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CS8601-Mobile Computing notes

Computer science and engineering (University College of Engineering)

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Unit 1- INTRODUCTION

VELAMMAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
CS8601 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT I – INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mobile Computing – Applications of Mobile Computing- Generations of Mobile
Communication Technologies-- Multiplexing – Spread spectrum -MAC Protocols – SDMA-
TDMA- FDMA- CDMA

1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing:

The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and
satellite services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless
of size, most mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed
part of the network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers.
The resulting computing environment, which is often referred to as mobile or
nomadic computing, no longer requires users to maintain a fixed and universally known
position in the network and enables almost unrestricted mobility.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that
enable people to access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere
There are two different kinds of mobility: user mobility and device portability.

User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication
services at different places, i.e., users communicate (wireless) <anytime, anywhere, with
anyone=

With device portability,1 the communication device moves (with or without a user).
Many mechanisms in the network and inside the device have to make sure that
communication is still possible while the device is moving. devices can be connected
anytime, anywhere to the network

A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:

 Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an
office. Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile
usage. The devices use fixed networks for performance reasons.
 Mobile and wired: Many of today9s laptops fall into this category; users carry the

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laptop from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company9s network via the
telephone network and a modem.
 Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical
buildings to avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast
network setup.
 Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user,
who can roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed
in this book deal with this type of device and the networks supporting them.
Today9s most successful example for this category is GSM with more than 800
million users.

1.2 Applications of Mobile Computing:

In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise time
efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of
which a few are described below:
a. Vehicles:
 Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information
are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.
 For personal communication, GSM, universal mobile telecommunications
system (UMTS) phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity
with 384 kbit/s.
 The current position of the car is determined via the global positioning system
(GPS). Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast
exchange of information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe
distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police
and ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service
provider.
 Buses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic
information to their home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet
management), and saves time and money.
b. Emergencies:
• An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry
vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the

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accident.
• All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis.
• Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural
disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only
decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive.
c. Business:
 Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small
recess, they can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information.
 They can communicate with the office about possible new offers and call
meetings for discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile
computers can leverage competitive advantages.
 A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the company9s database:
to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the
company to keep track of all activities of their travelling employees, to keep
databases consistent etc.
 With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but
efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data
consistency.
d. Credit Card Verification:
 At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers
use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the
bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the
card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a
mobile computer unit.
 This can speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS
terminals.
e. Replacement of Wired Networks:
 wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote
sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings.

 Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for

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weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental

information.
 Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other
examples for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays
in historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
f. Infotainment:
 Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate
location.
 The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building
(knowing via GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you are)
downloading information about a concert in the building at the same evening via
a local wireless network.
 Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and
games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play
together.
g. Location dependent services
 It is important for an application to 8know9 something about the location or
the user might need location information for further activities
• Location aware services
• what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment
• Follow-on services
• automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to
the current location
• Information services
• <push=: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
• <pull=: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cheese Cake?
• Support services
• caches, intermediate results, state information etc. <follow= the
mobile device through the fixed network
• Privacy
• who should gain knowledge about the location
1.3 Limitations of Mobile Computing

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 Resource constraints: Battery

 Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using
shielding and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error
rates respectively
 Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are
still very low for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look
for more efficient communication protocols with low overhead.
 Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power
within a region, thus link delays and connection losses
 Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and
connection stability
 Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards
 Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the
radio interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access
must always include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms
that must be efficient and simple to use.
Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

Higher loss-rates due to interference

• emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
Restrictive regulations of frequencies
• frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all
occupied
Lower transmission rates
• local some Mbit/s, regional sometimes only, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS
or about 150 kbit/s using EDGE – some Mbit/s with LTE
Higher delays, higher jitter
• connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for other wireless systems –in ms range with LTE
Lower security, simpler active attacking
• radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus
attracting calls from mobile phones
Always shared medium

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• secure access mechanisms important

1.4 A simplified reference model
The figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the
reference model. End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full
protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer, and physical layer. Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other
using the lower layer services. Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do
not necessarily need all of the layers.

Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for
the conversion of a stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender
side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the signals back into a bit stream.
For wireless communication, the physical layer is responsible for frequency
selection, generation of the carrier frequency, signal detection (although heavy
interference may disturb the signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and
(depending on the transmission scheme) encryption.

Data link layer: The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium,
multiplexing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors, and
synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame).

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Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection
between two devices or a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and
several receivers.
Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network
or establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems.
Important functions are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between
different networks.
Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-end
connection
Application layer: Finally, the applications (complemented by additional layers that can
support applications) are situated on top of all transmission oriented layers. Functions
are service location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications
that can handle the large variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access
to the world-wide web using a portable device.

1.5 Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

Mobile communication has become more popular in last few years due to fast reform
from 1G to 5G in mobile technology. This reform is due to requirement of service
compatible transmission technology and very high increase in telecoms customers.
Generation refers change in nature of service compatible transmission technology and
new frequency bands. In 1980 the mobile cellular era had started, and since then mobile
communications have undergone considerable changes and experienced massive
growth.
A. First Generation
 1G These phones were the first mobile phones to be used, which was
introduced in 1982 and completed in early 1990.
 It was used for voice services and was based on technology called as Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). The AMPS system was frequency modulated and
used frequency division multiple access (FDMA) with a channel capacity of 30
KHz and frequency band of 824- 894MHz. .

Its basic features are:

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 It introduces mobile technologies such as Mobile Telephone System (MTS),

Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT).
 It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all
since voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible
to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties.

Architecture of Advanced mobile phone system

B. Second Generation (2G)

 2G refers to the second generation based on GSM and was emerged in late
1980s.
 It uses digital signals for voice transmission. Main focus of this technology was
on digital signals and provides services to deliver text and picture message at
low speed (in kbps).
 It use the bandwidth of 30 to 200KHz.
 Next to 2G, 2.5G system uses packet switched and circuit switched domain
and provide data rate up to 144 kbps.
e.g. GPRS, CDMA and EDGE.
The main features of 2G and 2.5G are :
 Data speed was upto 64kbps
 Use digital signals
 Enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS(Multimedia
message)
 Provides better quality and capacity
 Unable to handle complex data such as videos.
 Required strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network
coverage in any specific area, digital signals would weak.
2.5 G :

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 The GSM technology was continuously improved to provide better services which
led to development of advanced Technology between 2g and 3g
 Provides phone calls
 Send/receive e-mail messages
 Web browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. MP3 song.

C. Third Generation (3G)

 3G is based on GSM and was launched in 2000. The aim of this technology was
to offer high speed data. The original technology was improved to allow data up
to 14 Mbps and more using packet switching.
 It uses Wide Band Wireless Network with which clarity is increased. It also offers
data services, access to television/video, new services like Global Roaming.
 It operates at a range of 2100MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20MHz used for
High-speed internet service, video chatting.
The main features of 3G are:
 Speed 2 Mbps
 Typically called smart phones
 Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based
applications and audio and video files.
 Provides faster communication
 Send/receive large email messages
 High speed web/more security/video conferencing/3D gaming

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 Large capacities and broadband capabilities

 TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
 To download a 3 minute MP3 song only 11 sec-1.5 mins time required.
 Expensive fees for 3G licenses services
 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
 High bandwidth requirement
 Expensive 3G phones
 Large cell phones
3G mobile system was called as UMTS(Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System) in Europe,while CDMA2000 is the name of American 3G variant. Also the
IMT2000 has accepted a new 3G standard from China, i.e TD-SCDMA. WCDMA is the air-
interface technology for UMTS.

WCDMA Network

D. Fourth Generation (4G)

 4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps.
 4G provides same feature as 3G and additional services like Multi-Media
Newspapers, to watch T.V programs with more clarity and send Data much
faster than previous generations .
 LTE (Long Term Evolution) is considered as 4G technology.
 4G is being developed to accommodate the QoS and rate requirements set by
forthcoming applications like wireless broadband access, Multimedia Messaging
Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB), minimal services like voice and data, and other services

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that utilize bandwidth.

The main features of 4G are :
 Capable of provide 10Mbps-1Gbps speed
 High quality streaming video
 Combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max
 High security
 Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere
 Expanded multimedia services
 Low cost per-bit
 Battery use is more
 Hard to implement
 Need complicated hardware
 Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network

E. Fifth Generation (5G)

 5G refer to Fifth Generation which was started from late 2010s.
 Facilities that might be seen with 5G technology includes far better levels of
connectivity and coverage.
 The main focus of 5G will be on world-Wireless World Wide Web (WWWW).
 It is a complete wireless communication with no limitations.
The main features of 5G are :
 It is highly supportable to WWWW (wireless World Wide Web)
 High speed, high capacity
 Provides large broadcasting of data in Gbps.
 Multi-media newspapers, watch TV programs with the clarity(HD Clarity)
 Faster data transmission that of the previous generation
 Large phone memory, dialing speed, clarity in audio/video
 Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, internet and other
 More effective and attractive

Comparison of all generations of mobile Technologies:

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1.6 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum
or no interference
• It is concerned with sharing the frequency range amongst the users
• Bands are split into channels
• Four main ways of assigning channels
• Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) : allocate according to location
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): allocate according to units of time
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): allocate according to the
frequencies
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) : allocate according to access codes
• Guard Space: gaps between allocations

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A. Space division multiplexing

 This is the basis of frequency reuse
 Each physical space is assigned channels
 Spaces that don9t overlap can have the same channels assigned
to them
 Example: FM radio stations in different countries
This multiplexing scheme is used, for example, at FM radio
stations where the transmission range is limited to a certain region,
many radio stations around the world can use the same frequency
without interference
Below figure shows six channels ki and introduces a three dimensional coordinate
system. This system shows the dimensions of code c, time t and frequency f. For this first
type of multiplexing, space division multiplexing (SDM), the (three dimensional) space
si is also shown. Here space is represented via circles indicating the interference range

For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three additional spaces would be needed. In our
highway example this would imply that each driver had his or her own lane.
Drawback
Although this procedure clearly represents a waste of space, this is exactly the principle
used by the old analog telephone system: each subscriber is given a separate pair of

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copper wires to the local exchange. In wireless transmission, SDM implies a separate
sender for each communication channel with a wide enough distance between
senders.
B. Frequency division multiplexing
 Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller non overlapping
frequency bands (guard spaces are needed)
 A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time –
receiver has to tune to the sender frequency

Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (also called
adjacent channel interference).
This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where each radio station
has its own frequency. This very simple multiplexing scheme does not need complex
coordination between sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the specific
sender.

• Advantages
 No dynamic coordination necessary
 Works also for analog signal
Disadvantages:
 While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a day, mobile communication typically
takes place for only a few minutes at a time. Assigning a separate frequency for

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each possible communication scenario would be a tremendous waste of (scarce)

frequency resources.
 Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the
scheme very inflexible and limits the number of senders.

C. Time division multiplexing

Here a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time, i.e., all
senders use the same frequency but at different points in time.
Again, guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the different
periods when the senders use the medium. In our highway example, this would refer to
the gap between two cars.
If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel interference. (In the
highway example, interference between two cars results in an accident.)
To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between different senders
is necessary.
Advantages:
 Only one carrier in the medium at any time
 Throughput high even for many users
Disadvantages
 Precise clock synchronization necessary

Frequency and time division multiplexing

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Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel

• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
. Now guard spaces are needed both in the time and in the frequency
dimension.
• Example: GSM
• Advantages
• Better protection against tapping
• Protection against frequency selective interference
Disadvantages
Precise clock synchronization necessary

D. Code division multiplexing

 Below figure shows how all channels ki use the same frequency at the same time
for transmission.
 Separation is now achieved by assigning each channel its own 8code9,
 guard spaces are realized by using codes with the necessary 8distance9 in
code space, e.g., orthogonal codes.
 Implemented using spread spectrum technology

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 The typical everyday example of CDM is a party with many participants from
different countries around the world who establish communication channels, i.e.,
they talk to each other, using the same frequency range (approx. 300–6000 Hz
depending on a person9s voice) at the same time. If everybody speaks the same
language, SDM is needed to be able to communicate (i.e., standing in groups,
talking with limited transmit power).

