ees Concepts Applications Second EditionThermodynamics Concepts and Applications ‘SECOND EDITION Fully revised to match the more traditional sequence of course materials, this full-color second edition presents the basic principles and methods of thermodynamics using a clear and engaging style and a wealth of end-of-chapter problems, It includes five new chapters on topics such as mixtures, psychrometry, chemical equilibrium, and combustion; and the discussion of the second law of thermodynam- ics has been expanded and divided into two chapters, allowing instructors to intro- duce the topic using either the cycle analysis in Chapter 6 0¢ the definition of entropy Jn Chapter 7. Online ancillaries, including a password protected solutions manual, figures in electronic format, prepared FowerPoint lecture slides, and instructional videos, are available at www.cambridge.orgithermo, STEPHEN R. TURNS ts Professor Emeritus of Mechanical Engineering at The Pennsylva- na State University. His research interests include combustion-generated afr pollu tion, other combustion-related topics. and engineering education pedagogy. Turns ‘was the recipient of the 2009 ASEE Mechanical Engineering Division Ralph Coats Roe ‘Award and has been the recipient of several teaching awards at Pennsylvania State, He is the author of An Iniraduction to Combustion: Concepts and Applications, 3ed edn (also appearing in Chinese, Korean, and Portuguese editions), and of Thermal-Flud Sciences: ‘An Integrated Approach. Turns is a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engincering (ASME). LAURA L. PAULEY is Professor of Mechanical Engineering at The Pennsylvania State University. She teaches courses in the thermal sciences and conducts research in engineering education and computational fluid dynamics, Pauley has worked on grants focusing on aspects of engineering education including classroom experiments, presen- tation skills, and the climate for women in engineering. She has also initiated efforts in curriculum reform and experimental ease studies for required courses in mechanical engineering. She is the recipient of the Undergraduate Program Leadership Award (2003) and was selected asthe first Arthur I. Glenn Professor of Engineering Education. Pauley isa fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engincering (ASME},Thermodynamics Concepts and Applications SECOND EDITION Stephen R. Turns The Pennsylvania State University Laura L. Pauley The Pennsylvania State University a CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESSCAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS University Printing House, Cambridge CB? ARS, United Kingdom (One Liberty Plaza, 20¢h Flac, New Vark, NY 10006, USA 477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia 314-221, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola Disrit Centre, New Delhi ~ 110025, India 79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079006 ‘cambeidge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge, Ik furthers the University's mission by dimeminating knowledge inthe pursuit of ‘education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence. vee cammbridge.org Information on this ttle: www. cambridge ory/9781107179714 OL: 10.1017/9781316880979, © stephen R. Turns and Laura L. Pauley 2020 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory excepton and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the writen permission of Cambridge University Press rst published 2020 Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media ree Ltd ‘A catatngue record for this publicaten is avaiable from the British Librory. Libnary of Congress Cataloging: in-Publication Data Names: Turns, Stephen B., author, | Pauley, Laura L., author Tite: Thermodynamics : concepts and applications / Stephen K. Turns Pennsylvania State University), Laura L. Pauley (Pennsylvania State University). Description: Second edition. | Cambridge ; New York, NY : Cambridge University Press 2018. | Includes index. Identifiers: LCCN 2018030834 | ISHN’ 4741107179714 (hardback © ak. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Thermodynamics. | Fluid mechanics. (Classification: LCC TI265 786 2018 | DDC 621.402/1-de23 1C recoed available at hps://leen Joe gow) 201800834 ISBN 978.1-107-17971-4 Hardhack ‘Cambridge University Prese has no responsiility forthe persistence or accuracy ‘of URL for external or thied- party Intarnet websites referred ton this publication and does not guarantee that any coatent on such websites iso will resin, sccurate or appropriate.This book is dedicated to Peter Gordon (SRT) and to Anne, Mark, and Eric Pauley (LLP).Brief Contents Preface Acknowledgements Conversion Factors Nomenclature 1 Beginnings 2 Thermodynamic Properties, Property Relationships, and Processes 3 Conservation of Mass 4 Energy and Energy Transfer 5 Fist Law of Themedynamiss {6 Second Law of Thermodynamics and Some of ts Consequences 7 Entropy and Availability 8 Thesmal-Fuid Analysis of Steay-flow Devices ‘8 Systems for Power Production, Propulsion, Heating, and Cooling 10 Idea-Gas Mistures 11 Ait-Vapor Modus 12 Reacting Systems 13 Chemical and Phase Equlivium ‘Appendix A Timeline ‘Appendix 8 ‘Thermodynamic Properties ot HO ‘Appendix € Thermodynamic and Thesmo-Physica Properties of Ai ‘Appendix 0 ‘Thermodynamic Properties of deal Gases and Carbon ‘Appendix E Various Themmodynamic Data ‘Appendix F — Therm-Physical Propetos of Selected Gases at 1 atm ‘Appendix & —ThermoPhysical Properties of Selected Liquids ‘Appendix H —Thermo-Physical Properties of Hydracarbon Fuels ‘Appendix | Psychrometrc Charts Index REEeK ar 354 482 505 R2RZSS88 822882Preface to the Second Edicion Preface to the First Edition Acknowledgements to the Second Edicion Conversion Factors Nomenclavure 1 Beginnings Learning Objectives overview LLL What Is Thermodynamics? 1.2 Some Applications 4.2a Steam Power Plants 1.2b Spark-tgnition Engines 1L2e Jet Engines 1.3 Learning Thermodynamics La Physical Frameworks for Analysis 14a Closed Systems Lab Open Systems (or Control Volumes) 1.5 Key Concepts and Definitions 15a Properties 1.5b States 1L5e Processes 15d. Cycles 1.5e Equilibrium and the Quasi-Equilibriam Process 1.6 Dimensions and Units 17 Problem-Solving Method [8 Mathematical Skills to Review Summary Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Problems 2 Thermodynamic Properties, Property Relationships, and Processes Learning Objectives Overview 2.1 Why Properties Are Important in Our Study 2.2 Key DefinitionsCONTENTS ix 2.3 Prequently Used Thermodynamic Properties a 2.3a Properties Related to the Equation of State “ 2.30 Properties Related to the First Law and Calorific Equation of | State 3 2.3e Properties Related to the Second Law 51 24 Concept of State Relationships 58 2a State Principle 58 2.4b P-y-T Equations of State 58 2.4¢ Calorific Equations of State 38 2.5 Ideal Gases as Pure Substances 59 2.54 Kdeal-Gas Definition 9 2.5b Ieal-Gas Bquation of State 60 2.5e Processes in P-0-T Space 8 2.5d Ideal-Gas Calorifie Equations of State 66 2.6 Nonideal-Gas Properties n 2.6a State (P_y-1) Relationships n 2.6b Caloric Relationships 8 2.7 Pure Substanecs tavolving Liquid and Vapor Phases 8 2.7a State (P-Y-7) Relationships a 2.7b Calorific and Second-Law Properties 103 2.8 Liquid Property Approximations 108 29 Solids uo Summary 13 Key Fquations 3 Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist 1B References a Questions us Problems us CCanservation of Mass 145 Learning Objectives 45 Overview M5 3.1 Generic Balance Principle M6 3.2 Mass Conservation for a Closed System ur 3.3 Flow Rates and Average Velocity 152 3.3a Flow Rates 152 3.30. Average Velocity 153 34 Mass Conservation for an Open System (Control Volume} 155 34a. General View of Mass Conservation for Open Systems 155 3th Steady-State, Steady Flow 156 3.te Unsteady Flows 167 Summary 4 Key Equations ma Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist m4 References m4 Questions 7% Problems 175 ‘Appendix 3A Spark-ignition Engine Geometry 194CONTENTS. Energy and Energy Transfer Learning Objectives Overview 4.1 Closed and Open System Energy 4.la Energy Associated with a System as a Whole 4.1b Energy Associated with Matter at a Microscopic Level 4.2 Energy Transfer across Boundaries 42a Heat 4.2b Work 4.3 Sign Conventions and Units 44 Rave Laws for Heat Transfer 44a Conduction 44h Convection ‘A.de Radiation Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Questions Problems First Law of Thermodynamics Learning Objectives Overview 5.1 Energy Conservation for a Closed System 5.la For aa Incremental Change S.lb For a Change in State Sle At an Instant 5.2 Energy Conservation for Open Systems 5.2a Open Systems with Steady Flow 45.2h Open Systems with Unsteady Flow 5.3 Applications of the First Law to Open Systems Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Questions Problems Second Law of Thermedynamnics and Some af its Consequences Learning Objectives Overview 6.1 Usefulness of the Second Law 6.2 One Fundamental Statement of the Second Law 6.2a Reservoirs 6.2b Heat Engines 6.2c Thermal Efficiency and Coeflicients of Performance 6.24 Reversibility 196 196 196 17 188, 19 200 201 27 25 25 6 ur BI 2 22 22 3 24 24 254 254 255 27 258 267 75 75 am 78 298 299 231 37 317 a7 319 320 32 322 36 330CONTENTS 6.3 Consequences of the Kelvin—Planck Statement 6.2 Kelvin’s Absolute Temperature Scale 6.3b ‘The Carnot Efficiency 64 Alternative Statements of the Second Law Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Conceptual Questions Problems Entropy and Availatiity Learning Objectives Overview 7.1 Entropy 7a Definition 7.Ab Isothermal Heat Transfer 7.le Derivation of Entropy 28 a Property 7.1d Specific Entropy, 2 State Property 7.Le Gibbs Relationships 7.2 Ideal-Gax Properties and Processes 7.23 Tdeal-Gas Temperature Entropy (Gibbs) Relationships 7.2b Teal-Gas Isentropic- Process Relationships 7.2 Processes in T ¥ and P y Space 7.3 Specific Entropy for Pure Nonideal Substances 73a Vapor State 7.3b Saturated Mixture 7.36 Compressed Liquid 7.34 Incompressible Solids and Liquids 7.3¢ T-s Diagrams 7Af hos Diagrams 74 Entropy Balances for 2 Closed System 74a Systems Undergoing a Change in State 7.Ab Entropy Change for an Isolated System 7c Entropy Change for a Closed System with Energy Exchange ‘with the Surroundings 7.Ad A Closed System Undergoing a Cycle ‘7.Ae Some Reversible Cycles 7.5 Entropy Balances for an Open System (Control Volume) 7.5a Isentropic Efficiency of a Turbine 7.5b lbentropic Efficiency of a Pump or Compressor 7.5e Isentropic Eifciency of a Nozale 7.6 Availability (or Exergy) 7.62 Definitions 7.6b Closed System Availability 7.6 Closed System Avallability Balance 7.64 Open System (Control Volume) Availability 7.6 Open System (Control Volume) Availability Balance Summary Key Equations SBBBRR Rees 8 sseee am m4 3m ees Seessssees 410 43 aus aur 418CONTENTS Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Questions Problems Appendix 7A Molecular Interpretation of Emtropy ‘Thermal-Fiuid Analysis of Steady-Flow Devices Learning Objectives Overview 8.1. Steady-Flow Devices 8.2 Nozzles and Diffusers 8.2a General Analysis 8.2b Incompressible Flow 82 Nozzle Efficiency 8.3 Throules Sa Analysis S.3b Applications 8.44 Pumps, Compressors, and Fans 84a Classifications 4b Analysis 8.5 Turbines {85a Classifications and Applications 5b Analysis 8.6 Heat Exchangers ‘86a Classifications and Applications 6b Analysis Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Questions Problems ‘Systems for Power Production, Propulsion, Heating, ané Cooling Learning Objectives Overview 9.1 Steam Power Plants 9.la Rankine Cycle Revisited 9.1b Rankine Cycle with Superheat and Reheat 9.1e Rankine Cycle with Regeneration 9.1d Nuclear Power Plants 9.2 Gas-Turbine Engines 9.24 Basic Operation of a Gas-Turbine Engine 9.2b Integral Open System (Control Volume) Analysis 9.2¢ Cycle Analysis and Performance Measures 9.3 Modified Power Cycles 9.3 Cogeneration Cycles 9.3b Combined Cycle Power Plants 8 ue 49 420 ug 453 454 486 41 465 47 a a2 m410 " CONTENTS 94 Turbojet Engines 9.4a Basic Operation of a Turbojet Engine 9.4b Integral Open System Analysis of a Turbojet 9.a¢ Turhojet Cycle Analysis 94d Propulsive Efficiency 9.Ae Other Performance Measures 95 Other Gas Power Cycles 9.5a Otto Cycle 9.5b Diesel Cycle 96 Refrigerators and Heat Pumps 9.6a Energy Conservation for a Reversed Cycle 9,6b Performance Measures 9.6 Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Defi References Questions Problems Appendix 9A Turbojet Engine Analysis Revisited mns Checklist Ideal-Gas Mistues Learn Overview OA Hdcal-Gas Mixtures 10.2 Specifying Mixture Composition 10,3 State (PVT) Relationships for Mixtures 10.4 Calorific Relationships for Mixtures 10.5 Second-Law Relationships for Mixtures 106 Gibbs Free Energy Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Defi References Questions Problems Objectives 1s Checklist ‘Alr-Vapor Madures Learning Objectives Overview IL Air Conditioning, Humidification, and Related Systems 11.2 Physical Systems 11.3 General Analysis 11.3a Assumpzions 11.3b Mass Conservation 11.Se Energy Conservation 11.4 Some New Concepts and Definitions 11.da Paychrometry 11.4b Thermodynamic Treatment of Water Vapor in Dey Air 567 512 oS 576 REGLSSSSSLLE BERCONTENTS. Lae Humidity Ratio H1.dd Relative Humidity 1.4e Dew Point 11.5 Recast Conservation Equations 116 Humidity Measurement 11.62 Adiabatic Saturation 11.6b Wer- and Dry-Bulb Temperatures 11.6 The Psychrometric Chart Summary Key Equations References Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist Questions Problems 12 Reacting Systems Overall Learning Objectives overview 12.1 Mass Conservation for Reacting Systems 12a Atom Balances 12.1b Stoichiometry 12.2 Energy Conservation for Reacting Systems 12.2 Standardized Properties 12.2b Constant-Pressure Combustion 12.2 Constant-Volume Combustion 12.24 Enthalpy of Combustion 12.2c Heating Values 12.3 Steady-Flow Applications 12.38 Assumptions 12.3b Mass Conservation 12.3¢ Fhergy Conservation 12.34 Engine Combustor Analysis 12.3e Boiler Analysis 12,36 Power Plant Overall Energy Utilization Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References Questions Problems 13. Chemical and Phase Equlitriam Overall Learning Objectives Overview 13.