Agriculture

for Rwanda Schools

Secondary 2
Teacher’s Guide

Approved
by
Rwanda
Education
Board

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 KENYA LITERATURE BUREAU
P.O. Box 30022 - 00100, Nairobi
Website: www. klb.co.ke
Email: [email protected]

© Anne K. Wachira, Daniel N. Gitahi, Wakasiaka E. Mwishabe, Edison M. Simiyu

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transcribed in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.

ISBN 978-9966-10-598-1

First published 2017

KLB 13617 3m 2017

Published and printed by Kenya Literature Bureau

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 Contents
1.0 Introduction................................................................................................................ iv

2.0 Pedagogical Approaches in Teaching Agriculture.................................................. ..viii

3.0 Assessment Approaches........................................................................................ ...xiii

4.0 Teaching/Learning Resources.................................................................................. xvi

5.0 Syllabus Units......................................................................................................... .xix

The Content Map..................................................................................................... xxi

A Sample Schemes of Work............................................................................... xxxvii

A Sample Lesson Plan........................................................................................... xlvii

Soil Science.......................................................................................................................... ..1

Unit 1: Soil................................................................................................ ......................... 1

Crop and Mushroom Production and Processing.............................................................20

Unit 2: Mushrooms......................................................................................................... ..20

Unit 3: Fruits.................................................................................................................. ...31

Unit 4: Legumes............................................................................................................... 56

Animal Production.............................................................................................................. 74

Unit 5: Ruminants............................................................................................................ .74

Unit 6: Livestock Products ............................................................................................ ..96

Agriculture Economics......................................................................................................110

Unit 7: Problems and Solutions of Agriculture in Rwanda.............................................110

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 1.0 Introduction
The rationale behind the agriculture syllabus review process was to ensure that the
syllabus is responsive to the needs of the learners’ and to shift from the knowledge
-based learning to competence-based learning. Competence-based learning allows
students to advance based on their ability to master a skill on competency as their
own pay regardless of environment. It is tailored to meet different learning abilities
and can lead to more efficient student’s outcome.
  This teacher’s guide has been prepared in line with the competence-based
curriculum. It is intended to assist the teacher to interpret the topics in the syllabus for
quality and effective teaching. The guide has been written to be used together with
the Secondary Two (S2) students’ book. The Secondary Two (S2) competence-based
syllabus by Rwanda Education Board 2015, which has been used in developing both
the students’ book and this teacher’s guide has important information in the following
areas:
1.1  Rationale of Teaching and Learning Agriculture

1.1.1  Agriculture and Society

Agriculture, as both an applied science and art, is the pillar of our economy.
  It is a composite of rural and urban industries that are structured to produce both
raw and value-added material from plants and animals to meet identified consumer’s
needs. It provides food, fibre, fuel, shelter and other possibilities of diverse lifestyles.
  Agricultural industries make a significant contribution to Rwandan’s economy
through investment, employment of skilled workers, consumption of products from
other sectors of the economy and exports.
  Increasing the knowledge and skills in the majority of Rwandans will, therefore,
go to past integration of agriculture courses, in Basic Education/Ordinary level self-
reliance. It will help the learners to have a competency that help them to develop
and view agriculture as source of income in the view that arable land, in limited
agriculture courses, is important to resort to modern agricultural techniques in order
to increase food production and generate Rwandan’s export income.
1.1.2  Agriculture and Learners
Agriculture is a worthwhile subject because it prepares the learners for real world
of work through career pathways like crop production, crop protection, veterinary
medicine, rural development, food sciences, rural engineering, agribusiness and
agriculture mechanisation. It provides the skills that guide and help the learners to
explain all techniques of crop production and animal rearing, both agricultural and
animal products processing and preservation.
  This course provides students with an understanding of the relationships between
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 production, processing and consumption to enable them to participate in discussion and
solve problems facing our society. Thus, the government of Rwanda has encouraged
the market oriented agriculture through policies like crop intensification and land
use consolidation, one cow for one family, increase the productivity of agriculture as
one of four priorities of rural development in ECPRSII, productive High Value and
Market Oriented Agriculture in Vision 2020. To achieve these policies, all sectors are
involved including learners who learned agriculture courses.

1.1.3 Competences
Competences are statements of the characteristics that students should demonstrate
which indicate they are prepared and have the ability to perform independently
professional practices. There are two types of competences, basic and generic.

(i)  Basic competences: These competences are the essential knowledge and skills
acquired by the learners in relation to the learning objectives set out in the curriculum
for each level of learning.
  Basic competences are addressed in the stated broad subject competences and in
objectives highlighted year on year basis and in each of the units of S2.
They include the following:
• Literacy – This include the four essentials of learning a language, which are;
reading a variety of text accurately and quickly, expressing ideas through
writing, communicating ideas through speaking and listening carefully for proper
understanding.
• Numeracy – This involves computing and manipulating mathematic numbers to
accomplish task involving calculation measures and estimation. It also involves
use of numerical patterns to solve problems related to every activity in management
and interpretation of basic statistical data such as tables, diagrams, charts and
graphs.
• ICT and digital competences – This involves using search engines to retrieve
information for leisure business and communicating to enhance learning.
• Citizenship and national identity – This involves relating historical, cultural,
geographical, heritage of Rwanda with global dimension. It also helps to advocate
for a harmonious cohesive society working with people from diverse cultural
backgrounds.
• Entrepreneurship and business development – This entails decision-making in
planning and managing micro-projects and small and medium enterprises, risk
taking in business and evaluating resources needed for business.
• Science and technology – This involves Science and Technological skills to
solve problems in real life situations and developing curiosity inquisitiveness
while researching to explain theories hypothesis and natural phenomena to draw
appropriate conclusion.

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 (ii) Generic Competences:
• Critical thinking and problem solving skills – The acquisition of such skills will
help learners to think imaginatively, innovatively and broadly to evaluate and find
solutions to problems encountered in our surrounding.
• Creative and innovation – The acquisition of such skills will help learners to
take initiatives and use imagination beyond knowledge provided in classroom to
generate new ideas and construct new concepts.
• Research – This will help learners to find answers to questions based on existing
information and concepts and use it explain phenomena from gathered information.
• Communication in official languages – Teachers, irrespective of being language
teachers, will ensure the proper use of the language of instruction by learners. The
teacher should communicate clearly and confidently and convey ideas effectively
through spoken and written by applying appropriate language and relevant
vocabulary.
• Co-operation, inter personal management and life skills – This will help the
learners to co-operate as a team in whatever task assigned to practise positive
ethical moral values while respecting rights, feelings and views of others. Perform
practical activities related to environmental conservation and protection. Advocate
for personal, family and community health, hygiene and nutrition and responding
creatively to a variety of challenges encountered in life.
• Lifelong learning – The acquisition of such skills will help learners to update
knowledge and skills with minimum external support. The learners will be able to
cope with evolution of knowledge advances for personal fulfillment in areas that
are relevant to their improvement and development.

1.1.4 Broad Competences for the Agriculture Subject

At the end of Senior Two, the student should be able to:
• Demonstrate basic knowledge, skills and attitudes that accurately lead him/her to
modern farming practices.
• Show the importance of using the good soil with necessary nutrients and knowing
its composition and properties.
• Demonstrate the ability to cultivate a variety of crops both subsistence and cash
crops.
• Rear and treat domestic animals.
• Comprehend and apply the processes involved from the planting to the harvesting
of crops.
• Acquire necessary knowledge and skills in processing, preserving and adding
value to agricultural products.
• Appreciating the economic, social and environmental implications of agriculture.

1.1.5 Cross-cutting issues

Cross-cutting issues are also referred to as emerging issues. The teacher is required to
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 infuse these issues in learning while teaching for the benefits of the learning.
The competence-based syllabus has integrated eight cross-cutting issues through the
various learning activities in the units. These cross-cutting issues are:
(i) Genocide Studies
This provides young people with an understanding of circumstances that led to the
genocide. It also brings to the attention the remarkable story of recovery and fosters
national unity. It will help the learners to comprehend the role of each individual in
ensuring that nothing of the sort ever happens again.

(ii) Environment and Sustainability

This ensures that the young people understands the importance of sustainability as
they grow up and become responsible for the world around them. Learners need basic
knowledge from the natural sciences, social sciences and humanities to understand
and interpret principles of sustainability.

(iii) Gender
This helps to create awareness of the need to accord every individual basic human
rights. With a good understanding of the principles of gender equality, it is hoped that
future generations will ensure that the potential of the whole population is realised.

(iv) Comprehensive sexuality education (HIV/AIDS, STIs, Family planning,

Gender Equality and Reproductive Health).
Comprehensive sexuality education which is age appropiate, gender sensitive and
life skills based can provide young people with the knowledge and skills to make
informed decisions about their sexuality and life style. The learners should be prepared
for the transition from childhood to adulthood which has been a major challenge to
humanity. Young people should be helped to overcome challenges related to onset of
puberty and adolescence so as to avoid teenage pregnancies and sexually transmited
infections including HIV/AIDS.

(v) Peace and Values Education

Peace is critical for any country’s economic growth and development. Values form a
key element of the strategy for ensurimg young people recognise the importance of
contributing to the society, working for peace and harmony and being committed to
avoiding conflict.

(vi) Financial Education

Financial education makes learning relevant to real life situations. It provides the tools
for sound money management practices on earnings, spending, saving, borrowing and
investing.

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 (vii) Standardisation Culture
It helps to develop learners’ understanding of the importance of standards as a pillar
of economic development. The adoption of the standardisation culture is intended to
have an impact upon health improvement, economic growth, industrialisation, trade
and general welfare of the people.

(viii) Inclusive Education

It involves ensuring that all learners are engaged in education and that they are
welcomed by other students so that everyone can achieve their potential. Inclusive
practices embrace every individual regardless of gender or ability including those
with learning difficulties and disabilities. To be successful, inclusive education entails
a range of issues including teachers’ positive attitudes, improvising the learning
resources, variation of teaching and learning methods and working together.

1.1.6 Agriculture and Development of Competences

The national policy document basing on national aspirations identify some ‘basic
competences’ alongside the generic competences that will develop higher order
thinking skills and which will help subject learning and application of what has been
learned in real life situation.
  Through practices, observation and presentation of information during the
learning process, the learners develop not only deductive and inductive skills but
also communication and co-operation in working groups, tasks management by
accomplishing them at set time and correctly, critical thinking while observing
demonstrations and doing practices (during field trip, field work and group discussion),
skills in trying to make inferences and conclusion.
  Also, the group work and co-operative learning of agriculture promotes interpersonal
relations and teamwork.

2.0  Pedagogical Approaches in the Teaching of Agriculture

The teacher/trainer is required to mainly orient the course delivery in a practical
manner. In line with this, the teacher will set student’s hands-on activities, organise,
work groups, experiments and adapts practical activities to climatic constraints. In
addition, the teacher will organise field visits recommended in this syllabus.
  In groups, the learners apply the agricultural concepts through learning activities.
The observation during field visits increases understanding of theoretical courses and
the most hands-on activities are made in the school’s garden. This will help the student
to learn more practical as an aim of competence-based learning.

2.1  Role of Learners

This approach of learning encourages learners to construct the knowledge, skills and
attitude either individually or in groups in an acute way.

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 Learners work on one competence at a time in form of concrete units with specific
learners’ outcomes broken down into knowledge, skills and attitude.
  In practical lessons, learners will work in groups where the availability of the
apparatus will not permit working individually but they will be encouraged to do
simple practices like plot model individually.

2.2  Role of Teacher

The change to a competence-based learning curriculum is about transforming learning,
ensuring that learning is deep, enjoyable and habit-forming.
  The teacher is no longer an instructor but a facilitator in this new approach of
learning. The participation of the learners, during this new approach, facilitates the
teacher to evaluate learners’ individual needs and expectations.
  The teacher identifies the needs of the learners, the nature of learning to be done
and the means to shape learning experiences accordingly.
  The teacher’s roles are to organise, coach the learners in the classroom or outside
and engage them through participatory and interactive methods.

2.2.1  Teaching Methods

These are varieties of teaching methods that are used in the teaching of agriculture.
In many cases the methods can be integrated as per the demand of the lesson. The
following are suggested methods used in the teaching of agriculture:

(a) Demonstration
This is a method in which the teacher shows and explains to the learners how to carry
out certain procedure. The method is appropriate when a new topic is being handled
for the first time. It can also be used when resources are limited.
  In this method, the teacher introduces the topic and explains its importance. He/she
explains the steps to be taken in carrying out the demonstration and then carries it out
as the students watch. The teacher should organise the class in such a way that all the
learners are able to see whatever is being done. The learners are then allowed to ask
questions. The teacher then selects a learner to carry out the practice. At this point the
teacher makes correction if there is need. By the end of the demonstration the learners
will have been exposed to the activity.

(b) Supervised Practice/Activity

This is a method in which the learners are actively involved in the learning process,
that is, they learn by doing. Skills and positive attitude in Agriculture are enhanced by
involving the learners in practical activities. Proper preparation by the teacher before
conducting a practical lesson is very important, as it ensures proper flow of the lesson.
  The method closely follows a demonstration by the teacher. At the end of the
demonstration, the teacher groups the learners and makes sure that each group has the
necessary apparatus and materials. Each learner in the group carries out the activity
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 following the steps demonstrated by the teacher. The teacher moves from group to
group observing, giving further instructions, correcting and motivating them. Learners
record and discuss their observations. They then give a report of their findings to the
class. Lastly, the teacher may allow a concluding discussion at the end of the lesson in
which the learners will take summary notes.

(c) Discussion
This is a verbal interaction between learners on a given topic with the teacher acting as a
facilitator. This method enhances participation of learners in the lesson. The discussion
should be carefully planned, to ensure that it focuses on the lesson objective(s). For
this method to be effective, it is important for the teacher to encourage participation
by all learners.
  The teacher involves learners in the teaching/learning process, by giving them an
opportunity to express their opinions and experiences freely on a particular topic. This
can be done by a whole class, large groups or small groups. The teacher introduces the
topic of discussion and may also give guiding questions orally or written form to the
class or to each group. Learners are given time to discuss, write down their findings
and then report to the whole class. The teacher eventually gives a final conclusion
comprising facts about the topic.

(d)  Problem solving

This is a method where learners actively participate in the lesson by putting to use the
skills, which they have acquired.
  In this method, learners are sensitised about an existing problem to be solved.
They are encouraged to study the problem through investigations, observations,
experimentations and making predictions. In this way, the leaners use their initiatives
and efforts to further understand what the problem is, its origin and where it may lead
to if not solved. Once the learners have studied and understood the problem, they
should come up with suggested solutions. Learners discuss the merits and demerits
of each suggested solution and make decisions on which solution(s) is best. Once
learners have made a decision on the best option of the solution, they are allowed
to take action. The teacher may at this point invite experts, depending on the type of
action to be taken. Learners should be encouraged to evaluate the outcome of their
decision and actions. This evaluation is very important part of the learning process
because through it, learners will determine the effectiveness of an action and whether
they can apply it in future.

(e)  Role playing

This is an approach that involves acting out particular ways of behaviour in order to
learn from a situation. In this method, learners are asked to enact certain characters
and situations. This helps to bring out learners’ activity and imaginations. The aim of
this act is to help learners to visualise the real situation. The teacher should be able to
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 select topics that can be taught well using this method. Role plays are different from
dramatisation in that they are instantaneous. Learners use their own words and the
role player does not have to put on costumes. It also takes a short time probably 2–5
minutes.

(f)  Exhibitions/Agricultural Shows

These are displays which are arranged from time to time and teachers take the
opportunity to expose learners to certain information and experiences which would
not be found elsewhere. The teacher should also utilise the exhibitors, as resource
persons for his/her learners. The teacher should encourage learners to carry writing
materials, to record the information displayed in the exhibition. Exhibitions could
be school or externally based. When learners come back to class, the teacher should
make clarifications and follow up.
  An exhibition covers many areas, topic and objectives. Agricultural shows should
be treated in the same way as exhibitions.

(g)  Project
This is work that is organised or designed to achieve a particular objective. In
agriculture, learners are usually given plots to carry out crop husbandry practices,
which are taught in class. The project can also be in animal production. This method
is used to enable the learners practice what they have been taught. The project is
fully managed by the learner, with minimum supervision by the teacher. However,
the teacher provides all the necessary inputs for the project. The project normally
takes a long duration, from few weeks to many months. A project can also be used for
experimental purposes.

(h)  Agricultural Field Days

These are organised by extension officers or other agricultural officers for the purpose
of demonstrating particular far practices. The teacher should liaise with the organisers
of the field days, in order to take advantage of such opportunities to enhance classroom
teaching.
The teacher should:
• Be aware of where the field day is taking place in advance. The field day should
be relevant to agriculture and even to specific topic(s) in the syllabus.
• Make travel and subsistence arrangements.
• Talk about field day to the learners on what they need to carry and how to behave
during the field day.
• Develop writing guidelines on what to observe and record.
During the field day, the teacher will either guide or have somebody to guide and
explain to the learners.

After the field day, the learners will report on what they observed.
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 (i)  Field Trips
These are visits organised by the teacher outside the classroom. Trips are organised after
covering a large area of syllabus, to emphasise certain agricultural practices. Although
a teacher may organise a field trip for the purpose of enhancing the understanding
of a particular farm practices, he/she should take the opportunity to point out other
important practices along the way. It might also be important for teachers in different
subjects, to collaborate in the organisation of such field trips, in order to make it
economical.
  Learners should be given a questionnaire during a field trip. A questionnaire is a
research instrument which is prepared for the purpose of respondents. It consists of
a set of leading questions that help in obtaining information from people for various
reasons. In the case of learners questionnaires, the information gathered is used for
learning. There are several field trips to be conducted during the course of learning
the content for the Secondary Two Agriculture. Questionnaires for each field trip
have been prepared for the teacher and marked as Annexes attached on pages of this
teacher’s guide.

A SAMPLE QUESTIONNAIRE FOR A FIELD TRIP TO AN ORCHARD TO

IDENTIFY CULTIVATED FRUITS IN RWANDA

Part 1: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited :
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading questions

These are questions to guide the learners on the specific activities to be carried out,
observations to be done and the area of interest. The teacher is required to add more
questions depending on the need of the lesson.

(j)  Discovery Method

It is also known as the research method. In this method, learners are given a topic to
research on. They are given references of relevant resource materials. They read on
their own and prepare a report of their findings. Learners acquire knowledge in the
course of the reading. This method is suitable for learners who can work on their own
without supervision.

2.3 Special Needs Education and Inclusive Approach

All Rwandans have the right to access education regardless of their different needs.
The underpinning of this provision would actually hold that all citizens benefit from
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 the same menu of educational programmes. The possibility of this assumption is the
focus of special needs education. The critical issue is that we have persons/learners
who are totally different in their ways of living and learning as opposed to the majority.
The difference can either be emotional, physical, sensory and intellectual learning
challenged traditionally known as mental retardation.
  These learners equally have the right to benefit from the free and compulsory basic
education in the nearby ordinary/mainstream schools. Therefore, the school’s role
is to enroll them and also set strategies to provide relevant education to them. The
teacher, therefore, is requested to consider each learner’s needs during teaching and
learning process. Assessment strategies and conditions should also be standardised
to the needs of these learners. Detailed guidance for each category of learners with
special education needs is provided for in the guidance for teachers.