 But as soon as another code, i.e., another language, is used, one can tune in to this
language and clearly separate communication in this language from all the other
languages. (The other languages appear as background noise.)

 This explains why CDM has built-in security: if the language is unknown, the
signals can still be received, but they are useless. By using a secret code (or
language), a secure channel can be established in a 8hostile9 environment. (At
parties this may cause some confusion.). Guard spaces are also of importance in
this illustrative example. Using, e.g., Swedish and Norwegian does not really work;
the languages are too close. But Swedish and Finnish are 8orthogonal9 enough to
separate the communication channels.
Advantages
Bandwidth efficient
No coordination and synchronization necessary

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Good protection against interference and tapping

Disadvantages
Precise power control required
More complex signal regeneration
1.7 Spread spectrum
• Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow
band signals for duration of the interference
• Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code
• protection against narrow band interference
• Figure shows i) shows an idealized narrowband signal from a sender of user data
(here power density dP/df versus frequency f).
• The sender now spreads the signal in step ii), i.e., converts the narrowband
signal into a broadband signal. The energy needed to transmit the signal (the
area shown in the diagram) is the same, but it is now spread over a larger
frequency range. The power level of the spread signal can be much lower than
that of the original narrowband signal without losing data.

step iii). During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference add to the signal
The sum of interference and user signal is received. The receiver now knows how to
despread the signal, converting the spread user signal into a narrowband signal again,
while spreading the narrowband interference and leaving the broadband interference.
In step v) the receiver applies a bandpass filter to cut off frequencies left and right of the
narrowband signal. Finally, the receiver can reconstruct the original data because the
power level of the user signal is high enough, i.e., the signal is much stronger than the
remaining interference.
Drawbacks:
(i) Increased complexity of receivers that have to despread a signal.

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(ii) Large frequency band that is needed due to the spreading of the signal.
Although spread signals appear more like noise, they still raise the background noise level
and may interfere with other transmissions if no special precautions are taken.
• Spreading the spectrum can be achieved in two different ways as shown in
the following two sections
1.7.1 Direct sequence spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) systems take a user bit stream and
perform an (XOR) with a so-called chipping sequence as shown in below figure.
The example shows that the result is either the sequence 0110101 (if the user bit
equals 0) or its complement 1001010 (if the user bit equals 1). While each user bit has a
duration tb, the chipping sequence consists of smaller pulses, called chips, with a duration
tc.
If the chipping sequence is generated properly it appears as random noise: this
sequence is also sometimes called pseudo-noise sequence.
The spreading factor s = tb/tc determines the bandwidth of the resulting signal.
If the original signal needs a bandwidth w, the resulting signal needs s·w after spreading.

DSSS need additional components as shown in the simplified block diagrams in below
figure
The first step in a DSSS transmitter, the spreading of the user data with the
chipping sequence (digital modulation).
Assuming for example a user signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Spreading with the
above 11-chip Barker code would result in a signal with 11 MHz bandwidth. The
radio carrier then shifts this signal to the carrier frequency (e.g., 2.4 GHz in the ISM band).

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This signal is then transmitted.

The DSSS receiver is more complex than the transmitter. The receiver only
has to perform the inverse functions of the two transmitter modulation steps. However,
noise and multi-path propagation require additional mechanisms to reconstruct the
original data.
The first step in the receiver involves demodulating the received signal. This
is achieved using the same carrier as the transmitter reversing the modulation and
results in a signal with approximately the same bandwidth as the original spread
spectrum signal. Additional filtering can be applied to generate this signal.
If transmitter and receiver are perfectly synchronized and the signal is not too
distorted by noise or multi-path propagation, DSSS works perfectly well according to the
simple scheme shown. Sending the user data 01 and applying the 11-chip Barker code
10110111000 results in the spread 8signal9 1011011100001001000111. On the receiver
side, this 8signal9 is XORed bit-wise after demodulation with the same Barker code as
chipping sequence. This results in the sum of products equal to 0 for the first bit and to
11 for the second bit. The decision unit can now map the first sum (=0) to a binary 0, the
second sum (=11) to a binary 1 – this constitutes the original user data.
1.7.2 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
For frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) systems, the total available
bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard spaces
between the channels.
Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for a certain time and then

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hop to another channel. This system implements FDM and TDM.

The pattern of channel usage is called the hopping sequence, the time spend on
a channel with a certain frequency is called the dwell time. FHSS comes in two variants,
slow and fast hopping

In slow hopping, the transmitter uses one frequency for several bit periods.
Above figure shows five user bits with a bit period tb. Performing slow hopping, the
transmitter uses the frequency f2 for transmitting the first three bits during the dwell
time td. Then, the transmitter hops to the next frequency f3. Slow hopping systems are
typically cheaper and have relaxed tolerances, but they are not as immune to narrowband
interference as fast hopping systems.
For fast hopping systems, the transmitter changes the frequency several times
during the transmission of a single bit. In the above figure, the transmitter hops three
times during a bit period. Fast hopping systems are more complex to implement because
the transmitter and receiver have to stay synchronized within smaller tolerances to
perform hopping at more or less the same points in time. However, these systems are
much better at overcoming the effects of narrowband interference and frequency
selective fading as they only stick to one frequency for a very short time.
The below Figures show simplified block diagrams of FHSS transmitters and
receivers respectively.
The first step in an FHSS transmitter is the modulation of user data according
to one of the digital-to analog modulation schemes, e.g., FSK or BPSK. This results in
a narrowband signal, if FSK is used with a frequency f0 for a binary 0 and f1 for a binary
1. In the next step, frequency hopping is performed, based on a hopping sequence.
The hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer generating the

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carrier frequencies fi.

A second modulation uses the modulated narrowband signal and the carrier
frequency to generate a new spread signal with frequency of fi+f0 for a 0 and fi+f1 for a 1
respectively. If different FHSS transmitters use hopping sequences that never overlap, i.e.,
if two transmitters never use the same frequency fi at the same time, then these two
transmissions do not interfere.
This requires the coordination of all transmitters and their hopping sequences. As
for DSSS systems, pseudo-random hopping sequences can also be used without
coordination.
The receiver of an FHSS system has to know the hopping sequence and must
stay synchronized. It then performs the inverse operations of the modulation to
reconstruct user data. Several filters are also needed (these are not shown in the
simplified diagram in Figure 2.40

Compared to DSSS, spreading is simpler using FHSS systems. FHSS systems only use a
portion of the total band at any time, while DSSS systems always use the total bandwidth
available. DSSS systems on the other hand are more resistant to fading and multi-path
effects. DSSS signals are much harder to detect – without knowing the spreading code,
detection is virtually impossible. If each sender has its own pseudo-random number
sequence for spreading the signal (DSSS or FHSS), the system implements CDM.

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Medium access control(MAC)

Motivation
• Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
• Example CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection
• send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (legacy method in IEEE 802.3)
Why CSMA/CD not suit for wireless networks?
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
• the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
• it might be the case that a sender cannot <hear= the collision, i.e., CD does
not work
• furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is <hidden=
Hidden and exposed terminals
• Hidden terminals (cause collision)
• A sends to B, C cannot receive A
• C wants to send to B, C senses a <free= medium (CS fails)
• collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
• A is <hidden= for C

• Exposed terminals(unnecessary delay)

• B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
• C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
• but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
• C is <exposed= to B
Near and far terminals
• Terminals A and B send, C receives
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

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• the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A9s signal

• C cannot receive A
• If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown
out terminal A already on the physical layer
• Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!

Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA

• SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
• segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
• cell structure
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver
• permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast
hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between
a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
1.SDMA
 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space
to users in wireless networks.
 A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different
quality.
 A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into
account which frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still
available.
 The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized antennas

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which constitute the infrastructure implementing space division multiplexing

(SDM).
 SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing equipment.
 It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the
individual physical channels.
2.FDMA
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands.

 Frequency Division Multiple Access is a method employed to permit several

users to transmit simultaneously on one satellite transponder by assigning
a specific frequency within the channel to each user.
 Each conversation gets its own, unique, radio channel. The channels are
relatively narrow, usually 30 KHz or less and are defined as either transmit or
receive channels.
 A full duplex conversation requires a transmit & receive channel pair.
 FDM is often used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station and
mobile station in cellular networks establishing a duplex channel.
 A scheme called frequency division duplexing (FDD) in which the two
directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using
different frequencies.

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The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base station or
from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile station
or from satellite to ground control.
The basic frequency allocation scheme for GSM is fixed and regulated by national
authorities.
All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and 915 MHz,
All downlinks use 935.2 to 960 MHz.
 According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side, allocates a certain
frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with a mobile phone.
Up- and downlink have a fixed relation. If the uplink frequency is fu = 890 MHz +
n·0.2 MHz, the downlink frequency is fd = fu + 45 MHz,
 i.e., fd = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz for a certain channel n.
 The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink and downlink) has a
bandwidth of 200 kHz.
 This scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours
a day, mobile communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario would
be a tremendous waste of (scarce) frequency resources.
 Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the scheme
very inflexible and limits the number of senders.

3.TDMA
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Compared to FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA) offers
a much more flexible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate certain
time slots for communication.
Now synchronization between sender and receiver has to be achieved in the time
domain. Again this can be done by using a fixed pattern similar to FDMA techniques, i.e.,
allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by using a dynamic allocation scheme.

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Listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to
many channels separated in time at the same frequency is simple. Fixed schemes do not
need identification, but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.
3.1 Fixed TDM
 The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in a
fixed pattern. This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for
wireless phone systems.
 MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor is accessing the reserved time slot
at the right moment.
 If this synchronization is assured, each mobile station knows its turn and no
interference will happen.
 The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base station, where competition
between different mobile stations that want to access the medium is solved.

 The above figure shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement
multiple access and a duplex channel between a base station and mobile station.
 Assigning different slots for uplink and downlink using the same frequency
is called time division duplex (TDD).

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 As shown in the figure, the base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlink,
whereas the mobile station uses one out of 12 different slots for the uplink. Uplink
and downlink are separated in time. Up to 12 different mobile stations can use the
same frequency without interference using this scheme. Each connection is
allotted its own up- and downlink pair.
 This general scheme still wastes a lot of bandwidth.
 It is too static, too inflexible for data communication. In this case,
connectionless, demand-oriented TDMA schemes can be used

3.2 Classical Aloha

 In this scheme, TDM is applied without controlling medium access.
Here each station can access the medium at any time as shown below:

 This is a random access scheme, without a central arbiter controlling access and
without coordination among the stations.
 If two or more stations access the medium at the same time, a collision occurs and
the transmitted data is destroyed.
 Resolving this problem is left to higher layers (e.g., retransmission of data). The
simple Aloha works fine for a light load and does not require any complicated
access mechanisms.

3.3Slotted Aloha
 The first refinement of the classical Aloha scheme is provided by the introduction
of time slots (slotted Aloha).
 In this case, all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can only start at
the beginning of a time slot as shown below.
 If a station misses the time-slot, the station must wait until the beginning of the

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next time-slot

The introduction of slots raises the throughput from 18 per cent to 36 per cent, i.e.,
slotting doubles the throughput. Both basic Aloha principles occur in many systems that
implement distributed access to a medium. Aloha systems work perfectly well under a
light load, but they cannot give any hard transmission guarantees, such as maximum
delay before accessing the medium or minimum throughput.

3.4 Carrier sense multiple access

• CSMA was developed to minimize the chance of collision and, therefore,
increase the performance.
• CSMA is based on the principle <sense before transmit= or <listen before
talk.=
• Here is how it works:
1) Each station checks the state of the medium: idle or busy.
2) i) If the medium is idle, the station sends the data.

