. We see no reason to expect that monolinguals and bilinguals or their
families should differ systematically in this judgment, and therefore no reason to
(2004) concluded that “more education and a more cognitively
expect systematic bias in the clinical information that was recorded. Moreover,
complex occupation predict higher cognitive ability in old age the histories were taken prior to any knowledge of the current study.
than would be expected for a person’s childhood ability and The files contained the following information about language history: lan-
accumulated brain burden” (p. 1196). From these reviews, it guages spoken, English fluency, place of birth, date of birth, and year of immi-
seems clear that complex mental activity across the lifespan acts gration to Canada. This information, without any other details, was given to 11
judges experienced in conducting behavioral research with bilinguals who classi-
to at least delay the incidence of dementia. Two sets of questions
fied each patient as monolingual or bilingual. The criterion for bilingualism was
follow from this conclusion; first, what types of mental activity that patients had spent the majority of their lives, at least from early adulthood,
yield this protective function and do they have features in com- regularly using at least two languages. The judges did not reach a consensus for
mon? Second, what is the mechanism linking mental activity to 21 patients, so these were eliminated from further analyses. Inter-rater reliabil-
its neuroprotective function? ity was .95 (S.D. = 0.04) for designating an individual as monolingual and .81
(S.D. = 0.08) for designating as bilingual. Immigration occurred predominantly
The present report contributes to the first question by demon-
in the 1940s (n = 14), 1950s (n = 25), and 1960s (n = 17). The bilinguals included
strating a further type of mental activity that may be associated speakers of 25 different first languages, of which the most common examples
with a delay in the appearance of the symptoms of dementia. were Polish (n = 20), Yiddish (n = 13), German (n = 12), Romanian (n = 8), and
The activity in question is the constant use of two languages Hungarian (n = 7). Many of these individuals were bilingual prior to arriving
over many years. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance atten- in Canada. The data also included scores from Mini-Mental State Examination
(MMSE) (Folstein, Folstein, & McHugh, 1975) at the initial appointment, years
tion and cognitive control in both children (Bialystok, 2001)
of education, and occupation.
and older adults (Bialystok, Craik, Klein, & Viswanathan, 2004; To summarize, the final sample consisted of 184 patients, of whom 91 were
Bialystok, Craik, & Ryan, 2006). In these studies, lifelong bilin- monolingual and 93 were bilingual. There were 66 patients in each language
guals who use both languages in their daily lives showed an group diagnosed with probable AD, comprising 73% of monolinguals and 71%
advantage in a variety of tasks involving attentional control. of the bilinguals. AD was sometimes accompanied by other conditions, such as
cerebrovascular disease, depression, psychosis, meningioma, and sleep apnea.
The suggested interpretation is that the use of two languages
requires a mechanism to control attention to the relevant lan-
guage and ignore or inhibit interference from the competing 2. Results
language (Green, 1998). This experience provides continual
practice in attentional control and results in its earlier devel- The mean values for the relevant variables are reported in
opment in children, improved functioning in adults, and slower Table 1. The difference between monolinguals and bilinguals
decline in older age. Therefore, bilingualism might contribute of 4.1 years in age of onset of symptoms of dementia is sig-
to cognitive reserve and protect older adults from decline in nificant, F(1,178) = 9.16, p < 0.003, with no difference between
 E. Bialystok et al. / Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464 461

Table 1
Mean value (and standard deviation) for descriptors for each language group
Language group N Age of onset Age at first appointment Years of education MMSE at first appointment Occupation status

Monolingual 91 71.4 (9.6) 75.4 (9.3) 12.4 (3.8) 21.3 (6.4) 3.3 (1.5)
Men 43 70.8 (9.5) 76.2 (9.1) 12.9 (4.8) 20.5 (6.8) 3.6 (1.5)
Women 48 71.9 (9.8) 74.7 (9.5) 11.9 (2.8) 22.0 (5.9) 3.0 (1.4)
Bilingual 93 75.5 (8.5) 78.6 (8.4) 10.8 (4.2) 20.1 (7.1) 3.0 (1.6)
Men 38 76.1 (5.9) 79.4 (6.3) 10.8 (4.8) 20.7 (7.5) 3.0 (1.7)
Women 55 75.1 (9.9) 78.1 (9.6) 10.7 (3.7) 19.6 (6.8) 3.1 (1.4)

men and women, F < 1. The power of this effect with α = 0.05 On a related point, most of the bilinguals (81/93) were immi-
is 0.87. In addition, bilinguals were 3.2 years older than mono- grants to Canada, whereas most of the monolinguals (78/91)
linguals at the time of the initial clinic appointment, a differ- were not, and it is possible that immigrants delayed visiting
ence that was also significant, F(1,180) = 5.93, p < 0.02, with no the clinic. We conducted a two-way ANOVA for language