3.0 Assessment Approaches

Assessment is the process of evaluating the teaching and learning processes through
collecting and interpreting evidence of individual learner’s progress in learning
and to make a judgement about a learner’s achievements measured against defined
standards. Assessment is an integrated part of the teaching/learning processes. In
the new competence-based curriculum, assessment must also be competence-based,
whereby a learner is given a complex situation related to his/her everyday life and
asked to try to overcome the situation by applying what he/she learned.
Assessment will be organised at the following levels: School-based assessment,
District examination, National assessment (LARS) and National examinations.

3.1 Types of Assessments

3.1.1 Formative and Continuous Assessment (assessment for learners)

Continuous assessment involves formal and informal methods used by schools to
check whether learning is taking place. When a teacher is planning his/her lesson, he/
she should establish criteria for performance and behaviour changes of the beginning
of a unit. Then at the end of every unit, the teacher should ensure that all the learners
have mastered the stated key unit competences basing on the criteria stated, before
going to the next unit. The teacher will assess how well each learner masters both
the subject and the generic competences described in the syllabus and from this, the
teacher will gain a picture of the all-round progress of the learner. The teacher will use
one of a combination of the following:
(a) Observation.
(b) Pen and paper.
(c) Oral questioning.

3.1.2 Summative Assessment (assessment for learners)

When assessment is used to record a judgement of a competence or performance of
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 the learners, it serves a summative purpose. Summative assessment gives a picture
of a learner’s competence or progress at any specific moment. The main purpose of
summative assessment is to evaluate whether learning objectives have been achieved
and to use the results for the ranking or grading of learners, for deciding on progression,
for selection into the next level of education and for certification. This assessment
should have an integrative aspect whereby a student must be able to show mastery of
all competences.
  It can be internal school-based assessment or external assessment in the form of
national examination. School-based summative assessment should take place once at
the end of each term and once at the end of the year. School summative assessment
average scores for agriculture subject will be weighed and included in the final
national examinations grade. School-based assessment average grade will contribute
a certain percentage as teachers gain more experience and confidence in assessment
techniques and in the third year of the implementation of a new curriculum it will
contribute 10 per cent of the final grade, but will be progressively increased. District
will be supported to continue their initiative to organise a common test per class for
all the schools to evaluate the performance and the achievement level of learners in
individual schools. External summative assessment will be done at the end of S3.

3.2 Record Keeping

This is gathering facts and evidence from assessment instruments and using them to
judge the students’ performance by assigning an indicator against the set criteria or
standard. Whatever assessment procedures used shall generate data in the form of
scores which will be carefully recorded and stored in a portfolio because they will
contribute for remedial actions, for alternative instructions strategy and feedback to
the learners and to the parents to check the learning progress and to advise accordingly
or to the final assessment of the students.
  This portfolio is a folder (or binder or even a digital collection) containing the
students’ work as well as the students’ evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of
the work. Portfolios reflect not only work produced (such as paper and assignments),
but also it is a record of the activities undertaken over time as part of student learning.
Besides, it will serve as a verification tool for each learner that attended the whole
learning before undergoing the summative assessment for the subject.

3.3 Item Writing in Summative Assessment

Before developing a question paper, a plan or specification of what is to be tested
or examined must be elaborated to show the units or topics to be tested on the
number of questions in each level of Bloom’s Taxonomy and the marks allocation
for each questions. In a competence based curriculum, questions from higher levels
of Bloom’s Taxonomy should be given more weight than those from knowledge and
comprehension level.
  Before developing a question paper, the item writer must ensure that the test or
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 examination questions are tailored towards competence-based assessment by doing
the following:
• Identify topic areas to be tested on from the subject syllabus.
• Outline subject-matter content to be considered as the basis for the test.
• Identify learning outcomes to be measured by the test.
• Prepare a table of specifications.
• Ensure that the verbs used in the formulation of questions do not require
memorisation or recall answers only but testing broad competences as stated in
the syllabus.

Sample Table of Specification for Paper 1: Soil Science and Crop Production
Technologies (out of 40 Marks)
TOPIC AREA CONTENT Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
UNIT
SOIL Soil 1 — 2 2 2 1 8
SCIENCE (10 lessons)
Mushrooms — 1 2 — — — 3
(4 lessons)
CROP AND
Fruits 1 1 4 4 3 3 16
MUSHROOM
(20 lessons)
PRODUCTION
Legumes 1 1 3 3 3 2 13
AND
(16 lessons)
PROCESSING
Total 3 3 11 9 8 6 40

Note: The paper to be done in 45 minutes.

Explanation on the allocation of marks in the table of specification

In the table of specification, marks are allocated on the basis of the weight of a unit in
terms of the number of lessons. There are four units (areas) to be tested in this table
of specification. These are:
(i) Soil : 10   lessons
(ii) Mushrooms : 4   lessons
(iii) Fruits : 20   lessons
(iv) Legumes : 16   lessons

Total : 50 lessons

For a 40 marks paper, the marks would be allocated as follows:

(i) Soil :   10/50    40  =  8  marks
(ii) Mushrooms :    4/50    40  =  3.2 approximately 3  marks
(iii) Fruits :    20/50    40  =  16  marks
(iv) Legumes :    16/50    40  =  12.8  approximately 13  marks

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 The examiner then decides on the types of questions to set based on the Bloom’s
Taxonomy of educational objectives. Alternatively, table of specification may be
prepared for 100% and then the marks reduced to 40% after marking. The same
formula may be used for paper 2 and 3.

Structure and Format of the Examination

There will be 3 paper(s) in Agriculture subject and time for each paper will be 45
minutes per trainee or per team of trainees doing the same task (activity). During the
45 minutes, each trainee or team of trainees will be assigned to do practical exercises
on which some theoretical questions can be asked to the assessed person. The paper
will be structured as follows:
• Paper 1 will be based on Practices of crop production techniques (40%).
• Paper 2 will be based on Practices of animal production techniques (30%).
• Paper 3 will be based on Crop and animal products preservation and processing
and principles of agriculture economics (30%). All components will be externally
assessed and based on O’level syllabus content.

3.4  Reporting to Parents

The wider range of learning in the new curriculum means that it is necessary to think
again about how to share learners’ progress with parents. A single mark is not sufficient
to convey the different expectations of learning which are in the learning objectives.
The most helpful reporting is to share what students are doing well and where they
need to improve.

4.0 Teaching/Learning Resources

To facilitate the implementation of competence-based learning in agriculture course
in this level, several materials/equipment are needed.
  A detailed list of didactic materials is found in the footer of each unit writing. Here
is mentioned different sources, categories and types of didactic materials. Didactic
materials can originate from improvisation by the teacher in close or remote school
environment. As far as assist nature is concerned, didactic materials can be non-living
materials or physical living, some of which are listed below:
(a) School field
The school compound forms the most immediate environment from which the
teacher can source teaching aids. It can, therefore, be used as a teaching resource
to enhance learning.
(b) School farm
If the school has a commercial farm, it can be used for teaching of agriculture to
enhance learning in units involving animal and crop production and soil science.
The teacher should work closely with those managing the farm in order to have
access to the farm. The learners should be closely monitored while in the farm.

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 (c) Demonstration Plots
These are small-sized plots that the teacher has established for the purpose of
enhancing his/her teaching. Income generation is not a priority but any surplus
can be sold. They are used by the teacher to demonstrate agricultural practices to
the learners before they carry the activities in their project plots.
(d) Crop Museum
This is an area set aside for growing different crops in small quantities for
students’ use. The crops planted in the museum are mainly those not commonly
found within the locality. Sometimes the teacher may plant such crops so that
he/she has specimen within the locality. Each species of planted crop should be
well labelled, maintained and used to demonstrate the management practices of
crops.
(e) Project Plots
These are run either by individuals, groups of students or the whole class clubs.
This is where students practise what they have learnt in class. They should work
on their project plots outside class time. The Agriculture teacher should make
constant assessment of the work. It is in these plots that students carry out any
practical activities in the Students’ Book 2.
(f) Farm Inputs
Farm inputs can be useful teaching/learning resources. They are categorised
into variable and fixed inputs. The variable inputs include fertilisers, herbicides,
pesticides, seeds or planting materials, livestock feeds and casual labour. The
fixed inputs include: land, machinery, permanent labour, tools and equipment.

(g) Neighbouring Farms

These are farms close to the school which the teacher can use to enhance
the learning process. Teachers can take their learners to see a well-managed
ruminant shelters, a crush, orchards, farm animals, irrigation systems, mushroom
cultivation and others.

(h) Community Resources

The surrounding community can offer useful teaching/learning resources for
agriculture. Some of these include: cattle dips, co-operative and markets.

(i) Agricultural Shows/Field Days/Exhibitions

Shows, field days and exhibitions offer important learning/teaching
opportunities. Shows and field days organised by the National Agricultural
Export Development Board (NAEB) for the local communities provide good
learning resources for the teacher because they provide valuable learning
opportunities. The learners are able to observe exhibit items which may have
been taught in class. Learners are also exposed to experts who explain various
agricultural processes and principles, and learn through enquiry.
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 (j) Agricultural-based Industries
These can be used by the teacher to strengthen what has been taught. Examples
of such industries include: fruit processing, dairies, slaughter houses, where
teachers can organise for learners to visit.

(k) Guest speakers
These are resource persons who are knowledgeable in agriculture and related
fields. They can be invited to schools to demonstrate certain practices in the
curriculum.

(l) Printing Materials
These are very important sources of information because they are readily
available and can be used directly by teachers and students. They include text
books, magazines, academic articles and newspapers. They are found in the
school libraries.

(m) Audio-Visual Aids
These resources can be audio, visual or audio-visual. They are either prepared
by the teacher or pre-prepared. Some are easily used directly by learners while
others require some equipment to assist in their use.
  The teacher must either be able to use the equipment or have somebody who is
conversant with their usage to assist. Resources in this group should be handled
with care and kept safely as they are expensive. Such resources include: films,
videos, television, radio, audio tapes, slides, photographs, laptops, desktops
tablets and charts.

(n) Human Resource

The effective implementation for this syllabus needs a joint collaboration of
educators at all levels. Given the materials requirements, teachers are expected
to accomplish their noble role as stated above. However, teacher should be
equipped with a strong pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) and enough
teaching experience. Furthermore, a science and elementary technology teacher
should be creative and able to improvise since many of teaching aids can be
found around the school and hand-made by the teachers themselves.
  On the other hand, school head teachers and directors of studies should be
trained on the use of competence-based syllabus then, they will be able to make
a follow-up and assess the teaching and learning of this subject due to their
profiles in the schools. These combined efforts will ensure bright future careers
and lives for learners as well as the contemporary development of the country.

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 4.1  Skills required for the Agricultural Teacher
Ability to:
• Engage learners in variety of learning activities.
• Use multiple teaching and assessment methods.
• Adjust instructions to the level of the learner.
• Be creative and innovative.
• Make connections/relations with other subjects.
• Instill discipline to the learners.
• Organise and manage the class.
• Communicate well.
• Guide and counsel the learners.
• Have passion for teaching and supervising learning.
• Have a high level of knowledge of the subject content.

5.0 Syllabus units

5.1  Presentation of the structure of the syllabus units

Agriculture subject is taught and learned in lower secondary education as an elective
subject. At every grade, the syllabus is structured in Topic Areas, and then further
broken down in Units. The units have the following elements:
1. Unit is aligned with the Number of Lessons.
2. Each Unit has a Key Unit Competence whose achievement is pursued by all
teaching and learning activities undertaken by both the teacher and the learners.
3. Each Unit Key Competence is broken into three types of Learning Objectives as
follows:
(a) Type I: Learning Objectives relating to Knowledge and Understanding (Type
1 Learning Objectives are also known as Lower Order Thinking Skills or
LOTS).
(b) Type II and Type III: These Learning Objectives relate to acquisition of
skills, Attitudes and Values (Type II and Type III) Learning objectives are
also known as Higher Order Thinking Skills or HOTS) – These Learning
Objectives are actually considered to be the ones targeted by present reviewed
syllabus.
4. Each Unit has a Content which indicates the scope of coverage of what a teacher
should teach and learner should learn in line with stated learning objectives.
5. Each Unit suggested Learning Activities that are expected to engage learners
in an interactive learning process as much as possible (learner-centred and
participatory approach).
6. Finally, each unit is linked to other Subjects, its Assessment Criteria and the
Materials (or Resources) that are expected to be used in teaching and learning
process.
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 In all, the syllabus of agriculture for O’level has got 4 Topic Areas (Soil Science, Crop
Production and Processing, Animal Production and Agriculture Economics). As for
the units, they are 7 in S1,7 in S2 and 8 in S3.

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 THE CONTENT MAP FOR AGRICULTURE SECONDARY 2

Unit 1 Soil
Number of periods 10
Introduction • Definition of soil fertility.
• Characteristics of fertile soil (dark colour
and contains plenty of humus, enough humus
to keep the pH above neutral) and its plant
indicators.
• Factors affecting soil fertility (availability
of water, water drainage, activity of soil
organisms).
• Factors affecting availability of plant nutrients
(soil pH, organic matter, soil texture, climate,
leaching from sandy soil, soil compaction, crop
removal, use of sensitive crops and nutrient
interactions).
• Symptoms of mineral nutrients, deficiencies.
• Definition of organic manures.
• Types of organic manures (compost, farmyard
manure, green manure and right soil).
• Types of compost (heap and pit compost)
• Steps of making compost/pit compost (have
the pit for waste, add the manure, add the soil,
repeat the activity until the pit is filled, cover
the pit with the soil. When it is full, use a long
stick to monitor the temperature in the middle
of the pile).
• Steps of making farmyard manure.
• Main inorganic fertilisers ( NKP, Urea and
DAP).
Classroom Organisation Individual, group and whole class
Materials required/ • pH meter
resources • Plot soil/garden soil
• Colour indicator papers
• Sample of inorganic fertilisers
• Organic wastes
• Manures
• Water
• Sticks
• Soil
• Ash
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 Activities • Finding out the meaning of soil fertility.
• Field visit to study characteristics of fertile soil.
• Observing the role of water in plants.
• Observing deficiency symptoms in crops.
• Finding out the meaning of organic manures
• Identification of different types of manure.
• Field visit to observe the steps followed in
making manure.
• Making compost manure using the pit compost
method.
• A visit to a zero grazing unit to observe steps in
making farm manure.
• Preparation of farmyard manure.
• Field visit to a shop of inorganic fertilisers to
observe and manipulate fertilisers.
Competences practised • Critical thinking and problem solving skills.
• Information gathering.
• Report writing and presentation.
• Co-operation/Teamwork.
• Communication skills.
• Identifying fertile soils.
Vocabulary acquisition • Terminologies related to soil science such as
soil fertility, symptoms of nutrient deficencies
in plant, manures and inorganic fertilisers.
• Key terms used at the end of this unit.
Numeracy • Measurements of land size, weight of fertilis-
ers, manures and amount of money.
Study skills • Reading and note taking.
• Observation.
• Experimentation.
• Data collection.
• Data analysis and recording.
• Drawing of conclusion.
• Presentation of findings.
Revision • Revision questions at the end of the unit.
Assessment • A formative assessment in the course of the
unit and a summative evaluation at the end of
the unit.

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 Learning outcomes • Identifying fertile soils.
• Detecting fertile soils with indicatory plants.
• Ability to make organic manures.
• Ability to identify and use main inorganic
fertilisers.
• Ability to make a report of an investigation.
• Co-operating with others in discussion groups.
• Acquiring communication skills.

Unit 2 Mushrooms
Number of periods 4
Introduction • Definition of mushrooms.
• Propagation of mushrooms.
• Types of mushrooms (edible and non-edible
mushrooms).
• Production of mushroom tubes (compost sterilisation,
dying, crushing, packing up, bagging, mycelium
sowing).
• Mushroom cultivation techniques (Arranging
mushrooms tubes in a nursery bed, shading, watering,
weeding)
• Factors affecting mushroom cultivation.
Classroom Organi- Individual, group and whole classroom
sation
Materials and • Mushroom seed making from households or co-opera-
equipment tives.
• Mushroom farming households or co-operatives or
schools.
• Mushroom tubes, compost bags.
• Hoe.
• Computer room with internet connection.
• Library.

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 Activities • Finding out the meaning of mushrooms.
• Finding out the different types of mushrooms.
• Finding out the meaning of propagation of mushrooms.
• Mushroom tube making.
• Field visit to observe mushrooms tube making and
mushroom cultivation.
• Cultivating mushrooms in the nursery.

Competences • Critical thinking and problem solving report.

practised • Information gathering.
• Team work/co-operation.
• Creativity and discovery.
• Communication and social skills.
• ICT skills.

Vocabulary • Terminologies related to mushroom cultivation such

acquisition as, definition of mushroom, mushroom tube, subtrate
mushroom spawn.
• Terminologies related to factors affecting mushroom
cultivation such as environment, pests and diseases.
• Key terms at the end of this unit.
Numeracy • Measuring of weights in preparation of mushrooms
and mushroom cultivation.

Study skills • Acquiring information.

• Note-taking.
• Organisation of materials for presentation.
• Project support work.
Revision • Formative evaluation.
• Summary notes at the end of the topic.
• Revision exercises at the end of the topic.
• Summative evaluation of the end of the unit.
Assessment • Formative assessment as the lesson progresses.
• Assessment of practical activity.
• Group tasks and project support during field visits.
Learning outcomes • Defining the term mushroom.
• Identifying types of mushrooms.
• Identifying edible and non-edible mushrooms.
• Making of mushroom tubes.
• Practising mushroom cultivation.
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 Unit 3 Fruits
Number of periods 20
Introduction • Fruit trees definition.
• Importance of fruits.
• Some fruits cultivated in Rwanda (avocados, papaya,
mangoes, tamarillo, citrus, pineapples, passion fruits,
strawberries).
• Propagation methods of fruits (layering, grafting, seed
propagation, stem cuttings, seeds).
• Grafting of avocado and citrus fruit trees.
• Orchard management practices (site selection,
planting, watering, pruning, pest and disease control).
• Definition of processing and preservation of fruits.
• Importance of processing and preservation of fruits.
• Objectives of applying post-harvest technologies
(maintain quality: flavour appearance, nutritive value;
to protect food safety, prevent losses both physical and
in market value).
• Preservation techniques of fruits: refrigeration,
freezing, sugaring, canning, curving, fermentation).
• Some fruits to be processed: strawberries, passion
fruits, papaya, pineapples, citrus, tamarillo).
• Products processed from fruits (Jam, juice, marmalade
and steps involved in their processing).
Classroom • Whole class.
Organisation • Group work.
• Individual work.
Equipment • Students’ course book S2 agriculture.
Required • School farm, neighbouring farms.
• Library, video of citrus pruning and grafting, materials
for pruning and grafting. Tree seedlings in nursery,
fruit trees, processed fruits into jam, jellies and
marmalade.
• Fruit cans and jars, blenders, cookers, source pans,
refrigerators, pruning saws and secateurs, budding and
grafting tapes, wax, knives.
• Hand hoes, slashers, garden lines, garden chains and
wooden pegs.
• Computers, laptops and internet, magazines,
newspaper cuttings, chart.