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1) 1-Persistent
• Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10a).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately (with probability = 1).
ii) If the line is busy, the station continues sensing the line.
• This method has the highest chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ may find the line idle and
→ send the frames immediately.
2) Non-persistent
• Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10b).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately.
ii) If the line is busy, the station waits a random amount of time and then
senses the line again.
• This method reduces the chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ will not wait for the same amount of time and
→ will not retry to send simultaneously.
3) P-Persistent
• This method is used if the channel has time-slots with a slot-duration equal to or
greater than the maximum propagation time (Figure 12.10c).
• Advantages:
i)It combines the advantages of the other 2 methods.
ii) It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
• After the station finds the line idle, it follows these steps:
1) With probability p, the station sends the frame.
2) With probability q=1-p, the station waits for the beginning of the next
time-slot and checks the line again.
i) If line is idle, it goes to step 1.
ii) If line is busy, it assumes that collision has occurred and uses the
back off procedure.
3.5 Reservation algorithms
1. DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access
• Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha (assuming
Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet length)

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• Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%

• a sender reserves a future time-slot
• sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
• reservation also causes higher delays
• typical scheme for satellite links
• Examples for reservation algorithms:
• Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)-DAMA
• Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
• Reservation-TDMA
Access method DAMA: Explicit Reservation
• two modes:
• ALOHA mode for reservation
• competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
• it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent
at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize
from time to time

2. PRMA packet reservation multiple access

Implicit reservation scheme is packet reservation multiple access (PRMA).
A certain number of slots forms a frame
The frame is repeated in time (forming frames one to five in the example),
A base station, which could be a satellite, now broadcasts the status of each
slot to all mobile stations.
All stations receiving this vector will then know which slot is occupied and which
slot is currently free.

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 In the illustration, a successful transmission of data is indicated by the

station9s name (A to F).
 In the example, the base station broadcasts the reservation status
8ACDABA-F9 to all stations, here A to F. This means that slots one to six and
eight are occupied, but slot seven is free in the following transmission.
 All stations wishing to transmit can now compete for this free slot in Aloha
fashion. The already occupied slots are not touched.
 In the example shown, more than one station wants to access this slot, so a
collision occurs.
 The base station returns the reservation status 8ACDABA-F9, indicating that
the reservation of slot seven failed (still indicated as free) and that nothing
has changed for the other slots. Again, stations can compete for this slot.
 Additionally, station D has stopped sending in slot three and station F in
slot eight. This is noticed by the base station after the second frame.
 Before the third frame starts, the base station indicates that slots three and
eight are now idle. Station F has succeeded in reserving slot seven as also
indicated by the base station.
3. Reservation TDMA
 An even more fixed pattern that still allows some random access is exhibited by
reservation TDMA

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 In a fixed TDM scheme N mini-slots followed by N·k data-slots form a frame that
is repeated.
 Each station is allotted its own mini-slot and can use it to reserve up to k data-
slots. This guarantees each station a certain bandwidth and a fixed delay. Other
stations can now send data in unused data-slots as shown.
 Using these free slots can be based on a simple round-robin scheme or can be
uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme.
 This scheme allows for the combination of, e.g., isochronous traffic with fixed
bitrates and best-effort traffic without any guarantees.
3.5 MACA - collision avoidance
• MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling
packets for collision avoidance
• RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a
receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
• CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it
is ready to receive
• Signaling packets contain
• sender address
• receiver address
• packet size
• MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

A and C wants to send to B

A sends RTS first
C waits after receiving CTS from B
• MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
B wants to send to A,
C wants to send to another terminal
Now C does not have to wait for it, cannot receive CTS from A

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4.CDMA
 Code division multiple access systems apply codes with certain characteristics
to the transmission to separate different users in code space and to enable access
to a shared medium without interference.

 All terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can
use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel.
 Each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with
this random number.
 The receiver can <tune= into this signal if it knows the pseudo random
number, tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
 higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
 all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
 all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
 huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
 interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
 forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Example:

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The following figure shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101. The key of A is
shown as signal and binary sequence Ak. The binary <0= is assigned a positive signal value,
the binary <1= a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the
resulting signal is As.

The same happens with data from sender B with bits 100. The result is Bs. As and Bs now
superimpose during transmission. The resulting signal is simply the sum As + Bs as
shown above. A now tries to reconstruct the original data from Ad. The receiver applies
A9s key, Ak, to the received signal and feeds the result into an integrator. The integrator
adds the products, a comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or a 1 as shown
below. As clearly seen, although the original signal form is distorted by B9s signal, the
result is quite clear. The same happens if a receiver wants to receive B9s data.

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Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and WCDMA
standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to two or more cells (or cell
sectors) during a call. If the sectors are from the same physical cell site (a sectorised site),
it is referred to as softer handoff. This technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover,
for IS-95/CDMA2000 CDMA cell phones continuously make power measurements of a
list of neighboring cell sites, and determine whether or not to request or end soft
handover with the cell sectors on the list.
Soft handoff is different from the traditional hard-handoff process.
With hard handoff, a definite decision is made on whether to hand off or not. The
handoff is initiated and executed without the user attempting to have simultaneous
traffic channel communications with the two base stations. With soft handoff, a
conditional decision is made on whether to hand off. Depending on the changes in pilot
signal strength from the two or more base stations involved, a hard decision will
eventually be made to communicate with only one. This normally happens after it is
evident that the signal from one base station is considerably stronger than those from the
others. In the interim period, the user has simultaneous traffic channel communication
with all candidate base stations. It is desirable to implement soft handoff in power-
controlled CDMA systems because implementing hard handoff is potentially difficult in
such systems.

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UNIT III

MOBILE NETWORK LAYER

Mobile IP – DHCP – AdHoc– Proactive protocol-DSDV, Reactive

Routing Protocols – DSR, AODV , Hybrid routing –ZRP, Multicast
Routing- ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks ( VANET) – MANET
Vs VANET – Security.

3.1 MOBILE IP
 Mobile IP is an Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF)
standard communications protocol that enhances the existing
IP to accommodate mobility.
 Mobile IP allows mobile computers to stay connected to the
internet regardless of their location & without having to
continually change their IP address.
 Every mobile user needs continuous network connectivity
irrespective of his physical location. The traditional IP does not
support user mobility.
 Mobile IP was created by extending IP to enable users to keep
the same IP address while travelling to different networks.
 Advantages of using Mobile IP :
 It allows fast, continuous low‐cost access to corporate
networks in remote areas where there is no public telephone
system or cellular coverage.
 It supports a wide range of applications from Internet access
and e‐mail to e‐commerce.
 Users can be permanently connected to their Internet
provider and charged only for the data packets that are sent
and received
 It can move from one type of medium to another without losing
connectivity
 Disadvantage of Mobile IP:
 Routing inefficiency problem caused by the <triangle routing=
formed by the home agent, correspondent host, and the
foreign agent.

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 Security risks are the most important problem facing Mobile

IP.
 Problem in making Mobile IP coexist with the security features
within the Internet.

3.1.1 GOALS, ASSUMPTIONS & REQUIREMENTS

 Goal of a mobile IP: Supporting end-system mobility while
maintaining scalability, efficiency, and compatibility in all
respects with existing applications and Internet protocols.
 Requirements of Mobile IP:
 Compatibility: A new standard cannot require changes for
applications or network protocols already in use.
 Transparency: Mobility should remain <invisible= for many
higher layer protocols and applications.
 Scalability and efficiency: Introducing a new mechanism
into the Internet must not degrade the efficiency of the
network.
 Security: All messages used to transmit information to
another node about the location of a mobile node must be
authenticated to protect against remote redirection attacks

3.1.2 MOBILE IP - ENTITIES AND TERMINOLOGIES

 Mobile Node (MN):
 Device that moves from home network to Foreign network
 Node that can change the point of connection to the network
without changing its IP address.
 Example: laptops with antennas or mobile phones
 Home Address:
Permanent address of the MN in its original network i.e., IP
address of MN
 Home Network
Original network the MN was associated with respect to its IP
address before moving to new network. No mobile IP support is
needed within the home network.

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 Home Agent (HA)

 System in the home network of the MN, typically a router.
 Provides several services for the MN :
 Tunnels IP datagrams to the COA.
 Maintains a location registry of MA
 Implementation of an HA:
 Implemented on a router that is responsible for the
home network.
 Implemented on an arbitrary node in the subnet.
Disadvantage: "Double crossing of the router" - A packet for
the MN comes in via the router; the HA sends it through the
tunnel which again crosses the router.
 The HA could be again on the 8router9 but this time only
acting as a manager for MNs belonging to a virtual home
network.
 Foreign Agent (FA)
 System in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a
router.
 It can have COA
 Provides several services to MN during its visit to the foreign
network:
 Forwards the tunnel datagrams to the MA.
 Provides security services
 Foreign Network
A new network that MN visits and which is not the home
network
 Correspondent Node (CN)
 Communication partner i.e., Node that wants to
communicate with MN
 At least one partner is needed for communication.
 It can be a fixed or mobile node.

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 Care-of Address (COA)

 A new address of MN in the foreign network.
 Two different possibilities for the location of the COA (Types
of COA):
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign
agent(FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to
the MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign
network & can be used by only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
3.1.3 IP PACKET DELIVERY
(HOW MOBILE IP WORKS?)

Steps used in the operation of mobile IP:

4

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 STEP 1: CN sends the Packet to the IP address(home address)

of the MN
 STEP 2:
 Internet Routes the Packet to the router of the MN9s home
network.
 The HA examines the packet to find whether the MN is
present in its current home network or not.
 If the MN is not present, then the HA encapsulates that
datagram in a new packet.
 STEP 3:
 The encapsulated packet is tunneled to the FA, which act as
the new destination address.
 Then FA performs decapsulation to remove the additional
header
 Then forwards the decapsulated packet to the MN.
 STEP 4: MN after receiving the packet from CN forwards a
reply packet to the CN by specifying its own IP address along
with the address of the CN.
3.1.4. KEY MECHANISMS IN MOBILE IP
(MOBILE IP OPERATION STAGES)
a) Agent Discovery
b) Registration
c) Tunneling & Encapsulation

3.1.4.1 AGENT DISCOVERY

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A MN uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home

and foreign agents.
 Task of MN to determine its FA & HA:
i) Both HA & FA periodically broadcast Agent Advertisement
message.
ii) A MN must discover a HA before it leaves to a home network.
iii) A MN must also discover a FA after it moved to a foreign
network
 Uses ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP).
ICMP Router Discovery Protocol (IRDP) - Enables host to
broadcast or multicast to discover the IP address (i.e., COA)
of their neighbouring routers (i.e., FA)
 Agent Discovery methods:
(i) Agent Advertisement
(ii) Agent Solicitation.
a) Agent advertisement
Functions:
1. It allows the MN to find whether an agent is its HA or a FA.
2. If it is FA then get the COA.
3. It allows the MN to know the type of services provided by the FA.
4. It allows the MN to know about the allowed registration lifetime
or roaming period for visiting foreign network.

NOTE: Upper part represent ICMP while lower part represent

extension needed for mobility.

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b) Agent solicitation:
 Rather than waiting for agent advertisements a MN can sen out
an agent solicitation.
 This solicitation forces any agents on the link to immediately
send an agent advertisement.
 If MN determines that it is connected to a foreign network, then
it obtains a COA.
 Types of COA:
(i) Foreign Agent COA - The static IP address of a foreign agent
(FA) on a visited network
(ii) Co-located COA - Temporary IP address assigned to the
MN.
 Represents the current position of the MN on the Foreign
network & can be used by only one MN at a time.
 A co-located care-of address can be obtained by Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 Steps:
1. MA (HA, FA) broadcast agent advertisement message at regular
intervals.
2. The MN receiving the agent advertisement message observes
whether the message is from its own HA & determine whether
it is on the home network or on the foreign network.
3. If the MN does not wish to wait for the periodic advertisement,
it can send out agent solicitation message that will be
responded to by a MA.
After these steps of advertisements or solicitations the MN can
now receive a COA, either one for an FA or a co-located COA. The
MN knows its location (home network or foreign network) and
the capabilities of the agent.
The next step for the MN is the registration with the HA if the
MN is in a foreign network

3.1.4.2 REGISTRATION
 If the MN discovers that it is on the home network, then it
operates normally without Mobile IP
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 If the MN has moved to a new network & obtain the COA from
a FA, then this address should be registered with the HA.
 Registration – A MN uses an authenticated registration
procedure to inform the HA of its COA.
 Registration messages uses UDP Protocol.
 Registration can be done in two different ways:
(i) Registration of the MN through FA

If the COA is at the FA;

 MN sends its registration request containing the COA to the
FA which then forward the request to the HA.
 Now HA will do the mobility binding containing the mobile
node9s home IP address and the current COA.
 Then finally the HA Acknowledges via FA to MN.
ii) Directly with HA

If the COA is co-located;

 MN sends the request directly to the HA and vice versa.
 Also, a registration procedure for MNs returning to their home
network.
REGISTRATION PROCESS:

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 The registration process involves the exchange of registration

requests and registration reply messages.
 When the mobile node registers by using a foreign agent, the
registration process takes the following steps, which is shown
in the figure.