difference between men and women, F < 1. We also analyzed group and immigration status on the interval between onset
these data separately for diagnoses of AD and other demen- of symptoms and time of appointment and found no effect
tias. The delayed onset of symptoms for bilinguals was signif- of either language group, F(1,177) = 3.33, p = 0.07, or immi-
icant both in the subsample of 132 patients with probable AD, gration status, F(1,177) = 1.85, n.s. A further analysis exam-
F(1,128) = 7.07, p < 0.009, with a delay of 4.3 years, and for ined the age of onset of symptoms of dementia for only
the other dementias, F(1,47) = 3.81, p < 0.04, with a delay of those individuals in the two language groups who were immi-
3.5 years. grants (monolinguals = 13, bilinguals = 81). The age of onset
The scores out of 30 on the MMSE, administered at the ini- for monolinguals was 63.8 years and for bilinguals it was 75.3
tial clinic visit, showed no difference between patients in the years, a difference that was highly significant, F(1,92) = 17.96,
two language groups, F(1,161) = 1.29, n.s., and no difference p < 0.0001.
between men and women, F < 1. We nonetheless carried out an Higher occupation status and more intellectually stimulating
analysis of covariance on the age of onset data, using gender as work is associated with retained cognitive function in old age
the covariate. This analysis yielded adjusted scores for age of (Staff et al., 2004) and reduced effects of dementia (Seidler et al.,
onset of 71.4 years for monolinguals and 75.5 years for bilin- 2004). We classified the occupations of the patients using the sys-
guals; this difference was significant, F(1,179) = 9.13, p < 0.003. tem developed by Human Resources and Skills Development,
Research on cognitive reserve has pointed to formal educa- Canada (2001). Occupations are classified on a five-point scale,
tion as a protective factor against the onset of dementia (Bennett with higher numbers associated with higher status. The scale
et al., 2003; Staff et al., 2004). A comparison of the years reflects the placement of occupations in terms of the two dimen-
of schooling for the participants in the two groups (Table 1) sions of skill level and social class associated with each. Women
indicates that the bilinguals had significantly fewer years of edu- who did not work outside the home and patients for whom no
cation, F(1,171) = 7.06, p < 0.009, with no difference by gender, occupation was listed in the records were not included in this
F < 1. An analysis of covariance on age of onset data using years analysis. For this reason, 37 patients (13 monolingual and 24
of education as the covariate yielded adjusted age of onset scores bilingual) were excluded from the analysis of occupational sta-
of 71.7 years for monolinguals and 75.2 years for bilinguals; this tus. The mean rankings for occupational status for the remaining
difference was significant, F(1,170) = 6.18, p < 0.02. The lower 147 patients, reported in Table 1, did not differ between the lan-
value for years of schooling for the bilingual group may reflect guage groups, F < 1. An analysis of covariance on age of onset
differences in opportunity more than ability, given that many data using occupational status as the covariate yielded adjusted
individuals in that group came from Europe and their lives were age of onset scores of 71.3 years for monolinguals and 74.2 years
disrupted by World War II. for bilinguals. This difference was significant, F(1,142) = 3.93,
The bilinguals varied widely in their cultural experiences, but p < 0.05, with bilinguals continuing to show a later age of onset
we considered whether there might be a general bias in which of symptoms.
bilinguals avoided seeking medical attention longer than mono- Finally, there is evidence that patients with higher education
linguals. However, Table 1 shows that the interval between onset catch up with their less-educated peers by exhibiting faster rates
of symptoms and the first clinic visit is actually shorter (3.0 of cognitive decline in the 5 years after diagnosis (Scarmeas,
years) for the bilinguals than for the monolinguals (3.8 years), a Albert, Manly & Stern, 2006). Therefore, we examined the
difference that was almost significant, F(1,178) = 3.69, p = 0.06. progression of the dementia after the initial appointment for
There was a main effect of gender, F(1,178) = 8.84, p < 0.003, the 25 monolinguals and 24 bilinguals who received further
in which men postponed clinic visits longer than women, and MMSE tests over the next 4 years. Fig. 1 indicates no group
an interaction of language group and gender, F(1,178) = 5.35, difference in rate of decline. A regression analysis showed that
p < 0.02, because monolingual males were particularly slow in the year of testing subsequent to diagnosis predicted MMSE
seeking medical attention. score, t(1) = −3.74, p < 0.003, and that the rate of decline for
462 E. Bialystok et al. / Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464

the present report should be treated as suggestive rather than as

definitive.