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium Revisited 13.2 The Second Law and Equilibrium 13 Fquilibrium for Conditions of Fixed Tnternal Energy and Volume 2gases SSSR R828 19 19 159 160 TL 162CONTENTS. 13a General Considerations 13.3b Application to Chemical Equilibrium 13.4 Chemical Equilibrium for Conditions of Fixed Temperature and 13.4b Factors Affecting Chemical Equilibrium L34e Multiple Equilibrium Reactions 135 Phase Bquilibrium Summary Key Equations Key Concepts and Definitions Checklist References (Questions Problems Appendic R Timeline ‘Appendix 8 — Thermodyramic Properties at HO Table B.1 Saturation Properties of Water and Steam Temperature Increments Table B.2 Saturation Properties of Water and Steam Pressure Tnerements Table B.3 Superheated Vapor (Steam) ‘Table B.3a Isobaric Data for P = 0.006 MPa ‘Table B.3b Isobaric Data for P= 0.035 MPa Table B.3c Isobaric Data for P = 0.07 MPa Table B.3d Isobaric Data for P = 0.1 MPa Table B.3e Isobaric Data for P = 0.15 MPa Table B.3f Isobarie Data for P = 0.3 MPa Table B.3g Isobaric Data for P= 0.5 MPa Table B.3h Isobaric Data for P = 0.7 MPa Table B.3i Isobaric Data for P = 1 MPa Table B.3j Isobarle Data for P = 1.3 MPa Table B.3k isobaric Data for P= 2 MPa ‘Table Bil Isobaric Data for P = 3 MPa Table B 3m Isobaric Data for P = 4 MPa Table B3n Isobaric Data for P= 6 MPa Table B.3o Isobaric Data for P= 8 MPa Table B.3p Isobarie Data for P= 10 MPa Table B.3q Isobaric Data for P= 12 MPa Table B.3r Isobaric Data for P= 14 MPa Table B.3s Isobaric Data for P = 16 MPa Table B.3t Isobarie Data for P = 18 Mra ‘Table B.3u Isobaric Data for P = 20 MPa Table B.3v Isobaric Data for P= 26 MPa (Supercritical) Table B.3w Isobaric Data for P= 28 MPa (Supercritical) Table B.3x Isobaric Data for P = 32 MPa (Supercritical) Table B4 Compressed Liquid (Water) Table Bela Isobaric Data for ? = 5 MPa x RAASIIZA aR gee 2 geee 8 8CONTENTS. Table B.ab Isobarie Data for P = 10. MPa Table B.de Isobaric Data for P= 15 MPa Table Bd Isobarie Data for P = 20 MPa Table R.de Isoharic Data for P= 30 MPa Table B.Af Isobaric Data for P = 50 MPa Table B.5 Vapor Properties: Saturated Solid Vapor (Sublimation Line: 200-273.16 K) Appendix Thermodynamic and Thermo-Physical Properties of Ar Table CL Approximate Composition, Apparent Molecuiar Weight, and Gas Constant for Dry Table €.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Air at 1 atm Table €.3a Thermo-Physical Properties of Air (100-1000 K at 1 atm) Table €.3b Therme-Physical Properties of Air (1000-2300 K at 1 att) Appendix D Thermodynamic Properties af Ideal Gases and Carbon Table D.A. CO (Molecular Weight = 28.010, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = -110,541 ke}/emol) Table D.2 CO; (Molecular Weight = 44011, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = -393, 546 kiko!) Table D3 Th (Molecular Weight = 2.016, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 0 ki/kmol) Table DH (Molecular Weight = 1.098, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 217,979 ki/kmol) Table D.5 OH (Molecular Weight = 17.007, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 38,986 ki/kmol) Table D.6 1,0 (Molecular Weight = 18.016, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = -241,845 k/kinol, Enthalpy ‘of Vaporization = 44,010 k/kmol) Table D.7 Nj (Molecular Weight = 28.013, Enthelpy of Formation at 298 K = 0 ks/kmol) Table D.8 N (Molecular Weight = 14.007, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 472,629 ki/kmol) Table D.9 NO (Molecular Weight = 30.006, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 90,297 ki/kmol) ‘Table D.10 NO, (Molecular Weight = 46.096, Enthalpy of | Formation at 298 K = 33,098 ku/lemol) ‘Table D.L1 ©, (Molecular Weight = 31.999, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 0 ki/kmol) Table D.12 © (Molecular Weight = 16.000, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 249,197 ki/kmol) Table D.A3 ¢s) (Graphite, Molecular Weight = 12.011, Enthalpy of Formation at 298 K = 0 ki/kmol) Table D.L4 Curve-Fit Coefficients for Thermodynamic Properties (C-H-O-N System} Appendix E Various Thermadyramic Data Table E.1 Critical Constants and Specific Heats for Selected Gases Table E.2 Van der Waals Constants for Selected Gases Appendix F Thermo-Physical Properties of Selected Gases at 1 atm Table Fila Ammonia (NH) Table F.1b Carbon Dioxide (COs) eal 82 82 33 823 eat 825 805 805 89 830 832 833 835 836 87 839 Bio Bal cr} 845 845 86 86 erCONTENTS. ‘Table F.le Carbon Monoxide (CO) ‘Table Fd Helium (He) ‘Table Fle Hydrogen (H3) ‘Table E.AF Nitrogen (N:) Table Flg Oxygen (0,) Table E.lh Water Vapor (H.0) ‘Appendix & — Thermo-Physical Properties of Selected Liquids Table G.1 Thermo-Physical Properties of Saturated Water ‘Table G.22 R-134a (1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane) ~ Saturated ‘Table G.2b Engine Oil (Unused) - Saturated ‘Table G.2e Ethylene Glycol (C,H,(OH),) - Saturated Table G.2d Glycerin (CHOH],) Saturated Table G.2e Mereury (Hg) Saturated ‘Appendix 4 Thermo-Ptysical Properties of Hyérecarbon Fuels Table H.1 Selected Properties af Hydrocarbon Puls Table H.2 Curve-Fit Coefficients for Fuel Specific Heat and Enthalpy for Reference State of Zeto Enthalpy of the Elements at 298.15 K and 1 atm Table H.3 Curve-Fit Coefficients for Fuel Vapor Thermal Conductivity, ‘Viscosity, and Specific Heat ‘Appendix! Psychrometric Charts Figure 11 Adapted with permission from Z. Zhang and M. B. Pate, “A Methodology for Implementing a Psychromewic Chart in a Computer Graphics System,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 94, Pt. 1, 1988. Figure 12 Adapted with permission from Z. Zhang and M, B, Pate, “A ‘Methodology for Implementing a Psychrometric Chart in a Computer Graphics System,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 94, Pt. 1, 1988. Indes 861 863Preface to the Second Edition ‘This second edition of Thermodynamics: Concepts and Applications results from a Significant reorganization and expansion of the first edition. The first edition was first published in 2006 by Steve Turns only and was well received by students and instructors alike, We received encouraging comments and helpful feedback from readers and this has been a great motivation to prepare a new and improved version ‘with updated text and illustrations. Laura Pauley was invited as the second author in this edition to contribute aa additional approach to the introduction of second-law analysis and to provide additional examples, applications, annd problems. ‘Asin the first edition, the purpose of the new edition i to Introduce undergraduate students to the basie principles, aspects, and methods of thermodynamics. However, we have: «+ reorganized the text to follow the order in which material tends to he presented in a thermodynamics course. For instance, entropy properties are not defined until they are used in Chapter 7. + expanded the second-law material, dividing it into two chapters (Chapters Gand 7} This is now presented in such a way that instructors can decide whether to Luntroduce this topic in Chapter 6, using the eycle analysis, or in Chapter 7, starting. from the definition of entropy. ‘+ added additional cycles to Chapter 9 (Which was previously Chapter 8), including: closed feedwater heaters, cogeneration cycles. combined cycles, Otto and diesel cyele. + moved mixtures to Chapter 10, humidity to Chapler 1, and combustion to Chap ters 12 and 13, + increased the number of end-of chapter preblems from 899 in the first edition to 1363 in ‘+ reorganized and labeled the chapter problems by section in each chapter. ‘+ added FE problems to the chapters covering topics on the FE exam. ‘+ added EES or computer problems to Chapters 2 and 4-9, These problems frequently include a parameter study. The EES problems are often presented as a series of problems in which one case is solved by hand, that same problem is solved in EES, and then the EES program is adapted for a parameter study. This gives the student a structure for good analysis methods that includes checking with hand calculations. + included a hierarchical chart of topics atthe beginning of each chapter to orient the studen is new edition. Features ‘Asin the first edition, this new edition includes a set of pedagogical features to enhance ‘students’ motivation and learning. as well as to make teaching easier and more effective for the instructor. Feedback from instructors who use this book is most welcome.PREFACE, Chapter Overviews These appear at the beginning of each chapter and include: a list of learning object- ives, a chapter introduction, and a brief historical perspective (where appropriate); they conclude with a brief summary of the topics covered in each chapter. "These sections will guide students as they are introduced to and study the thermodynamics concepts in each chapter Figures and Photos Figures have been designed to convey the key concepts in a clear and self-explanatory way. An abundance of color photographs and images illustrates important concepts and emphasizes practical applications In-Text Examples Fach chapter contains many examples that follow a standard problem-solving format The examples apply the concepts of the section and also demonstrate a methodical solution method that should be followed by the student. Self-Tests Self-tests follow mast of the in-text examples. These slf-tests allow students to solve a problem that is similar to the in-text example, This gives students an opportunity to. work through the same solution steps as in the example, to gain confidence in problem solving, Problems A large number of hierarchically arranged problems, expanded from the previous ‘dition, are included at the end of each chapter. The problems have been organized by section titles to assist instructors and students. The National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) WebBook and miniREFPROP software for thermodynamic properties are used extensively. Review Questions Now thought-provoking conceptual questions, instructional videos, problems requir- lng FES/MATLAB or other software, and FE exam practice problems are included. Key Equations ‘These are highlighted by a colored background to allow students to easily find these ‘equations and structure their learning, Instructors might specify that all homework.PREFACE ni solutions must start from 2 key equation that js highlighted. ‘This can clarify which ‘equations can be used directly and which equations must be derived in a solution Appendices for Additional Coverage Appendices at the end of the book provide additional information on the topics ‘explored in the main text Chapter Summaries A section at the end of each chapter summarizes the key points developed in the chapter so that students can, at a glance, confirm that they have understood the key’ take-away messages. These key concepts and definitions are linked to specific end-of ‘chapter questions and problems. ‘SI Units St units have been consistently used throughout the book. Organization Chapter | provides motivation for studying thermodynamics by presenting many applications and introduces key definitions and concepts to provide a framework for further study. Chapter 2 develops the concept of state relations and presents various ‘equations of state (P, V, T relations) and calorific equations of state (4, a, ete, T; P relations) Ideal gases, rel gases, and multi-phase substances (with emphasison liquid ‘vapor systems) are all treated here. Second-law properties are dealt with in later chapters. Chapter 3 focuses entirely on the conservation of mass for open and closed systems, with examples reinforcing the property relations from Chapter 2. Chapter 4 provides a detailed discussion of energy, heat interactions, and work transfers, setting the stage for the study in Chapter 5 of the first law of thermodynamics. ‘The second-law content has been expanded and split into two chapters. The two ‘chapters are written to allow the second law to be introduced in two different ways ‘Chapter 6 introduces the second-law analysis for cycles, whereas Chapter 7 introduces second-law analysis starting with the definition of entropy for a reversible isothermal process. The earliest sections of Chapter 7 are written without reference to Chapter 6 so that an instructor can start with Chapter 7 and then consider cycle analysis in Chapter 6, Chapter presents steady-flow devices, and Chapter 9 deals with how these devices ean be combined to provide systems for power production, propulsion, and heating and cooling. Chapter 9 now contains traditional analyses of ges-power systems, e.g. the Otto and diesel cycles. ‘Topics that are Likely to be covered in a second course in thermodynamics have been unembedded, expanded, and moved to separate chapters: mixtures (Chapter 10) psychrometry (Chapter 11). combustion (Chapter 12), and chemical equilibrium (Chapter 13)PREFACE, Online Resources A companion website at www cambridge org/thermo contains the following online ancillaries: Accessible to All: + Instructional Videos to assist students in developing a deep conceptual understand: ing of the first law and ideal gas processes + Instructions + Work Sheet Links + NIST software Password-Protected: + Solutions Manual + Image Gallery + Lectures Slides in two formats. One format includes al lecture content, The second format has open sections that can be filled using a tablet PC during 2 class lecture, + Test BankePreface to the First Edition WHY ANOTHER THERMODYNAMICS BOOK? With a number of excellent thermo- ‘dynamics textbooks available, what purpose is served by publishing another? ‘The answer to these important questions lies in the origins of this book. Although the subject matter focuses almost entirely om traditional thermodynamics topics, the structure of the book puts it in the broader context of the thermal-fluid sciences. The following specific features provide this integrated fee: ‘+ Chapter 3 is devoted entirely to the conservation of mass principle and deals with some concepts traditionally treated in fluid mechanics textbooks. ‘+ Rate laws for conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer are introduced in Chapter 4—Energy and Energy Transfer. These rate laws are used subsequently in examples in this and later chapters. ‘+The concept of head loss, 2 usual topic in fluid mechanics, is introduced in Chapter 5 and utilized in examples. ‘A second feature also sets this book apart from other engineering thermodynamics textbooks: a hierarchical structure. The following arrangements illustrate the hier acchical arrangement of subject matter: ‘+ In Chapter 2, essentially all material related to thermodynamic properties is grouped together. In this way, we are able to show clearly the hierarchy of thermodynamic state relationships: starting with the basic equation of state involving P, V, and 7: adding first-law-based calorific equations of state involving uh, P, T. and y: and ending with the secand-law-based state relationships involving s, T, P, and 9. for example. Chapter 2 also treats properties of ideal gas mixtures and introduces standardized properties for reacting mixtures. Such an arrangement requires that Chapter 2 be revisited at appropriate places in the study of later chapters. In this sense, Chapter 2 Is a resource that Is to be returned to many times. ‘+ Hlement conser vation, a topic central 1o reacting systems, Is considered in Chapter 3 as just one of many ways of expressing conservation of mass. ‘+ Consiant-pressure and constant-volume combustion are considered as toples within Chapter 5. Energy Conservation. ‘+ Chemical and phase equilibria are treated as a consequence of the second law of thermodynamics and developed within Chapter 6; therefore, all topics related to the second law are found hierarchically in a single chapter. ‘What purpose is served by such an arrangement? First, it provides an important structure for a beginning learner. Experts who have mastered and work within a discipline organize material this way in their minds, while novices tend to treat concepts in an undifferentiated way a a collection of seemingly unrelated iopics.' * tak Memo, Jc SD. FS, HA “Eapet an Nove efermance in Sling Phys rem” Soc, MM: L512 (158)miiv PREFACE Even through all topics will not be covered sequentially in a course, when students revisit chapters they will see the connections between new and previously covered ‘material. It is hoped that providing a useful hierarchy from the start may speed learning and aid in retention, A second reason for a hierarchical arrangement is Alexibility. In general, the book has been designed to permit an instructor to select, topics from within a chapter and combine them with material from other chapters in a relatively seamless manner. This flexibility allows the book to be used in many ways, depending upon the educational goals of a particular course, or a sequence of courses. To assist in selecting topics, the text distinguishes three levels; level 1 (basic) material Js unmarked, level 2 (intermediate) material appears with a blue background and a blue edge stripe, and level 3 (advanced) material is denoted with a light red back- ground and a red edge stripe, Instructors can therefore choose from the numerous. topics presented to create courses that meet their specific educational objectives. The syllabus following the table of contents illustrates how the book might be used in a traditional, one-semester, engineering thermodynamics class. In addition to structure, many other pedagogical devices are employed in this book. These include the following: + An abundance of color photographs and images illustrate important concepts and ‘emphasize practical applications; + Bach chapter begins with a list of learning objectives, a chapter overview. and a brief historical perspective, where appropriate, and concludes with a brief summary: + Each chapter contains many examples that follow a standard problem solving format; + Selftests follow most examples; + Key equations are denoted by colored backgrounds; + Bach chapter concludes with a checklist of key concepts and definitions linked 10 specific end-of-chapter questions and problems; + The National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) database for thermo- dynamic and transport properties (included in the NIST12 v.5.2 software provided ‘with the book) is used extensively. All of these features are intended to enhance student motivation and learning and to make teaching easier for the instructor. For example, the many color photographs make connections to real-world devices, 4 strong motivator for undergraduate stu- dents. Also, the learning objectives and checklists are particularly useful. For the instructor, they ald in the selection of homework problems and the creation of quizzes and exams, or other instructional tools. For students, they can be used as sef-tests of comprehension and can monitor progress. The checklists also cite topic-specitic questions and problems. In his use of the book. the author utilizes the learning objectives to guide reviews of the material prior to examinations. Having well-defined learning ebjectives is also useful in meeting engineering accreditation requirements Many questions and problems are included atthe end of each chapter. The purpose of the questions is to reinforce conceptual understanding of the material and to provide an outlet for students to articulate such understanding. Throughout the book, stu- dents are encouraged to use the National Institute of Science and Technology (NIST) databases to obtain thermodynamic properties. The online NIST property database is casily accessible and is a powerful resource It s a tool that will always be up to date.PREFACE xv ‘The NIST12 v.5.2 software included with this book has features not available online. ‘This user-friendly software provides extensive property data for 18 fluids and has an easy-to-use plotting capability. This invaluable resource makes dealing with proper~ ties easy and can be used to enhance student understanding, Feedback from instructors who use this book is most welcome.Acknowledgements to the Second Edition ‘Many thanks go to the people who helped create both the first and second editions of this book. Thanks goes to Chris Mordaunt for his creation of the selftests and his meticulous reading of the manuscript and insightful comments and to the members of the solutions manual team: Jacob Stenzler and Dave Kraige, leaders of the effort, and Justin Sabourin, Yoni Malchi, and Shankar Narayanan, From the outset, Mary Newby deciphered pencil serawls to create a word: processed manuscript, We thank Mary for her invaluable efforts. ‘We thank Eric Lemmon at NIST for revising miviREFPROP for our needs, and we acknowledge fellow textbook authors Dwight Look, Jr. Harry Sauer, Jr, and Glen Myers for permission 10 use selected problems from their works. We acknowledge the support of the National Science Foundation for the development of the video exercises and the efforts of the following in their creation: the first author's colleagues, Pegay Van Meter, Carla Firetto, and Tom Litzinger; undergraduate students Leigh Lesnick, Jordan Chaklor-Sracie, and Herschel Pangborn; and graduate students Chelsea Cam- cron and Charlyn Shaw, ‘Three people were critical to the creation of this book. The first is Peter Gordon, who came to the rescue in trying times and breathed life into this project. Second is Dick Benson, without whose enthusiastic support this book would not have been possible. Third, but hardly last is Joan, the first author's wife. She cannot be thanked enough for her help, patience, and supportS(O eT) BS Energy Energy rate Force Heat fox Kinematic viscosity and sitfusvities Length Mass Mass density Mass fon rate Pressure Specific neat Temperature Time Velocity Viscosity u Law iw [ton (otigoration) hp IN Ltn? L mis Lm Lg 1 slug kgm? hws Pe 0.1 MPa 1 atm Lek 3600s I ms UN: sin? = 9478.17 x 10-" Btu = 2388 5 x 10-* kal TTR. fy 3.412 14 Btuhe 1.341 > 10° horsopower = 4517 kN = 12,000 Btuhr = 550 ftlbys = 0.224 809 iby = 0317 1 Btu/ttt) = 3.875 x 10° f/m 38370 in = 3.280 8 ft = 2.204 6 bg = 32174 Ih = 0,062 428 Ibp/t” = 19365 Ih 1 Nan? = 0.020 885 4 nyt? = LAS0 4 3 10 Ibn? = AOI x 10-* in water = 1 bar = 101325 AP = 760 mm Hg 29.92 in He = 14,70 psia 2.388 6 x 10-* Btu/Iby:®) (99) 8 (609) F + 45967) “C4 27315 =the = 2237 niles = 1 Pesvavili CONVERSION FACTORS Volume Im = 1igsm 24191 Ib/the 58016 10-® Ibe? = 1000 centipoise (CP 1000 liters 264.2 gallons (US tq) = 3531 iNOVA E Lae . RISE Ome ay sy Acceleration vector (m/s") Specific availability or specific energy (J/kg) Specific Helmholtz fee energy (I/kg)¢ van der Waals constant (Pam/kimal*) Speed of sound (1n/s) ‘Area (m') oF Helmbolte free energy (3) Availability oF energy ‘Air-fuel ratio (kguu/RR ve) Van der Waals constant (m"/kmol) Specific heat (3/kg-K) Constant-pressure specific heat (J/kg-k) Molar constant-pressure specific heat (J/kmol-K) Constant-volume specific heat (1/kg:K) Molae constant-volume specific heat (1/kmolK) Heat-capacity rate (0/K-s) Number of components (dimensionless) Diffuser pressure-recovery coefficient (dimensionless) Coefficient of performance Diameter (mm) Specific energy (J/kg) Molar-specific energy (J/kmol) Energy (3) Energy rate (W) Arbitrary function Force (N) Degrees of freedom (dimensionless) Force vector (N) Thrust force (8) Fuel-alr ratio (kgau/kBan) Gravitational acceleration (m/s") 9.80665 m/s Specific Gibbs function (J/kg) Molae-speciie Gibbs function (1/kiol) Gibbs function (3) Specific enthalpy (2/kg) Molae-speciic enthalpy (I/lmol) Average heat-transfer coellicient (W/a°K or °C) Emthalpy (3) Higher heating value (3/Kg.a) Higher heating value (1/kmolias) Heating value (J/kg)yx NOMENCLATURE uv TP m spc Hext exchanger Electrical current (A) Rotational mement of inertia (kg/m) ‘Thermal conductivity (W/m-k) Boltzmann constant, 1.380619 x 10° (J/K) Spzcific kinetic encrgy (J/kg) ‘Equilibeium constant (dimensionless) Kinetic energy (3) Kinetic energy rate (W} Mean free path (m) ‘Length (m) Lower heating value (7k guwi) Lower heating value (J/kemoliud) Mass flow rate (kg/s) Mass flux (kg/s:m’) Unified atomic mass unit (kg) Mass (kg) ‘Molecular weight (kg/kmel) Number of tube-bundle passes Number of pa Polytropic exponent (dimensionless) ‘Number of moles (kel) ‘Number of tubes fn a bundle ‘Avagodro's number (sce Fy, 2.8) Specific potential encrgy (1/kg) Pressure (N/m? or Pa) or chart parameter Partial pressure (Pa) Power [I/s or W) Number of phases (dimensionless) Potential encegy (1) Heat transfer per unit mass (kg) Heat (or eat transfer, ot heat interaction) (9) Heat transfer rate (W/s oF W) ‘Heat flux (heat transfer rate per unit area) (W/a?) Kaus (2) articular gas constant (1/kg-K} Pressure ratio (dimensionless) Hectrcal resistance (ohm) Universal gas constant, 8314.472 (/kmol-K) Specific entropy (1/kg-K) Distance vector (2) Molar-speciic entropy (1/kmol K) Enuropy (9/8) Entropy generated by ireversibilitis (J/K) ate of entropy generation by irreversibilities (3) ‘Specific fuel consumption for power-producing engines (kg/S) Specific fuel consumption for thrust-producing engines [(kg/SVN] Time(s)NOMENCLATURE xed T Temperature (K) T ——Teege (Nm) t Specie intemal energy (kg) 3% Molar-epecfic internal energy (2/cmol) © teternal energy (3) Fete Mean maloculc spe (as) Specific volume (1'/kg) Molar-specific volume (m' mo) Velocity or speed (scalar (m/s) Velocity (vector) (m/s) Volume (mn) Volumetric flow rate (m"/s) Voltage (V) Work per mass (3/kg) Work (Nm or 3) Rate of working or power (J/s ot W) Quality (cimensioniess) Axial coordinate or distance (mn) Moles of carbon per mote of fuel (kmol/kmol) Mole fraction (dimensionless) Spatial coordinate (m) Perpendicular distance from surface (m) Extracted fraction (dimensionless) Mass fraction (dimensionless) Elevation (m) Spatial coordinate (m) Vertical coordinate or distance (m) Compressibility factor, PV/RY (dimensionless) Ratio of element atoms or moles (dimensionless) NNN NN ERS RRR EEE Cee oS Greek Fraction dissociated A Arbitrary property B—Cocficient of performance 7 Specifiecheat rato cy (dimensionless) 4 Increment along specific path (e.g, W or 6Q) 4 __biference or increment (eg., AE = E> ~ Ei) AG; Standard-state Gibbs function change at temperature (J/krmol) AH. Enthalpy of combustion (3) ‘AHy Enthalpy of reaction (3) ‘lg Enthalpy of reaction (or of combustion) per mass of fuel /egeua) ‘Ah, Heat of combustion or heating value (Ski) © Emissivity (dimensionless) ficiency 1, sentropic efficiency ofa turbine, pump, er compressor Thermal efficiency K —_Proporticnality constantaii NOMENCLATURE “ % ’ ¢ © 2 Chemical potential (3/kmol) Stoichiometric coefficient of species j Density (kg/m’) Stefan-Holtzmann constant (5.670400 10°* W/mK") Shear stress (N/m') Relative humidity Equivalence ratio (dimensionless) Humidity rauo or speciic humidity Angular velocity (ad/s) [Angle (rad) Subscripts cond DB frie gage gen gen actual alr absolute actual adiabatic atmospheric average