1. If MN travels to foreign network, it registers with the FA by

sending a registration request message, which includes
permanent IP address of the MN & IP address of HA.
2. The FA in turn performs the registration process on behalf of
the MN by sending the registration request message to HA,
which includes permanent IP address of the MN & IP address
of FA(i.e., COA)
3. When the HA receives the registration request, it updates the
<mobility Binding Table=.
4. Then HA sends an acknowledgement (registration reply) to the
FA.
5-6. The FA in turn updates its <Visitor list= & relays the reply to
the MN.

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Mobility Binding Table:

 Maintained on HA of MN.

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 Maps MN9s home address with its current COA

Visitor List:
 Maintained on FA.
 Maps MN9s home address with its MAC address (address of
NIC) & HA9s address.

3.1.4.3 TUNNELLING AND ENCAPSULATION

 Tunneling (data transfer) – Mechanism used to forward IP
datagrams from a home address to a care-of address i.e.,
sending a packet through a tunnel
 A tunnel establishes a virtual pipe for data packets between a
tunnel entry and a tunnel endpoint.
 Two primary functions:
 Encapsulations – Mechanism of taking a packet consisting of
packet header and data and putting it into the data part of a
new packet.
HA encapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward
them to FA.
 Decapsulation - The reverse operation, taking a packet out of
the data part of another packet
FA dencapsulates all the packets addressed to MN & forward
them.

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Fig. IP encapsulation

Steps in Encapsulation:
1. When a HA receives a packet addressed to a MN, it forwards
the packet to the COA using IP -within -IP encapsulation
2. Using IP -within -IP , the HA inserts a new IP header in front
of the IP header of any datagram.
3. Destination address is set to the COA.
4. Source address is set to the HA9s address.
5. After stripping out the 1st header, IP processes the packet
again.
There are different ways of performing the encapsulation. They
are:
1. IP-in-IP Encapsulation
2. Minimal Encapsulation
3. Generic Routing Encapsulation
(1) IP-in-IP Encapsulation:
 This is the mandatory method for Mobile IP.

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 Full IP header added to the original IP packet.

 The inner IP header source and destination address identify the
original sender and the receiver.
 The new(outer) header contains HA address as source & COA
as destination.

(2) Minimal Encapsulation :

 It is an optional method for mobile IP
 In IP-in-IP several fields are redundant.
 Minimal Encapsulation will remove these redundancy.

(3) Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) :

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 Minimal Encapsulation & IP-in-IP only works for IP while GRE

also supports other network layer protocols.
 Allows the encapsulation of packets of one protocol suite into
the payload portion of a packet of another protocol suite.
 The packet of one protocol suite with the original packet
header and data is taken and a new GRE header is prepended.
 Together this forms the new data part of the new packet.
 Finally, the header of the second protocol suite is put in front.
 The outer header is the standard IP header with HA as source
address and COA as destination address.

 key – used for authentication.

 K bit - if set indicates if authentication key is present.
 S bit - if set indicates if the Sequence number field is present.

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 rec – recursion control field. This field represents a counter

that
shows the number of allowed recursive encapsulations.
 rsv – reserved for future use. Must be zero.
 ver = 0 for GRE version.
 Lay 4 protocol specifies the protocol of the packet following
the GRE header.

3.1.5 OPTIMIZATIONS (ROUTE OPTIMIZATION)

 One of the problem with the mobile IP - "Triangular Routing"
 Triangular Routing:
 An inefficient behavior of a non- optimized
mobile IP
 The triangle is made of the three
segments,
 CN to HA
 HA to COA/MN
 MN back to CN.
 Involves two IP routes - Causes unnecessary network traffic
overhead & higher latency
 To optimize the route ;
 Enable direct notification of the CN.HA informs a sender
about the location of MN
 Direct Tunnelling from the CN to MN.
 Binding cache maintained at the CN. Binding cache which
is a part of the local routing table for the CN
 The optimized mobile IP protocol needs four additional
messages:
1. Binding request:
 Any node that wants to know the current location of an MN can
send a binding request to the HA.
 The HA can check if the MN has allowed broadcasting of its
current location.

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 If the HA is allowed to reveal the location it sends back a

binding update.
2. Binding update:
 This message sent by the HA to CNs reveals the current
location of an MN.
 The message contains the fixed IP address of the MN and the
COA.
 The binding update can request an acknowledgement.
3. Binding acknowledgement: If requested, a node returns this
acknowledgement after receiving a binding update message.
4. Binding warning: If a node decapsulates a packet for an MN,
but it is not the current FA for this MN, this node sends a
binding warning to the HA of the MN.

Reverse tunneling is a tunneling from mobile host to home

agent, and makes it possible for the mobile host from foreign
network to communication in the network
3.2 DHCP - DYNAMIC HOST CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL

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 DHCP is used to merge the world of mobile phones with the

internet and to support mobility.
 Automatically assigns a unique IP address to each device that
connects to a network.
 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of networked
computers.
 If a new computer is connected to a network, DHCP can
provide it with all the necessary information for full system
integration into the network, e.g., addresses of a DNS
server and the default router, the subnet mask, the
domain name, and an IP address.
 DHCP is based on a client/server model.

Fig. Basic DHCP Configuration

1. DHCP clients send a request to a server (DHCPDISCOVER)
to which the server responds.
2. A client sends requests using MAC broadcasts to reach all
devices in the LAN.
3. A DHCP relay might be needed to forward requests across
inter-working units to a DHCP server.

Fig. Client initialization via DHCP

 The above figure shows one client and two servers.
1. The client broadcasts a DHCPDISCOVER into the subnet.
2. Two servers receive this broadcast and find the configuration
they can offer to the client.

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3. Servers reply to the client9s request with DHCPOFFER and

offer a list of configuration parameters.
4. Then the client can choose one of the configurations offered.
5. Then the client in turn replies to the servers, accepting one of
the configurations and rejecting the others using DHCP
REQUEST.
6. If a server receives a DHCP REQUEST with a rejection, it can
free the reserved configuration for other possible clients.
7. The server with the configuration accepted by the client now
confirms the configuration with DHCP ACK. This completes
the initialization phase.
8. If a client leaves a subnet, it should release the configuration
received by the server using DHCP RELEASE.
9. The configuration a client gets from a server is only leased for
a certain amount of time, it has to be reconfirmed from time to
time.

3.3.1 MOBILE AD-HOC (MANET)

 Types of wireless network:

 Infrastructured:
 The MN can move while communicating
 The BSs are fixed
 As the node goes out of the range of a BS, it gets into the
range of another BS.

 Infrastructureless or Mobile ad-hoc (MANET):

 The MN can move while communicating
 There are no fixed BSs.
 All the nodes in the network need to act as routers.

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 Used to simplify the installation and maintenance of

networked computers.
 MANET are formed dynamically by an autonomous system
of mobile nodes that are connected via wireless links.
 No existing fixed infrastructure or centralized
administration
 Mobile nodes are free to move randomly i.e., network
topology changes frequently.
 Each node work as a router.

3.3.2 FEATURES OF MANET

 MANET can be formed without any pre-existing infrastructure.

 It follows dynamic topology where nodes may join and leave the network
at any time and the multi-hop routing may keep changing as nodes join
and depart from the network.
 It does have very limited physical security, and thus increasing security
is a major concern.
 Every node in the MANET can assist in routing of packets in the network.
 Limited Bandwidth & Limited Power

3.3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF MANET

1. Lack of fixed infrastructure

– bring new n/w designing challenges.

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– Pair of nodes can either communicate directly when they are in within the
range or can communicate via multi-hop communication.
2. Dynamic topologies :
– n/w topology can change unpredictably because of the mobility of devices
in MANET
– Rate of topology change depends on the speed of mobile movement
3. Bandwidth constrained, variable capacity link:
– Wireless link have lower capacity compare to wired link
– Factors affecting Bandwidth: Noise, Interference…….
4. Energy constrained operation:
– Nodes depends on battery power
– Small battery – limited amount of energy
– Need more energy during Routing
– <Energy Conservation= – important objective of MANET routing protocol
5. Increased vulnerability:
– New type of security threats
– Increased the possibility of eavesdropping, spoofing, DOS attacks.
– Difficult to identify the attacker because:
• Devices keeps on moving
• Do not have global Identifier

3.3.4 CHALLENGES / CONSTRAINTS / DESIGN ISSUES OF MANET

1) Limited bandwidth:
Limited bandwidth because of the effect of multiple access, fading, noise,
and interference conditions, etc.,
2) Dynamic topology:

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Dynamic topology membership may disturb the trust relationship

among node.
3) Routing Overhead:
Unnecessary routing overhead since nodes often change their location
within network.
4) Hidden terminal problem:
The hidden terminal problem refers to the collision of packets at a
receiving node due to the simultaneous transmission of those nodes that
are not within the direct transmission range of the sender, but are within
the transmission range of the receiver.

5) Packet losses due to transmission errors:

Much higher packet loss due to factors such as increased collisions due
to the presence of hidden terminals, presence of interference, uni-
directional links, frequent path breaks due to mobility of nodes.

6) Mobility-induced route changes:

The network topology in an ad hoc wireless network is highly dynamic
due to the movement of nodes; hence an on-going session suffers
frequent path breaks. This situation often leads to frequent route
changes.

7) Battery constraints:
Devices used in these networks have restrictions on the power source in
order to maintain portability, size and weight of the device.

8) Security threats:
Brings new security challenges to the network design. As the wireless
medium is vulnerable to eavesdropping.

3.3.5. APPLICATIONS OF MANET

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3.3.6 AD-HOC MOBILE ROUTING PROTOCOLS

 Routing is a process of finding an efficient, reliable and secure path from

a source node to a destination node via intermediate nodes in a network.
 Efficiency of the path is measured in various metrics like, Number of
hops, traffic, security, etc.

3.3.6.1 TRADITIONAL ROUTING PROTOCOLS

• Not suitable for MANET.

• Popularly used in packet switching n/w

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– LSP (Link State Protocol)

– DVP (Distance Vector Protocol)
Both of these needs to find the next hop along the shortest path towards the
destination

 LINK STATE ROUTING

 Link – connection of one router to its neighboring router

 Each router maintains;

 LSPDB (Link State DataBase) - Router store its local connectivity

information & flood this through <Link state advertisement=
 Routing Table

 Content of (LSP) Link Sate Packet or (LSA) Link State Advertisement:

 Identity of the router originating the message

 Identities of all its neighbors
 Delay along various link to its neighbors
 Unique seq.no, which is formed by increasing the count every time the
router forms a new link state advertisement.

 Procedure:

1. Exchange of HELLO messages to find the neighbors.

2. Compute the cost between the neighbors
3. Build up LSP.
4. Flooding LSP – Broadcast the LSP
5. Compute the new path using Dijkstra9s algorithm

 Exchange of HELLO messages - to learn its direct neighbors

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 Flooding LSP – for example Router E sends its LSP on all its links and
routers D, B and C insert the LSP in their LSDB and forward it over their
other links.

 Link state databases received by all routers- By combining the received

LSPs with its own LSP, each router can compute the entire network
topology.