The protective effect of bilingualism found in the present
study cannot be generalized to individuals who have some
knowledge of another language but are not fully bilingual. All
the patients classified as bilingual in the present study were fluent
in English as well as another language and have used both lan-
guages regularly for most of their lives. A study by LoGiudice,
Hassett, Cook, Flicker, and Ames (2001) showed that patients
living in Australia who spoke another language and had poor
English skills arrived at a memory clinic at a later stage in the
disease than did the native English-speaking patients. In con-
trast, the patients in the present study had fluent English skills
and arrived at the memory clinic at the same level of cognitive
impairment as the English-speaking monolinguals.
Fig. 1. Slope of decline in MMSE scores for subset of 25 monolinguals and 24 Dementia can be affected by a variety of factors, includ-
bilinguals across 4 years, indicating equivalent rates of decline for both groups. ing genetic, neurobiological, environmental, intellectual, and
lifestyle. The finding that bilingualism delays the onset of
dementia by 4 years in our sample falls into the last category.
the two language groups was equivalent in that there was These results demonstrate how a psychological factor can affect
no interaction between language group and slope, t(1) = 1.10, a biologically-based disease state. Given the findings on behav-
p = 0.28. ioral brain reserve reviewed by Valenzuela and Sachdev (2006a,
2006b) the present findings are not entirely surprising. Some
3. Discussion caution, however, is needed in interpreting the results. First,
the finding is correlational and not the result of an experimen-
The bilingual patients in our sample exhibited a delay of 4.1 tal design with random assignment to groups. Such a design is
years in the onset of symptoms of dementia in comparison to impossible in research of this type; people are monolingual or
monolinguals. The implications of such a delay are substan- bilingual for reasons that have nothing to do with our exper-
tial. From the meta-analysis based on 16 European and North imental inquiry. However, unlike the correlation between AD
American studies presented by Hy and Keller (2000), we calcu- and reduced activity levels in midlife (Friedland et al., 2001)
lated that a delay of 4 years at the age of our patients translates where causality could operate in either direction, it is quite
into a reduction of prevalence of 47%. Interestingly, in their unlikely that the early effects of AD predispose a person to be
review, Valenzuela and Sachdev (2006a) report a very similar monolingual, especially since most of these patients became
figure for the reduction in incidence of dementia associated with bilingual at an early age. Second, the measure of “age of onset”
stimulating mental activities (46%). There are currently no phar- is somewhat subjective, relying on the report of the patient, fam-
macological interventions that have shown comparable effects. ily members, and caregivers. However, the measure and means
The interpretation that bilingualism delays the onset of of obtaining the data were equivalent for all the cases so we
dementia depends on evidence that the monolingual and bilin- see no reason to expect systematic bias. Having considered and
gual groups do not differ apart from their language abilities. rejected some obvious confounding factors, the data are strongly
The primary data relevant to this point is that the MMSE scores in line with our hypothesis that bilingualism delays the onset of
were equivalent for the patients in the two groups at the ini- symptoms of dementia. Third, the evidence on post-diagnosis
tial visit to the Memory Clinic, indicating comparable levels decline (Fig. 1) is fragmentary, but the evidence suggests that
of impairment. In addition, we considered cultural differences, the time between initial appearance of symptoms and the first
immigration, formal education, and employment status. None clinical appointment is the same for the two groups, as is the
of these could account for the results. Analyses of covariance subsequent rate of cognitive decline. This pattern suggests that
on the age of onset data were conducted, using gender, years bilingualism simply shifts the function relating level of impair-
of education, and employment status as the covariate, with the ment to passage of time by 4.1 years, a pattern also reported
result that age of onset remained significantly different between by Salthouse (2006) for the beneficial effects of stimulating
the language groups in all cases. Nonetheless, we acknowledge activities on normal age-related cognitive decline. In contrast
that the present data were gathered retrospectively from clinical to this result, the second review by Valenzuela and Sachdev
records, and that there is necessarily some degree of subjectivity (2006b) reports results in favor of the notion that behavioral
involved in the estimate of age of onset of dementia. There is brain reserve slows the rate of cognitive decline in older people.