downstream receiver doundary (conteol surface) bulk, or associated with the critical characterise compressor cold fluid counterflow conduction ‘open system (control volume) Ary bulb exit plane exhaust eleeteical final ‘uid (quid) formation fuel difference between saturated vapor and saturated liquid states assoctated with a flow frietion as (vapor) saturated vapor Bage generated within system genecator high-temperature reservoirst ST stoich stored sublim sys NOMENCLATURE saiii hot fid heat exchanger species i initial inlet, into system ‘nical internal or associated with the constituent molecules, etc. low-temperature reservoir Iiquid Iiquid maximum ‘uid with maximum heat capacity rate mechanical fluid with minimum heat capacity rate ‘overall ‘outlet, out of system oxidizer pressure products products of combustion pump or pumping device parallel flow radiation reactants reference state or value reversible rotational isentropic sensible surface saturated state steady flow shaft shelland-tube stoichiometric stored within system sublimation surroundings system,yaiy NOMENCLATURE t turbine or thraat th thermal tot total trans translational v vapor vap vapor vib vibrational vise viscous wall wall, at the wall WB wet bulb esec cross-sectional 1 state o¢ station 1 2 state or station 2 2 ambient or freestream value Superscripts atm) Product Other (-) Average value Denotes standard-state, e.g. pressure (P”LEARNING OBJECTIVES Alter studying Chapier you should ‘Have basic idea of what thermodynamics is and the kinds of engineering problems to which it applies. ‘© Be able to distinguish between a closed system and an oper system {control volume) ‘© Have an understanding of and be able to state the formal definitions of thermodynamic propo, states, processes, and cles. ‘© Understara the concent of thermodynamic equiitriun and its requirement of simultanecusly satisfhing thermal, mechanical, phase, and chemical equilibria, ‘© Be able to explain the meaning of 2 quasi-equiltrium process. ‘© Understand the distinction between primary dimensions and derived dimensions, and the distinction between dimensions and units ‘+ Be able to convert SI units of force, mass, energy, and power to US customary units, and vice versa IN THIS CHAPTER. we introduce and define the subject of thermodynamics. We also introduce three complex practical applications of our study of thermodynamics: the fossil fueled steam power plant, jet engines, and the spark-ignition reciprocating engine, To set the stage for more detailed developments later in the book, several of the most important concepts and definitions are presented here, These include the concepts of: open and closed thermodynamic systems; thermodynamic properties, states, and cycles; and equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium processes. The chapter concludes with an organizational overview of engineering thermodynamics and pre sents some ideas of how you might optimize the use of this textbook based on your particular edveational objectives ‘Thermodynamics is one of three disciplines known collectively as the thermal-fuid sciences, sometimes as just the thermal sciences: thermodynamics, heat transfer, and fluid mechanics. We begin with a dictionary definition |} of thermodynamics Thermodynamics is the science that deals with the relationship of heat and mechanical energy and conversion of one into the other, ‘The Greek roots, cherme, meaning heat, and dynamis, meaning power or strength, suggest a more elegant definition: the power of heat. In its common usage in engineer- ing. thermodynamics has come to mean the broad study of energy and its various Interconversions from one form to another. Figure |. illustrates a few examples that motivate our study of thermodynamics, FIGURE 1.1 Exanples of energy convsion sstons: Hii engivecenvrts energy sted in chanical tonds of fal melecles or fom bitters to shalt power (eft) (CeesPimp / E+ / Getty images) photonic solar pares and wind tutines convert slr radiation ard wind energy te eect, respecialy (ght (GlPhteSiock / Cultura / Gey images2 1 BEGINNINGS 1.2 Some Applications Practical applications of thermodynamics abound. Biological systems provide many examples. Consider yourself as a thermodynamic system. All of your physical activ- ities require energy transformation. Energy stored in the chemical bonds of foodstufls {s transformed to power temperature regulation, respization, blood circulation, muscle movements, and other body functions. Electronic devices are ubiquitous. Consider your smart phone. Charging the phone involves converting electrical energy from a ‘all outlet to chemical energy stored in the phone’s battery. The energy in the battery thea powers the electronic circuits and is ultimately transported to the surroundings as thermal energy. Another natural example of the application of thermodynamics is provided by the physical processes associated with the weather, Radiant energy from the sum heats the ground, which in turn heats the air and results in thermals and downdrafts. The evaporation and condensation af water to form clouds involve thermodynamic processes. Some of the problems at the end of this chapter focus on everyday applications of thermodynamics. ‘We introduce the following three practical applications, which we use as recurring themes throughout the book: + Steam power plants, + Spark-ignition engines, and + Jet engines. ‘These applications, and others, provide 2 practical context for our study of thermo- dynamics. Many of the examples presented in subsequent chapters revisit these specific applications, as do many of the end-of-chapter problems. Where these par- ticular examples appear, a note reminds the reader that the example relates to one of these three themes. 1.2a Steam Power Plants There are many reacons to choose the steam power plant as an application of thermo- dynamics. First, and foremost, is the overwhelming importance of such power plants 10 our daily existence. Imagine how your life would be changed if you did not have access to electrical power (Fig, 1.2) of, less severely, if electricity had to be rationed 90 that It would be available to you only a few hours each day! It is easy to forget the blessings of essentially limitless electrical power available to residents of the United States, From Table 1.1, we see that the combustion of fossil fuels is the dominant source of our electricity; approximately 63.4% of the electricity produced in the United States in 2018 had its origin in the combustion of a fossil fuel, that is, coal, $28, oF oil. Figure 1.3 shows a German coal-fired power plant. Nuclear power is the second largest source with approximately 19.3% of the total generation. We also note that, with 8.2%, the combined amount of electricity generated by solar and wind power has increased by almost a factor of six from 2008 to 2018. A second reason for four choice of steam power plants as an integrating application Is the historical significance of steam power. The science of thermodynamics was bern, in part, from a desire to understand and improve the earliest steam engines, John Newcomen’s frst coal-fired steam engine in 1712 (Hig, 1.4) predates the discovery of the fundamental principles of thermodynamics by moce than a hundred years! The idea later to beL.2SOME APPLICATIONS 3 ‘TABLE 1.1 Electricity Generation in the United States for 2018 [2] Fossil fuels al 11454 24 Petroleum 48 06 Natural gas 14680 35.1 Other gases 122 03 Subtotal 26512 634 Nuclear 807. 193 Hydro pumped storage “59 OL Renewables Hydro 217 10 Wood ala lo Waste aa 0s Gecthermal 167 04 Solar 655 16 Wind 2750 66 Subtotal 728 vt Other 126 03 TOTAL amg 1009 FIGURE 1.2 A complex erica! transmission grid transmits electri trom ower plats fo uses thraugheut the USA How ta deal wth the intermittent power production fom solar and wind energy Sources i & major concer associated with integrating these erewablescuces ito tho electrical grid Uetl_Mu / Steck / Cty Images Pas kknown as the socond law of thermodynamics was published by Sadi Carnot in 1824; and Julius Mayer first presented the conservation of energy principle, or the first law of thermodynamics, in 1842, ‘A timeline of important people and events in the history of the thermal sclences is resented in Appendix A.4 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.3 Nodem cxa-fred pewer pant (Germany) faci E+ / Getty Ineges) In thls chapter, we present the basic steam power plant cycle and illustrate some of the hardware used to accomplish this cycle. Im subsequent chapters, we will add devices and complexity to the basic cycle. Figure 1.5 shows the basic steam power cycle, or Rankine eyele. (William Rankine (1820-1872). a Scottish engineer. was the author of the Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers (1859) and made significant contributions to the fields of civil and mechanical engineering) Water Conbwston prods vlad Aovtack) sivie Water pimp severe cooling outing FIGURE 1.4 Noweamen's frst cca fr eaten otro seam engin (PRISM ARCHIVO / amy ‘Stock Pate. FIGURE 1.5 Tis basic stem power cycle is aso known as the Rankine eeFIGURE 1.6 Cutaway view of bor Sowing s- of ol-ired bums onthe ight wall. Hot combustion product beat liguid wate fling trough the tubes. The steam profuced resides in he sieam drum (tanh at the tp et. This boiler has rinal 8. width, 12-m height, and 10-0 depth. Adapted tum Ret (3). (Courtesy of tho Babcock & Wibor Company.) L.2SOME APPLICATIONS 5 (Giguid and vapor) is the working fuid in the closed loop 1-2-3-4-1. The water ‘undergoes four processes: Process 1-2 A pump boosts the pressure of the liquid water prior to entering the boiler. To operate the pump, an input of energy is required. Process 2-3 Energy is added to the water in the boiler, resulting, first, im an increase in the water temperature and, second, in a phate change. The hot products of combustion provide this energy. The working fluid is liquid at state 2 and all ‘vapor (steam) at state 3 Process 3-4 Energy is xemoved from the high-temperature, high-pressure steam as it expands through a steam turbine. The output shaft of the turbine is connected to aan electrical generator for the production of electricity. Process 4-1 The low-pressure steam Is returned to the liquid state as it lows through the condenser. The energy from the condensing steam is transferred to the cooling water. Figures 141.10 illustrate the various generic components used in the Rankine cycle. Figure 1.6 shows a cutaway view of an industrial boiler: a much larger central ‘power station utility boiler is shown in Figure 1.7, Although the design of boilers [}-6] is well beyond the scope of this book, the text offers much about the fundamental principles of their operation. For example, you will learn about the properties of water and steam in Chaptcr 2, whereas the necessary aspects of mass and energy conser- vation needed to deal with the components are treated in Chapters 3-5. Chapter 8 considers the components of a power plant (see Figs. 1.81.10}; and Chapter 9 con- Siders the system as whole, ‘AS we begin our study, we emphasize the importance of safety in both the design and operation of power generation equipment, Fluids at high pressure contain enor- ‘mous quantities of energy, as do spinning turbine rotors. Figure J. shows the results6 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.7 Bots for public uty ctrl pewerganeaton canbe quite are as ate these natural gs-ted units (on Thomas /E+ / Getty nage) FIGURE 1.8 Siem turine fr power @=reraton. Photograph and oiginal cation reproduced wit permission ofthe ‘Smithsonian Institution The “Heart” ofthe Huge Westinghouse arbi — An unusual deal picture showing the maze of mirutely fashioned blades ~ epprsimaely five theusand~ ef the Westinghouse turbine roa, er “spindle”, Though ory twenty-five fet in length tis piece of machinery weighs ove husdred ad fiten theusané pounds. At fll sped the ouside diameter ef he spi, on the lis ring neary fx miles er minut, ata lil less than 600 mies ger Hoar. The problem of excessive heat rsuting from Such trmeednus speed has been tvercome ty waking the bearings unde forced bration about ta barrel foi being culated through the bearing every sic seconds to uiicate and cary away the heat generated byte rotation. he mato i ha of the 45000 HP. generating uit uit bythe auth Piadeiphia Works, Westinghouse Electric & Mg. Go or the los Angeles Gas and Electric Company (Gt. of a catastrophic boiler explosion, Similarly, environmental concerns are extremely Important in power generation, Examples here are the emission of potential air pollutants from the combustion process (Fig. |.12) and thermal interactions with the environment associated with steam condensation. Control of sulfur dioxide emissionsFIGURE 1.9 Cutaway view of sto-ard lube heat exanger. Energy is transtred from the hot id passing trough the shel tothe cod fu flowing trough the tubes, FIGURE 1.10 This pump was dsigned fr ucla reactor and stam goceratt fed applications. feedwater pumps may be ren by electric ters rf ausiiay steam turbines, Courtesy of Flemsene Corporation. FIGURE 1.11 & policeman inspects the site ofan exlesion near Bangho,Thaliand August 19, 2014, A lage boiler in a cloth ‘heing factory enploded, injuring 22 people (Xinhua / Alay Stock Photo. L2SOME APPLICATIONS 7 Coll Hot fluid out Aid in ee ee ete 4} | Het eet Tube sheet. Baffles. Tubes } ; Ho Cold ‘uid out uid in8 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.12 Seg in Shangtai, China (et) (Wenjie Dang / E+ Getty tages Foluton cons are portent comporents of fossi-ueled power plans. Sow here (ih isan elechestatc precipita, which ‘removes particulate matter fom the fue ‘gases of 3 power pant (st / amy Stack Preto, FIGURE 1.13 Spar-igntion engines