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 Each router computes the spanning tree by using Dijkstra9s shortest path
algorithm

2. DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (DV) Protocols

• Manipulates vectors (distance, direction) of distances to other nodes in the
network.
• Distance – no. of hops b/w 2 nodes
• Direction – Next hop router to which the packet is forwarded
• Other name: Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or RIP(Routing
Information Protocol)

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• Each router maintain routing table.

• All available destination (Dest)
• Next node to reach to destination (Next)
• No. of hops to reach the destination (Metrics)
1. Periodically advertises its routing table to its neighbors
2. Neighbors updates its own routing table by examining the received
information, which in inform its neighbors.
3. Computes shortest path to each host based on the information advertised
by its neighbours.

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3.3.6.2 PROACTIVE PROTOCOLS (Table-driven routing protocol)

 Maintain the global topology information in the form of tables at every node.

 These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and

accurate network state information.

 EX: DSDV, WRP, and STAR.

DESTINATION-SEQUENCED DISTANCE-VECTOR ROUTING (DSDV)

 Based on Proactive method

 Enhanced version of the distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm or Distance

Vector(DV) Routing Protocol

 DSDV adds two things to the distance vector algorithm

 Sequence Number:
 Each routing advertisement comes with a sequence number.
 Within ad-hoc networks, advertisements may propagate along many
paths.
 Sequence numbers help to apply the advertisements in correct order.
 This avoid the loops in the network.
 Damping:
 Transient changes in topology that are of short duration should not
weaken the routing mechanisms.
 Unstable changes in the topology are not forwarded

Example Ad-hoc network

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 For each node N1 maintain a table that contain;

 The next hop toward this node
 The metric (number of hops)
 The sequence number
 The time at which the path has been installed first.
 Important steps in the operation of DSDV:
1. Each router(node) in the network collects route information from its
neighbours.
2. After gathering information, the node determines the shortest path to the
destination based on the gathered information.
3. Based on the gathered information, a new routing table is generated.
4. The router broadcasts this table to its neighbours. On receipt by
neighbours, the neighbour nodes recompute their respective routing
tables.
5. This process continues till the routing information becomes stable.
 Advantages
 Simple
 Loop free through destination seq. numbers
 No latency caused by route discovery
 Disadvantages
 No sleeping nodes
 Overhead: most routing information never used
3.3.6.3 REACTIVE PROTOCOLS (On-demand routing protocol)

 They execute the path-finding process and exchange routing information

only when a path is required by a node to communicate with a destination.

 i.e., a route is discovered only when it is necessary.

 Source initiates route discovery

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 2 step process

 Route Discovery

 Route Maintenance

 Route discovery is expensive

 Example: Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Ad hoc On-demand Distance

Vector (AODV)

(a) DYNAMIC SOURCE ROUTING PROTOCOL (DSR)

 DSR is a source initiated on-demand(or reactive) routing protocol for ad-hoc

network

 Designed to restrict the bandwidth consumed by packets by eliminating the

periodic table-update messages i.e., the nodes do not need to exchange the
routing information periodically, which helps to reduce the bandwidth
overhead.

 Each mobile node participating in the protocol maintains a <routing cache=

which contains the list of all routes that the node has learnt

 DSR works in 2 phases:

(a) Route Discovery:

 Allows any host to dynamically discover the route to any destination in
the ad-hoc network.
 Route Discovery Process takes place by :
1. Broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to all its neighbours.
 The Route request (RREQ) packet contains the
i) Source address
ii) Request id
iii) Route Record, in which the sequence of hops traversed by the
request packet before reaching the destination is recorded.
2. A node after receiving RREQ
2.i. If the node is an intermediate node then
 If the message has the same ID i.e. has seen it before, then the node
discards this message,
 If not, the node appends its own address to the route record in the
ROUTE REQUEST message then propagates the message to the next
hop neighbours.

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2.ii. If the node is the Target (Destination) then

 Returns a Route Reply (RREP) message to the sender
 Copies the accumulated route record from RREQ into RREP

Fig. Broadcasting the RREQ packets

Fig. Propagation of RREP packets back to source

(b) Route Maintenance:
 A known route can get broken due to the movement of some node or the
battery of a node getting exhaused.
 Route maintenance : The process of monitoring the correct operation of
a route in use & taking corrective action when needed.
 Steps:
1. When a node detects that one of its next hop neighbour node is not
responding, it sends back a route error(RERR) packet containing its
own address and the address of the hop that is not working
2. As Soon as source node receives the RERR message it deletes the
broken link route from its cache.
3. If it has another route to the destination, it starts to retransmit the
packet using the alternative route.
4. Otherwise it initiates the route discovery process again.
The basic message set consists of:
o RREQ – Route request

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o RREP – Route reply

o RERR – Route error
o HELLO – For link status monitoring
 Advantages:
 A perfect route is discovered always.
 Highly efficient.
 Low bandwidth Consumption.
 Drawback:
 Packet header size (Non Uniform Packet Size) grows when intermediate
node increases.
 Flood of route requests may potentially reach all nodes in the network
(b) AD HOC ON-DEMAND DISTANCE VECTOR ROUTING (AODV)

 Based on Reactive method

 DSR vs AODV:
 Major problem of DSR is its non-uniform packet size because it includes
source routes in its packet header which degrades the performance. If a
packet is large, it has to be split into smaller packets.
 The packet size in AODV is uniform unlike DSR.
 AODV attempts to improve on DSR by maintaining routing tables at the
nodes, so that data packets do not have to contain routes.
 AODV holds the desirable feature of DSR that routes are maintained only
between nodes which need to communicate.
 Route is established only when it is required by a source node for
transmitting data packets
 Make use of hop-by-hop routing, sequence numbers and beacons.
 Steps:
1. The node that needs a route to a specific destination generates a route
request(RREQ).
2. The route request(RREQ) is forwarded by intermediate nodes which also
learn a reverse route from the source to themselves.
3. When the request reaches a node with route to destination, it generates a
route reply(RREP) containing the number of hops required to reach the
destination.
4. All nodes that participate in forwarding this reply to the source node
create a forward route to destination.
5. This route created from each node from source to destination is a hop-
by-hop route.

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 Example: Suppose Node S needs a routing path to Node D

1. Node S creates a RREQ packet & broadcasts to its neighbours.

RREQ [D's IP addr, Seq#, S's IP addr, hopcount]

2. Node A rebroadcasts RREQ to all its neighbours.

3. Since, Node C known a route to Node D

 Node C creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to A.
 Set forward path in C's routing table.

4. Node A creates a RREP & unicasts RREP to S

5. Set forward path in A's routing table

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6. Set forward path in S's routing table

Difference between DSR, DSDV & AODV

Property DSR DSDV AODV

Loop Free Yes Yes Yes
Multicast Routes Yes No No
Unidirectional Link Yes No No
Periodic Broadcast No Yes Yes
Routes maintained Route Cache Route Table Route Table
Reactive Yes No Yes

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3.3.6.4 HYBRID PROTOCOLS

 Combines the best features of both proactive & reactive routing protocols.

 Eg: ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

ZONE ROUTING PROTOCOL (ZRP)

 It is Hybrid Protocol
 Based on the concept of zones.

 A routing zone is defined for each node separately and zones of

neighbouring nodes overlap.

 The routing zone has a radius expressed in hops. i.e., Zone radius: Number
of hops

 Key concept in ZRP to:

 Use a proactive routing scheme within a limited zone

 Use a reactive routing scheme for nodes beyond this zone.

 Routing is divided into two parts:

o Intrazone routing: 1st the packet is sent within the routing zone of
the source node to reach the peripheral nodes

o Interzone routing: The packet is sent from the peripheral nodes

towards the destination node

 In the diagram the routing zone of S includes the nodes A-I, but not K.
 The nodes are divided into peripheral nodes and interior nodes.
 Peripheral nodes: Nodes whose minimum distance is less than the radius.

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 Interior nodes - Nodes A-F

 Peripheral nodes - Nodes G-J
 Node K is outside the routing zone
 Within the zone table driven is used
 Outside the zone On demand Route Discovery is used
 Procedure:
1. The source sends a Route Request packet (RREQ) to the border nodes of its
zone, containing its own address, destination address and the unique
sequence no.
2. Each border nodes checks its local zone for the destination.
3. If the destination is not a member of local zone, then the border node adds
its own address to the route request packet and forwards the packet to its
own border nodes.
4. When the destination node is reached in this process, a route reply (RREP)
is sent on the reverse path back to the source.
5. The source saves the path which is mentioned in Route Reply to send data
packets to the destination
3.3.7 MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL
 Multicast is the delivery of a message to a group of destination nodes in a
single transmission.
 Multicast Protocols are
Tree based Protocol and Mesh based Protocol
a) Tree based Protocol
 This establishes a single path between any two nodes in the multicast
group.
 Example: AMRoute, AMRIS
 The tree consists of root node(r), three intermediate nodes (p,s,t) and seven
group members.
 For node u, the packet transmission is relayed through two tree links, that
is, from r to q and then q to u.
o To maintain the tree structure even when nodes move, group members
periodically send Join Request message.

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b) Mesh Based Protocol

o This establishes a multiple path between source - receiver pair.
o Example: ODMRP, CAMP
o Tree based protocols, may not perform well in the presence of highly mobile
nodes because multicast tree structure is fragile and needs to be frequently
readjusted.
o Each node in a mesh can have multiple parents.
o Multiple links exist and other links are immediately available when the
primary link is broken due to node mobility. This avoids frequent
reconfigurations.
o Sending a Packet from R to U involves three transmissions(R,Q,U) &
fourteen receives(5 neighbours of R,6 neighbours of Q and 3 neighbours of
U).
o For eg, the transmission from node Q is received not only by U but also be
neighbour nodes R,S,T,W and X; the redundant link from Q to W may be
useful when the path from P to W is broken

o Drawback of this scheme is that multiple copies of the same packet are
forwarded through the mesh.

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ON-DEMAND MULTICAST ROUTING PROTOCOL (ODMRP)

 Provides richer connectivity among multicast members using a mesh based

approach.
 Supplies multiple route for one particular destination.
 Helps in case of topology changes & node failures.
 Use the concept of Forwarding Group - A subset of nodes forwards multicast
packets.
 Operation of ODMRP:
1. A sender node wishing to send multicast packets periodically floods a JOIN
REQUEST to entire network.
2. A Node receiving a non-duplicate JOIN REQUEST, stores the upstream node
ID (i.e. backward learning) into routing table & rebroadcasts the packet.

3. A multicast receiver getting the JOIN REQUEST creates or updates the source
entry in its member table.
4. As long as valid entries in receiver's member table, JOIN TABLE are
broadcasted periodically.

5. An intermediate node, receiving the JOINT TABLE, compares it's Node ID with
the entries of that table.

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6. If there's a match, it is a member of the forwarding group. Then it sets FG-

FLAG & broadcasts its JOIN TABLE.
7. This process is going to create a mesh between all forwarding group
members.
8. JOIN TABLE is propagated by each forwarding Group member until it reaches
source via a shortest path.
9. Routes from source to receivers builds a mesh of nodes called "Forwarding
Group"

3.4 TYPES OF MANET

 VANET - VEHICULAR AD HOC NETWORKS: Used for communication between
vehicles and roadside equipment.
 SPANET - SMART PHONE AD HOC NETWORKS : Used to create peer-to-peer
networks without relying on cellular carrier networks, wireless access points,
or traditional network infrastructure.
 i MANET - INTERNET BASED MOBILE ADHOC NETWORKS : Used to link
mobile nodes and fixed Internet-gateway nodes.
 Military / Tactical MANET : Used by military units with emphasis on security,
range, and integration with existing systems.
3.4.1 VANET: VEHICULAR AD - HOC NETWORK
The Vehicular Ad-Hoc Network, or VANET, is a technology that uses moves
cars as nodes in a network to create a mobile network.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANETs) are created by applying the principles

of mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) - the spontaneous creation of a wireless
network for data exchange - to the domain of vehicles. They are a key
component of intelligent transportation systems (ITS).

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The term VANET became mostly synonymous with the more generic
term inter-vehicle communication (IVC).