also some degree of subjectivity on the part of patients and their However, another recent report (Scarmeas et al., 2006) found that
families in terms of deciding when it is necessary to seek help whereas higher levels of education delay the onset of dementia,
for the condition, potentially delaying the first visit and increas- the rate of decline is actually faster post-diagnosis in the highly
ing the age at which the diagnosis is made. Although we see no educated group. Further elucidation of this point is obviously
reason for a systematic bias between the groups in this respect, needed.
 E. Bialystok et al. / Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464 463

The present results identifying an experience that may help Brookmeyer, R., Gray, S., & Kawas, C. (1998). Projections of Alzheimer’s
to maintain cognitive functioning in older age are impor- disease in the United States and the public health impact of delay-
tant because of their implications for research showing that ing disease onset. American Journal of Public Health, 88, 1337–
1342.
such cognition-enhancing experiences affect both structural vol- Corder, E. H., Saunders, A. M., Strittmatter, W. J., Schmechel, D. E., Gaskell,
ume and functional organization of the central nervous system P. C., Small, G. W., et al. (1993). Gene dose of apoliproprotein E type 4
(Draganski et al., 2004; Karni et al., 1995; Maguire et al., 2000; allele and the risk of Alzheimer’s disease in late onset families. Science,
Steven & Blakemore, 2004). However, unlike most of the stud- 261, 921–923.
ies in which plasticity traced to such experiences is specific Draganski, B., Gaser, C., Busch, V., Schuierer, G., Bogdahn, U., & May,
A. (2004). Changes in grey matter induced by training. Nature, 427,
to particular skills, the present findings suggest that extensive 311–312.
experience of one kind can have widespread effects on general Folstein, M. F., Folstein, S. E., & McHugh, P. R. (1975). “Mini-mental state”. A
cognitive functioning. The speculative conclusion (following practical method for grading the cognitive state of patients for the clinician.
Fratiglioni et al., 2004; Scarmeas & Stern, 2003; Staff et al., Journal of Psychiatric Research, 12, 189–198.
2004; Valenzuela & Sachdev, 2006a, 2006b) is that bilingualism Fratiglioni, L., Paillard-Borg, S., & Winblad, B. (2004). An active and socially
integrated lifestyle in late life might protect against dementia. Lancet Neu-
does not affect the accumulation of pathological factors associ- rology, 3, 343–353.
ated with dementia, but rather enables the brain to better tolerate Friedland, R. P., Fritsch, T., Smyth, K. A., Koss, E., Lerner, A. J., Chen, C.
the accumulated pathologies. The mechanisms underlying such H., et al. (2001). Patients with Alzheimer’s disease have reduced activi-
protective effects are not yet clear, and the present results yield ties in midlife compared with healthy control-group members. Proceedings
no direct evidence on such mechanisms, but plausible candidates of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 98,
3440–3445.
listed by Valenzuela and Sachdev (2006a) include increases in Green, D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual lexico-semantic system.
resting phosphocreatine levels, increased generation of neurons, Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1, 67–81.
synapses and arborized dendrites, and functional reorganization Human Resources and Skills Development, Canada (2001). National Occu-
of brain networks. In general, it is increasingly clear that biologi- pational Classification. Retrieved May 13, 2006. from http://www23.hrdc-
cal factors interact with environmental experiences to determine drhc.gc.ca/2001/e/groups/index.shtml.
Hy, L. Y., & Keller, D. M. (2000). Prevalence of AD among whites: A summary
cognitive outcomes; the present findings suggest that bilingual- by levels of severity. Neurology, 55, 198–204.
ism is one experiential factor that can provide a positive benefit Karni, A., Meyer, G., Jezzard, P., Adams, M. M., Turner, R., & Ungerleider, L.
in this respect. G. (1995). Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during
motor skill learning. Nature, 377, 155–158.