ower huncreds of mins of vehices in {he USA and around the ward og / ety Images, ry from coal combustion generates large quantities of sludge requiring dispesal or storage. You can find entire textbooks devoted to these topics [7,8] 1.26 ‘Spark-Ignition Engines | We choose the sprk-ignition engine as onc of our applications to revisit because there are s0 many of them (Pig. 1.13) approximately 200 million are installed in automo~ Diles and light-duty trucks in the United States alone ~ and because many students are particularly interested in engines. Owing to these factors, and others, many schools offer entire courses dealing with internal combustion engines, and many books are devoted to this subject, among them Refs. [9-12] Although you may be famillar with the four-stroke engine eycle, we present it here to make sure that all readers have the same understanding, Figure 1,14 illustrates the following sequence of events: Intake Stroke The fresh fucl-air mixtu ct valve is open and the downward motion of the piston pulls a t near the bottom of the nto the cylinder. At yome po stroke, the intake valve closes.FIGURE 1.14 The mechanical cycle ofthe foatstroe sarh-igniton engine consists ot the inte stoke (a), the compression stoke (b), the expansion stoke (c), and the exaust stot (). The sequence of vents, however, des net eects 9 thrmadynaric eel. Adapted from Ro. (91 with pernissien. (Crit ateral Combustion Engine Fundamentas, isn Heywond © Netraw-Hil Ecicaton) Inet Exhaust Inlet Exhaust Tet Exhaust L.2SOME APPLICATIONS 9 Ines Exhaust 6 (@ Tnake 6) Compression (e) Expunsion @ Fahaus Compression Stroke The piston moves upward, compressing the mixture, The temperature and pressure increase, Prior to the piston reaching the top of its travel (ie. the top center position), the spark plug ignites the mixture and a flame begins to propagate across the combustion chamber. The pressure rises above that due to compression alee, Expansion Stroke The flame continues its travel across the combustion chamber, ideally burning al of the mixture before the piston has descended much from top center, The high pressure in the cylinder pushes the piston downward. Energy is extracted from the burned gases In the process, Exhaust Stroke When the piston is near the bottom of its travel (bottom center), the exhaust valve opens, The hot combustion products flow rapidly out of the cylinder because of the relatively high pressure within the cylinder compared to that in the exhaust port. The piston ascends, pushing most of the remaining combustion products out of the cylinder. When the piston is somewhere near top center, the exhaust valve closes and the intake valve opens. The mechanical cycle now repeats. In Chapters 5 and 12, we will analyze the processes that occur during the times in the eyele when both valves are closed and the gas contained within the cylinder can be treated as a thermodynamic system. With this analysis, we can model the compres- sion, combustion, and expansion processes. A section of Chapter 9 also focuses on the (Otto and diesel gas power cycles. 1.2c Jet Engines ‘Air travel isa common mode of transportation, with 571 billion passenger miles flown {in the United States in 2012. Since you ate likely to entrust your life from time to time to the successful performance of jet engines, you may find learning about these engines interesting. Figure 1.15 schematically illustrates the two general types of aircraft engines. ‘The schematic at the top shows a pure turbojet engine in which the jet of combus- ton products passing through the exhaust nozzle generates all ofthe thrust, This type10 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.15 Schematic drawings of 2 ‘ngle-shaft treet engine oo) and @ ‘we-shaft hieh-bypass turbofan engine (bottom), Adapted fom Ref 13) Cd — o Nowe Compressor Combuser Turbine Fan ypu stator Core ace Rypats none ry jet fighter and the retired Concorde supersonic transport aircraft, In the turbojet, a multistage compressor boosts the pressure ofthe entering alr. A portion of the high-pressure alr enters the combustor, where fuel is added and burned, while the remaining air cools the combustion chamber, The hot products of combustion then mix with the cooling air, and these gases expand through a multistage turbine. In the final process, the gases accelerate through a nozzle and exit to the atmosphere to produce a high-velocity propulsive jet.' The compressor and turbine are rotary machines with spinning wheels of blades, Rotational speeds vary ‘over a wide range but are ofthe order of 10,000. 20,000 rpm, Other than that needed to Arive accessories, all of the power delivered by the turbine is used to drive the compressor in the pure turbojet engine. ‘The second major type of jet engine is the turbofan engine (Fig. 1.15 bottom). This fs the engine of choice for commercial aireraft. (See Fig, 1.16.) theturbofan, a bypass air jet generates a significant proportion of the engine thrust. The large fan shown at the front of the engine creates this Jet. portion of the total air entering the engine bypasses the core of the engine containing the compressor and turbine, while the remainder passes through the core. The turbines drive the fan and the core compres- sors, generally using separate shafts for each. In the turbofan configuration, the ‘exiting jets from both the bypass flow and the core flow provide the propulsive force, ‘To appreciate the physical size and performance of a typical turbojet engine, consider the GE F103 engine, These engines power the Airbus A300B, the DC-10-30, and the Bocing 747, The F103 engine has @ nominal diameter of 2.7 m (9 fi) and a Jength of 4.8 m (16 ft), produces « maximum thrust of 125 KN (28,000 Ib), and "the base principe re smile to that oa ty ballon that propel by 3 ft of escaping airFIGURE 1.16 Cutaway view of PwAOoD Series turban engine. The PAGES powers the Abs A310~300 ant A300-600 airratl, and Boring 747-40, 767-200 300, nd MO-LL aera Cu ouresy of Patt & White. 1.3 LEARNING THERMODYNAMICS 11 weighs 37 KN (8,325 Ib). Typical core and fan speeds are 14,500 and 8000 rpm, respectively [14] Jet engines afford many opportunities to apply the theoretical concepts developed throughout this book. Analyzing a turbojet cycle is a major topic in Chapter 9, and individual components are treated ia Chapter § 1.3 Learning Thermodynamics ‘Many students find their study of thermodynamics to be challenging. Part of the challenge results from the need to deal with many new concepts and relationships in an effective way [/5]. Research has shown that in learning a new subject, beginning learners or novices may treat their newfound knowledge as unrelated bits or pieces however, experts in the subject have an integrated knowledge, bringing together the ‘many bits in ways that make sense and allow their knowledge to be useful [16]. Having an integrated knowledge of thermodynamics will support your problem solving ability and will lead to a deeper conceptual understanding, It can move you beyond a plug- and-chug approach. Therefore, developing integrated knowledge should be a goal of ‘your learning, Achieving this integration is not an easy task. Asa first step toassist you {in this process, we present Fig, 1.17, This figure shows the typical organization of a first course in engineering thermodynamics. Here we see how the important bits and pleces of thermodynamics knowledge go tagether to form a cogent whole. In exploring this figure, we liken the structure of engineering thermodynamics to that of 2 house. In the top levels, or top floors of our thermodynamics house, reside the exeiting aspects af thermodynamics ~ the analysis and design of practical devices and systems. (For example, see all the previous figures.) Being able to analyze and design practical devices and systems may be an important motivation for your studying engineering, ‘The top floors present an exhilarating view. ‘The lowest level, our sub-basement, contains a number of definitions, frameworks, and concepts that provide a basis for building the house above ~ concepts needed even before we can build a basement, Mastering the material in this lowest level is very12. 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.17 Hevarchicl arangemacts fhe topes i aur sty of engineering {hermatynamics. Chapter 1 introduces ‘rameworks fr analysts along with hey anceps and defntioes, DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS OF PRACTICAL DEVICES CONSERVATIONOF | _ SECONDLAWOF CONSERVATION ENERGY THERMODYNAMES (First Law of Thermodynamics) (Entropy) PROPERTIES OF MATTER important to achieving a deep understanding of thermodynamics; unfortunately, this ‘material provides a lot less excitement than do the top levels for most engineering, students. Some people may say that it is boring. Nevertheless, it is where our study of thermodynamics must begin (here in Chapter 1). ‘The next level up, our basement, contains the study of the properties of matter. To create and operate practical devices and systems requires stuff, or matter; so clearly, a study of the properties of matter is necessary. For our study, the matter that matters the most is air, which we will treat as an ideal gas, and H,0 in its liquid (owater} and vapor {steam) phases. OF course, we will not restrict our study to these ids, At the end of your course of study, you should be comfortable working with 4 large number of fluids (Iiquids/gases). Although Chapter 2 contains most of the ‘material related to thermodynamic properties, we delay a discussion of entropy and other related properties until Chapter 7. Other chapters also contain property-related topics. Sitting on top of he properties of matter are three fundamental principles: wo conservation principles ~ those of mass and energy ~ and the second law of thermo- dynamics. These are the big ideas associated with our study ~ they reside in the main living area of our thermodynamics house. In the context of a frst course in thermodynamics, the conservation-of-mass principle is straightforward and causes little difficulty for students, Chapter 3, one of the shortest, covers this principle. ‘The conservation-of-energy principle is at the heart of our study of thermodynam- ‘cs and offers more complexity than mass conservation. The idea here is that energy is never ereated or destroyed, but orly converted from one form to another. Although ‘ot wishing to trivialize this idea, one can think of applying energy conservation (the first law of thermodynamics) as an exercise in accounting ~ all energy debits and credits must always balance. Throughout the book, we stress the importance of this concept and seek ways to help the reader develop a deep understanding of it. Chapter 4 sets the stage for dealing with energy conservation, and Chapter 5 provides a detailed. ‘woatment, Subsequent chapters al link back to or use this important concept. The second law of thermodynamics (Chapter 6), the third of our big ideas, places limits on what is possible —limits over and above those associated with conservation of energy. For example, the second law establishes the maximum possible thermalFIGURE 1.18 The system boundary separates a fed mass, the chsed system, from its suroendiags. System FIGURE 1.19 The gas within the finder of «8 spark-gniton engine constitutes a cased system, provided therein leakage post the valves othe piste rings. Th Boundaries of this lose system defo as the piston mows 1.4 PHYSICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR ANALYSIS 13, efficiency one can obtain from a Rankine cycle (Pig. 1.5). You may be surprised 10 learn that the maximum thermal efficiency is much less than 100%, even if friction and similar performance impediments could be eliminated. The second law also Provides the basis for the thermodynamic property entropy. which we treat in Chapter 7. From the viewpoint of Fig. 1.17, the discussion of entropy could be part of Chapter 2, a8 entropy is just another thermodynamic property. However, the second law needs to precede the introduction of entropy to provide the context for understanding this property. ‘We will repeat Fig. 1.17 as we move through the book, highlighting the material treated at each juncture. Again, the purpose of this Is to help you organize your knowledge of thermodynamics in useful ways. We now enter the sub-basement, the highlighted portion of Fig. 1.17. 1.4 Physical Frameworks for Analysis Tn this section, wwe define closed systems and open systems. The latter are also known as control volumes. These concepts arc central to almost any analysis of « thermab-fluid problem, 1.4a Closed Systems ma generic sense, a system is anything that we wish to analyze and distinguish from its surroundings or environment. To denote a system. all one needs to do is to create a boundary between the system of interest and everything else that is, the surround. ings. The boundary may be a real surface or an imaginary construct indicated by 2 dashed line on a sketch. Figure 1.18 illustrates the separation of a system from its surroundings by a boundary. ‘We will deal with two kinds of systems, The first is a closed (or fixed-mass) system. The specific definition of a closed system is the following A closed system is a specifically identified fixed mass of material separated from ity surroundings by a real or imaginary boundary. ‘The boundaries of a closed system need not be fixed in space but can, out of necessity, move. For example, consider the gas as the closed system of interest in the piston-cylinder arrangement shown in Fig.1.19. As the piston ascends and the gas is compressed, the closed system boundary shrinks to always enclose the same mass. Conversely, the closed system boundary expands when the piston travels downward. Depending upon one's objectives, a closed system may be simple or complex. homogeneous or nenhomogenous. Our example of the gas enclosed in an engine cylinder (Fig. 1.19) is a relatively simple closed system. The system consists of only ‘one substance: the fucl-air mixture. To simplify further an analysts of this particular closed system, we might assume that the fuel-air mixture has a uniform temperature, although in an operating engine the temperature will vary throughout the system. The ‘matter within the closed system need not be a gas. Liquids and solids, of course, can be the whole system or a part of it, Again, the key distinguishing feature of a closed system is that it contains a fixed quantity of matter, No mass can cross the closed- system boundary.