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 Activities • Finding out the meaning of fruits.
• Field visit to explore and identify cultivated fruits and
their importance.
• Finding out fruits cultivated in Rwanda.
• Researching different methods of fruit propagation.
• Field visit to observe grafting of avocados and citrus.
• Grafting of avocado trees.
• Building citrus trees.
• Field tour to select site for an orchard.
• Land preparation to establish an orchard.
• Laying out an orchard.
• Preparation of planting holes.
• Transplanting fruit tree seedlings.
• Identifying fruit pests and diseases.
• Controlling pests and diseases in an orchard.
• Watching a video on pruning of fruit trees.
• Pruning citrus fruit trees.
• Field trip to a fruit processing and preservation plant or
factory.
• Finding out the importance of processing and
preservation of fruits.
• Using search engines to find out the importance of
applying post-harvest technologies.
• Finding out the preservation techniques in different
fruits.
• Applying preservation techniques in different fruits.
• Observing and identifying fruits to be processed.
• Finding out the products processed.
• Finding out the products processed from fruits.
Competences • Critical thinking and problem solving skills.
practised • Data collection methods.
• ICT skills.
• Communication skills.
• Team work/ Co-operation.
• Public speaking skills.
• Creativity.
• Fruit processing and preservation skills.
Vocabulary • Terminology related to fruit production, such as
acquisition (key definition of fruits, propagation, layering, grafting
terms to be introduced seeds, cuttings).
and explained to • Terminologies related to fruits processing and
learners) preservation.
• Key terms at the end of this unit.

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 Numeracy • Knowledge of how measuring, spacing, using metres
and centimetres.
• Measuring plant heights when grafting.
• Calculating fertiliser rates.
• Ensuring chemical dosage.
• Measuring quantified in recipes in fruit preservation.
Study skills • Acquiring information.
(including language • Note taking and writing.
competence) • Organising ideas and presentation when reporting.
• Observation skills.
• Mastering examination terms such as procedures.
Revision • Revision exercises at the end of the unit in the stu-
dents’ book.
• Assignment given by the teacher.
• Summary of the points and things to remember.
Assessment • A formative assessment of competency in practical
work.
• Oral questions.
• Continuous assessment test.
• Summative evaluation at the end of the unit.
Learning outcomes • Exploring cultivated fruits and their importance.
• Recognising fruits cultivated in Rwanda.
• Cultivating acceptable behaviour of team playing.
• Performing grafting and budding.
• Respecting those in leadership position.
• Public speaking and presentation.
• Observation and perception skills.
• Carrying out fruit preservation and processing.
• Appreciating fruit growing, processing and
preservation.

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 Unit 4 Legumes
Number of periods 16
Introduction • Definition of legumes.
• Legumes names, types, (fodder edible by human) and
their importance.
• Importance of legumes (soya beans and groundnuts,
fodder, feed, livestock, stakes for climbing crops, soil
fertility and soil conservation).
• Propagation methods of legume (cuttings, seeds,
propagation, layering).
• Cultural practices of legumes (land preparation,
planting materials, sowing, maintenance/management
and harvesting).
• Post-harvest techniques for soya beans, groundnuts,
(threshing, and transport, drying, cleaning, handling,
conditioning, packaging and storage and fodder.
Classroom Organi- • Individual work.
sation • Group work.
• Whole class.
Equipment Re- • Hoes, rakes, measuring tapes, pangas, pegs, ropes,
quired sacs, labels and small farm.
• Library, computers, laboratory with tools.
• Internet, school fields, neighbouring farms.
Activities • Finding out the definition of legumes.
• Identifying legumes.
• Field visit to find out the importance of legumes.
• Field visit to observe and find out the propagation
methods of legumes.
• Field work to carry out cultural practices in legumes.
• A field visit to observe post-harvest techniques of
legumes.
• A vist tom a farm growing fodder legumes to observe
post-harvest activities carried out on fodder legumes.
Competences • Critical thinking and problem solving.
practised • Data collection methods.
• Presentation of findings.
• Team work/co-operation.
• Digital skills.
• Legume propagation and post-harvest technique skills.

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 Vocabulary • Terminologies related to post-harvest techniques of
acquisition (key fodder.
terms to be introduced • Key terms at the end of this unit.
and explained to
learners)
Numeracy • Measurement of inter row and interplant spacing in
metres and centimetres.
• Dosages of insecticides and fungicides.
• Measurement of fertiliser rates in kilograms and
grams.
• Measurement of yields in kilograms and bags.
Study skills • Discussion skills.
(including language • Acquiring information.
competence) • Note-taking.
• Information organisation.
Revision • Summary notes.
• Revision exercise at the end of the unit.
• Group discussions.
Assessment • Formative assessment through observation, pen and
paper, oral questions, continuous assessment tests.
• Summative assessment, evaluation at the end of the
unit.
Learning outcomes • Identify legumes cultivated in Rwanda.
• Positive attitude towards colleagues.
• Ability to carry out legume cultivation.
• Acquire post-harvest skills of soya beans and
groundnuts.

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 Unit 5 Ruminants
Number of periods 14
Introduction • Definition of ruminant.
• Ruminant species reared in Rwanda (cattle,
sheep, goats).
• Ruminant breeds (cattle: Ankole, Friesian,
Jersey; Goats: local, alpine, Boar, Ethiopian
Galla, Saneen; Sheep: local, mountain white,
Merino).
• Characteristics of ruminants and breeds.
• Ruminants shelter standards.
• Selection criteria of breed to rear (Goats
and sheep): Natural base width, muscling,
volume and capacity, style and balance, growth
potential, age; Cattle: Head, topline, the
legs, main body and ribs, humps, hooves and
pasterns, walking, fat and muscle for beef and
udders, teat size, fertility, navel for dairy cows).
• Feeding ruminants using fodder species: (fodder
grasses and fodder legumes and concentrates.
• Feeding plan for goats.
• Ruminants disease (Cattle: Brucellosis,
babesiosis, tuberculosis, bovine anaplasmosis,
East coast fever, heart water, Goats: Blue
tongue, heart fever, vesicular, stomatitis,
caprine arthritis, encephalitis, clostridia disease;
Sheep: blue tongue, Cryptococcosis, vesicular
stomatitis)
• Sanitation (rules for a ruminants’ farm sanitation).
Classroom Organisation Individual, group and whole classroom
Materials and equipment • Ruminant farms, projector, CD-videos on
ruminants, ruminant shelter, construction
materials, fodder and concentrate water. Timber,
nails, tools like hammers and crowbars, Napier
grass, lucerne calliandra, leuceana pictures
of ruminants and videos of ruminant animals
suffering different diseases-free internet sites.

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 Activities • Finding the meaning of the term ruminant.
• A visit to an agricultural and veterinary schools
or ruminant farms to observe ruminant species
kept in Rwanda.
• Finding out different ruminant breeds.
• Finding out the characteristics of ruminant
breeds.
• A visit to a multipurpose farm to observe
ruminant shelter standards.
• Field trip to a multipurpose farm to observe a
goat shelter.
• Construction of a goat shelter.
• Field visit to observe the selection criteria for
ruminant animals.
• Finding out the types of feeds required for
feeding ruminants.
• A visit to a farm to observe feeding of goats.
• Observing different goat diseases.
• A visit to a ruminant farm to observe sanitation.

Competences practised • Critical thinking and problem solving skills.

• Lifelong learning.
• Presentation of findings.
• Team work/Co-operation.
• Creativity and discovery.
• Communication and social skills.
• ICT skills.
Vocabulary acquisition • Terminologies related to ruminants and ruminant
breeds and characteristics such as topline,
muscling, volume, growth potential, fertility.
• Terminologies related to ruminant shelter
standards such as materials and sanitation.
• Terminologies related to ruminant feeding such
as fodder and concentrates.
• Terminologies related to ruminant diseases such
as symptoms and damages.
• Key terms defined at the end of this unit.

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 Numeracy • Measuring of distance when making farm
structure, slope of land.
• Measuring different selection criteria such
as natural base width, muscling, volume and
capacity of cattle, sheep and goats.
• Estimating quantities of feed when making a
feeding plan for goats.
Study skills • Acquiring information.
• Note-taking.
• Organisation of materials for presentation.
• Project support work.
Revision • Formative evaluation.
• Summary notes at the end of the topic.
• Revision exercises at the end of the topic.
• Summative evaluation at the end of the unit.
Assessment • Formative assessment as the lesson progresses.
• Assessment of practical activity.
• Group tasks and project support during field
visits.
Learning outcomes • Defining the term ruminant.
• Identifying species of ruminants reared in
Rwanda.
• Identifying ruminant breeds kept in Rwanda.
• Making of goat shelters.
• Identifying ruminant feeds.
• Practising goat feeding.
• Identifying diseases and enemies affecting goats.
and other ruminant livestock kept in Rwanda.
• Practise sanitation rules in ruminant shelters.

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 Unit 6 Livestock products
Number of periods 4
Introduction • Importance of preservation.
• Preservation of cattle products (meat, milk,
ice cream, cheese, yoghurt and by-products
(hide, tallow, gelatin, leather, blood, horns and
bones).
• Preservation of pig products (meat, lard) and
by-products (suede for shoes and clothing,
gelatin for food and non-food uses).
• Preservation of poultry products (meat, eggs).
• Preservation of rabbit products (meat, and fur
for making socks).
Classroom Organisation Individual, group and whole class.
Materials required/ • Damaged livestock products.
resources • Fresh livestock products.
• Processing industries.
• Diaries.
• Hand gloves.
• Laboratory equipment.
Activities • Observing destroyed products.
• Field trip to livestock processing industries and
dairy.
• Discussions on preservation of cattle products
and by-products.
• Discussion on preservation of pig products and
by-products.
• Discussion on poultry products.
• Discussion on rabbit products.
Competences practised • Critical thinking and problem solving.
• Information gathering.
• Report writing and presentation.
• Team work/ co-operation.
• Communication skills.
• Ability to preserve various livestock products.
Vocabulary acquisition • Terminology related to preservation of
livestock products such as salting, sugaring,
smoking, drying, freezing and fermentation.
• Key terms defined at the end of this unit.

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 Numeracy • Measurements of weight of livestock products,
temperatures and money, manures and amount
of money.
Study skills • Reading and note-taking.
• Observation.
• Data collection.
• Data analysis and recording.
• Drawing of conclusion.
• Presentation of findings.
Revision • Revision of questions at the end of the unit.
Assessment • A formative assessment in the course of the
unit and a summative evaluation at the end of
the unit.
Learning outcomes • Identifying damaged products by colour, smell,
taste and look.
• Ability to preserve livestock products.
• Ability to make a report of an investigation.
• Co-operating with others in discussion groups.
• Acquiring communication skills.

Unit 7 Problems and Solutions of Agriculture in Rwanda

Number of periods 4
Introduction • Problems facing agriculture (land shortage, lack
of capital, pests and diseases, unstable prices,
poor rainfall distribution, bad attitudes towards
agriculture, malnutrition, poor road network, lack of
market for agricutural goods, lack of proper storage
facilities and poor transport facilities.
• Solutions to problems that agriculture is facing
(intensive agriculture, borrowing money from
banks, construction and maintainance of feeder
roads, plant protection, searching proper market).
Classroom Individual, group and whole class.
Organisation

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 Materials required/ • Computer laboratory with internet.
resources • Library books/library.
• Land use in Rwanda map.
• Weather charts.
• Histogram of rainfall distribution in Kigali/any other
major town in Rwanda.
Activities • Finding out problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
• Visit to a field day organised by an agricultural
institution or agricultural research institute to find
out how farmers respond to challenges they face
while farming in Rwanda.
• Discussion on intensive farming under;
characteristics, systems, merits and demerits.
Competences practised • Critical thinking and problem solving.
• Life skills.
• Information gathering.
• Report writing and presentation.
• Team work/co-operation.
• Communication skills.
Vocabulary acquisition • Terminology related to problems and solutions of
agriculture such as capital, demand and supply, price
fluctuations, buffer stock, contracting, stabilisation
funds and subsidy.
• Key terms defined at the end of this unit.
Numeracy • Measurements of rainfall, land and money.
Study skills • Reading and note-taking.
• Discussion.
• Information gathering.
• Data analysis and recording.
• Drawing of conclusion.
• Presentation of findings.
Revision • Revision questions at the end of the unit.
Assessment • A formative assessment in the course of the unit.

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 Learning outcomes • Ability of identifying problems facing agriculture in
Rwanda.
• Ability to solve problems facing agriculture in
Rwanda.
• Critical thinking and decision making skills in
handling issues.
• Ability to co-operate with others in group
discussion.
• Acquiring communication skills.
• Report writing and presentation of findings.

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 A SAMPLE SCHEMES OF WORK FOR SOCONDARY 2 AGRICULTURE, UNIT 1: SOIL
WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS

CURRECT AGRI.indd 38
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES
1 1 SOIL By the end of the • Finding out Computers with • Dictionary. Well
FERTILITY lesson, the learners the meaning of modems, library. Library. covered.
-Definition of should be able to define soil fertility. • Books.
soil fertility soil fertility. • Discussing and • Internet.
recording their
findings.
• Presenting
their findings
to the class.
• Taking
teacher’s

xxxviii
summary
notes.
2 Characteristics By the end of the • Observing • pH meter • Internet. Well
of a fertile soil lesson, the learners soil physical • Garden soil. • Library. covered.
and its plant should be able characteristics • Water. • Books.
indicators to describe the such as colour, • Colour • Dictionaries.
characteristics of a texture and indicator
fertile soil and its plant structure. • Papers.
indicators. • Estimating • Beakers.
soil pH by • Test tubes.
use of a pH • Stirring rods.
meter or colour
indicator paper.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

CURRECT AGRI.indd 39
• Discussing and
recording their
findings.
• Presenting
their findings
to the class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary
notes.
2 1 Factors affecting By the end of the • Growing two • Portable The activity
soil fertility. lesson, the learner sets of crops containers • Library will take longer
should be able to A and B, one labelled books than the 40
recognise the factors under adequate A&B. • Dictionaries minutes to make
affecting soil fertility. water supply • Tomato • Internet observations

xxxix
and the other or kale • Secondary 2 and get the
inadequate seedlings. Agriculture final results.
water supply • Water. Students’ Learners given
and making • Stakes. Book. the assignment
observations on • Pesticides. of watering the
a daily basis. • Phosphoric crops and making
• Discussing and and necessary
recording their nitrogenous observations.
findings. fertilisers.
• Presenting their • Knapsack
findings to the sprayers.
class after the • Library.
project.
• Taking teacher’s
summary notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

CURRECT AGRI.indd 40
2 Factors affecting By the end of the Watching a video • Library Watch a
the availability lesson, the learner on: • Library books. video on
of nutrients. should be able to • Effects of water • Computers • Internet. effects of
distinguish the stress on crop • Modems • Secondary 2 water stress
factors affecting the production. • Videotape Agriculture and saline
availability of plant • Mineral Students’ soils on crop
nutrients. deficiency Book. production
symptoms in but did not
crops. watch one
• Effects of on mineral
saline soils deficiency

xl
on crop symptoms.
production. Time should
• Discuss and be created
record the for it.
observations
made.
• Present findings
to the class.
• Take teacher’s
summary notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

CURRECT AGRI.indd 41
3 1 Symptoms of By the end of the • Growing • Plot of land • Library The activity
mineral nutrients lesson , the learners crops under measuring books. will require
deficiencies. should be able to conditions • 4 m by 3 m. • Secondary 2 more times
describe the symptoms of fertiliser • Planting Agriculture than the
of plants deficient in applications materials. Students’ 40 minutes
minerals. and making • Phosphatic Book. allocated for
observations. and the lesson.
• Watching nitrogenous Learners
a video on fertilisers. assigned
mineral • Water. the task of
deficiency • Library. watering
symptoms in • Computers their crops

xli
crops. with modem. during their
• Discussing • Videotape own free
and recording time and
observations making
daily. necessary
• Presenting their observations.
findings before
the class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

CURRECT AGRI.indd 42
2 • Definition By the end of the Well
of organic lesson, the learner • Finding out • Library. • Internet covered.
manures. should be able to define the meaning • Computers • Library books
• Types of organic manures and of organic with • Dictionaries
organic name different types manures from modems. • Secondary 2
manures. of organic manures or internet and • Different Agriculture
fertilisers. library books. types of Students’
• Identifying manures. Book.
different types
of manures

xlii
provided by the
teacher.
• Discussing and
recording their
findings.
• Presenting their
findings to the
class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
CURRECT AGRI.indd 43
WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

4 1 Types of By the end of the • Finding the • Computers • Internet Well

composts. lesson, the learner types of with modem. • Library covered.
should be able to composts from • Library. books
distinguish between the internet • Dictionaries
heap and pit composts. and library • Secondary
books. • Agriculture
• Discussing and Students’
recording their Book.
findings.

xliii
• Presenting
their findings
to the class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary
notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
CURRECT AGRI.indd 44
WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

2 Steps of making By the end of the • Carrying • Hand hoe. • Library books Preparation
compost manure lesson, the learner out the steps • Maize stalks. • Secondary 2 stage well
using the pit should be able to make of making • Wood ash. Agriculture done but the
method. compost manure using compost • Well rotten Students’ activity will
the pit method. manure using manure. Book. require more
the pit method. • Green leaves. • Internet. time before
• Discussing • Kitchen getting the

xliv
and recording wastes, grass final product.
findings or • Garden soil.
observations. • Spade.
• Presenting • Temperature
their findings stick.
to the class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary
notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
CURRECT AGRI.indd 45
WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

5 1 Steps of making By the end of the • Carrying out • Farm • Internet. The activity will
farmyard lesson, the learner the steps of animals • Library require more
manure. should be able to make making farm dwelling books. time before
farmyard manure. yard manure. houses/ • Dictionaries. getting the final
• Discussing places. • Secondary 2 product.
and recording • Litter Agriculture Learners
findings or materials for Students’ assigned the task
observations. the animal Book. of collecting and

xlv
• Presenting houses. heaping materials
their findings • Shovel. from the animal
to the class. • Manure fork. houses.
• Taking • Manure shed.
teacher’s • Wheelbarrow.
summary
notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 WEEK LESSON TOPIC/ LEARNING LEARNING LEARNING REFERENCES REMARKS
SUBTOPIC OBJECTIVES ACTIVITIES RESOURCES

CURRECT AGRI.indd 46
2 Main inorganic By the end of the • Identifying Various types of • Internet. Well
fertilisers. lesson, the learner different fertilisers. • Library covered.
should be able to inorganic books.
identify different fertilisers • Dictionaries.
fertilisers used in exhibited by the • Secondary 2
agriculture. teacher or sold Agriculture
in a shop. Students’
• Calculating the Book.
fertiliser ratio
of compound
fertilisers
identified.
• Observing
the colours of

xlvi
the various
fertilisers
exhibited or
sold in a shop.
• Manipulating
the fertilisers
exhibited or
sold in a shop
• Discussing and
recording their
findings.
• Presenting their
findings to the
class.
• Taking
teacher’s
summary notes.

4/18/17 11:25 AM
 Note: The remarks column is filled after covering the lesson. The remarks indicate
how well the lesson was covered and whether a re-teach may be neccessary if the
lesson was not adequately covered. It may also indicate whether a project was com-
pleted within the stipulated time or is ongoing.

xlvii

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 SAMPLE LESSON PLAN

School Name............................ Teacher’s Name .......................................