LoGiudice, D., Hassett, A., Cook, R., Flicker, L., & Ames, D. (2001). Equity
Acknowledgements of access to a memory clinic in Melbourne? Non-English speaking back-
ground attenders are more severely demented and have increased rates of
This work was supported by a grant from the Canadian Insti- psychiatric disorders. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16,
327–334.
tutes of Health Research to E.B. and F.C., and by CIHR group
Maguire, E. A., Gadian, D. G., Johnsrude, I. S., Good, C. D., Ash-
grant # MGC 14974. M.F. is supported by the Saul A. Silver- burner, J., Frackowiak, R. S. J., et al. (2000). Navigation-related struc-
man Family Foundation, Toronto, Canada, as part of a Canada tural changes in the hippocampi of taxi drivers. Proceedings of the
International Scientific Exchange Program (CISEPO) project. National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 97, 4398–
We thank Sharyn Kreuger, Johanna Lake and Bernard Kadosh 4403.
McKhann, G., Drachman, D. A., Folstein, M., Katzman, R., Price, D., & Stad-
for their assistance in compiling data from the files; Gigi Luk
lan, E. M. (1984). Clinical diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease: Report of the
and Mythili Viswanathan for their assistance with data analyses. NINCDS-ADRDA work group under the auspices of Department of Health
We are grateful to Endel Tulving and Donald Stuss for helpful and Human Services Task Force on Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 34,
comments on the manuscript. 939–944.
Mortimer, J. A. (1997). Brain reserve and the clinical expression of Alzheimer’s
disease. Geriatrics, 52, S50–S53.
References Salthouse, T. A. (2006). Mental exercise and mental aging: Evaluating the
validity of the “use it or lose it” hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychologi-
Alexander, G. E., Furey, M., Grady, C., Pietrini, P., Brady, D. R., Mentis, M. J., cal Science, 1, 68–87.
et al. (1997). Association of premorbid intellectual function with cerebral Scarmeas, N., Albert, S. M., Manly, J. J., & Stern, Y. J. (2006). Education
metabolism in Alzheimer’s disease: Implications for the cognitive reserve and rates of cognitive decline in incident Alzheimer’s disease. Journal of
hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 154, 165–172. Neurology, Neurosurgery and Psychiatry, 77, 308–316.
Bennett, D. A., Wilson, R. S., Schneider, J. A., Evans, D. A., Mendes de Leon, Scarmeas, N., Levy, G., Tang, M., Manly, J., & Stern, Y. (2001). Influence
C. F., Arnold, S. E., et al. (2003). Education modifies the relation of AD of leisure activity on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurology, 57,
pathology to level of cognitive function in older persons. Neurology, 60, 2236–2242.
1909–1915. Scarmeas, N., & Stern, Y. (2003). Cognitive reserve and lifestyle. Journal of
Bialystok, E. (2001). Bilingualism in development: Language, literacy, and cog- Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 625–633.
nition. New York: Cambridge University Press. Seidler, A., Nienhaus, A., Bernhardt, T., Kauppinen, T., Elo, A.-L., & Frölich,
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., Klein, R., & Viswanathan, M. (2004). Bilingualism, L. (2004). Psychosocial work factors and dementia. Occupational and Envi-
aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and ronmental Medicine, 61, 962–971.
Aging, 19, 290–303. Singh-Manoux, A., Richards, M., & Marmot, M. (2003). Leisure activities and
Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I. M., & Ryan, J. (2006). Executive control in a cognitive function in middle age: Evidence from the Whitehall II study.
modified anti-saccade task: Effects of aging and bilingualism. Journal of Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 57, 907–913.
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 32, 1341– Staff, R. T., Murray, A. D., Deary, I. J., & Whalley, L. J. (2004). What provides
1354. cerebral reserve? Brain, 27, 1191–1199.
464 E. Bialystok et al. / Neuropsychologia 45 (2007) 459–464

Stern, Y. (2002). What is cognitive reserve? Theory and research application of Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006a). Brain reserve and dementia: A sys-
the reserve concept. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Soci- tematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 441–454.
ety, 8, 448–460. Valenzuela, M. J., & Sachdev, P. (2006b). Brain reserve and cognitive decline:
Steven, M. S., & Blakemore, C. (2004). Cortical plasticity in the adult human A non-parametric systematic review. Psychological Medicine, 36, 1065–
brain. In M. S. Gazzaniga (Ed.), The cognitive neurosciences III (pp. 1073.
1243–1254). Cambridge: MIT Press.

View publication stats