“ 1 BEGINNINGS To further illustrate the thermodynamic concept of a closed system, consider the computer chip module schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.20. A thermal analysis of this device can be performed to ensure that the chip stays sufficiently cool. Considering the complexity of this module, a host ef po le closed systems exist. For example, we might choose 4 system boundary surrounding the entire device and cutting through the connecting wires, indicated as system 1, Alternatively, we might choose the chip itself (system 2) to be the closed system of interest. Choosing system boundaries is eritieal to any thermodynamic analysis, One of the goals of this book is to help you develop the skills required to define and analyze thermodynamic systems, ‘System I boun Radiator Silicon cireuit board ‘Memory chip System 2 boundary FIGURE 1.20 A computer chip i housed in 3 module designed to heep the chip sufctenty coo! (WLADIMIR BULGAR / Science Photo Library / Gai) aviousclsed systems can be defined fr them anasis ofthis telatvely complex device. Twe such ches are shown (dtd nes). Basic module stetch courtesy of ‘Mocharie! Engizerng, Yo. 108, No.3, Mareh 1986, page Al; © WecbanicalEnginoaing (Too Amarican Society of MechaicalEngnges Intreatienal) (ASME Ma), 1.4b Open Systems (or Control Volumes) In contrast to a closed system, mass may cross the boundary of, and enter andjor exit, an open system, Open systems are also known as control volumes. The term open system it more frequently used in thermodynamics, whereas the term control volume Is more frequently used in the domain of fluid mechanics; however, there is no distinction between the two terms, We formally define an open system as follows: An open system isa region in space separated from its surroundings by a real or iginary boundary across which mass may pass Figure 1.21 ilustrates an open system and its attendant boundary. Here, mass in the form of water vapor er water droplets erasses the upper part of the boundary as a result of evaporation from the hot liquid coffee. For this example, we chose a fixed boundary near the top of the cup: however, we could have chosen the regressing liquid surface to be the upper boundary. The choice of moving boundary may or may not simplify an analysis, depending on the particular situation.1.4 PHYSICAL FRAMEWORKS FOR ANALYSIS ‘Open systems may be stmple or complex. Fixing the boundary in space yields the simplest open system, whereas moving open systems with deforming boundaries are 2 illustrates the la air propels an inflated ballon, In this example, the control volume both moves with respect to a the most complex. Figure | er, where the exiting jet fixed observer and shrinks with time. Figure 1.23 illustrates a simple open system with 1p. Note that the boundary ‘cuts through flanged connections at the inlet and outlet of the pump. Frequently, the a fixed boundary associated with the analysis of a water pu particular choice of an op system and its boundary is of overwhelming importance to snanalysis, A wise choice can make an analysis simple, whereas a poor choice can make the analysis more difficult, or perhaps, impossible. Examples presented throughout this book provide guidance in selecting boundaries for open systems. FIGURE 1.21 The tourdary surounds an pen system cotaning het oui ct air, and mote. Water vapor or doles cit though the upper pion of the boundary (photo. Zoenar RF /Zoenar / Getty Images Pu Open sem toundary Conta fs FIGURE 1.22 A rubber balloen andthe ait Omit contains constitute an open sytem (conta valu). The opoe system moves trough FIGURE 1.23 4 sidng-xane pump andthe fi it cotsins constitute 2 simple open system. Mass estos svace and shrinks asthe ar escapes, the boundary at bot the pump inlet and outlet. Adapted from Ff. (71 wit permission of McGraw Hil,16 1 BEGINNINGS 1.5 Key Concepts and Definitions In addition to frameworks for analysis (closedjopen systems), several other basic concepts permeate our study of thermodynamics and are listed in ‘lable 1.2. We Introduce these concepts in this section, recognizing that they will be revisited again, pethaps several times, in later chapters TABLE 1.2 Some Fundamental Thermodynamic Concepts Closed system ‘pen sytem (control volume) Surroundings Property State Process ow process ele Equiibriom Quasi oguilibcium 1.5a Properties Before we can begin a study of thermodynamic properties understood in their most restricted sense, we define what is meant by a property in general A property is.a quantifiable macroscopic characteristic of a system. Examples of system properties include mass, volume, density, pressure, tempera ture, height, width, and color, among others. Not all system properties, however, are thermodynamic properties. Thermodynamic properties all relate in some way to the energy of a system. In our lst here, height, width, and color, for example, do not qualify as thermodynamic properties, although the others do. A precise definition of thermodynamic properties often depends on restricting the system to which they apply in subtle ways. Chapter 2 4s devoted to thermodynamic properties and their interrelationships Properties are frequently combined to create new ones. For example, a spinning baseball in flight not only has the properties of mass and velocity but also kinetic energy and angular momentum. Thus, any closed system may possess numerous properties 1.5b States Another fundamental concept in thermodynamics is that of a state: A thermodynamic state of a closed system is defined by the values of all the closede-system thermodynamic properties. When the value of any one of a closed system's properties changes, the system undergoes a change in state. For example, hot coffee in a thermos bottle undergoes aFIGURE 1.24 (a) A closed stern undergoes a process that resus in 2 change ofthe sytem state fem state 1 ty state 2. (0) In sendy flow process, Nid ters the open sytem in tate Land eis In state 2. 1.5 KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 17 continual change of state as it slowly cools. Not all thermodynamic properties neces sarily change when the state of a system changes: the mass of the coffee in a sealed ‘thermos remains constant while the temperature falls. An important skill in solving ‘problems in thermodynamics is to identify which properties remain fixed and which ‘properties change during a change in state, 1.5c Processes ‘One goal of studying thermal-fluid sciences is to develop an understanding of how various devices convert one form of energy to another. For example, how does the burning coal in a power plant result in the electricity supplied 10 your home? In analyzing such energy transformations, we formally introduce the idea of a thermo- dynamic process: A process occurs whenever a closed system changes from ane state to another state. Figure 1.29 illustrates process in which the gas contained in a cylinder-piston arrangement at state 1 is compressed to state 2. As Is obvious from the sketch, one property, the volume, changes in going from state 1 to state 2. Without knowing more details of the process, we cannot know what other properties may have changed as ‘well, In many thermodynamic analyses, a single property ~ for example, temperature, [pressure, or entropy ~is held constant during the process, In these particular cases, ‘we refer to the processes as a constant-temperature (Isothermal) process, constant- ‘pressure (isobaric) process, of a constant-entropy (isentropic) process, respectively. Although formal detinitions of a process refer to systems, the terminclogy is also applied to open systems, in particular, steady flows in which no properties change ‘with time. We thus define a flow process as follows: A flow process occurs whenever the state of the fluid entering an open system is different from the state of the fluid exiting the open system. Closed ‘stem me Pree State State 2 @ o18 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.25 A sets of steatyton process ae assocsted wth an opting Jet engine. We expr these i Chapter 9 ‘Photo courtesy of US ir Force FIGURE 1.26 A closed system undergoes a ‘joe when a series of processes returns the system tits ginal sate In this sbatch, ‘the cycle consists of the state sequence 141 Figure 1.24b schematically illustrates a flow process. A jet engine employs a series of steady-flow processes (Hig. |.25). Air enters the engine and is compressed: fuel is Injected and burned: the combustion products expand and exhaust into the surround- ings. Various flow processes underlie the operation of myriad practical devices, many ‘of which we will study in subsequent chapters. 1.5d Cycles In many energy-conversion devices, the working fluid undergoes a thermodynamic eyele. Since the word ele is used in many ways, we need a precise definition for our study of thermal-(luid sciences. Our definition is the following: A thermodynamic cycle consists of a sequence of processes in which the working Muid returns to its original thermodynamic state. ‘An example of a cycle applied to a closed (fixed-mass) system Is presented in Fig. 1.26. Here a gas trapped in a piston-cylinder assembly undergoes four processes. A cycle can be repeated any number of times, following the same sequence of processes. Although it is tempting to consider reciprocating internal combustion engines as ‘operating in a cycle, the products of combustion never undergo transformation back to fuel and air, as would be required for our definition of a cycle. There exist, however, types of reciprocating engines that do operate on thermodynamic cycles. A prime example of this is the Stitling engine [5]. The working fluid in Stirling ‘engines Js typically hydrogen or bellum. All combustion takes place outside the cylinder, Figure 1.27 shows a model Stirling engine. ‘Thermodynamic cycles are most frequently executed by a series of flow processes, as illustrated in Fig. 1.28. AS the working fluid flows through the loop. it experiences many changes in state as it passes through various devices such as pumps, boilers, and heat exchangers, but ultimately it returns to I state, arbitrarily chosen here to Pe me t 4 Proves Proce 12 “ t 4 IFIGURE 1.27 Mode! tor-airStiting engine (rico plows /Namy Stock Phot. ~ r ‘ FIGURE 1.20 The fow of energy from region of higher temperature toa egen of lover temperature dives 2 system toward thermal equilibrium. The temperature is uniform in a system at equtrium, 1.5 KEY CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 19 FIGURE 1.28 A cycle can also consist of a sequence of Sow processes in which the lowing ud is returned tots original state: 1-2-3-4-1. fir cantoners operate in acyl of flo processes (97 E+ / Getty Images) be state |. As we have already seen, the heart of a fossil-fueled steam power plant operates on a thermodynamic cycle of the type illustrated in Fig. 1.28 (ef. Fig. 1.5) Refrigerators and air conditioners are everyday examples of devices operating on thermodynamic cycles. In Chapter 9, we analyze various cycles for power production, propulsion, and heating and cooling ‘The thermodynamic cycle is central to many statements of the second law of thermodynamics and concepts of thermal efficiency (Chapter 6) 1.5¢ Equil ‘The science of thermodynamics builds upon the concept of equilibrium states, For example, the common thermodynamic property temperature has meaning only for a system in equilibrium. In a thermodynamic sense, then, what do we mean when we say that a system is in equilibrium? In general, that no unbalanced potentials or jum and the Quasi-Equilibrium Process drivers exist to promote a change of state. The state of a system in equilibrium ‘remains unchanged for all time. For a system to be in equilibrium, we require that the system be simultancously in thermal equilibrium, mechanical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, and chemical equilibrium. Other considerations may exist, but they are beyond our scope. We now consider each of these components of thermodynamic equilibrium, ‘Thermal equilibrium exists when a system both has a uniform temperature andl is at the same temperature as its surroundings. If, for example, the surroundings are hotter than the system under consideration, energy may flow across the system boundary from the surroundings to the system. Such an exchange would result in fan increase in the temperature of the system. Equilibrium thus does not prevail, Similarly, if temperature gradients exist with become cooler, and the initially cooler regions become hotter, as time passes (Pig, 1.29 top). Given sufficient time, the temperature within the system becomes uniform, provided the ultimate temperature of the system is identical to that of the surround ings (Fig. 1.29 bottom). Prior to achieving the final uniform temperature. the system is not in thermal equilibrium. ‘the system, the initially hotter regions20 1 BEGINNINGS FIGURE 1.30 A falar example of ‘utstance that can exist in thee phases is oO. The vapor pase (team sins, tut