Term Date Subject Class Unit No. Lesson No. Duration Class
Size
– / – Agriculture 1 1/10 40 min 40
2017
Type of special Education Needs to be Visual impairement (2): Let the learner be
catered for in this lesson and number of in a way that he/she can see the teacher facial
learners in each category expressions and gestures.
Unit Title Soil
Key unit com- The learner should be able to describe the characteristics of fertile soil,
petence differentiate inorganic fertilisers and make organic fertilisers.
Title of lesson Characteristics of fertile soil and its plant indicators.
Instructional Having pH-meter/indicator paper, hoe, beaker test tube and water, in school
objectives farm, learners should be able to describe 5 characteristics of fertile soil and
identify its plant indicators.
Plan for the Outside the classroom/school farm
class (location
in/ outside)
Learning pH meter, garden soil, water, indicator papers, beaker, test tubes, stirring
materials (for rods.
ALL learners)
References – Rwanda National agriculture syllabus , senior two
– Agriculture pupil’s book, senior two
– Library textbooks
Description of teaching and learning activity Generic
competences and
Teacher lead learners to school farm, learners observe cross cutting
and make test on characteristics of soil. issues to be
addressed + a
short explanation

Timing for Teacher’s activities Learners activities

each step

xlviii

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 Introduction Review soil composition and Learners respond to the
(5 mins) soil properties by asking prob- question
ing questions.
• Possible answers
• Possible questions 1. Rock particles,
1. Name one or two water, air, humus
components of soil 2. Water holding
2. Give one of the physical capacity/porosity,
properties of soil texture ...

Development • In groups of 4 learners, Learners observe and Communication

of the lesson teacher allows learners to present their findings
(30 mins) observe colour of soil and as follows: • Working
fertile plant indicators. 1. Dark colour for together in
• Teacher asks learners to test frtile soil. grouThe
soil by touching. working groups
2. Galinsoga pal-
of classmates
• Teacher asks learner to use viflora, Bidens
provide an open
hoe to determine the depth pilosa, comellina
environment to
of soil. bengalensis
group members
• Teacher asks learners, in • Each learners touch which facilitate
groups of five to determine soil and determine communication.
the pH of sampled soil. the fitness of soil
Co-operation
• By digging the soil, • The working
learner determine its
group of
depth
classmates is
• With pH-meter/ organised well
indicator paper and allows
learner read the pH of all members
sampled soil. to participate
efficiently.
Gender balance in
groups formed
Critical thinking
• Learners will
think about
different colours
of soil and
determine which
among them
characterise a
fertile soil.

xlix

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 Peace and values
• While using of
digging tools
(hoe) attention
is needed in
order to prevent
accident.
Conclusion: • The teacher assess the The learners respond to
Summary lesson by requesting to the assessment task.
learners to describe 5 char- Possible answers:
Assessment acteristics of fertile soil. Characteristics of
(5 min) fertile soil are:
• Good depth of soil.
• Dark in colour.
• Rich in humus.
• Correct soil pH.
• Presence of plant
indicator of fertile
soil.

The learner list

• Teacher asks learner to list common plant
the common plant indicator indicators of fertility/
of fertile soil. infertility.
Possible answers
(a) Fertility plant
indicators
• Galinsoga
palviflora/kimali
• Bidens pilosa/
inyarabas anyi
• Comellina
bengalensis/uru
teja
(b) Plant indicators of
fertility
• Eragrostris/
ishinge
• Branchen/
igishihe
Teacher self- • All learners are able to describe characteristics of fertile soil and its plant
evaluation indicators.

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 Topic Area: Soil Science
Unit 1: Soil

Number of Periods: 10

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to describe the characteristics of

fertile soil, differentiate non-organic fertilisers and make organic fertilisers.

1.1  Learning Objectives

(a)  Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Define soil fertility.
(ii) Describe characteristics of soil fertility and state indicatory plants of fertile
soils.
(iii) Distinguish factors affecting availability of plant nutrients.
(iv) Describe symptoms of plants deficient in minerals.
(v) Name organic fertilisers.
(vi) Carry out steps of making compost.
(vii) Apply methods of making farmyard manures.
(viii) Identify different fertilisers used in agriculture.
(b) Skills
(i) Conduct experiments illustrating soil fertility.
(ii) Detect fertile soils with indicatory plants.
(iii) Try to understand the problem of insufficient water and propose solution.
(iv) Recognise factors affecting availability of plant nutrients.
(v) Recognise some plant symptoms and deficiencies for mineral nutrients.
(vi) Discriminate organic fertilisers.
(vii) Perform steps of making compost.
(viii) Perform steps of making farmyard manures.
(ix) Recognise major inorganic fertilisers used in agriculture.
(c) Attitudes and values
(i) Show patience awaiting agricultural result.
(ii) Be careful and attentive while detecting soil fertility characteristics.
(iii) Assume responsibility of solving problem.
(iv) Be attentive while observing plant nutrients deficiencies.
(v) Be aware on organic manure types.
(vi) Conform on compost making.
(vii) Conform on making farmyard manures.
(viii) Be careful and attentive while observing and manipulate fertilisers.

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 1.2  Content Students’ Book page 1–23
(i) Definition of soil fertility.
(ii) Characteristics of fertile soil, (dark colour-contains plenty of humus,
enough lime to keep the pH about neutral) and its plants indicator.
(iii) Factors affecting soil fertility (availability of water, water drainage, activity
of soil organism).
(iv) Factors affecting availability of plants nutrients (Soil pH, organic matter,
soil texture, climate, leaching from sandy soils, soil compaction, crop
removal, use of sensitive crops, nutrient interaction).
(v) Symptoms of mineral nutrients deficiencies.

Answers to questions in table 1.1: Comparison between healthy and deficient

plants in the students’ book page 9 –11

Healthy plant Deficient Symptoms Deduction

plant Identified
(a) Strawberry Stunted plant Stunted growth The soil is lacking nitrogen,
plant phosphorus, potassium,
sulphur and calcium

(b) Raspberry Chlorotic Chlorosis/ The soil is lacking nitrogen,

plant/leaves leaves yellowing of potassium and sulphur
leaves
(c) Healthy Yellow Inter-veinial The soils lack magnesium
green leaves patches chlorosis
(citrus) between the
veins in leaves
(d) Healthy Shoot tips Die-back The soils is lacking calcium
citrus drying
branch backward in
citrus
(e) Healthy Purple colour A n t h o c y a n i n The soil is lacking nitrogen,
tomato plant in tomato pigment phosphorus and magnesium
leaves
(f) Healthy Leaves curved Leaf curl Soil is lacking magnesium.
citrus along the
leaves margin
(g) Healthy Falling of the Lodging Soil is lacking phosphorus
maize plant maize plant and potassium.

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 (h) Developed Lack of root Poor nodulation The soil is lacking
root nodules nodules in legume phosphorus and sulphur
plants

(vi) Definition of organic manures.
(vii) Types of organic manures (compost, farmyard manure, green manure night
soil).
(viii) Types of compost (heap and pit compost) and steps of making compost/
pit compost (have a pit for waste, add the manure, add the soil, repeat the
activity until the pit is filled, cover the pit with the soil when it is full, use
a long stick to monitor the temperature in the middle of pile).
(ix) Steps of making farmyard manure.
(x) Main organic fertilisers; (NPK, UREA and DAP).
1.3  Learning Activities
(i) Field activity to characterise fertile soil by observation of the colour, by
touching with hands, by estimation of its pH using pH meter or indicator
paper and by observing plant indicators.
(ii) Problem solving by showing plants grown in soil with insufficiency of
water and discuss among themselves on the problem and find its solution.
(iii) Field work to follow the whole process of making a compost and farmyard
manure and imitate that process/steps in groups themselves.
(iv) Field trip to a shop of inorganic fertilisers to observe and manipulate
fertilisers.
1.4  Links to other Subjects
This unit is linked to Geography (soil formation), Chemistry especially group
five elements in the periodic table, Biology (plant nutrition) and Biotechnology.
1.5  Assessment Criteria
Assessment will be based on the ability to:
(i) Characterise fertile soil depending on colour, humus content, lime content
and pH value or degree.
(ii) Recognise the fertile soil by referring to the plant deficient in minerals.
(iii) Make compost and farmyard manure by respecting steps involved in that
process.
(iv) Recognise inorganic fertilisers displayed at the market.
1.6  Learning Materials/Resources
The following learning materials will be required in this unit:
(i) pH meter.
(ii) Plot soil/garden soil.
(iii) Colour indicator papers.
(iv) Samples of inorganic fertilisers.
(v) Organic wastes.
(vi) Manure.
3

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 (vii) Water.
(viii) Land.
(ix) Sticks.
(x) Soil and ash.
1.7  Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials
(a) Ask the learners to bring materials such as wood ash, seedlings and tools for
cutting vegetative materials for making compost manure.
(b) Share facilities such as laboratories and laboratory equipment with
neighbouring schools when carrying out soil pH testing.
1.8  Methods of Teaching
The following methods are recommended in the teaching of this unit: The methods
used are explained in the previous pages of this book as shown.
Content Method(s)
1. Definition of soil fertility Discussion: Teacher gives the learners
an opportunity to define soil fertility in
their groups.
The teacher facilitates and allows the
learners time to present their findings.
The teacher then gives a final
conclusion.
2. Characteristics of fertile soils and Field visit: The teacher prepares a
its plant indicators questionnaire which is provided in
Annex 1 and instructs the learners to
observe fertile soils and their plant
indicators during the field visit.
Learners to make observations on
characteristics of the soil such as
colour, records them in their note
books and present them to the class.
Teacher to maintain discipline and
clarify issues arising from the trip.
3. Factors affecting soil fertility Problem solving: Teacher sensitises
the learners on factors affecting soil
fertility. Learners investigate, discuss
and give solutions to the problem of
soil infertility such as applications
of organic manures and fertilisers.
They then analyse the outcome to see
whether it can be applied in future.

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 4. Factors affecting availability of Discussion: Teacher gives the
plant nutrients learners an opportunity to suggest
factors affecting the availability of
plant nutrients. Learners record their
findings and then present them to the
class.
Teacher to supervise the discussions
and then give a final conclusion.
5. Symptoms of mineral nutrient Supervised practice/activity: The
deficiencies learners observe the symptoms of
mineral deficiencies in plants as the
teacher supervises, record and discuss
their observations. They then present
their findings to the class.
Teacher then makes a final conclusion.
6. Definition of organic manures Discussion: Teacher asks the learners
to find out the meaning of organic
manures from internet and library
books. Learners record their findings
and then present them to the class.
Teacher to supervise the discussion
and then give a final conclusion.
7. Types of organic manures Exhibition: Teacher to display
compost manure, farmyard manure
and green leafy leguminous plant in
shallow containers. Learners to make
observations, discuss and present the
findings to the class. Teacher to make
clarifications and follow up.
8. Type of compost manures Discussion: Teacher asks the learners
find out the types of compost manure
from internet and library books.
Learners record their findings and
then present them to the class.
Teacher supervises the discussions
and makes a final conclusion.

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 9. Steps in making compost manure (i) Field visit: Teacher to provide
questionnaire/asks the learners
to observe the steps involved in
making compost manure during
the field visit.
The questionnaire is provided in
Annex 2.
Learners to make observations,
record them in their note books
and present them to the class.
Teacher to maintain displine and
clarify issues arising from the
trip.

(ii) Supervised practice/activity:
Teacher supervises the learners as
they make compost manure using
the steps observed during the field
trip.
Learners record and discuss
their observations. They then
present their findings to the
class. Teacher then makes a final
conclusion.

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 10. Steps in making farmyard manure (i) Field visit: Teacher to provide
questionnaire and then asks the
learners to observe the steps
involved in making farmyard
manure during their visit to a zero
grazing unit.
The questionnaire to be used is
provided in Annex 3.
Learners to make observations,
record them in their note books
and present them to the class.
Teacher to maintain discipline
and clarify issues arising from the
trip.
(ii) Supervised practice/activity:
Teacher supervises the learners
as they make farmyard manure
using the steps observed during
the field trip. The learners to
carry out the practical activities
as demonstrated by the teacher
in their respective groups, record
and discuss their observations.
They then present their findings
to the class. Teacher then makes
the final conclusion.
11.  Main inorganic fertilisers (i) Field visit: Teacher to provide
questionnaire and asks the learn-
ers to identify displayed fertilisers
or fertilisers sold in a shop during
their field study.
The questionnaire to be used is
provided in Annex 4.
Learners to observe and manipu-
lated NPK, UREA and DAP and
record them in their note books
and present them to the class.
Teacher to maintain discipline
and clarify issues arising from the
trip.

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 References
(i) S2 Agriculture Students’ Book.
(ii) Dictionary.
(iii) Library books.
(iv) Internet.
1.9  Suggested Teaching/Learning activities and exercises to support delivery of
content and development of students competences
1. Field visit to study the characteristics of fertile soil.
2. Observing the role of water in plants.
3. Observing deficiency symptoms in crops.
4. Field visit to observe the steps followed in making compost manure.
5. Making compost manure using the pit method.
6. A visit to a zero grazing unit to observe steps in making farmyard manure.
7. Preparation of farmyard manure.
8. A field visit to a shop of inorganic fertilisers to observe and manipulate
fertilisers.
9. Discussion on the advantages and disadvantages of using organic manure as
compared to the use of inorganic fertilisers.
1.10  Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in teaching and learning activities
The teacher should:
(i) Sensitise the learners on environmental pollution as a result of overuse of
inorganic fertilisers.
(ii) Emphasise the importance of producing organic products that lead to healthy
living.
(iii) Create awareness on the use of cost effective methods of agriculture.
1.11  Suggestions for accommodating special education needs (SEN)
When teaching this unit, special needs learners can be assisted as follows:
(a) Sensory impairment (visual)
• Use large prints in the instruction sheets, questionnaires and assessment
paper.
• Allow them to sit near the chalkboard when in class.
• Pair them with learners with good vision.
• Assist them to recognise different colours.
(b) Sensory impairment (hearing)
• Be audible enough to the learner.
• Ask them whether they have heard.
• Allow learners to stay close to the teacher.
(c) Motor impairment (movement)
• Pair them with other learners to be assisted to carry tools and equipment.
• Conduct practical activities in one place to avoid too much movement.
(d) Gifted or talented learners

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 • Assign them extra duties.
• Encourage them to assist the slow learners.
• Place them in different working groups.
(e) Slow learners
• Give them individualised attention.
• Ask fast learners to assist them.
• Take time when going through the procedures.
• Give them remedial teaching.
1.12  Formative Evaluation
1. (a) What is organic manure?
(b) Name four types of organic manures.
2. (a) What is a fertiliser element?
(b) Name three fertiliser elements.
3. What is the purpose of applying agricultural lime with the soil?
4. Name five nutrient deficiency symptoms in plants.
5. State two ways of determining the fertility of a soil.
1.13 Additional Content for the Teacher
Main inorganic fertilisers
The amount of each of the three primary macro-nutrients (NPK) contained in a
fertiliser is expressed in two ways. These are:

1. Fertiliser grade or analysis

Fertiliser grade indicates the amount of each nutrient contained in a fertiliser
expressed as a percentage. It is usually indicated on a fertiliser bag or container; for
example, a 100 kg bag of fertiliser with a fertiliser grade of 10-10-10 contains 10 kgs
of nitrogen (N), 10 kg of phosphate (P2O5) and 10 kg of potassium oxide (K2O). From
the above fertiliser grade, the active elements constitute only 30 kg of the fertilisers,
the remaining 70 kgs is made up of filler or carrier materials. Carrier materials are
non-fertiliser materials which may also help to improve soil conditions.
  Fertiliser grade helps to determine the amount of fertiliser required per hectare and,
therefore, the amount of fertiliser needed. For example, a farmer has five hectares of
land on a tomato crop.
  The farmer plans to topdress the crop with a nitrogenous fertilisers. The available
nitrogenous fertilisers available in the market is sulphate of Ammonia (SA) which
is 20% Nitrogen. Sulphate of Ammonia is applied at the rate of 120 kg per hectare
calculate:
(i) The amount of fertiliser in kilograms (kg) that the farmer will need.
(ii) The amount of nitrogen in kg that the farmer will apply in the five hectare field
of tomatoes.
(iii) The number of bags that the farmer will buy if the fertilisers are sold in 50 kg
bags.

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 (iv) The amount of money the farmer will spend if the fertiliser costs Rwf 2,000 per
bag.

Solution
(i) Amount of fertiliser the farmer will need in equal to 120 kg C 5 = 600 kg of
Sulphate of Ammonia.
(ii) The amount of nitrogen to be applied in the field is equal to 600 kg 20/100 =
120 kg Nitrogen.
(iii) The amount of bags that the farmer will buy = 600 kg of SA/50 = 12 bags of SA
fertilisers
(iv) The amount of money the farmer will spend is equal to 12 bags Rwf 2,000
Rwf 24,000.

2. Fertiliser ratio
Fertiliser ratio refers to the relative proportion of the three primary macronutrients
(NPK) in a fertiliser expressed as a ratio. In that case a fertiliser grade of 10-10-10
has a fertiliser ratio of 10/10:10/10:10/10 = 1:1:1 of NPK, while a fertiliser grade of
20-10-10 has a fertiliser ratio of 2:1:1.
  A fertiliser that contains only one primary macro nutrient is referred to as a straight
fertiliser, for example, Sulphate of Ammonia (SA), Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
(CAN) Ammonium Sulphate Nitrate (ASN), urea, single super phosphate (SSP)
Double Superphosphate (DSP) Muriate of Potash (KCL) and Sulphate of potash
(K2O). If a fertiliser contains only Nitrogen as the only primary macronutrient, it
is referred to as a nitrogenous fertiliser, for example, SA, CAN, ASN and urea. If a
fertiliser contains only phosphorus as the only primary macronutrient, it is referred
to as a phosphatic fertiliser, for example; SSP and DSP while a fertiliser that contains
potassium as the only primary macronutrient is referred to as a potassium fertiliser,
for example, muriate of potash and sulphate of potash. A fertiliser that contains two
or more of the primary micronutrients (NPK) is known as a compound fertiliser. For
example, Diammonium Phosphate (MP), Mono-ammonium Phosphate (MAP), 20-
20-0, 20-10, 10-10-10, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15. A fertiliser that contains all the three
primary macronutrients (NPK) is referred to as complete fertiliser. For example, 20-
10-10, 10-10-10, 17-17-17 and 15-15-15.
  Fertilisers are also classified on the basis of their effect on soil pH. The fertiliser
that increase acidity of the soil (lowest soil pH) are said to be acidic fertilisers. While
those that increased the alkalinity of the soil (increases soil pH) are said to be basic
fertilisers. Fertilisers with no effect to the soil pH are said to be neutral fertilisers. For
example, Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN).
  Generally, fertilisers containing phosphorus are referred to as planting fertilisers
because they are applied at planting time while Nitrogenous fertilisers are used for top
dressing or as folia feed when the crop is already growing in the field. Fertiliser rates
are determined by the specific soil conditions in a given farm. Farmers are, therefore,
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 advised to take their soil to agricultural laboratories for soil testing to ascertain the
specific nutrients that are lacking in the soil. This will help to determine the specific
fertilisers to apply in their farms and their quantities.

1.14  Notes to the Teacher

When teaching this unit, the teacher should:
(i) Prepare a questionnaire for the learners when going for a field trip/visit.
(ii) Prepare the learners for a field visit a day before the field visit.
(iii) Demonstrate the procedure to be followed when teaching a practical lesson as
the learners observe.
(iv) Divide the learners into groups and assign them activities.
(v) Provide the learners with the materials required for the practical activities.
(vi) Supervise the learners as they carry out the practical activities.
(vii) Give the learners adequate time to discuss and report their findings to the class.
(viii) Give summary notes to the learners after the activities as indicated in the
students’ book.
(ix) Keep the learner’s progressive record and give feedback to the parents.