VANET is an application of mobile ad hoc network. More precisely a VANET

is self-organised network that can be formed by connecting vehicle aiming to
improve driving safety and traffic management with internet access by drivers
and programmers.

WORKING OF VANET

VANET turns every participating car into a wireless router or node, allowing
cars approximately 100 to 300 meters of each other to connect and, in turn,
create a network with a wide range.

As cars fall out of the signal range and drop out of the network, other cars can
join in, connecting vehicles to one another so that a mobile Internet is created.

It is estimated that the first systems that will integrate this technology are police
and fire vehicles to communicate with each other for safety purposes.

COMMUNICATION IN VANET

Two types of communication are provided in the VANET.

 First a pure wireless ad hoc network where vehicle to vehicle without
any support of infrastructure.
 Second is communication between the road side units (RSU), a fixed
infrastructure, and vehicle.

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ARCHITECTURE OF VANET

Each node in VANET is equipped with two types of unit i.e. On Board
Unit(OBU) and Application Unit (AU). OBU has the communicational
capability whereas AU executes the program making OBU8s communicational
capabilities. An RSU can be attached to the infrastructure network which is
connected to the Internet.

TECHNOLOGY USED IN VANET

 To establish a VANET, IEEE has defined the standard 802.11p or 802.16

(WiMax). A Dedicated Short Range Communication (DSRC) is proposed
which is operating on 5.9GHz band and uses 802.11 access methods.
 It is standardized as 802.11p which provides short range communication
with low latency.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VANET

 High Mobility: The nodes in VANETs usually are moving at high speed.
This makes harder to predict a node9s position and making protection of
node privacy

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 Rapidly changing network topology: Due to high node mobility and

random speed of vehicles, the position of node changes frequently. As a
result of this, network topology in VANETs tends to change frequently.

 Unbounded network size: VANET can be implemented for one city,

several cities or for countries. This means that network size in VANET is
geographically unbounded.

 Frequent exchange of information: The ad hoc nature of VANET

motivates the nodes to gather information from the other vehicles and
road side units. Hence the information exchange among node becomes
frequent.

 Wireless Communication: VANET is designed for the wireless

environment. Nodes are connected and exchange their information via
wireless. Therefore some security measure must be considered in
communication.

 Time Critical: The information in VANET must be delivered to the nodes

with in time limit so that a decision can be made by the node and perform
action accordingly.

APPLICATIONS OF VANET

Safety Related Application:

These applications are used to increase the safety on the roads. These
applications can be further categorised in following way.

 Collision Avoidance: If a driver gets a warning message on time then the

collision can be avoided.

 Cooperative Driving: Drivers can get traffic related warning signals & these
signals can co-operate the driver for an uninterrupted and safe driving.

 Traffic optimization: Traffic can optimized by the use of sending signals

like jam, accidents etc. to the vehicles so that they can choose their alternate
path and can save time.

User Based Application:

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These applications provide the user infotainment. A VANET can be utilised to

provide following services for the user apart from safety:

 Peer to peer application: These application are useful to provide services

like sharing music, movies etc. among the vehicles in the network.

 Internet Connectivity: People always want to connect with the Internet all
the time. Hence VANET provides the constant connectivity of the Internet
to the users.

 Other services: VANET can be utilised in other user based application such
as payment service to collect the tall taxes, to locate the fuel station,
restaurant etc.

CHALLENGING ISSUES IN VANET

 Network Management: Due to high mobility, the network topology and

channel condition change rapidly.

 Congestion and Collision Control: The unbounded network size also

creates a challenge. The traffic load is low in rural areas and night in even
urban areas. In rush hours the traffic load is very high and hence network is
congested and collision occurs in the network.

 Environmental Impact: VANETs use the electromagnetic waves for

communication. These waves are affected by the environment.

 MAC Design: VANET generally use the shared medium to communicate

hence the MAC design is the key issue.

 Security: As VANET provides the road safety applications which are life
critical therefore security of these messages must be satisfied

SECURITY ISSUES IN VANET

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 Lack of physical boundary: Each mobile node functions as a router &

forwards packets from other nodes. AS a result, network boundaries become
blurred. So it is difficult to deploy firewalls or monitor the incoming traffic.

 Low power RF transmission: It if possible for a malicious node having high

power RF transmission capability to continuously transmit & monopolise
the medium & cause its neighbouring nodes or the entire targeted MANET
to wait endlessly for transmitting their messages. Also signal jamming can
lead to denial-of-service(DOS) attack.

 Limited computational capabilities: Nodes in an ad hoc network usually

have limited computational capabilities. It therefore becomes difficult to
deploy compute-intensive security solutions such as setting up a public-key
cryptosystem. Inability to encrypt messages invites a host of security attacks
such as spoofing as well as several other forms of routing attacks.

 Limited power supply: Since nodes normally rely on battery power, an

attacker might attempt to exhaust batteries by causing unnecessary
transmissions to take place at the targeted node or might cause excessive
computations to be carried out by the targeted nodes.

 Real time Constraint: VANET is time critical where safety related message
should be delivered with 100ms transmission delay. So to achieve real time
constraint, fast cryptographic algorithm should be used. Message and entity
authentication must be done in time.

 Data Consistency Liability: In VANET even authenticate node can perform

malicious activities that can cause accidents or disturb the network. Hence a
mechanism should be designed to avoid this inconsistency. Correlation
among the received data from different node on particular information may
avoid this type of inconsistency.

 Low tolerance for error: Some protocols are designed on the basis of
probability. VANET uses life critical information on which action is
performed in very short time. A small error in probabilistic algorithm may
cause harm.

MANET Vs VANET

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MANET VANET
Collection of mobile nodes that Nodes(vehicles) can communicate
communicate with each other over with certain roadside infrastructures
bandwidth constrained wireless links or base stations.
without any infrastructure support.
The node movement is more random The node mobility is constrained to
in nature the road topologies.
Power is a major constrained The battery power available in a
vehicle is quite adequate.
Cost of production is cheap Expensive
Change in network topology is slow Frequent & very fast
Node lifetime depends on power depends on lifetime of vehicles
resource
Multi-hop routing is available. Weakly available.
Attribute based addressing scheme Location-based

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UNIT IV

MOBILE TRANSPORT AND APPLICATION LAYER

Mobile TCP - WAP – Architecture – WDP – WTLS – WTP – WSP – WAE - WTA -
Architecture - WML

MOBILE TRANSPORT LAYER

4.1 Traditional TCP improvements

There are several mechanisms of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) that
influence the efficiency of TCP in a mobile environment.
Improvement in TCP: TCP was initially designed for wired (traditional)
networks
4.1.1 Slow start
4.1.2 Congestion Avoidance
4.1.3 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
4.1.1 Slow start

 The behaviour TCP shows after the detection of congestion is called slow
start
 Instead of starting transmission at a fixed transmission window size, the
transmission is started at the lowest window size and then doubled after
each successful transmission.
 If congestion is detected, the transmission window size is reduced to half of
its current size.
 The sender always calculates a congestion window for a receiver.
1. The start size of the congestion window is one segment.
2. The sender sends one packet and waits for acknowledgement.
3. If this acknowledgement arrives, the sender increases the congestion
window by one, now sending two packets.
4. After arrival of the two corresponding acknowledgements, the sender again
adds 2 to the congestion window, one for each of the acknowledgements.
5. Now the congestion window equals 4.
6. This scheme doubles the congestion window every time the
acknowledgements come back, which takes one round trip time (RTT). This
is called the exponential growth of the congestion window in the slow start
mechanism.

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4.1.2 Congestion Avoidance

 Drawback in slow start: It is too dangerous to double the congestion
window each time because the steps might become too large
 Solution:
 Window size is doubled until it reaches a threshold level.
 When it reaches a threshold level, then window size is increased linearly.
 If congestion is occurred, then the window size is reduced to half of its
size.
 If it reaches zero then again slow start begins
 Congestion avoidance start when slow start stops

4.2.3 Fast retransmit/fast recovery

 The sender can retransmit the missing packet(s) before the timer expires.

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 It does not wait until the timer expires it retransmit a packet whenever
sender is getting 3 duplicate acknowledgements.
 After retransmitting a packet it sets the window size is reduced to its half

4.2 Classical TCP Improvements For Wireless NETWORK

Mechanisms to increase TCP9s performance in wireless and mobile
environments:

4.2.1 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

4.2.2 Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
4.2.3 Mobile TCP (M-TCP)
4.2.4 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
4.2.5 Transmission/time-out freezing
4.2.6 Selective retransmission
4.2.7 Transaction-oriented TCP (T-TCP)
4.3.1 Indirect TCP (I-TCP)
 Two competing insights led to the development of indirect TCP:
1) TCP performs poorly together with wireless links
2) TCP within the fixed network cannot be changed
 Working:
 I-TCP segments a TCP connection into a fixed part and a wireless part.
 Mobile host connected via a wireless link and an access point to the 8wired9
internet where the correspondent host resides. The correspondent node
could also use wireless access.
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 Standard TCP is used between the fixed computer and the access point.
 The foreign agent (access point) acts as a proxy and relays all data in both
directions.
 Packet delivery:
 If CN sends packet, FA acknowledges packet and forwards packet to MN
 If MN receives packet, it acknowledges
 This acknowledgement only used by CN
 Similarly if MN sends packet, FA acknowledges packet and forwards it to CN

 Packet Loss:
 Case1 : If a packet is lost on the wireless link due to a transmission error:
 Then the CN would not notice this.

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 The FA tries to retransmit this packet locally to maintain reliable data

transport.
 Case2: If the packet is lost on the wireless link:

The MN notice this much faster due to the lower round trip time and
can directly retransmit the packet.
 Packet loss in the wired network is now handled by the FA.
 Advantages with I-TCP:
1. TCP does not require any changes in the TCP protocol as used by the hosts
in the fixed network.
2. Due to the strict partitioning into two connections, transmission error
cannot propagate into the fixed network.
3. Partitioning into two connections allows the use of a different transport
layer protocol between the FA and the MN.
4. Different solutions can be tested or used at the same time without
disturbing the stability of the Internet.
 Disadvantages of I-TCP:
1. The loss of the end-to-end semantics of TCP might cause problems if the
FA partitioning the TCP connection crashes:
2. Increased handover latency may be much more problematic
3. The FA must be integrated into all security mechanisms.
4.3.2 Snooping TCP (S-TCP)
 The segmentation drawback of I-TCP is eliminated by Snooping TCP.
 "The FA buffers all packets with destination MN and additionally 8snoops9
the packet flow in both directions to recognize acknowledgements"
 Reason for buffering: To enable the FA to perform a local retransmission in
case of packet loss on the wireless link.

 Data transfer to the MH ( Mobile Host)

 FA buffers data until it receives ACK of the MH
 FA detects packet loss via duplicated ACKs or time-out
 Data transfer from the MH (Mobile Host)
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 FA detects packet loss on the wireless link via sequence numbers, FA

answers directly with a negative acknowledgement (NACK) to the MH
 MH can now retransmit data with only a very short delay

 Advantages:
1. The approach automatically falls back to standard TCP if the
enhancements stop working.
2. The CN does not need to be changed since most of the enhancements are
in the FA.
3. It does not need a handover of state as soon as the MH moves to another
FA.
4. It does not matter if the next FA uses the enhancement or not. If not, the
approach automatically falls back to the standard solution.
 Disadvantages:
1. Snooping TCP does not isolate the behaviour of the wireless link as good
as I-TCP.

2. Additional mechanism for negative acknowledgements (NACK) between FA

and MH.

3. Snooping and buffering data may be useless if certain encryption schemes

are applied end-to-end between the correspondent host and mobile host.

4.3.3 Mobile TCP (M-TCP)

 I-TCP and S-TCP does not work well, if a MH is disconnected.
 The M-TCP has the same goals as I-TCP and snooping TCP
 Goals of M-TCP:

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 Prevent the sender window from shrinking if bit errors or disconnection.