condenses into smell dopets that can te seen above the ce cube (cragrtclifle / iStock / Getty images Pls). Mechai m and there are no unbalanced forces at the system boundaries. An exception 1 equilibrium occurs when the pressure throughout the system is to the condition of uniform pressure exists when a system is under the influence of a gravitational field. For example, pressure increases with depth in a fiuid such that pressure forces balance the weight of the fluid above. In many systems, however. we can neglect the effects of gravity and the assumption of uniform pressure is reasonable Phase equilibrium relates to conditions in which a substance can exist in more than one physical state; that is, any combination of vapor, liquid, and solid. For example, you are quite familiar with the three states of HO: water vapor (steam), liquid water, and Ice (Fig. 1.30). Phase equilibrium requires that the amount of a substance in any one phase does not change with time; for example, liquid-vapor phase equilibrium implies that the rate at which molecules escape the liquid phase to enter the gas phase is exactly balanced by the rate at which molecules from the gas phase enter the liquid phase, We will discuss these ideas further in Chapters 2 and 13, Our final condition for thermodynamic equilibrium requires the system to be in chemical equilibrium. For systems incapable of chemical reaction, this condition is trivial; however, for reacting systems this constraint is quite important. Chapter 11 is devoted to this topic Prom the foregoing discussion, we see that an equilibrium state is a boring proposition. Nothing happens. The system just sits there. Nevertheless, considering 4 system to be in an equilibrium state at the beginning and at the end of a process is indeed useful, In fact, \tis this idea that motivates our discussion, Our development of the conservation of energy principle relies on the assumption that equilibrium statesT a i I FIGURE 1.31 Inthe q.ast-2quitrium ampression ofa 228, the pressures essentially uniform throughout the gas system, thats k= A. Ar 1.6 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 21 exist at the beginning and end of a process. even though during the process the ‘system may be far from equilibrium. ‘This discussion suggests that it is not possible to describe the details of a process because of departures from equilibrium. In some sense, this is indeed true, However. the often-invoked assumption of 2 quasi-static or quasi-eq) rium process does ‘Permit an idealized description of a process as it occurs, We define a quasi-st {quasi-equilibrium process to be a process that happens sufficiently slowly such that departures from thermodynamic equilibrium are always so small that they can be neglected. For example, the compression of a gas in 2 perfectly insulated piston cylinder system (Fig. 1.31) results in the simulianeous increase in temperature and pressure ofthe gas Ifthe compression is performed slowly, the pressure and tempera- ture at each instant will be uniform throughout the gas system for all intents and purposes [Le Pe) = Pt] and the system can be considered to be in an equilibrium state. In contrast, ifthe piston moves rapidly, the pressure in the gas atthe piston face (Py) would be greater than at the far end of the cylinder (Py) and equilibrium ‘would net be achieved. The formal requirement for a quasi-cquilibrium proces is that the time for a system to reach equilibrium after some change is small compared to ‘the time scale ofthe process. For our example ofthe gas compressed by the piston, the ‘ime forthe pressure to equilibrate is determined by the speed of sound, that is, the ‘Propagation speed of a pressure disturbance. For room-temperature air, the sound speed is approximately 340 m/s. If we assume that ata particular instant the piston is 100 mm (=F) from the closed end of the eylinder, the change in the pressure due to the piston motion will be communicated to the closed end in a time equal to 2.9 « 10s [= (0.100 mij(340 mys) or 0.29 ms. If during 0.29 ms the piston moves very lite (Aw), the pressure can be assumed to be uniform throughout the system for all practical purposes, and the compression can be considered as a quasi-cquilibrium process. Alternatively, we can say that the speed of the pressure waves that communi cate changes in pressure Is much faster than the speed of the piston that creates the ‘increasing pressure.” Similar arguments involving time scales can be used to ascertain whether thermal and chemical equilibrium are approximated for any real processes. (Our purposes here. however, are not to define the exact conditions for which 2 quasi- quilibrium process might be assumed, but rather to acquaint the reader with this commonly invoked assumption, Later in the book, we use the quasi-equlibrium [process asa standard to which real processes are compared 1.6 Dimensions and Units ‘The primary dimensions (or base units) used in this book are mass, length, time, temperature, electric current, and omunt of substance. All other dimensions, such as force, energy, and power, are derived from these primary dimensions [°]. Furthermore, ‘we employ almost exclusively the International System of Units, or le Systéme Inter ‘national (51) d'Unités. The primary dimensions thus have the following associated units: ‘Mass [=] kilogram (kg), Length [=] meter (m), ‘Time |=] second (3), * Boe the presure to he truly uniform requires that we aelet the effet of graviy, As dacuted i ‘Cpes 2, we reste our study wo sample compressible substances, whlch fequies neglecting 820, > esmire wove travel a the epee of enund22 1 BEGINNINGS [NST plysiciss Stove effets (bmgroud) ‘and Tom Heaurer withthe NST-AZ cesivm Jauntain atomic ck, new evan tine standard forthe United Sates. Atomic an ecewary of better then 1 standin 20 milion yeas [201 Photograph courte of NST. Rerinted courtesy ofthe Natoral bitte of ‘Standards and Tecnology, US Departmart of Commerce. Temperature [=] kelvin (K), leetrie current [=] amper (A), and Amount of substance [=] mole (mal). ‘The symbol [=] is used to express has umits of and is used throughout this book, The Aerived dimensions most frequently used in this book are defined as follows’ Force = | kgm/s? = 1 newton (N). on Energy = | (kg:m/s?)-m = 1 Nem or 1 joule (J),and on kgyaa/s?)-ma Power = 1982)" y/s or 1 watt (W), ax Unfortunately, a wide variety of non-SI units are used customarily in the United States, many of which are industry specific. You can find conversion factors from SI units to the ‘most common non-SI units on the inside covers of this book. We refer to certain nor SI units in several examples to provide some familiarity with these important noa-SL units. To hhavea single location for their definition, we present the customary units most important ‘oour study of the thermal-fluld sciences here. In rms of the four primary dimensions, amass ([=| pound-mass or 1b.) length (|=| foot), time ([=] second), and temperature (|=I degree Rankine or K), common derived dimensions and units ae 2s follows: Tyr ft Force = 32.174 1 pound-force of Iby aa ind os 1 nergy = 1 flby = itish thermal unit oF Btu, ergy = 1 fly = <2 British th B felby Power = 1! + horsepower or hp. 0s s 350 NP ° " 1m some applications, the unit associated with mass is the slug. Using this unit to define force yields slug-f Bocce = te! BF | pound-force or Ib, an Further elaboration of units Is found In the discussion of thermodynamic properties in Chapter 2,1.6 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 23 ‘The use of the units pound-force (Iby) and pound-mass (Ib) can cause some confusion to the casual user. A safe rule of thumb to avoid any confusion with units is to convert all given quantities in a problem to SI units, solve the problem using Sl units, and then convert the final answer to any desired customary units. The following ‘ceample clarifies the sage of pound-force and pound-mas, Ce Re ey ‘A mass of 1 Ibg is placed on a spring scale calibrated to read i pounds-force. ‘Assuming an earth-standard gravitational aceleration of 32.174 ft/s’, what isthe scale reading? What is the equivalent reading in newions? How do these results change if the measurement is conducted on the surface of the moon where the gravitational acceleration is 5.32 ts"? Solution Known — M1 Ibyy gary = 32.174 ffs? Find Force exerted on scale Analysis ‘The force exerted on the seale is the weight, F product of the mass and the gravitational acceleration, that is, F Mice W, which equals the Thus, F= (1]bq)(32.1748/8"), Using the definition of pounde-foce (Fj 1.4) we generate the kdentity 1 fj? 32.174 lb Ung ths emt the previous expen fr he reels ie ae Bai 32.1741b,, 32.1748/? o F= I by, To convert this result to SI units, we use the conversion factor from the front of the book On the moon, the force is F= Menon = (11bp)(5.32/s") a ays? saab, = Ube saan/s? F= 0.16510,24 1 BEGINNINGS F = 0.736N. Comments Brom this example, we sce that the definition of the US customary wit for force waschosea s that a one-pound muss produces force of exactly one pound- force under conditions of standard earth gravity. tn the St system, numerical values for mass and force are not identical for conditions of standard gravity. Yor example, consider the weight associated with a I-kg mass: Fo Mg = (1kg)(9.807 m/s?) 1 = thy & a) om) = 9807n, Regardless of the system of units, care must be exercised in any unit conversions. ‘Checking to see that the units associated with any calculated result are correct should bbe part of every problem solution. Such practice also helps you to spot gross errors and can save time, 1.7 Problem-Solving Method For you to consistently solve engineering problems successfully (both textbook and real problems) depends on your developing a procedure that (9) aids thought rocesses, (i) facilitates identification of errors along the way, (ii) allows others to ‘easily check your work, and (iv) provides a reality check at completion. The following general procedure has these attributes. We recommend that you follow this procedure for most problems. Nearly all the examples throughout the text lustrate its use, 1. KNOWN. State what is known in simple manner without rewriting the problem statement. FIND. Indicate what quantities you want to find. 3, SKETCH. Draw and label useful sketches whenever possible. (What is useful sgenctally depends on the context of the problem. Suggestions are provided at appropriate locations in the text.) 4. MODELING PREMISES AND ASSUMPTIONS. List the modeling premises associated with your analysis; list your initial assumptions and add others 10 the list as you proceed with your solution.SUMMARY SUMMARY 25 5. ANALYSIS. Analyze the problem and identify the important definitions and principles that apply to your solution. 6 SOLUTION. Develop a symbolic or algebraic solution to your problem. delaying the substitution of numerical values 2s late as possible in the process, 7. Substitute numerical values 28 appropriate and indicate the source of all physical data as you proceed. (The appendices of this book contain much useful data) 8 Check the units associated with each calculation. The factor-label method is an efficient way to do this, 9, Examine your answer critically. Does it appear to be reasonable and consistent ‘with your expectations andjor experience? 10. COMMENT(S). Write out one or more comments using step 9 ay your guide, What did you learn from solving the problem? Were your assumptions justified? 1.8 Mathematical Skills to Review ‘The mathematics required for 4 first course in thermodynamics is quite simple: basic algebra and calculus suffice, The authors have found that some students will benefit from a review of the following three topics: + Linear interpolation of tabular data ~a skill needed to deal with property tables in a proficient manner; + Differentiation of simple polynomials — a skill needed to calculate thermodynamic properties given a curve-fit or other polynomial representation; + Integration of simple polynomials ~a skill needed to calculate reversible, moving boundary, or steady-flow work and to calculate certain thermodynamic properties ‘given a curve-fit or ather polynomial representation. A review of linear interpolation is provided in the Chapter 2 Tutorial 1 ~ How to Interpolaie on page 76. You may wish to read this tutorial now and work some of the cend-of-chapter problems (Chapter 1) dedicated to interpolation to hone your skill, Similarly, we include end-of- Problem 1.1 1.2 Some applications > Problems 1.1, 1.2 1.3 Learning thermodynamics > Redraw Fig. 1.17 Physical frameworks for analysis 1 Closed systems Problems 13, 1.4, 1.6 1 Open systems (or control volumes) > Problems 1.3, 14 1 Boundaries - Problem 1.11 1 Surroundings > Problem 1.13 1.3 Key concepts and definitions 0 Property > Problem 1.13, 1 State Problem 1.15 1 Process “® Problem 1.15 1 How process “> Problems 1.17, 1.18 1 Cycle Problems 1.16, 1.23, 1 Equilibrium > Problems 1,20, 1.24 1D Quasi-equilibeium > Problems 1,26, 1.27, 1.28 1.6 Dimensions and units > Problems 1.36, 1.39, 1.44, 1.46 1.7 Problem-solving method > List key steps 1.8 Mathematical skills to review Problems 1.56, 1.59, 1.62, 1.63, 1.66, 1.67 1. Webster's New Twentieth Century Dictionary, J. 1.. McKechnie (Ed). Collins World, Cleveland, 1978, 2. Energy Information Agency, U.S. Department of Energy, “Monthly Energy Review April 2019,” _http://www.cla.gov/totalencrgy /data/monthly index .efm#electricity, Release Date: April 25, 2019. |. Steam: Tes Generation and Use, 39th edn, Babcock & Wilcox, New York, 1978. 4. Singer, J. G. (Ed.), Combustion Fossil Power: A Reference Book on Fuel Burning ‘and Steam Generation, 4th eda, Combustion Engineering, Windsor, CT, 1991. 