1.15 Additional remedial consolidation and extension activities

High order questions for fast learners

1. Explain how humus increases soil temperature.
Humus absorbs and retains the heat of the sun in the soil.
2. Name one symbiotic Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil.
Rhizobium
3. Analyse the following fertilisers in terms of their physical characterisics.
(a) Diammonium phosphate
(i) It is grey in colour
(ii) It is granular in formulation
(b) Urea
(i) It is white in colour
(ii) It is granular in formulation
4. Study the information below which describes the characteristics of soil A and B
and then answer the questions that follow:
Soil A Soil B
Has large particles Dark in colour
Dries very quickly Has plant remains
Is light in colour Has a spongy feeling

(a) Which one of the soils show colour characteristics of a fertile soil?
Soil B

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 (b) Which soils would hold more plant nutrients?
Soil B
(c) Which one of the soil is easy to cultivate?
Soil A
(d) Which of the soils can easily be leached.
Soil A

5. Name two forms in which Nitrogen is available to the plants.
(i)  NO3 (nitrates)    (ii)  NH4 (Ammonium ions)

Low order questions for average learners
1. State two activities of micro-organisms that improves soil fertility.
(i) Decompose organic matter to add nutrients to the soil.
(ii) Fix nitrogen into the soil.
(iii) Detoxify toxic substances in the soil.
2. A student saw that the crops they had planted in the school farm started turning
into a uniform yellow colour.
What nutrients do you think was missing in the soil?
Nitrogen
Which of the following remedies would be appropriate for the student to use?
(i) Add a phosphate fertiliser in the soil?
(ii) Use compost manure?
(iii) Spray the leaves with water?
Use compost manure
3. Describe how leaching takes place.
Rain water infiltrates into the soil dissolving and carrying all the soluble nutrients
from the top zones of the soil to the lower zones where plant roots cannot reach
them.
4. Compare and contrast between pit and heap methods of preparing compost
manure.
Pit method Heap method
(i) Made below the ground level (i) Made above the ground level
(ii) A pit is dug (ii) Posts are erected to form the four
(iii) Can easily be waterlogged corners of the heap.
(iv) Mixing is easily done (iii) Can easily become dry.
(v) Difficult to remove ready manure (iv) Mixing is difficult
(v) Easy to remove manure

5. What is the use of stick placed in the middle of the compost pit?
(i) Used to check the temperature of the material.
(ii) Used to check whether the materials are fully decomposed.

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 1.16 Summative Evaluation
1. Explain the merits and demerits of organic manures in farming.
2. Describe the steps of preparing farmyard manure in the farm.
3. Explain two important roles of soil micro-organisms in improving soil fertility.
4. Explain the importance of soil testing.
5. Differentiate between straight and compound fertilisers.

1.17 Additional Questions

1. Explain the importance of humus in the soil.
(i) Humus influence the soil pH by moderating its effects.
(ii) Humus improves the cation exchange capacity of the soil to make nutrients
easily available
(iii) It absorbs heat, hence improves the soil temperature.
(iv) It reduces soil toxicity.

2. Describe the importance of the following materials when making compost manure:
(a) Manure
(b) Top soil

(a) Manure is used to provide feed for the micro-organisms which decompose the
compost materials.
(b) Top soil is used to introduce micro-organisms which decompose the compost
materials.
3. Make three observations why night soil is not suitable for use in vegetable crop
gardens.
(i) It may not be easily available.
(ii) It is not easy to treat it to kill harmful disease causing organisms to human.
(iii) It may contain deposits of heavy metals which may be absorbed by
vegetables making it unfit for human use.

1.18  Suggestions for Assignments
1. (a) Examine crops growing in the field to observe nutrients deficiency, symptoms
from the observation made, find out the possible nutrients that might be lacking
in the soil.
(b) Suggest the fertilisers that can be applied to solve the problem in the soil.

1.19  Support for the development of positive skills, values and attitude

1. Positive skills
Learners develop problem solving skills as they use the correct fertilisers at the
recommended rate and time.
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 2. Values and attitudes
• Learners learn to co-operate and appreciate one another.
• Learners appreciate the importance of maintaining soil fertility for sustainable
food production.

1.20  Suggested answers to formative evaluation

1. (a) Organic fertilisers that are derived from decomposed plants and animal remains
which are applied to the soil to release plant nutrients.
(b) (i) Compost manure
(ii) Farmyard manure
(iii) Green manure
(iv) Night soil
2. (a) This is a major nutrient element contained in a fertiliser.
(i) Nitrogen
(ii) Phosphorus
(iii) Potassium
3. It is normally applied into the acidity soils to raise their pH values and, therefore,
make it possible to grow crops that do not require low pH values.
4. (i) Leaf chlorosis/yellowing of leaves
(ii) Stunted growth
(iii) Leaf fall and flower fail
(iv) Lodging
(v) Shoot dieback
(vi) Leaf curling
(vii) Production of anthocyanin( purple) pigment
5. (i)  Soil testing
(ii)  Use of plant indicator signs.

1.21  Suggested Answers to Summative Evaluation

1. (a)  Merits
(i) They are cheap to prepare.
(ii) They have a long residual effects in the soil.
(iii) They moderate soil pH.
(iv) They increase soil temperature due to their dark colour.
(v) They improve the soil physical properties.
(vi) They provide food for soil micro-organisms.
(vii) They improve water holding capacity of the soil.
(viii) They improve the water infiltration rate.
(ix) They supply a wide range of nutrients.
(x) They improve the aeration of the soil.

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 (b) Demerits
(i) They release their nutrients slowly.
(ii) It is not possible to determine the types and amounts of nutrients
contained in organic manures.
(iii) Manures are bulky to transport and apply.
(iv) Manures have scorching effect on crops if applied when not completely
decomposed.

2. (i) Provide beddings in the houses of farm animals.

(ii) Animals deposit their droppings and urine on the beddings.
(iii) Animals mix their dropping and beddings through tramping.
(iv) The beddings together with dung are removed and heaped under a shed to
decompose.
(v) In 3–4 months, the materials decompose and the farmyard manure is ready
for use in the farm.

3. (i) Decomposition of organic matter–Some soil micro-organisms break down

organic matter in the soil and release plant nutrients. The nutrients are then
taken up by plants.
(ii) Nitrogen fixation – Some bacteria in association with leguminous plants or
free-living in the soil convert free nitrogen in the soil into nitrates. The nitrate
ions are then absorbed by plants as nutrients.

4. (i) To establish pH of the soil.

(ii) To determine the types and amounts of nutrients in the soil.
(iii) To find out whether the soil contains nitrogen fixing bacteria and thus
determine the correct inoculants to use on leguminous seed.
5. A straight fertiliser is one that contain only one primary micro-nutrient.
While a compound fertiliser contains two or more primary micro-nutrients.

Key Terms (Pages 23–25 of the Students’ Book 2)

1. Soil fertility – Ability of the soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in
their proper proportions for sustained high production.
2. Soil pH – This is the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil solution.
3. Saline soils – Soils with excessive amount of salts.
4. Irrigation – Artificial application of water to the crops.
5. Water stress – Shortage of water in crops.
6. Stunted growth – Slowed growth in crops.
7. Waterlogged soils – Soil with excessive amounts of water.
8. Pathogenic – Disease causing.
9. Chlorosis – Yellowing of leaves.
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 10. Leaf curling – Folding of leaves.
11. Nodulation – Production of nodules in the roots of leguminous crops.
12. Macronutrient – Mineral elements needed by plants in large quantities/amounts.
13. Micro – Nutrient mineral elements that are needed by plants in small amounts.
14. Anaerobic respiration – Respiration that takes place only in the presence of
oxygen.
15. Aerobic respiration – Respiration that takes place only in the presence of
oxygen.
16. Fungal diseases – Diseases caused by fungi.
17. Bacterial diseases – Diseases caused by bacteria.
18. Microbial activity – The activity of micro-organism.
19. Agro-chemicals – Agricultural chemicals.
20. Compost manure – Manure prepared by composting (heaping) vegetative
materials.
21. Farmyard manure – Manure prepared from animal wastes.
22. Green manure – Manure prepared by incorporating green plants into the soil.
23. Night soil – Manure prepared from human wastes.
24. Inorganic fertilisers – Chemically produced compounds added to the soil to
improve its fertility.
25. Hygroscopic – Ability to absorb atmospheric water/moisture.
26. Volatilisation – Ability to escape into the atmosphere in form of a gas.
27. Zero grazing unit – Structure used for holding animals in livestock rearing
system that does not allow animals to graze on pastures.
28. Straight fertiliser – A fertiliser that contains only one of the primary macro-
nutrients (NPK).
29. Compound fertiliser – A fertilieer that contains two more of the primary
macronutrients (NPK).
30. Complete fertiliser – A fertiliser that contains all the three primary macro-
nutrients (NPK).
31. Organic manures – Organic substances added to improve soil fertilisers and
other soil physical properties.
32. Nitrogenous fertilisers – A fertiliser that contains nitrogen as the only primary
macronutrient.
33. Phosphatic fertiliser – A fertiliser that contains phosphorus as the only micro-
nutrient.

Suggested answers to revision questions (refer to Students’ Book pages 25– 26)
1. The ability of soil to provide crops with the required nutrients in their proper
proportions for sustained high production.
2. Characteristics of fertile soils
(i) Good depth – Deep soils give plant roots greater volume to obtain plant
nutrients and provide strong anchorage.
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 (ii) Well drained – A well drained soil is properly aerated thus promoting healthy
root development. Well aerated soils also allow for the respiration of living
organisms and reduces the build up of carbon(IV)oxide to toxic levels.
(iii) Good water holding capacity – A fertile soil will ensure that enough water is
retained for plant use.
(iv) Adequate nutrient supply – A fertile soil should supply the nutrients needed
by plants in the correct amount and in the form that is available to the plants,
for example, NO3 for nitrogen, P2O5 for phosphorus and K2O5 for potassium.
(v) Correct soil pH – Different soils have different soil pH requirements. Soil
pH affect the availability of certain plant nutrients. Most crops will do well
at pH around neutrality.
(vi) Free from excessive infestation of soil borne pests and diseases.
(vii) Not saline – Fertile soils should not have excess accumulation of salts.
Excess salts in the soil lead to water stress in plants.
3. (i) Availability of water.
(ii) Water drainage.
(iii) Activity of soil micro-organisms.
4. (a) The degree of acidity or alkalinity of a soil solution.
(b) A soil sample is taken from the field through the soil sampling procedure.
A soil solution is made from the sample by adding water to the soil in a
test tube followed by vigorous shaking. The soil water mixture is allowed
to settle. The soil particles decent leaving a soil solution at the top. The
electrode of the pH meter are then placed in the water solution and then
meter readings are taken. The reading is the pH value for that particular
soil.
5. (i) Clostridium.
(ii) Azotobacter.
6. (a)  Lack of nitrogen, potassium and sulphur.
(b)  Lack of phosphorus and sulphur
(c)  Lack of calcium
7. (i)   Soil pH – The degree of acidity or alkalinity of the soil influence the
availability of various nutrients in the soil in some nutrients are only
available within range of soil pH.
(ii) Organic matter content – Organic matter breakdown to release various
nutrients into the soil.
(iii) Soil texture – This affect the amount of water and air in the soil. Coarse
texture soils have a lot of air and little amount of water while fine textured
soils tend to hold a lot of water but little amount of air.
(iv) Climate – Climatic factors such as temperatures and rainfall affects
availability of nutrients in the soil.
(v) Leaching – The washing down of nutrients from the top horizons to the
lower horizons make the nutrient sun available in the soil.
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 (vi) Soil compaction – Compaction of the soil reduces air spaces leading to
poor respiration by soil living organisms such as soil micro-organisms.
(vii) Crop removal – Continuous cropping results in a lot of nutrients being
removed from the soil through harvesting.
(viii) Use of sensitive crops – Different crops have different nutrients
requirement. Continuous growing of certain crops make the soil deficient
in some nutrients.
(ix) Nutrients interactions in the soil – The presence of some nutrients in the
soil hinder the availability of others.
8. (a) Manure prepared from human waste.
(b) (i) Heap method
(ii) Pit method.
9. (a) It is manure prepared from human excreta.
Top soil Dry leaves
and lime
Post

Wood ash
1.2m

1.2m

1.2m
Stones or corn stalks
to form foundation

Crop remains, grass

leaves etc.

Fig. 1.1 Compost heap

10. (i) Highly vegetative or leafy.

(ii) Fast growth rate.
(iii) High nitrogen content.
(iv) Ability to rot or decompose quickly.
(v) Hardy/able to grow in poor soil conditions.
11. (i) Beans: They are highly suitable for use in the production of green manure.
This is because they are highly vegetative, have a fast growth rate, have
a high nitrogen content and decompose easily. However, they are rarely
used for the production of green manure since they are mostly grown for
food.
(ii) Napier grass: They are not used for green manure. This is because they

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 do not decompose easily due to their high fibre content. They are also low
in nitrogen content.
(iii) Desmodium: They are highly suitable for use in the production of green
manure. This is because they are highly vegetative, have a fast growth
rate, have high nitrogen content, decompose easily and are not grown as
food for human beings. They are usually grown as livestock fodder and
are therefore used for green manure production.
12. (i) Leaching – The washing down of nutrients from the top horizons to
lower horizons of the soil profile by water.
(ii) Volatilisation – Escape of nutrients into the atmosphere in gaseous form.
13. (i) Well rotten manure – It acts as food for micro-organisms in the compost.
(ii) Garden soil – Source of micro-organisms to decompose the organic
matter include in the compost.
(iii) Wood ash – Adds essential mineral elements such as potassium, sodium,
calcium, sulphur, magnesium to the compost/enrich the compost with
essential elements.
14. (i) Straight fertilisers – A fertiliser containing only one of the primary macro
nutrients (NPK).
(ii) Compound fertiliser – A fertiliser containing two or more of the three
primary macronutrients NPK.
(iii) Complete fertiliser – A fertiliser containing all the three primary macro-
nutrients; Nitrogen(N), phosphorus (P2O5) and potassium (K2O).
15. (i) Urea.
• It contain 45–46% nitrogen.
• It has a white granular appearance.
• It is highly susceptible to volatilisation and soluble in water.
• It has a high scorching effect due to the ammonium content.
(ii) DAP
• It contains 18% nitrogen and 46% phosphorus.
• It is moderately acidic.
• It has grey granular appearance.

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 Topic Area: Crop and Mushroom Production and
Processing
Unit 2:  Mushrooms

Number of periods: 4

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to conduct successfully mushroom

tubes preparation and mushrooms cultivation.

2.1  Learning Objectives

(a) Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Define mushroom.
(ii) Explain mushroom propagation process.
(iii) Classify mushroom types.
(iv) Factors affecting mushroom tubes making.
(v) Factors affecting mushroom cultivation.
(vi) Explain mushroom cultivation technique.
(b) Skills
(i) Manufacture mushroom tubes (mushroom substratum making, inoculation
mycelium).
(ii) Apply mushroom cultivation technique.
(c) Attitudes and values
(i) Observe attentively mycelium and mushroom development.
(ii) Show positive attitude in group discussion and take account of students’
point of view.
(iii) Respect the protocol of making mushroom tubes and mushrooms
cultivation.
2.2 Content Students’ Book page 27 – 43
(i) Definition of mushroom.
(ii) Propagation of mushroom.
(iii) Types of mushrooms (edible and non-edible mushrooms).
(iv) Production of mushroom tubes (compost sterilisation, drying, crushing, packing
up/bagging, mycelium sowing).

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 Answers to questions in table 2.1: Inoculation process in the students’ book
page 37–38
Stage Material required Procedure
(a) Chopping straw • Straw The straw is cut into small
• Machete pieces using machete.
(b) Washing straw • Water and straw The straw is washed by use of
water.
(c) Packing straw in • Polythene tube and Materials are packed in
polythene tubes substrate polythene tubes to form
mushroom tube on which
mushrooms are grown.
(d) Sterilisation • Chemicals Materials are steamed for 3
• Source of heat hours to kill fungi.
Chemicals such as isopropyl
alcohol and hydrogen
peroxide may also be used.
(e) Spawning substrate • Mushroom. Involves sprinking of
• Spores mushroom spores on the
• Sterilising sterilising culture which
• Culture then is left to establish under
controlled conditions.

(v) Mushroom cultivation technique (arranging mushroom tubes in a nursery bed,

shading, watering, weeding).
2.3 Learning Activities
1. Research on internet or school library and discuss in groups on mushroom
definition, mushroom propagation, types of mushroom, mushroom tube making
and mushroom cultivation.
2. Field visit in co-operative or household growing mushrooms or making
mushroom tubes to observe and find out mushroom tubes production and
cultivation works, deduce factors affecting mushroom tube making, mushroom
cropping and imitate in school nursery mushroom tube making and practise
mushroom cultivation.
3. Problem solving in choosing the type of compost to inoculate with mycelium
when making mushroom tubes.
2.4 Link to other Subjects
Biology:
Classification of living organisms or biodiversity
Learners to use their knowledge of members of the kingdom fungi.
2.5 Assessment Criteria
Ability to conduct mushroom tubes preparation and cultivation.
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 The learners should be able to make mushroom tubes and conduct mushroom
cultivation.
2.6 Material and Resources
• Mushroom seed making of household or co-operatives, mushroom farming
households or co-operatives or schools.
• Mushroom tubes
• Compost bags
• Hoe
• Computer room with internet connection
• Library
• Pictures and photographs of mushrooms
• Mushroom spores
2.7 Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials
(a) Ask learners to bring materials such as polythene bags, mushroom making
substrates such as maize cobs, banana fibre from home.
(b) Borrow mushroom seeds or spawn from co-operatives and or neighbouring
schools with surplus.
2.8 Methods of Teaching
Content Method(s)
1.  Definition of mushroom Discussion: Teacher to instruct the learn-
ers to find out the meaning of mushrooms
from the references provided. The learn-
ers discuss and present their findings.
The teacher then gives a final conclusion
as the learners take summary notes.
2. Types of mushrooms Discussion: The teacher to provide pic-
tures of mushrooms, library books and
internet facilities and asks the learners
to find out the types of mushrooms. The
learners discuss and present their finds
to the class. The teacher then gives a
final conclusion.
3. Propagation of mushrooms Discussion: Teacher instructs the learn-
ers to find out the process of propaga-
tion of mushrooms from internet, library
books and textbooks. The teacher then
facilitates the discussion of their find-
ings and allows the learners time to
present their findings. The teacher gives
a final conclusion.

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 4. Production of mushroom Supervised  practice/Activity: Teacher
tubes (compost sterilisation, to provide materials for making mush-
drying, crushing, packing up/ room tubes and assists the learners to
bagging, mycelium sowing) make mushroom tubes. The learners
carry out the mushroom tube produc-
tion, record and discuss their observa-
tions. They then present their findings
to the class. The teacher then makes the
final conclusion.
5. Factors affecting mushrooms Field visit: The teacher prepares que-
tube making tionnnaires (see Annex 5) and takes the
learners for a visit to a mushroom farm
to observe factors affecting mushrooms
tube making.
The learners discuss and present their
findings to the class.
The teacher then gives a final conclu-
sion.
6. Mushroom cultivation Supervised  practice/Activity:  The
technique (arranging teacher to supervise learners as they
mushroom tubes in a nursery cultivate mushrooms in the nurser-
bed, shading, watering, ies given. The teacher supervises, as
weeding) the learners discuss and then present
their findings in class. The teacher then
makes a final conclusion.
7. Factors affecting mushroom Discussion: The teacher to provide
cultivation references where the learners can find
out the factors affecting mushroom
cultivation. Learners to discuss and
present their findings. The teacher then
gives a final conclusion.