 Improve overall throughput
 Lower the delay
 Maintain end-to-end semantics of TCP
 Provide a more efficient handover
 Adapted to the problems arising from lengthy or frequent disconnections
 The M-TCP splits up the connection into two parts:
 An unmodified TCP is used on the Standard host-Supervisory Host
section
 An optimised TCP is used on the Supervisory Host- Mobile Host section.

 The SH is responsible for exchanging data to both the Standard host and
the Mobile host.
 In this approach, we assume that the error bit rate is less as compared to
other wireless links.
 So if any packet is lost, the retransmission has to occur from the original
sender and not by the SH.
1. The SH monitors the ACKs being sent by the MH.
2. If for a long period ACKs have not been received, then the SH assumes that
the MH has been disconnected.
3. If so the SH blocks the sender by setting its window size to 0.
4. Then the sender goes into persistent mode i.e. the sender will not try to
retransmit the data.
5. Now when the SH detects a connectivity established again with the MH,
the window of the sender is restored to original value.
 Advantages of Mobile TCP:
1. M-TCP maintains the TCP end-to-end semantics.
2. If the MH is disconnected, it avoids useless retransmissions, slow starts or
breaking connections by simply shrinking the sender9s window to 0.
3. M-TCP does not buffer data so, no forwarding.
 Disadvantages of Mobile TCP:
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1. The SH does not act as proxy

2. M-TCP assumes low bit error rates, which is not always a valid
assumption.
3. Requires new network elements like the bandwidth manager.
4.3.4 Fast retransmit/fast recovery
 Change of FA often results in a packet loss. TCP reacts with slow start
although there is no congestion.
 Solution: Fast retransmit method.
 Fast retransmit method: When a MH moves to a new FA, it transmits the
ACK of the last packet was received.
 It is indication for the CN to continue transmission at the same rate it did
before MH moves to another FA.
 This approach puts the CN to fast retransmission mode.

Advantages:
1. It is simple.
2. Only minor changes in the MN software results in performance increase.
3. No FA or CN host has to be changed.
Disadvantages: Increased time delay in the retransmitted packets to move
from CN to MH.
4.3.5 Transmission/time-out freezing
 In normal TCP, a disconnection takes place when the connection is lost for
a longer time.
 Example: When a MN moving through a tunnel or passing black out areas,
the connection is lost and it needs to make connection once again, when it
comes back.
 TCP freezing:
 MAC layer is often able to detect interruption in advance
 MAC can inform TCP layer of upcoming loss of connection
 TCP stops sending, but does not assume a congested link.
 MAC layer signals again if reconnected.
 Advantages:

1. Offers a way to resume TCP connection even after longer interruptions

of the connection.

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2. Independent of any other TCP mechanism, such as ACKs, sequence

numbers etc.

 Disadvantages:

(i) The software on the MN and CN needs to be changed.

(ii) Depends on MAC layer

4.3.6 Selective retransmission

 TCP acknowledgements are cumulative.
 ACK n acknowledges correct & in-sequence receipt of packet up to n.
 If a single packet is lost quite often a whole packet sequence beginning at
the gap has to be retransmitted.
 Bandwidth wastage.
 Solution: Selective Retransmission
 Allows the receiver acknowledge a single packets
 Now the sender can retransmit only the missing packet.
 Advantage:
 The sender retransmits only the lost packets.
 Much higher efficiency. Lowers bandwidth requirement
 Disadvantage: More complex software on the MH.
4.3.7 Transaction-oriented TCP (T-TCP)
 TCP requires several trans reception of packets for:
 Connection setup
 Data transmission
 Connection release.
(-) Even a short message needs minimum of 7 packets leads to connection
overhead.
 Solution: T-TCP
 Connection setup, Data transmission, Connection release can be
combined, thus only 2 or 3 packets are needed.
 Reduces the total overhead.
 Advantage: Reduction in overhead.
 Disadvantage: Requires changed TCP, Mobility not longer transparent.

COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TCP

Approach Mechanism Advantages Disadvantages

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Splits TCP connection Isolation of wireless Loss of TCP

into two connections link, simple. semantics.
Higher latency at
Indirect TCP
handover,
security
problems.

Snoops data and Transparent for end Insufficient

acknowledgements, to end connection, isolation of
Snooping TCP
local retransmission MAC integration wireless link,
possible security problems

Splits TCP Maintains end to Bad isolation of

connection, chokes end semantics, wireless link,
sender via window handles long term processing
M-TCP
size and frequent overhead due to
disconnections bandwidth mgmt,
security problems

Fast Avoids slow start ate Simple and efficient Mixed layers, not
Retransmission roaming transparent.
/Fast Recovery

Freezes TCP state at Independent of Changes in TCP

Transmission / disconnection, content, works for required,MAC
Time out freezing resumes after longer interruptions dependent
reconnection

Retransmits only lost Very efficient Slightly more

data. complex receiver
Selective
software, more
retransmission
buffer space
needed

Combines connection Efficient for certain Changes in TCP

setup-/ release and applications required not
data retransmission transparent,
Transaction
security
oriented TCP
problems.

4.4 WIRELESS APPLICATION PROTOCOL (WAP)

 WAP is used to enable the access of internet in the mobile phones or PDAs.
 The wireless application protocol forum (WAP Forum) was founded in
June 1997 by Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia, and Unwired Planet.
 WAP is independent of OS that means WAP can be implemented on any OS

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 Features:
 Interoperable: Allowing terminals and software from different vendors to
communicate with networks from different providers
 Scalable: Protocols and services should scale with customer needs and
number of customers
 Efficient: Provision of QoS suited to the characteristics of the wireless
and mobile networks
 Reliable: Provision of a consistent and predictable platform for deploying
services
 Secure: Preservation of the integrity of user data, protection of devices
and services from security problems.
WAP Architecture:
 WAP is designed in a layered fashion, so that it can be extensible, flexible,
and scalable. The WAP protocol stack is divided into five layers −
 Layers of WAP Protocol:
 Application Layer (Wireless Application Environment (WAE))
 Session Layer(Wireless Session Protocol (WSP))
 Transaction Layer(Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP))
 Security Layer(Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS))
 Transport Layer(Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP))
a) Bearer services
 The basis for transmission of data is formed by different bearer services.
WAP uses existing data services and will integrate further services.
 Example:
 Message services such as short message service (SMS) of GSM, Circuit-
switched data such as high-speed circuit switched data (HSCSD) in GSM
 Packet switched data such as general packet radio service (GPRS) in
GSM.
 Many other bearers are supported, such as CDPD, IS-136,PHS.
 No special interface has been specified between the bearer service
b) Transport Layer (Wireless Datagram Protocol (WDP))
 The transport layer with its wireless datagram protocol (WDP) and the
additional wireless control message protocol (WCMP) offers a bearer
independent, reliable datagram-oriented service to the higher layers of the
WAP architecture

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 Communication is done transparently over one of the available bearer

services.
 Transport layer service access point (T-SAP) - The common interface to be
used by higher layers independent of the underlying network.
c) Security Layer (Wireless Transport Layer Security (WTLS))
 The security layer with its wireless transport layer security protocol offers
its service at the security SAP (SEC-SAP).
 WTLS is based on the transport layer security / secure sockets layer
(TLS/SSL)
 WTLS has been optimized for use in wireless networks with narrow-band
channels.
 It can offer data integrity, privacy, authentication and denial-of-service
protection.
d) Transaction Layer (Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP))
 Transaction layer with its wireless transaction protocol (WTP) offers a
lightweight transaction service at the transaction SAP (TR-SAP).
 This service efficiently provides reliable or unreliable requests and
asynchronous transactions.
e) Session Layer (Wireless Session Protocol (WSP))
 Session layer with the wireless session protocol (WSP) currently offers two
services at the session-SAP (S-SAP):
 Connection-oriented
 Connectionless
 A special service for browsing the web (WSP/B) has been defined that offers
HTTP/1.1 functionality, long-lived session state, session suspend and
resume, session migration and other features needed for wireless mobile
access to the web.
f) Application Layer (Wireless Application Environment (WAE))
 The application layer with the wireless application environment (WAE)
offers a framework for the integration of different www and mobile
telephony applications.
 It offers many protocols and services with special service access

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 Integration of WAP components:

 On the left side, different fixed networks, such as the traditional internet
and the public switched telephone network (PSTN), are shown.
 Several new elements will be implemented between these networks
 WAP-enabled wireless, mobile devices in a wireless network on the right-
hand side.
 To browse web pages with handheld devices, a wireless mark-up language
(WML) has been defined in WAP.
 Special filters within the fixed network can translate HTML into WML, web
servers can already provide pages in WML, or the gateways between the fixed
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and wireless network can translate HTML into WML. These gateways not
only filter pages but also act as proxies for web access.
 WML is additionally converted into binary WML for more efficient
transmission.
 Wireless telephony application (WTA) server translates all incoming signals
into WML events displayed at the handheld device

4.5 Wireless datagram protocol (WDP)

 WDP operates on top of many different bearer services capable of carrying
data.
 At the T-SAP WDP offers a consistent datagram transport service
independent of the underlying bearer.
 To offer this consistent service, the adaptation needed in the transport layer
can differ depending on the services of the bearer.
 If the bearer already offers IP services, UDP is used as WDP.
 WDP offers source and destination port numbers used for multiplexing and
demultiplexing of data respectively.
 Service primitive:
i. TDUnitdata.req : To send a datagram
Parameters: destination address (DA), destination port (DP), Source
address (SA), source port (SP), and user data (UD)
ii. T-DUnitdata.ind : Indicates the reception of data.
Parameters: Destination address and port are only optional parameters.
iii. T-DError.ind: Indicates error.
Parameters: An error code (EC) indicating the reason for the error to the
higher layer.

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 WCMP (Wireless Control Message Protocol):

 Provides error handling mechanisms for WDP.
 Contains control messages like the internet control message protocol
(ICMP) messages.
 WCMP can be used by WDP nodes and gateways to report errors.
 WCMP messages are:
 Destination unreachable (route, port, address unreachable)
 Parameter problem (errors in the packet header)
 Message too big
 Reassembly failure
 Echo request/reply.
 WDP management entity :
 Vendor-specific
 Supports WDP and provides information about changes in the
environment, which may influence the correct operation of WDP.
 Important information:
- Current configuration of the device
- Currently available bearer services
- Processing and memory resources etc.....

4.6 Wireless transport layer security (WTLS)

 The wireless transport layer security (WTLS) can be integrated into the WAP
architecture on top of WDP.
 Supports datagram and connection-oriented transport layer protocols.
 Based on TLS/SSL protocol.
 Provide different levels of security for:
 Privacy
 Data integrity
 Authentication
 Optimized for low bandwidth, high-delay bearer networks.
 Takes into account:
 Low processing power
 Limited memory capacity
 Before data can be exchanged via WTLS, a secure session has to be
established.
 Both originator & peer can interrupt the session at any time.
 Steps in the Session establishment:
 Step 1: Negotiation of the security parameters and suites:

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1.1. Initiate the session with the SEC-Create :

1.2. The peer answers with parameters:

 Step 2: Peer also issues SEC-Exchange:

Indicate that peer wishes to perform public-key authentication i.e., peer
requests a certificate from the originator.

Fig. WTLS establishing a secure session

 Step 3: The originator issues SEC-Commit.req:
 The originator answers with its certificate.
 Indicates that the handshake is complete.
 Step 4: SEC-Commit.ind :
 Indicates that the certificate is delivered
 Concludes the full handshake.

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 Step 5: User datagram can be exchanged using SEC-Unitdata:

 Same function as T-DUnitdata on the WDP layer
 The parameters are the same here:
source address (SA), source port (SP), destination address (DA), destination
port (DP), and user data (UD).