5. Basu, P., Kefa, C, and Jestin, L., Boilers and Burners: Design and Theory, Springer, New York, 2000, 6. Goodall, P. M., The Efficient Use of Steam, IPC Science and Technology Press, Surrey, England, 1980. 7. Hlagan, R. ¢, and Seinfeld, J. H, Fuadamentals of Air Pollution Bngincering, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1988. 8. Schetz, J. A. (Ed.), Thermal Pollution Analysis, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, Vol. 36, ALAA, New York, 1975. Heywood, J. B., Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1988,PROBLEMS PROBLEMS 27 10, Obert, E. E, Internal Combustion Engines and Air Pollution, Harper & Row, New York, 1973. 11, Ferguson, C. B, Internal Combustion Engines: Applied Thermosciences, Wiley. New York, 1985. 12, Campbell, A. 8. Thermodynamic Analysis of Combustion Engines, Wiley, New Yorte, 1979, 13, Cumpsty, N, Jet Propulsion, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1997. 14, St. Peter, J, History of Aircraft Gas Turbine Engine Development in the United States: A Tradition of Excellence, International Gas Turbine Institute of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Atlanta, 1998, 15, Tums, 5. R., and Van Meter, P. N., “Applying Knowledge from Educattonal Psychology and Cognitive Science to a First Course in Thermodynamics.” Prom ceedings ofthe ASEE Annual Conference & Exposition, Tune 26-28, 2011 16, Brandsford, J. D., Brown, A. L, and Cocking, R. R. (Eds) Ch. 2. How Experts Differ from Novices, in How People earn, Expanded Edition, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C, 2000, 17, White, F. M., Flid Mechanics, ed eda, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1994. 18, White, M. A., Colendbrander, K., Olan, R. W.,and Penswick, Le By “Generators ‘That Won't Wear Out,” Mechanical Engineering, 118:82-96 (1996). 19, Lide, D. R, (Ed). andbook of Chemistry ond Physics, 77th edn, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1996. 20. Lombardi, M. A., Heavner, T.., and Jefferts,§.R., “NIST Primary Frequency Standards and the Realization of the SI Second,” NCSL Intemational Measure The Journal of Measurement Science, Vol 2, No. 4, December 2007. Some endt-of-chapter problems were adapted with permission from the following Look, D.C. Jr,, and Sauer, HL. J. J, Engineering Thermodynamics, PWS, Boston, 1986, Myers, G. E,, Engineering Thermodynamics, Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ, 1989, Phueli, D,, and Gutfinger, C, Fluid Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, England, 1992, Chapter 1 Problem Subject Areas 1.1, 1.2 Applications of thermodynamics 13-114 Clesed and open systems LIS-131 Key concepts and definitions 1.321.553 Dimensions and units 1.56-1.69 Mathematics review 1.1.1.2 Applications of thermodynas 1.1 Conceptual problem. Write out the definition of thermodynamics. Using this definition as a guide, list three practical situations or devices that closely relate to thermodynamics. Explain the relationships of each situationjdevice to thermodynamics. Do not repeat any of the examples given in the book. 1.2 Conceptual problem, Make a table that has the following three headings: Device, Form of Energy Input, Form(s) of Energy Output, Under the heading "device" list 10 or more practical devices for which their design and operation28 1 BEGINNINGS 13 13 WW 3H. is strongly linked to thermodynamics. Recall that thermodynamics involves the study of energy and its transformation from one form to another. Indicate the energy transformations associated with each device by filling in the columns under the other two headings. Do not necessarily restrict your device choices to those discussed in the text. Look around your indoor and outdoor environments for ideas. For example, a hair dryer converts electricity (input energy) into a flow of hot air (output of kinetic and thermal energics). HINT: Here is alist of typical forms of energy; Chemical energy (as in a fuel), thermal energy (associated with the heat capacity and temperature of a sub- stance), kinetic energy, mechanical work or power (a spinning shaft or moving. boundary}, electrical work or power, potential energy, nuclear energy, radiant energy (from the sun or a hot object), and periaps others. Closed and open systems Conceptual problem, Write two or three sentences that explain the differences and similarities between a closed system and an open system (control volume). Give practical examples of each, avoiding examples discussed in the text. Conceptual problem. Consider a hand pump inilating a bicycle tire. Define three closed systems and three open systems that relate to the pump andor the tire. Feel free to subdivide parts of the pump/tire to create your systems. Write 2 sentence describing each of your choices and draw a sketch for each, indicating your boundaries with a dashed line, Draw arrows indicating where mass crosses the boundaries of your open systems. Make sure one or more of your systems is associated in sore way with air. Conceptual problem. Consider the toy balloon shown in Fig, 1.22. (@) Define an ‘open system that 45 different than the one illustrated in the figure. Write a sentence describing your choice and draw a sketch for each indicating your boundary with a dashed line. (b) Define two closed systems associated with the balloon system. Write a sentence describing each of your choices and draw a sketch for each, indicating your boundaries with a dashed line. Make sure one of ‘your systems is associated with air, HINT: Assume there is no mixing within the air contained in the balloon. Conceptual problem, Turn on a faucet and observe the stream of water flowing {rom It, Define a closed system related to the water in this situation, How do the boundaries change and move with time? What would you have to do to change ‘your closed system to an open system? Conceptual problem. Consider a household gas-fired hot-water heater. Perform aan internet search if you are not familiar with this device, Note that there are five flows to consider: cold water in, hot water out, natural gas in, air in, and products of combustion out, Sketch an open system for this device for the following situations. Use labeled arrows to denote mass flows across your boundaries. ‘A. Hot water is being drawn for a shower and the heater is trying to meet the demand1s 19 Lo 12 PROBLEMS 29 B. No hot water is being drawn, but a lot of hot water has just been used. C. There is no demand for hot water and the water in the tank is hot, ie. there is no need for it to be heated further. Is case C an open or a closed system? Discuss Conceptual problem. Can energy cross the boundary of a thermodynamic system? Discuss Conceptual problem. From your list in Problem 1.2, select wo devices, or parts of those devices, that you can represent as closed systems, Sketch cach device, show the system boundary as a dotted line, and label as needed to make your sketch intelligible. Discuss why your boundary choice encloses a clased system, Conceptual problem. From your list in Problem 1.2, select two devices, or ports of those devices, that you can represent as open systems (control ‘yolumes). Sketch the devices, show the boundaries as a dotted line, and label as needed to make your sketch intelligible, Discuss why your boundary choice defines an open system. Conceptual problem. Consider a conventional toaster ~ the kind used to toast bread. Examine a real toaster, and then perform the following tasks: (2) Sketch two different boundaries associated with an operating toaster: one in which ‘you define 2 closed system, and a second one in which you define an open system (control volume}. Be sophisticated in your analyses. For example, you might want to consider whether air flows through the toaster. Ifso, how? What happens to the bread during the toasting process? Can the bread by itself be considered an open or a closed system? Discuss your selections justifying why ‘each Is either closed or open. (0) Repeat the problem choosing two different closed and open systems. Conceptual problem. Discuss what would have to be done to transform the ‘open system (control volume) shown in Fig, |.22 toa closed eystem. Ignore the boundary shown in Fig. 1.22. What closed systems can be defined for the situation illustrated? Conceptual problem. Consider a conventional house in the Northeastern region of the United States, Isolate the house from its surroundings by drawing 4 boundary to define an open system. Identify all the Jocations where mass ‘enters or exits your open system. Assume the house has a natural-gas furnace, has running water, and connects to a sanitary sewer system, Make and list ‘other assumptions as you see fit. Conceptual problem. Consider an automobile, containing a driver and several passengers, traveling along a country road. Isolate the automobile and its ‘contents from the surroundings by drawing an appropriate boundary. Does your boundary enclose a thermodynamic closed system or an open system? Justify your cholce by writing 2 sentence or two. How would you have 10 ‘modify your boundary to convert from one to the other? What assumptions, if any, would you have to make to perform this conversion?20 1 BEGINNINGS L.IS-L.31__ Key concepts and definitions Las Conceptual problem, Write out the formal definitions of the following terms: ‘property, state, and process. What is the relationship of a property to a state? ‘What is the relationship of a state to a process? What is the relationship of a [property to a process? Conceptual problem. Can you identify any devices that operate in a thermo- dynamic cycle? If so, list them. Also, identify the working fluids, if known. Conceptual problem. Distinguish between a closed-system process and a flow (Process. List three of each type. Conceptual problem. Consider the diagram of 1 simple steam power plant shown in Fig. 1.5. Here the components act to produce a thermodynamic cycle (see Pig. 1.28). Which of the various fluids involved is the working fluid of the cycle? Explain your choice. For the other fluids involved, what flow processes do they undergo? Conceptual problem, Consider the mechanical cycle associated with the four-stroke spark-ignition engine illustrated in Fig. 1.14. The combustion [process begins near the end of the compression stroke and ends shortly after the expansion stroke begins. A typical plot of the cylinder pressure as a function of the cylinder volume is chown in the cketch below. Redraw the ‘sketch and label the beginning and end points of each of the four mechanical strokes. Also, indicate the beginning and end of the combustion process. For each stroke, write a sentence describing why you selected the specific begi ning and end points. Pp “ypicet pressure-volume diagram fora 4rstoke-cyele, spart-gniion engine. Conceptual problem. List the conditions that must be established for thermo- dynamic equilibrium to prevail (ic, list the subtypes of equilibrium), Conceptual problem. Consider the following statement: For a closed system to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, the system must be all in one phase, Le., all solid, all liquid, or all vapor. Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice.PROBLEMS 31 1.22 Conceptual problem, Consider the following statement: In a thermodynamic cycle. the temperature of the working fluid must be the same at the start and the end of the eycle, although the pressure does not have to be the same at the start and the end of the cycle. Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice. 1.23 Conceptual problem. Consider the following statement: In a thermody namic eyele, many, but net all, of the thermodynamics properties of the working fluid will be the same at the start and the end of the cycle. Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice, 1.24 Conceptual problem. Consider the following statement: For a closed system in thermodynamic equilibrium, thermodynamic properties do not change with time, Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice. 1.25. Conceptual problem, Consider the following statement: For a closed system in thermodynamic equilibrium, the temperature can vary with position within the system, Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice. 1.26 Conceptual problem. Consider the following statement: During a quasi equilibrium process, the state of the system does not change. Is this statement true or false? Explain your choice 1.27. Conceptual problem. Consider the following statement: For 1 quasi- equilibrium process, the property changes can be large, e., the final pressure can be much larger (or greater) then the initial pressure. Is this statement true o¢ false? Explain your choice. 1.28 Conceptual problem, Consider the following statement: For a quasi equilibrium process, the property changes during the process proceed as infinitesimal departures from thermodynamic equilibrium. Is this statement true or false? Explain your chokce 1.29 Conceptual problem, Explain how a very rapid expansion of a gas example of a non-quasi-equilibrium process. 1.30 Conceptual problem. Consider & closed system consisting of a gas. The temperature in the gas varies with position along the system boundary. Is the system in equilibrium? Is it possible that the system could be undergoing a quasi-equilibrium process? Explain your answers. 1.31 Conceptual problem. Consider a closed system consisting of ice and liquid water. The ice is melting at constant temperature. Is the ice-water system in equilibrium? Explain your answer. Is the ice-water system undergoing process? Explain your answer. 1.32-1.55 Dimensions and units 1.32 Open-ended problem. Do an internet search to find examples of disasters, or near disasters, created by errors associated with units or units conversions, List six and describe the errors.