2.9 Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercises to support delivery
of content and development of students’ competences
1. Field visit to mushroom seed making households or co-operative or
a mushroom farm to observe mushroom tube making and mushroom
cultivation.
2. Observing and identifying types of mushrooms using photographs and
internet.
3. Use of resource person to guide the learners on the process of mushroom
tube making.

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 4. Field visit to a mushroom production farm to observe and participate in
mushroom cultivation techniques such as weeding, watering and harvesting.
2.10 Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in the teaching and learning activities
• Sensitise learners on the contribution of mushrooms to the economy of
Rwanda.
• Sensitise learners on the danger of consuming non-edible mushrooms.
• Enlighten the learners on other uses of mushrooms apart from providing
food such as medicine.
• Create awareness of dangers of premarital sex HIV/AIDS, drugs, crimes in
the farming communities.
2.11 Suggestions for accommodating special education needs (SEN)
(a) Visual impairment
• Ask others to assist in colour identification.
• Use large print in instruction sheets questionnaires and assessments
papers.
• Allow them to sit near the chalkboard while in class.
(b) Hearing impairment
• Be audible enough to learners.
• Allow learners to stay close to teacher.
(c) Physical impairments
• Pair them with other able-bodied learners to be assisted.
• Organise activity to be close to prevent too much movement.
(d) Gifted learners
• Give them extra questions.
• Place them in different working groups to assist other learners.
(e) Slow learners
• Take them slowly through the learning process.
• Take time when going through the procedures.
• Ask fast learners to assist them.
2.12 Formative Evaluation
1. Define the term mushroom.
2. What are the types of commercial mushrooms produced in Rwanda?
3. What are some of the commercial mushroom types cultivated in your home
area?
4. Give examples of materials used as mushroom substrates.
5. What is the importance of mixing substrates with supplements?
6. What is the importance of sterilising mushroom substrate?
7. State two methods of arranging the mushroom tubes in a mushroom house.
8. Name activities observed during mushroom cultivation.
2.13 Additional Content to the Teacher
Advantages of mushroom production:
• Uses less land.
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 • Fast growth.
• Uses agricultural plants wastes.
• Does not use fertilisers.
• Growing substrate can be used as compost manure.

Procedure of making mushroom tubes

• Select a clean working area.
• Weigh the required amount of growing materials.
• Spread the growing materials on the preparation table.
• Mix supplements with substrate with the following specification 1% lime,
1% soya meal and 1% molasses mix thoroughly.
• Squeeze the materials to dry.
• Fill the mushroom tubes and tie at the end.
• Sterilise the substrate by heating in a drum with water.
• Cool overnight.
• Spread the spawn over the mycelium.
• Cover with a polythene sheet.

Mushroom cultivation technique

• Arrange the mushrooms in the mushroom house or bed.
• Water the mushrooms twice a day.
• Maintain the temperature at about 20oC.
• Maintain humidity at 90%–95%.
2.14 Notes to the Teacher
(i) Prepare assessment sheets.
(ii) Collect materials for practical activity before the exercise.
(iii) Carry demonstration before practical activity.
(iv) Prepare practical sheets.
(v) Carry out a reconnaissance tour to the site before trip.
(vi) Prepare questionnaires before a trip.
(vii) Prepare the students a day before the trip.
(viii) Allow the learners adequate time to give reports of their findings after a
practical activity.
(ix) Give summary notes to the learners after a practical activity.
(x) Keep learners’ progressive records and give feedback to the parents.
2.15 Additional Remmedial Consolidation and Extension Activities

High order questions for fast learners

1. Use high order questions to stimulate the learners’ imagination and thinking;
examples of these questions include:

1. Describe the process of sterilisation in mushroom production.

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 The substrate or compost materials are steamed at 70–80 °C for at least 3–4
hours then left to cool overnight. Chemicals such as isopropyl alcohol and
hydrogen peroxide are mixed into the materials. These methods help to kill
competitive micro-organisms such as bacteria.
2. Explain the importance of maintaining light and humidity in mushroom culti-
vation.
(i) Regular strong reading light in the cultivation house produces mush-
rooms with strong caps and stalks.
(ii) The humidity should be maintained at 90%–95% to prevent the produc-
tion of mushrooms with scaly skins and to control the fungal disease
called dry bubble.
3. Carry out the activities involved in mycelium sowing.
(i) Sterilise the preparation table and spread the substance on it.
(ii) Spread the mushroom spawn on the substrate evenly and cover.
(iii) Control the temperature and humidity at 20 °C and 90–95% humidity.
(iv) Transfer the substrate with white mycelium to the mushroom tubes.

Low order questions for average learners

1. Interpret the meaning of substrate.
A substrate means a constituent of grass chaff, saw dust, straw, sugarcane bar-
gasse, dry groundnut waste, banana fibres, dry banana leaves, straws, maize cobs
and stalks, which are used to grow mushroom and provide them with carbohy-
drates.
2. Analyse the supplements used in mushroom cultivation.
• Lime molasses – Provide sugars for giving energy to the growing mushrooms.
• Animal concentrates – Provide proteins from animal origin.
• Soya beans meal – Provide proteins from plant origin.
3. Differentiate between mushroom spawns and mycelium.
Spawns are minute mushroom seeds which appear like powder and spread over
a sterile culture substrate during inoculation while mycelium are fungal threads
spread over the substrate and which later sprount to mushrooms.

2.16 Summative Evaluation

1. What is a mushroom?
2. Below are photographs of mushrooms. Study them carefully and answer
the questions that follow.

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 Fig. 2.1(a) Fig. 2.1(b)

(a) Name the mushrooms A and B in the photograph.

(b) Which of the mushroom A and B in the photograph is edible and which
one is poisonous.
3. Analyse the following materials to show their importance in mushroom
tube making.
(a) Straws
(b) Containers
(c) Soya meal
(d) Lime
4. Explain the importance of the following activities in mushroom tube
making:
(a) Sterilisation of straws
(b) Drying of the straw before inoculation
(c) Spreading mushroom spawn over the sterilised mushroom substrate
during planting.
2.17 Additional Questions
1. Explain the importance of maintaining a clean and sterile mushroom house
and mycelium.
To prevent the growth of competitive micro-organisms such as bacteria and
to control diseases and pests of mushrooms.
2. Analyse two diseases that affect mushrooms during cultivation.
(i) Dry bubble disease is a fungal disease which is characterised by
brown spots on the mushroom caps.
(ii) Wet bubble disease is a fungal disease which is characterised by
malformed caps and stalks. The diseased mushrooms are covered with
white mycelium on the cap and produce foul smell.
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 3. Give three containers that are used to pack in mushroom substrate.
(i) Gunny bags
(ii) Crates
(iii) Wooden racks
(iv) Polythene bags
2.18 Suggestions for Assignment
Visit a group growing mushroom neighbouring your school and find out:
• The types of mushroom grown.
• The materials used for growing mushrooms.
• The steps involved in making mushroom tubes.
• The source of mushroom spawn for the group.
• The mushroom cultivation process.
2.19 Support for Developing Positive Skills, Values and Attitudes
• Learners learn to co-operate with one another and appreciate other member’s
suggestions and proposal.
• Observe attentively mycelium and mushroom development.
• Show respects for each other in group discussion and take account of
colleague’s point of view.
• Follow the procedure of making mushroom tubes and mushroom cultivation
accurately.
• Observe high standards of hygiene when making mushroom tubes.
• Learners to appreciate problem solving as they collect substrate, make
mushroom tubes and mushroom cultivation.
2.20  Answers to Formative Evaluation Questions
1. A mushroom is a fruity body of a macro-fungus.
2. (i) Button mushrooms
(ii) Oyster mushrooms
(iii) Shiitake mushrooms
(iv) Chinese mushrooms
3. (i) Button mushrooms
(ii) Oyster mushrooms
4. (i) Straw
(ii) Maize stalk
(iii) Banana fibre
(iv) Bagasse
(v) Maize cob
5. To provide nutrients.
6. To kill competing fungi and harmful bacteria.
7. (i) Linear method
(ii) Hanging from the roof
8. (i) Arranging mushroom tubes in a nursery bed
(ii) Shading

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 (iii) Watering
(iv) Weeding
2.21 Suggested answers to summative evaluation questions
1. A mushroom is a fruity body of a macro-fungus
2. (a)  A – Chinese mushroom
B – Chlorophyllum molybdites mushroom
(b) Edible mushroom–Chinese mushroom
Poisonous mushroom–Chlorophyllum molybdites
3. (a) Straws – Provides energy
(b) Containers – Used to make mushroom tubes
(c) Soya meal – Provides protein
(d) Lime – Provides calcium/minerals
4. (a) To kill competitive micro-organisms such as bacteria and any unwanted
spores of other fungi.
(b) Prevents growth of unwanted fungi and bacteria.
(c) To prevent colonisation of the subtrate with other competitive fungi, bacteria
and pests such as termites.

Key Terms Used (page 43 of the Students’ Book 2)

1. Mycelium – These are fungal threads that spread over and in the substrate which
later sprout to mushroom.
2. Spores – These are minute mushroom seeds that appear like powder. They are
spread over a sterile culture during inoculation.
3. Compost or substrate – This is a mixture of straw, sawdust, lime water, wheat
and soya where the spores are inoculated after sterilisation.
4. Nursery bed – This is the space used to grow mushrooms where the temperature,
humidity, light and oxygen concentration are controlled. They can also be
referred to as shelves.
5. Mushroom – This is a fruity body of a macro-fungus.
6. Mushroom tube – is a sack, bag or crate containing mushroom growing
materials.
7. Bagging – This is the process of putting mushroom growing substrate in a bag
or tray.
8. Composite sterilisation – Is the process of killing germs and other unwanted
micro-organisms in a substrate using heat, steam or chemicals.
9. Spawning – This is the introduction of pre-sown substrate mycelium known as
spawn into substrate by sprinkling.
10. Inoculation – Used similarly as spawning.

Answers to Revision Questions (Students’ Book pages 44–45)

1. A mushroom is a fruity body of a macro-fungus.
2. (a) Edible mushroom
(b) Non-edible mushroom.
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 3. Button mushrooms
Oyster mushrooms
Shiitake mushrooms
Chinese mushrooms
4. Oyster mushroom
5. (c) Allowing a mushroom spawn to colonise a substrate by providing the optimum
condition for mushroom growth.
6. Banana fibres, straw/sawdust, sugarcane bagasse
7. (i) Gathering substrate – Materials such as grass, saw dust, sugarcane bagasse
are used.
(ii) Washing the substrate – To remove any harmful substances.
(iii) Mixing substrate with supplement – To provide nutrients for the growth of
mushrooms.
(iv) Drying the mixed substrate – To prevent the growth of unwanted fungi and
bacteria.
(v) Packing of substrate – Packed in bags when it is semi-dried.
(vi) Sterilisation – To kill unwanted spores done through steaming or use of
chemicals.
(vii) Mycelium sowing – Mushroom spawn is spread on the substrate and covered
and then transferred to mushroom tubes when white mycelium appears.
(viii) Arranging tubes in the nursery – This is a room with controlled condition
where mushrooms will grow from the tubes.
(ix) Maintenance – Shading, watering and weeding is carried.
(x) Harvesting – Mushrooms are fully grown four days after fruiting caps appear
and are picked by twisting the stalk.
8. (i) To prevent the growth of unwanted fungi and bacteria.
(ii) To ensure that the mushroom is grown in clean non-competitive environment.
9. (i) Availability of mushroom substrate.
(ii) Cleanliness of the mushroom substrate.
(iii) Method of sterilisation.
(iv) Type of substrate packing materials.
(v) Temperature and humidity of the mushroom growing house and substrate.
10. (i) Arranging of the mushroom tubes in the nursery bed.
(ii) Watering and weeding are carried out.
(iii) Harvesting is done when fruiting caps are mature.
11. To prevent the entry of other unwanted fungi and bacterial in the substrate.
12. To maintain high humidity.
13. Twisting and removing the mushroom stalk from the substrate.
14. Little water and humidity causes slow growth of the mushrooms and lead to
cracking of the fruit caps. Too much water results in rotting of the substrate and
also encourages growth of unwanted bacterial and fungi.
15. B   (i)  and   (iv)


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 Unit 3: Fruits

Number of periods: 20

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to conduct appropriate propagation

methods of fruits, management of fruit trees, processing and preservation of fruits.

3.1  Learning Objectives

(a)  Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Define fruit tree.
(ii) Discuss the importance of fruit trees.
(iii) Give examples of fruit trees in Rwanda.
(iv) Discuss the method of propagation of fruit trees.
(v) Describe grafting techniques on fruit trees.
(vi) Carry out orchard management practices.
(vii) Define fruit processing and preservation.
(viii) Discuss on importance of fruits processing.
(ix) Explain the aims of post-harvest technologies.
(x) Discuss on preservation techniques of fruits.
(xi) Discuss on fruits that may be processed.
(xii) Describe steps involved in processing of fruits.
(b)  Skills
(i) Explore cultivated fruits and view their importance.
(ii) Recognise fruits cultivated in Rwanda.
(iii) Recognise the propagation methods of fruit trees.
(iv) Perform grafting of fruit trees.
(v) Maintain efficiently fruit trees.
(vi) Observe processed fruits and taste preserved ones.
(vii) Recognise the aims of post-harvest technologies.
(viii) Perform fruits preservation techniques.
(ix) Perceive some fruits which require processing.
(x) Observe and differentiate steps involved in fruits processing up to final product.
(c)  Attitudes and values
(i) Appraise the importance of fruit trees.
(ii) Answer freely to get fruits cultivated in Rwanda.
(iii) Co-operate with colleagues while discussing in groups.
(iv) Be careful and cautious while doing grafting.
(v) Show concern while doing site selection, planting, watering, pruning, pest and
diseases control of fruits.
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 (vi) Be attentive in observing fruits preservation and processing.
(vii) Be aware of the importance of fruits preservation.
(viii) Participate willingly in discussion on aims of post-harvest technologies.
(ix) Show concern while choosing preservation technique in fruits.
(x) Contribute in discussions on fruits to be processed.
(xi) Pay attention while observing and describing steps involved in fruits processing.

3.2  Content Students’ Book page 46 – 96

(i) Fruit trees definition.
(ii) Importance of fruits.
(iii) Some fruits cultivated in Rwanda (avocados, papaya, mangoes, tamarillo,
citrus, strawberries passion fruits, pineapples).

Answers to questions in table 3.1: Cultivated fruit trees in Rwanda and their
fruits on pages 49 – 51
Fruit tree Name of tree
(a) Mango tree Mango fruits
(b) Avocado tree Avocado fruits
(c) Papaya tree Papaya fruits
(d) Tamarillo tree Tamarillo fruits
(e) Citrus fruit tree Citrus fruits
(f) Pineapple plant Pineapple fruits
(g) Passion fruit vine Passion fruits
(h) Strawberry vine Strawberries
(i) Banana tree Banana fruits

(iv) Propagation methods of fruits (layering, grafting, seed propagation, stem

cuttings).
(v) Grafting of avocado fruit and citrus fruit trees.

Answers to the activity on page 58 of the Students’ Book

Correct order of the steps
1 and 3 – Matching “tongue”cut on both sides and rootstock
4 – Scion wood cut placed on the rootstock cut
2 – Healed whip graft

(vi) Orchard management practice (site selection, planting, watering, pruning, pest
and diseases control).

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 Answers to the activity on pages 72 of the Students’ Book
Correct order of steps in transplanting fruit trees
Fig.3.20 (f) – dig a hole
Fig.3.20 (b) – mix top soil with manure and return the mixture to the hole
Fig.3.20 (d) – open and remove the seedling container
Fig.3.20 (a) – place the seedling with soil into the planting hole
Fig.3.20 (e) – cover the roots with soil
Fig.3.20 (c) – firm the soil around the seedling

(vii) Definition of processing and preservation of fruits.

Answers to the activity on page 76 Students’ Book

Identification of pests illustrated
(i) Army worm
(ii) Aphid
(iii) Leaf hopper
(iv) Leaf skeletonizer
(v) Bird

Answers to the activity on page 76 of the Students’ Book

Identification of the sap suckers:

(i) Aphids
(ii) Thrips
(iii) Spider mite
(iv) Scales

Identification of the stems and fruits bores (page 76 – 77 of the Students’ Book)
(i) Fruit flies
(ii) False candling moth larvae
(iii) Banana weevil
(viii) Importance of processing and preservation of fruit.
(ix) Objectives of applying post-harvest technologies (maintain quality flavour,
appearance, texture and nutritive value; to protect food safety, reduce losses
both physical and market value).
(x) Preservation techniques of fruits (refrigeration, freezing, sugaring, canning,
curing, fermentation).
(xi) Some fruits to be processed (strawberries, passion fruits, papaya, pineapples,
citrus, tamarillo).
(xii) Products processed from fruits (jam, juice, marmalade) and steps involved in
their processing.

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 3.3  Learning Activities
When learning the unit, the learners should carry out the following activities:
(i) Field visit to explore cultivated fruits and deduce their definition and importance.
(ii) Group discussion to enumerate cultivated fruits in Rwanda.
(iii) Entering the search engines or library and search the different methods of
propagation and discussion in groups and make presentations.
(iv) Field work in a fruit nursery to observe the demonstration of grafting an
avocado and citrus fruits and apply it themselves.
(v) Watch video of pruning of fruit trees and discuss in groups how, why and when
to prune fruits trees.
(vi) Practical work on fruit trees pruning by learners.
(vii) Trip to areas where fruits are processed and preserved to discuss on definition
and their importance after observing and testing processed fruits.
(viii) Entering in search engine or library after group discussions to find out the
importance of applying post-harvest technologies.
(ix) Entering in search engines or school library to find out different fruits
preservation technologies and apply them to fruits availed by the teacher in
groups.
(x) Trip to an orchard to observe and discuss on fruits that may be processed.

3.4  Links to other Subjects

The following subjects are linked to this unit and will provide information and more
knowledge on the following areas:
1. Biology – Provide more information on plant and sexual reproduction.
2. Home science – Provide information on nutrition and importance of fruits in
Human Health
3. Chemistry – Provide more information on organic chemistry to understand more
about fruits preservation and the use of fertilisers.

3.5  Assessment Criteria

1. Ability to conduct propagation of fruit trees by respecting/applying all the steps
of grafting.
2. Ability to carry out management activities of orchard by removing old branches,
leaves and dead parts; applying the required amount of water, fertilisers and
chemical (pesticides).
3. Ability to preserve fruits by choosing required techniques according to their rate
of damaging and added value.

3.6 Material/Resources
For this unit, the following materials/resources will be required:
• Fruit trees growing in an orchard or in school compound or the neighbouring
farm.
• School library for reference books, magazines and charts.

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 • Video of citrus pruning and avocado pruning.
• Video on fruits processing and different preservation techniques.
• Material and tools for pruning and grafting such as pruning shears, secateurs,
grafting knife, tapes and grafting wax as required in the students’ book.
• Young fruit tree seedlings growing in the nursery.
• Different types of fruits to be processed and preserved, such as strawberries,
passion fruits, papaya, pineapples, citrus and tamarillo. The teacher is advised to
use the fruits in season.
• Packing and storage materials for the processed fruits such as cans and jars.
• Tools and equipment for processing fruits into different products. For example,
blenders and juicers, saucepans, heating source or cooker, refrigerators (where
available) and sugar.
• Computer lab with internet.

3.7 Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials

(a) Ask the learners to bring items from home for them to share, such as saucepans,
blenders, fruits in season and hand tools.
(b) Share resources with neighbouring school such as land and tools.
(c) Request for computers from the administration and return after the lessons.