4.7 Wireless transaction Protocol (WTP)

 WTP is on top of either WDP or, if security is required, WTLS.
 WTP has been designed to run on very thin clients, such as mobile phones.
 Advantages of WTP:
 Improved reliability over datagram services
 Improved efficiency over connection-oriented services
 Support for transaction-oriented services such as web browsing.
 Three classes of WTP transaction service:
 Class 0 provides unreliable message transfer without any result message.
 Classes 1 provides reliable message transfer without any result message.
 Class 2 provides reliable message transfer with one reliable result
message.
 WTP achieves reliability using:
 Duplicate removal
 Retransmission
 Acknowledgements
 Unique transaction identifiers.
 No class requires any connection set-up or tear-down phase. This avoids
unnecessary overhead on the communication link.
 Allows for
 Asynchronous transactions
 Abort of transactions
 Concatenation of messages
 Report success or failure of reliable messages.
 The three service primitives offered by WTP are:
 TR-Invoke - to initiate a new transaction

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 TR-Result - to send back the result of a previously initiated transaction

 TR-Abort - to abort an existing transaction.
 Types of WTP PDU:
 Invoke PDU – used to convey a request from an initiator to a responder
 ACK PDU – used to acknowledge an Invoke or Result PDU
 Result PDU – used to convey response of the server to the client
 Abort PDU – used to abort a transaction
 Segmented invoke PDU and segmented result PDU – used for
segmentation and reassembly
 Negative acknowledgment PDU – used to indicate that some packets did
not arrive
 WTP Class 0 : Unreliable Message Transfer without result message
 In this class the responder does not ACK & initiator does not perform any
retransmission.
 The transaction is stateless and cannot be aborted.
 Requested with TR-Invoke.req primitive.
 Parameters are: (SA, SP, DA, DP, A, UD, C=0, H)
SA - source address
SP - source port
DA - destination address
DP - destination port
A - acknowledgement flag, if the responder WTP should generate an ACK or
if a user acknowledgement is used.
UD - User data
C - class type which is 0 for this class.
H - handle simple index to uniquely identify the transaction

Basic Transaction: WTP class 0

 WTP Class 1 : Reliable Message Transfer without result message
 Sender send a TR-Invoke.req
 Parameters are: (SA, SP, DA, A, UD, C=1, H)
 C is class type which is 1 for this class.
 Responder signals the incoming TR-Invoke.ind & ACK automatically

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 Sender on receipt of ACK will close the connection.

 Responder maintains the connection for sometime in case it receives the
duplicate TR-Invoke.req indicating the loss of ACK.

 WTP Class 2 : Reliable Message Transfer with one result message

 Reliable request/respond transaction.
 Depending on user requirements, many different scenarios are possible
for initiator/responder interaction
 WTP class 2 transaction, No user Ack & No hold on:
1. Initiator requests the service using TR-Invoke.req and the WTP entity
sends the invoke PDU to the responder.
2. Responder request with the TR-Invoke.ind.
3. The responder sent back the result PDU to the initiator using TR-
Result.req.
4. The initiator indicate the successful transmission of the invoke message
and the result with the two service primitives:
 TR-Invoke.cnf
 TR-Result.ind.
5. A user respond with TR-Result.res.
6. An acknowledgement PDU is then generated which finally triggers the
TR-Result.cnf primitive on the responder.

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Fig. Basic transaction of class 2 without-user acknowledgement

 WTP class 2 transaction, user Ack:
1. The responder explicitly responds to the Invoke PDU using the TR-
Invoke.res.
2. Then the initiator triggers the TR-Invoke.cnf via an Ack PDU.

 WTP class 2 transaction, hold on & no user Ack:

If the calculation of the result takes some time, the responder can put the
initiator on <hold on= to prevent a retransmission.

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4.8 Wireless session protocol (WSP)

 WSP has been designed to operate on top of the datagram service WDP or
the transaction service WTP.
 Provides a shared state between a client and a server.
 WSP offers the following needed for content exchange between cooperating
clients and servers:
1. Session management:
 WSP introduces sessions that can be established from a client to a server.
 The capabilities of suspending and resuming a session are important to
mobile applications.
 Assume a mobile device is being switched off – it would be useful for a
user to be able to continue operation at exactly the point where the device
was switched off.
2. Capability negotiation:
 Clients and servers can agree upon a common level of protocol
functionality during session establishment.
 Example parameters to negotiate are:
 Maximum client SDU size
 Maximum outstanding requests
 Protocol options
 Server SDU size.
 Content encoding:
 WSP defines the efficient binary encoding for the content it transfers.
 WSP offers content typing and composite objects.

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 Wireless Session Protocol/Browsing (WSP/B) - comprises protocols and

services most suited for browsing-type applications.
 WSP/B offers the following features:
o HTTP/1.1 functionality:
 WSP/B supports the HTTP/1.1 functions, such as
 Extensible request/reply methods
 Composite objects
 Content type negotiation.
o Exchange of session headers:
 Client and server can exchange request/reply headers that remain
constant over the lifetime of the session.
 These headers may include: Content types, character sets,
languages, device capabilities, and other static parameters.
 WSP/B will not interpret header information but passes all headers
directly to service users.
o Push and pull data transfer:
 Pulling data from a server is supported by WSP/B using the
request/response mechanism.
 WSP/B supports three push mechanisms for data transfer:
i. A confirmed data push within an existing session context
ii. A non-confirmed data push within an existing session context
iii. A non-confirmed data push without an existing session context.
o Asynchronous requests:
 Optionally, WSP/B supports a client that can send multiple
requests to a server simultaneously.
 This improves efficiency & latency

4.9 Wireless application environment (WAE)

 WAE is used to create a general-purpose application environment based
WWW.
 Allow service providers, software manufacturers, or hardware vendors to
integrate their applications.
 WAE has already integrated the following technologies and adapted them for
use in handheld devices.
 Integrated technologies: HTML, JavaScript, and the handheld device mark-
up language HDML form the basis of the wireless mark-up language (WML)
and the scripting language WMLscript.
 The exchange formats for business cards and phone books vCard and for
calendar vCalendar have been included.
 URLs from the web can be used.
 A wide range of mobile telecommunication technologies have been adopted
and integrated into the wireless telephony application (WTA)

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 Goal: To minimize over-the-air traffic and resource consumption on the

handheld device.
 WAE: Logical model:
 Model is close to WWW model but assumes an additional gateway.
 Client: Issues an encoded request for an operation on a remote server.
This is usually a WAP browser
 Encoding: Used to minimize data sent over the air and to save resources
on the handheld device
 Decoders: Translate the encoded request into a standard request as
understood by the origin servers. This could be a request to get a web page.
 Gateway: Transfers the request to the appropriate origin server.

 Origin server: Standard web servers running HTTP and generating content
using scripts, providing pages using a database, or applying any other
technology. Origin servers will respond to the request.
 Then the gateway encodes the response and its content & then transfers
the encoded response with the content to the client.
 Push services: The WAE logical model also includes push services.
 Then an origin server pushes content to the gateway.
 The gateway encodes the pushed content and transmits the encoded push
content to the client.
 User Agent: Several user agents can reside within a client.
 User agents include such items as: browsers, phonebooks, message
editors etc.
 WAE does not specify the number of user agents or their functionality.
 User agent handles access to, and interaction with, mobile telephone
features.

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4.10 Wireless Telephony Application (WTA) architecture

 WTA is a collection of telephony specific extensions for call and feature
control mechanisms, merging data networks and voice networks.
 It is an extension of basic WAE application model
 Features:
 Content push: A WTA origin server can push content to the client. A push
can take place without prior client request. The content can enable the
client to handle new network events.
 Access to telephony functions: The wireless telephony application
interface (WTAI) provides many functions to handle telephony events such
as call accept, call setup, change of phone book entries etc....
 Repository for event handlers: The repository represents a constant
storage on the client for content required to offer WTA services. Content are
either channels or resources.
 Examples for resources: WML decks, WMLScript objects, or WBMP
pictures.
 A channel comprises references to resources and is associated with a
lifetime.
 Within this lifetime, it is guaranteed that all resources the channel points
to are locally available in the repository.
 The motivation behind the repository is the necessity to react very quickly
for time-critical events.
 Security model: Mandatory for WTA is a security model.WTA allows the
client to only connect to trustworthy gateways and check if the servers
providing content are authorized to send this content to the client.

a) Client

 The client is connected via a mobile network with a WTA server, other
telephone networks and a WAP gateway.
 A WML user agent running on the client.
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 The client may have voice and data connections over the network.

b) Firewall: Firewall is useful to connect third-party origin servers outside the

trusted domain.

c) WTA server: One difference between WTA servers and other servers besides
security is the tighter control of QoS.

d) Other servers: Other origin servers can be connected via the WAP gateway.

 Other servers located in the internet, may not be able to give as good QoS
guarantees as the network operator.

e) Network operator: A network operator knows the latency, reliability, and

capacity of its mobile network and can have more control over the behaviour of
the services.

f) WTA user agent: The WTA user agent has a very rigid and real-time context
management for browsing the web compared to the standard WML user agent.

Interaction between a WTA client, a WTA gateway, a WTA server, the mobile
network and a voice box server:

 WTA server to generate new content for pushing to the client.

 The server sends a push message containing a single URL to the client.
 The WTA gateway translates the push URL into a service indication and
codes it into a more compact binary format.
 The WTA user agent then indicates that new messages are stored.
 If the user wants to listen to the stored messages, he or she can request
a list of the messages. This is done with the help of the URL. A WSP get
requests the content the URL points to.
 The gateway translates this WSP get into an HTTP get and the server
responds with the prepared list of callers.
 After displaying the content, the user can select a voice Powered by TSS
message from the list.
 Each voice message in this example has an associated URL, which can
request a certain WML card from the server. The purpose of this card is
to prepare the client for an incoming call.
 As soon as the client receives the card, it waits for the incoming call.
 The call is then automatically accepted.
 The WTA server also signals the voice box system to set up a voice
connection to play the selected voice message.
 Setting up the call and accepting the call is shown using dashed lines, as
these are standard interactions from the mobile phone network, which
are not controlled by WAP.

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4.11Wireless mark-up language (WML)

 The wireless mark-up language (WML) is based on the standard HTML and
on HDML.
 WML is specified as an XML document type.
 Constraints of wireless handheld devices when designing WML :
 Wireless link will always have a very limited capacity compared to a wire.
 Current handheld devices have small displays
 Limited user input facilities
 Limited memory
 Low performance computational resources.
 WML follows a deck and card metaphor.
 A WML document is made up of multiple cards.
 Cards can be grouped together into a deck.
 A WML deck is similar to an HTML page.
 A user navigates with the WML browser through
a series of WML cards, reviews the contents,
enters requested data, makes choices etc.
 The WML browser fetches decks as required from origin servers.

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 Either these decks can be static files on the server or they can be
dynamically generated.
 WML describes the intent of interaction in an abstract manner. The user
agent on a handheld device has to decide how to best present all elements
of a card.
 Features of WML:
 Text and images: WML gives hints how text and images can be presented
to a user. However, the exact presentation of data to a user is up to the user
agent running on the handheld device.
 User interaction: WML supports different elements for user input.
Examples: text entry controls for text or password entry, option selections
or controls for task invocation.
 Navigation: WML offers a history mechanism with navigation through the
browsing history, hyperlinks and other inter card navigation elements.
 Context management: WML allows for saving the state between different
decks without server interaction so state can be shared across different
decks.

WML HTML
Mark-up language for wireless Mark-up language for wired
communication communication
Makes use of variables Does not use of variables
WML script stored in a separate file
JavaScript is embedded in the same
HTML file
Images are stores as WBMP(Wireless Images are stores as GIF, JPEG or
Bitmap) PNG
WBMP is a 2 bit image Size of the images are much larger in
HTML
Case sensitive Not Case sensitive
WML has fewer tags than HTML HTML has more tags than WML
A set of 8WML cards9 make a 8DECK9 A set of 8HTML pages9 make a 8SITE9
WMLScript:

 Provides a general scripting capability in the WAP architecture

 Offers several capabilities not supported by WML:
 Validity check of user input: Before user input is sent to a server, WMLScript
can check the validity and save bandwidth and latency in case of an error.
Otherwise, the server has to perform all the checks
 Access to device facilities: WMLScript offers functions to access hardware
components and software functions of the device.
 Local user interaction: WMLScript can directly and locally interact with a
user, show messages or prompt for input.
 Extensions to the device software: With the help of WMLScript a device can
be configured and new functionality can be added even after deployment.

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