3.8 Methods of Teaching

This unit requires that the teacher uses a variety of teaching methods that are
suitable to achieve the required competences. This depends on the knowledge
and understanding, skills, attitude and values to acquire the necessary learning
outcomes.
In this unit, the following methods of teaching can be used:

Content Method(s)
1. Friut trees definition Discussion: The teacher asks the learners to
find out the meaning of fruits from the inter-
net and library books as the teacher supervises
them. Learners discuss and record their find-
ings then present their findings to the class.
Teacher makes a summary for the class.
2. Importance of fruits Field trip: Teacher provides a questionnaire as
shown in Annex 6 to the learners and instructs
them to explore and identify types of fruits
growing in the orchard. Learners observe and
identify fruits growing, take notes and present
their findings to class. Teacher gives a sum-
mary of the lesson.

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 3. Some fruits cultivated in Discussion: Teacher to instruct the learners to
Rwanda find out the fruits cultivated in Rwanda from
the internet and library books. Learners discuss
and record their findings. The group leaders to
present their findings to the class. Teacher to
make conclusion by correcting any misconcep-
tions.
4. Propagation methods of fruits Discussion: Teacher to instruct the learners
to search on the methods of fruit propagation
from the library books and internet. Learners
to research on the topics and give their opinion
in groups. Leaders of the groups present their
findings to the class. Teacher to make conclu-
sion and summarise the lesson.
5. Grafting of avocado and cit- (i) Field trip: Teacher to provide a question-
rus fruit trees. naire. See annex 7 and organise for a trip
to a farm for the learners to observe graft-
ing of avocado and citrus fruit trees. The
learners to make observation of grafting
procudure, discuss and present to the class
their findings then carry out grafting under
the supervised activity.
(ii) Supervised activity: Teacher provide
matrerials for grafting avocado and citrus
fruits. Learners to carry out grafting in
avocado and citrus fruits as the teacher
supervises them. Record and present their
findings to the class. Teacher to sum-
marise and conclude the activity.

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 6. Orchard management prac- (i) Field visit: Teacher organises a field trip
tices and prepares a questionnaire during the
field visit as shown in Annex 8. Teacher
then instructs the learners to make obser-
vations on factors to consider insiting an
orchard such as slope of the land, drainage
and soil type. Learners discuss and record
the observations, present their findings to
the class. Teacher gives summary notes
and makes a final conclusion.
(ii) Supervised activity: Teacher provides
materials for land preparation and in-
structs the learners to carry out land
demarcation, clearing vegetation, primary
and secondary cultivation. Learners carry
out land preparation, discuss and record
their findings, present their findings to the
class. Teacher then give summary notes
and makes a final conclusion.
(iii) Supervised activity: Teacher provides
materials for laying out an orchard and
a practical site for laying out an orchard.
Teacher then instructs the learners to carry
out the activity of laying out an orchard
using the materials provided. Learners
carry out the activity, discuss and record
their findings, present their findings to the
class. Teacher gives summary notes and
makes a final conclusion of the lesson.

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 (iv) Supervised activity: Teacher provides the
materials for preparation of planting holes
and instructs the learners to prepare plant-
ing holes according to the layout already
made. Learners prepare planting holes,
discuss and record their findings then
present their findings to the class. Teacher
gives summary notes and then makes a
final conclusion.
(v) Supervised activity: The teacher provides
materials for transplanting fruit trees seed-
lings and instructs the learners to carry out
the transplanting. Learners carry out trans-
planting of tree seedlings, discuss and
record their findings, present their findings
to the class. Teacher gives summary notes
and makes a final conclusion.
(vi) Supervised activity: Teacher provides
materials for watering fruit tree seedlings
and instructs the learners to water tree
seedlings. Learners water the fruit trees,
discuss and record their findings. Learn-
ers present their findings to the class. The
teacher gives summary notes and then
concludes the lesson.
(vii) Discussion: The teacher instructs the
learners to identify pests and diseases
from the various references provided and
to find out their control methods from the
internet and library books. Learners carry
out the activity, discuss and record their
findings and then present their findings to
the class. Teacher gives summary notes
and concludes the lesson.

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 (viii) Discussion: Teacher prepares for a video
show on pruning fruit trees and instructs
the learners to identify different meth-
ods of pruning fruit trees together with
reasons and timing for pruning. Learners
watch the video, discuss and record their
findings and then present their findings
to the class. The teacher gives summary
notes and makes the final conclusion.
(ix) Supervised activity: The teacher pro-
vides tools for carrying out pruning of
citrus fruit trees. Teacher instructs learn-
ers to carry out pruning of citrus fruit
trees using the tools provided. Learners
carry out the activity, discuss and record
their findings. Learners present their find-
ings to the class. Teacher gives summary
notes then makes a final conclusion of the
lesson.
7. Definition of processing and Field visit: Teacher provides questionnaire
preservations of fruits and asks the learners to make observations on
the processing and preservation of fruits in the
plant or factory visited. The teacher supervises
the learners and maintains discipline. Learners
discuss their findings and present to the class.
The teacher summarises and concludes the les-
son.

8. Importance of processing and Discussion: Teacher asks the learners to find

preservation of fruits out the importance of processing and preserva-
tion of fruits from books, magazines and search
engines and assists the learners with difficul-
ties. Learners to express themselves by giving
their opinion on their findings, record and give
presentations to the class. Teacher to sum-
marise and conclude the lessson.

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 9. Objectives of applying post- Discussion: The teacher asks the learners to
harvest technologies use search engines, textbook and magazines
to find out the importance of applying post-
harvest technologies on fruits. They then give
opinion of their findings, make a report and
the group leader to present to class. Teacher to
supervise the group discussions and presenta-
tions then give summary and conclusion of the
lesson.
10. Preservation techniques of Discussion:The teacher asks the learners to
fruits find out from the library books and internet dif-
ferent fruit preservation techniques, record and
present their findings to the class. Teacher to
supervise the discussion and presentation and
then concludes the lesson.
Supervised activity: Teacher instructs the
learners to watch a video show on different
fruit preservation techniques. Teacher super-
vises the learners in groups and assists those
in difficulties. Learners to watch the video,
discuss in groups and present their findings.
Teacher to conclude the lesson.
11. Some fruits to be processed Field visit: Teacher to provide questionnaire
(see Annex 10), give instructions to the learners
to observe and identify the various fruits being
processed in the orchard. The teacher to control
the learners and maintain discipline. Learners
to make observations, discuss in groups and
present their findings. Teacher to conclude the
lesson.
12. Products processed from Discussion: Learners to find out the products
fruits processed from different fruits grown in Rwan-
da, prepare report and present to the class.
Teacher to control the discussion and correct
any wrong information, give summary notes
and conclude the lesson.

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 13. Group Activity Supervised activity: The teacher divides learn-
ers into groups and provides materials for the
preparation of different fruit products to all the
groups by moving from group to group. Learn-
ers carry out the activities, as the teacher super-
vises, discuss, record their findings and present
them to the class. The teacher concludes and
gives summary notes.

3.9  Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercises to support delivery
of content and development of student competences
1. Class discussion on propagation management, processing and preservation of
fruits.
2. Group discussion on propagation, management, processing and preservation of
fruits.
3. Learners to share their experiences on propagation, management, processing
and preservation of fruits.
4. Watching relevant video clips and documentaries, reading, magazines, library
books,  newspaper  cuttings  and  observing  photographs  on  propagation
management, processing and preservation of fruits.
5. Attending to field visits in neighbouring farms, agricultural shows, field days
and factory visits to see propagation, management, processing and preservation
of fruits.
6. Carrying out practical activities in groups observing demonstrations on
procedural practices in propagation, management, processing and preservation
of fruits.
7. Question and answer method during discussion on propagation, management,
processing and preservation of fruits.
8. Report writing and preservation to the class after group discussion on
propagation, management, processing and preservation of fruits.

3.10 Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in the teaching and learning activities

When teaching this unit, the teacher should address the following cross-cutting issues:
(i) Environment and sustainability.
(ii) Standardisation culture – Standards as a pillar of economic development.
(iii) Inclusive education – Engage all the learners.
(iv) Peace and values education – Working together helps to avoid conflicts.

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 3.11 Suggestions for accommodating special education need (SEN)
When teaching this unit, learners with special needs can be assisted as follows:
(a) Sensory impairment (visual)
• Use large prints instructions sheets, questionnaires and in assessment
papers.
• Allow them to sit near the chalkboard when class.
• Use large legible letters.
• Pair them with learners with good vision to be assisting them with practical
activities.
(b) Sensory impairment (hearing)
• Be audible enough to the learners and ask whether if they heard.
• Allow them to sit close to the teacher.
(c) Motor impairment (movement)
• Pair them with other learners to be assisted to carry tools or equipment that
may be required.
• Where possible, practical activities should be carried out in one place to
avoid a lot of movement.
(d) Gifted or talented learners:
• Assign them extra duties.
• Encourage them to assist the slow learners.
• Distribute them to different groups when assigning working groups.
(e) Slow learners
• Take time when going through the procedures to use.
• Assist them when carrying out a task.
• Arrange for remedial teaching.

3.12  Formative Evaluation

The teacher to use the following methods of evaluating the competences acquired
by the learners in propagation, management, processing and preservation of
fruits.
• Use of assignments given after every activity.
• Oral questions.
• Continuous assessment test.
The following questions will guide the teacher in formative evaluation:
1. What is a fruit?
2. State four importance of fruits.
3. Name six types of fruits grown in Rwanda.
4. List three methods of propagating fruit trees.
5. What is grafting?
6. List three methods of watering fruits trees.
7. What is the importance of fruit processing and preservation?
8. List four products produced from fruits.
9. State four methods of preservation in fruits.
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 3.13 Additional Content to the Teacher
Grafting – Apart from whip grafting other methods of grafting include:
• Side grafting
• Approach grafting
• Bark grafting
• Notch grafting
• Cleft grafting
• Bud grafting

Bark grafting
This technique of grafting is best suited for avocado trees with large diameter. To
make a bark graft, the following procedures are used:
(i) The stem is cut off completely from the rootstock at about 50 cm from the
ground level.
(ii) One branch is retained below the cut to act as the nurse plant to provide the
scion with nutrition.
(iii) Vertical slit about 6.0–8.0 cm long are cut through the bark of the remaining
stump of the rootstock down to the wood.
(iv) The slits should be spaced 7.0–12 cm apart.
(v) The scion stick should be 12.5–15.0 cm long width 4-6 buds and slopping cuts
are made at the base about 7.5 cm long.
(vi) The bark of the rootstock is lifted using the tip of the grafting knife.
(vii) The scion is then inserted into the slits with the long-cut surface facing the wood
of the rootstock.
(viii) The cambiums on both slits should be aligned properly.
(ix) The scion are then secured onto the rootstock stump by nailing them in place
with thin flathead or they can be tied tightly with a string or tree tape.
(x) All the cut surface should be thoroughly coated with grafting wax or pruning
paint.
(xi) To protect the graft from sunburn it should be painted white interior water based
paint.
(xii) Once the scion begins to grow well, all the other scion are removed to leave one
part rootstock.
(xiii) The nurse branch is then pruned off.

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 Flat head
nails
(a) (b) (c) (d)
fig. 3.1: Grafting procedure
A – Plant stump prepared for back grafting
B and C – Scions prepared for back grafting
D

Fig. 3.1: Bark grafting procedure

System of training fruit trees

(i) Open-centre system.
This system is also called vase. The tree is capped to allow a low spreading tree.

(a)              (b) (c)

Fig. 3.2: Capping

(ii) Central leader system

The sideway branches are capped at their tips in a manner that the branches in
length upwards to the middle of the tree and then decreases toward the tip of the
tree. The main stem is not capped and allowed to grow tall. It encourages more
upward growth than horizontal growth hence forms a spindle shape.

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 (a) (b)
Fig. 3.3: Central leader system

3.14  Notes to the Teacher

(i) Prepare lesson plan based on the schemes of work.
(ii) Make lesson notes based on the competences for the unit.
(iii) Prepare demonstration materials needed.
(iv) Prepare practical sheets beforehand if a practical activity is to be carried out by
the learners.
(v) Prepare and collect the practical materials beforehand.
(vi) Prepare questionnaires for the field trip in advance.
(vii) Prepare the learners for field trip a day before the trip.
(viii) Attempt the learning activities in Secondary Agriculture Students’ Book 2
before giving them to the learners.
(ix) Cater for the varied abilities of the learners.
(x) Prepare and assure for the safety of the learners when carrying out a practical
activity.
(xi) Arrange the learners in groups of five to carry out activities while you guide
them. Mix learners of different abilities in groups.
(xii) Lead class discussions by asking probing questions and allow learners to use
their experiences.
(xiii) Guide the learners to define key terms such as propagation, layering and others
as used in the Students’ Book.
(xiv) Use formative evaluation techniques and activities provided to gauge the
learners.

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 (xv) Guide the learners when using magazines, photographs, other textbooks and
internet facilities if available in the school.
(xvi) Encourage learners to make presentations on their experience in fruit processing
and preservation.
(xvii) Keep learners’ progressive record and give feedback to the parents.

3.15  Additional remedial consolidation and extension activities

High order questions for fast learners
1. Explain the importance of fruit production.
(i) Nutritional  importance  –  Provides  vitamins,  proteins,  minerals,
carbohydrates, fibre and water in the body.
(ii) Provides income – Farmers earn income after selling fruits.
(iii) Provides employment – Fruit processing and canning industries employ a
large percentage of the population.
(iv) Industrial development – Secondary industries use fruits as raw materials.
(v) Ecological functions – Fruit trees and vines protect the soil from erosive
forces.
(vi) Aesthetic value – Fruits beautify the environment.
(vii) Medicinal value – Some fruits are used to produce medicine because they
contain chemicals with healing properties.
(viii) Traditional functions – Some fruits are used to make traditional brew used
in social functions.
(ix) Diversification functions – Provide a balance between food crops and cash
crops.
2. Describe the procedure for whip grafting in avocado fruit trees.
(i) Select a mature green wood with buds from a mother plant species with
desirable characteristics.
(ii) Cut the green wood about 2.5–60 cm long, remove the leaves and leave
buds to make a scion stick.
(iii) Cut a “tongue” cut on the rootstock and a matching tongue on the scion
stick. The rootstock plant should be growing in the nursery.
(iv) Make the tongues the same length on the scion as on the rootstock so that
they lock together to make a union.
(v) Wrap the union with a polythene strip or cellotape and smear grafting wax.
(vi) Leave the grafted plants under a shed to protect the new graft from the sun
until the scion begins to grow.
(vii) Remove any growth below the graft union.
(viii) Support the new shoot growing to avoid splitting.
3. Carry out the practices required when transplanting fruit trees from the nursery.
(i) Mark the holes for planting the trees by laying out the archard using the
triangular system or square systems.
(ii) Dig the holes at 60 cm 60 cm 60 cm and separating topsoil from subsoil.
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 (iii) Mix topsoil, organic manure, 300 grams of phosphatic fertiliser such as
double super phosphate and one tablespoonful of insecticide powder to
prepare the soil mixture.
(iv) Re-fill the hole with the same mixture ready for planting.
4. Analyse the importance of applying post-harvest technologies in fruit production.
(i) It makes fruit handling easy.
(ii) Makes fruits available throughout the year.
(iii) Increases the keeping quality of fruits.
(iv) Produces a variety of products from fruits.
(v) Reduces poisoning effects, which results from fruit spoilage.
Low order questions for average learners
1. Interpret the importance of fruit trees in environmental conservation.
(i) Tree roots hold soil particles from being carried away by the water
or wind.
(ii) Tree leaves decompose to release organic matter, which improves the
physical properties of the soil.
(iii) Tree intercepts the raindrop, reducing their impact on the soil.
(iv) Trees take part in the hydrological cycle thus increasing the likelihood
of cloud formation through their transpiration process.
(v) Trees provide shade to the soil living organisms, which decompose
organic matter into humus.
2. Name three products made from fruits.
(i) Fruit jam
(ii) Marmalade
(iii) Jelly
(iv) Juice

3.16 Summative Evaluation Questions

1. Outline the procedure for tip layering.
2. Explain six reasons for pruning fruit trees.
3. State four importance of fruit processing.
4. Explain the aims of post-harvest technologies.
5. Describe three orchard management practices.

3.17  Additional Questions

1. Suggest four tools and materials used when grafting.
(i) Grafting knife.
(ii) Grafting tape/polythene strip.
(iii) Grafting wax.
(iv) Seedlings in a nursery.
2. Explain the procedure of using the sugaring method in the preservation of
pineapple fruits.
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 The fresh pineapple fruits are cut into various shapes. They are then canned in
sugar syrup. The canned pineapple fruits are then heated in a water bath. The
sugar preserves the pineapple fruits for a long time.
3. Apart from avocado fruit trees, name any other two types of fruit trees that are
grafted.
(i) Citrus fruit trees.
(ii) Mango trees.
4. Differentiate between fruit jam and fruit juice.
Fruit jam refers to the product made from the whole fruit while fruit juice is that
product which is made from the liquid part of succulent fruits.

3.18 Suggestions for assignments

1. Find out whether there are specific dates for planting different fruit trees in
Rwanda.
2. Find out whether there are other traditional methods of processing and
preservation of fruits in Rwanda.
3. Using your observation and experience in the fruit processing factory visited
from the search engines; write a report on the processes that take place when
processing fruits from delivery to the time the products are placed. This
should be done in groups.

3.19  Support for developing of positive skills values and attitude

(a) Positive life skills developed include:
(i) Handling and safe use of agricultural tools and agro-chemicals.
(ii) Report writing skills.
(iii) Public speaking and speech development skills.
(iv) Fruit preservation methods.
(v) Skills in use of limited resources.
(vi) Use of modern methods in fruit processing.
(vii) Skills in operating and use of search engine.
(b) Positive values and attitude developed include:
(i) Co-operation with others when working in groups.
(ii) Curiosity to discover after grafting avocado trees.
(iii) Appreciation of the farmers duty of food production.
(iv) Respect for each other when working in groups.
(v) Positive perception of agriculture as a business.

3.20 Suggested answers to formative evaluation questions

1. A fruit is a ripened ovary of a flower which contains one or more seeds.
2. (i) Provide nutrients, fibre and water in human diet.
(ii) Provide income to the farmer.

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 (iii) Provide employment.
(iv) Provide raw materials for industries.
(v) Protect the environment.
(vi) Have aesthetic value/beautifies the environment.
(vii) Some fruits have medicinal value.
(viii) Used in traditional functions.
(ix) Help diversity production by giving a balance between food crops and cash
crops.
3. Avocado,  tarmarillo,  passion  fruits,  papaya,  mangoes,  citrus,  strawberries,
pineapples.
4. (i) Use of layering.
(ii) Grafting.
(iii) Use of stem cuttings.
(iv) Use of seeds.
5. The practice of uniting two different woody stems together to grow into new
individual plant.
6. (i) Overhead irrigation/use of watering cans/use of sprinklers
(ii) Drip irrigation/use of perforated pipes/bottle.
(iii) Furrow irrigation.
7. (i) To maintain quality.
(ii) To protect food safety.
(iii) Reduce physical losses.
(iv) To prevent loss in market value.
8. Jam, juice, marmalade and jelly.
9. (i) Refrigeration
(ii) Freezing
(iii) Sugaring
(iv) Canning
(v) Curling
(vi) Fermentation

3.21 Suggested Answers to Summative Evaluation Questions

1. Tip layering
(i) The tip bearing the terminal bud is bent to the ground and then held with a
peg.
(ii) It is covered with a layer of moist soil.
(iii) The covered part of the shoot is induced to produce roots.
(iv) The shoot is cut off from the mother plant and transplanted.
2. Reasons for pruning fruit trees
(i) To control pests and diseases – This is done by getting rid of the micro-
climate created by bushy trees which encourage pests and disease breeding.

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 (ii) Control spread of pests and diseases – This is by preventing mechanical
rubbing of the plant parts with each other.
(iii) Control cropping– Removal of extra fruits prevents overbearing and
improves equality of fruits.
(iv) Facilitates harvesting– When pruned fruit trees achieve a convenient height
for harvesting and spraying.
(v) Allow chemical penetration– Branches removed open up the plant making
easy for chemicals to reach the inner parts.
(vi) Economise on chemicals – Little chemicals are used to wet the few branches
that remain after pruning.
3. Importance of fruit processing
(i) To prevent deterioration– This can be physical, microbial and chemical.
(ii) To produce other more consumable products.
(iii) To reduce bulkiness for easy handling.
(iv) To increase their keeping quality.
4. Aims of post-harvest technologies
(i) To maintain quality – When fruits are processed, they have a longer keeping
quality, they maintain their flavour, texture and nutritive value.
(ii) To protect food safety – This helps prevent fruits becoming poisonous to
human beings.
(iii) To maintain market value – Processed fruits retain their natural quality and
so market value.
(iv) To protect their physical appearance
5. Orchard Management Practices
(i) Pruning – It is carried out to give a balance between crop and the vegetative
parts to increase quality.
(ii) Pests and disease control – This is carried out to increase the quality and
quantity of fruits harvested.
(iii) Watering – Water application is carried out during the dry seasons. This
promotes all season fruit production.

Key Terms (Students’ Book pages 96–98)

1. Ovaries – Part of a flower which develops into a fruit and seed or seeds.
2. Diversification – Growing several types of crops on a piece of land to safeguard
against total failure.
3. Flavours – A characteristic taste.
4. Secondary industries – Manufacturing or processing industries developed as a
result of fruit production so as to process fruit products.
5. Ecology – The study of living things in relationship to their surroundings.
6. Plant propagation – Multiplication of plants and planting materials.
7. Vegetative propagation – Multiplication of plants using plant parts other than
seeds.
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 8. Dormancy – A condition where seed or bud in which growth cannot take place
even after provision of necessary conditions for germination.
9. Fungicides – Chemical used to control fungal diseases.
10. Insecticides – Chemical used to control insect pests.
11. Pesticides – Any agro-chemicals used to control destructive organisms referred to
as pests.
12. Nitro-culture – A growth medium mixed with Nitrogen fixing bacteria.
13. Mucilage – The slimy substance found on the fruit or seed coat which prevent
water absorption.
14. Endocarp – The inner part of a fleshy fruit which covers the seed.
15. Mother plant – Mature plants from which vegetative planting materials are
acquired
16. Rooting medium – A mixture of hormones, nutrients and substrate on which
plants can grow and attach roots.
17. Ring-barking– Removal of the bark from a stem to leave an exposed ring.
18. Polythene sleeves – These are polythene bags made to specific dimensions for
raising seedlings singly.
19. Wooden pegs– Strong pieces of sticks with sharp ends used for making whole
positions.
20. Terminal bud – The topmost part of a stem or shoot where elongation takes
place.
21. Transplanting – The practice of removing seedlings from nursery or polythene
sleeves to the holes in the seedbed.
22. Detach – Disconnect by cutting.
23. Economic life – The productive period of a plant growth which is profitable to the
farmer.
24. Dwarfing – Reduce in size or becoming smaller than normal.
25. Compatible – Can exist, breed together or able to form a successful union.
26. Scion stick – The part that contains buds which grow to become a new shoot after
grafting.
27. Leaf bud – A vegetative part of the leaf which grows into a shoot or a branch.
28. Staking – The practice of supporting a creeping plant with a stick in order to grow
upright.
29. Water shoot – A vigorous sprout arising from the trunk or the main branch of the
trees.
30. Nurse plant – A branch left on a rootstock to provide food to the young growing
bud. The nurse plant is pruned off when the bud grows into a shoot.
31. Containerised seedlings – Seedlings planted singly in a container such as
polythene sleeve.
32. Windbreaks – Trees or other barriers used to prevent and reduce the speed of
wind over planted crops.

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 33. Evapotranspiration – Loss of water vapour from the leaf surface through
evaporation.
34. All weather roads – Roads that allow vehicles to move through without getting
stuck regardless of the season.
35. Baseline – The position of the first row of the fruit trees in an orchard. It is used
as a guide when making the position of the planting holes.
36. Hypotenuse – This is the longest side of a right angled triangle. It forms the
diagonals of two right angled joined together.
37. Wettable power – Agro-chemicals in powder form that cannot dissolve but mix
well with water.
38. Soil field capacity – A state where soil holds enough water for the plants.
39. Blossoming – Starting to produce flowers.
40. Fruit set – After pollination when the flower withers and fruit forms.
41. Canopy – The top foliage of a growing plant.
42. Vascular bundles – Vessels that transport water and nutrients in a plant.
43. Flush growth – New plant parts that sprout suddenly and at once.
44. Lignification– The process of thickening due to deposition of complex
carbohydrate materials known as lignin.
45. Apical dominance – Prevention of sprouting of lateral buds to the presence of a
terminal bud.
46. Cultural practices – Routine crop production practices carried out to control
weeds, pests and diseases.
47. Capping – Cutting off the terminal bud of a plant to allow spreading.
48. Deterioration – Change in quality of a product from good to bad.
49. Enzymes – Chemicals produced in plants that are used to regulate metabolic
rate.
50. Physiological changes – Changes that occur in the functioning of an organism.
51. Tainting – Having traces of unwanted substances such as colour, flavour or
smell.
52. Lethal – Causes sudden death.
53. Pectin – A complex polysaccharide extracted from fruits mainly citrus and used
as a jelly agent to make jellies and jams.
54. Parasitoides – A living organism used as a biological control agent to parasitise
crop parasites.
55. Predator – A living organism that eats other organisms that destroys crops.
56. Blemish – A mark or stain that spoils the natural beauty.
57. PVC pipes – Plastic pipes made of rigid polyvinyl chloride.

Answers to Revision Questions (Students’ Book pages 98–100)

1. A fruit is the fleshy part of the flowering plant which develops from an ovary.
2. (i) Provide nutrients, fibre and water.
(ii) Human diet.
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 (iii) Provide income to the farmer.
(iv) Provide raw materials for industries.
(v) Provide employment.
(vi) Have aesthetic value/beautifies the environment.
(vii) Some fruits have medicinal value.
(viii) Fruit are used in traditional functions.
(ix) Provide a balance between food crops and cash crops.
3. Types of fruits grown in Rwanda include:
(i) Avocado
(ii) Papaya
(iii) Mangoes
(iv) Tamarillo
(v) Citrus
(vi) Strawberries
(vii) Passion fruits
(viii) Pineapples
4. Methods of propagating fruit trees:
(i) Use of seeds
(ii) Vegetative propagation
5. Methods of vegetative propagation in fruits trees include:
(i) Grafting.
(ii) Layering.
(iii) Use of stem cutting.
6. Fruit propagation using stem cuttings – strawberries.
7. Procedures of whip grafting in avocado fruit trees.
(i) A bud is cut from the scion stick with a sharp budding knife.
(ii) The scion is held with its upper end towards the body and the knife drawn
towards the body to remove the bud with the bark of the shoot.
(iii) A T-cut is made on the stem of the rootstock seedlings at about 25–35 cm
above the ground.
The bark around the T-cut is gently loosened from wood, using the tip of
the budding knife.
(iv) The bud is pushed down into the T-cut of the rootstock and held with the
bark. The upper part of the bud is removed.
(v) The bud is firmly bound with budding tape or polythene strip to prevent
entry of water. Budding wax is applied around the tape.
(vi) The upper shoot of the seedling is left to grow as a nurse branch. It is then
cut off completely when the bud grows and develops about six leaves.
8. Factors considered when sitting an orchard:
(i) Slope of the land area
(ii) Drainage

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 (iii) Depth of soil
(iv) Wind direction
(v) Previous crop
(vi) Nearness to homestead
(vii) Water sources
(viii) Orientation in respect to the sun
9. Land preparation/operations for an orchard:
(i) Clearing –To remove vegetative materials to allow easy cultivation.
(ii) Primary cultivation – Open up land to make planting easy and remove
weeds.
(iii) Laying out of an orchard – Measuring the position of planting holes.
(iv) Digging of holes – About 60 60 60 cm in size.
10. Methods of laying out fruit trees in an orchard:
(i) Triangular method
(ii) Square method
(iii) Quincox method
(iv) Contour or terrace method.
11. Methods of pruning fruit trees:
(i) Capping
(ii) Thinning out
(iii) De-shooting
12. (a) Aphid – Pierce and sack sap from different parts of fruit trees.
(b) Caterpillars – Eat parts of the leaf reducing surface area for photosynthesis.
(c) Fruitfly –Burrow through fruits, laying eggs and causing fruit fall and
fruit rot.
13. Difference between processing and preservations in fruits.
Processing is any deliberate change or transformation of raw fruits by chemical
or physical means. Whereas preservation is the application of the processes that
inhibit deterioration of fruit before use.
14. Objectives of applying post-harvest technologies in fruits.
(i) To maintain quality.
(ii) To protect food safety.
(iii) To reduce physical losses.
(iv) To prevent loss in market value.
15. Preservation techniques used in fruits include:
(i) Refrigeration
(ii) Freezing
(iii) Sugaring
(iv) Canning
(v) Curing
(vi) Fermentation

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 16. Difference between jam and marmalade:
Jam is a product made by heating crushed fruits mixed with sugar and water while
marmalade is a fruit product made from boiling the fruit peels and juice of orange
with sugar and water.
17. Steps followed when making fruit jam from strawberries:
(i) Wash and slice ripe fruits into small cubes.
(ii) Crush the fruits with a wooden spoon or blender.
(iii) Place the crushed fruits into a large sauce pan.
(iv) Add lemon juice and warm butter or margarine and stir.
(v) Allow the fruit mixture to simmer for 5–20 minutes to make a thick syrup.
(vi) Remove the mixture from the heat.
(vii) Skin out the foam and pour into sterilised jars and seal.
(viii) Boil the jar in a water bath for 10 minutes.
(ix) Cool the jars by washing in cold water.
(x) Place in a refrigerator or store in a cool place.

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 Unit 4 : Legumes

Number of periods: 16

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to practise cultivation of legumes

and post-harvest practices of both soya beans and groundnuts.

4.1  Learning Objectives

(a)  Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Define the legumes.
(ii) Explain the importance of legumes.
(iii) Explain propagation methods of legumes.
(iv) Apply cultural practices of legumes.
(v) Explain post-harvest techniques for legumes (soya beans, fodder and ground
nuts).
(b)  Skills
(i) Recognise the legumes.
(ii) Select common legumes cultivated in Rwanda.
(iii) Practise legumes propagation methods.
(iv) Conduct legume cultivation.
(v) Perceive post-harvest techniques of soya beans, fodder and groundnuts.
(c)  Attitudes and values
(i) Initiative to identify legumes cultivated in Rwanda.
(ii) Respect legumes propagation methods.
(iii) Pay attention while observing.
(iv) Have positive attitude towards colleagues.
(v) Show concern while doing cultivation techniques of legumes.
(vi) Be careful when conducting cultural activities.
(vii) Pay attention while observing post-harvest operation of groundnuts, fodder
and soya beans.
(viii) Beware of post-harvest techniques of soya beans, groundnuts and fodder.

4.2  Content Students’ Book page 101 – 125

(i) Definition of legumes, legumes names, types (fodder, edible by human).
(ii) Importance of legumes (soya beans, peas, beans and groundnuts, fodder:
feed livestock, stakes for climbing crops, soil fertility and soil conservation)

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 Answers to question in table 4.1:Cultivated legumes for humans and fodder on
page 103 – 104 of the Students’ Book.
Legume Consumed by
(a) Lupins Livestock
(b) Soya bean Human
(c) Green leaf desmodium Livestock
(d) Lentil Humans
(e) Silver leaf desmodium Livestock
(f) Pea plant Humans
(g) Lucerne Livestock

Answers to questions in table 4.2 (a): Fungal diseases of legumes on page 114 –
115 of Students’ Book.
Disease illustration Crops attacked Control measure
(a) Angular leaf Spot Beans/legumes Regular spraying with fungicides,
planting certified seeds and use of
resistant varieties.
(b) Late blight Beans/legumes Regular spraying with fungicides,
(Phytophthora planting certified seeds and use of
intestans) resistant varieties.
(c) Anthracnose Beans/legumes Regular spraying with fungicides,
planting certified seeds and use of
resistant varieties.
(d) Soya beans Soya beans Rogueing, crop rotation, control of
rust disease vectors and use of clean seeds and
(Phakopsora certified seeds.
pachyrhizi)
(e) Mildew Beans Regular spraying with fungicides,
planting certified seeds and use of
resistant varieties.
(f) Groundnut Rosette Groundnuts Rogueing, use of certified seeds,
virus crop rotation and control of vectors.
(g) Mosaic virus Citrus Rogueing, crop rotation and control
disease of vectors.

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 Answers to questions in table 4.2: (b) Bacterial diseases in legumes Students’
Book on page 116
Disease illustration Crops attacked Control measure
(a) Bacterial blight Beans Rogueing, use of clean and certified
seeds, crop rotation and control of
vectors.
(b) Halo blight Beans Rogueing, use of clean and certified
seeds, crop rotation and control of
vectors.

(iii) Propagation methods of legumes (cutting, feed propagation, layering)

(iv) Cultural practices of legumes (land preparation, planting material, sowing
maintenance/management and harvesting).
(v) Post-harvest techniques for soya beans and groundnuts (threshing and
transport, drying, cleaning, handling, conditioning, packing and storage).

Answers group activity on page 122 of the Students’ Book

Correct order of the steps is as follows:

(iii) Drying the fodder.
(ii) Preparing the box and the strings.
(v) Packing the box with dry fodder.
(i) Compacting the fodder into the box.
(iv) Tying the bale tightly.

4.3  Learning Activities

(i) Field visit to explore cultivated legumes and deduce their definition, types
and importance (socio-economic, nutritive value).
(ii) Field visit on farms to observe and deduce after group discussion on
propagation methods for legumes.
(iii) Field work to conduct cultural practices of legumes by groups of learners
in school garden.
(iv) Trip to a farm to observe all post-harvest techniques of legumes (harvesting,
drying,  cleaning,  handling,  packaging,  conditioning and  storage)  and
discuss on ways they are done.

4.4  Links to Other Subjects

This unit is linked to Biology especially reproduction in plants, animals and
microscopic  fungi,  plant  asexual  reproduction;  Mathematics  especially
calculation, surface and land measurement, geometry; Home Science especially
nutrition.

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 4.5  Assessment Criteria
Assessment of this unit will be based on the ability of the learners to practise
cultivation of legumes and post-harvest of both soya beans and groundnuts.

4.6  Learning Materials and Resources

The following materials/resources will be required in the teaching of this unit:
(i) Grain of groundnuts and soya beans.
(ii) Hoes
(iii) Rakes
(iv) Measuring tapes
(v) Pangas
(vi) Pegs
(vii) Ropes
(viii) Sacks
(ix) Labels
(x) Fodder–legume cuttings /seeds
(xi) Library
(xii) Computer laboratory with internet
(xiii) School field
(xiv) Various small farm tools.

4.7  Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials

(i) Ask the learners to bring materials such as soya beans and groundnut seeds,
ropes, sacks, pegs, pangas, hoes, rakes and other farm tools.
(ii) Ask the administration to assist with search engines and return after use.
(iii) Borrow facilities such as computer laboratory and resources such as library
books from neighbouring schools.

4.8  Methods of Teaching

The following methods are recommended for the teaching of this unit:
Content Method(s)
1. Definition of legumes, legume Discussion: The teacher asks the
names, types (fodder, edible by learners to find out the meaning of
human) legumes from dictionaries, library
books and internet and supervises the
discussions by moving from group to
group. The teacher allows the learners
time to present their findings to the
class. The teacher then makes the final
conclusion.

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 2. Legume names and types Exhibition: The teacher displays
different legumes to be identified.
The teacher allows the learners time
to identify the materials, record and
discuss their findings. The learners
present their findings to the class
and then the teacher makes a final
conclusion.
3. Importance of legumes Field visit: The teacher organises a
visit and prepares a questionnaire to be
used by the learners during the visit as
shown in Annex 2. The teacher instructs
the learners to find out the importance
of the legumes cultivated in the farm.
Learners make observations, record and
discuss their findings. They then present
their findings to the class. The teacher
makes the final conclusion.
4. Propagation methods of Field visit: The teacher organises a visit
legumes and prepares a questionnaire to be used
by the learners during the visit as shown
in Annex 11. The teacher instructs the
learners to observe different propagation
methods of legumes in the farm.
Learners make observations, record and
discuss their findings to the class. The
teacher makes the final conclusion.

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 5. Cultural practices in legumes (i) Field visit: The teacher organises
a visit and prepares a questionnaire
to be used by the learners during
the visit as shown in Annex 12.
The teacher instructs the learners to
carry out various cultural practices
in the farm. Learners carry out
activities, record and discuss their
findings to the class. The teacher
makes the final conclusion.
(ii) Project: The teacher instructs the
learners to carry out a project on the
growing of soya beans or ground
nuts. The project is fully managed
by the learner with minimum
supervision by the teacher. The
learners make their observations,
record and discuss their findings.
They then present their findings to
the class. The teacher makes the
final conclusion.
6. Post-harvest techniques for Field visit: Teacher organises a visit and
soya beans and groundnuts prepares a questionnaire to be used by
the learners during the visit as shown
in Annex 13. The teacher instructs the
learners to observe the various post
harvest practices carried out in the farm.
Learners make observations, record and
discuss their findings. They then present
their findings to the class. The teacher
then makes a final conclusion.

4.9  Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercise to support delivery
of content and development of students’ competences
(i) Class discussion on cultivation of legumes and post-harvest of both soya
beans and groundnuts.
(ii) Conducting field work for the learners to observe and practise propagation
of cultural practices of legume production.
(iii) Practical activities in groups on legumes production applying all the cultural
practices.
(iv) Use of question and answer techniques to probe the learners when discussing

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 cultivation of legumes and post-harvest of both soya beans and groundnuts.
(v) Field trips to observe the post-harvest techniques of legumes.
(vi) Report writing and presentation on cultivation of legumes and post-harvest
of both soya beans and groundnuts.

4.10 Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in the teaching and learning activities

The teacher to find ways of incorporating cross-cutting issues in the teaching of
legumes production and post-harvest activities such as:
(i) Environment and sustainability: Acquired skills and attitudes that will
enable them to address issues of environment and climate change.
(ii) Peace and values education: Working together contributes to peace and
harmony and being committed to avoiding conflicts.
(iii) Inclusive education: Engage all the people in learning regardless of the
gender and ability.
4.11  Suggestions for accommodating special education need (SEN)
The teacher should know the learners and identify those with special needs. This
will help the teacher be able to help learners to undertake the learning activities.
The type of special needs and learners support is as listed below:
Type of special need Assistance to the learners
Sensory impairment (hearing) • Speak loudly for all to hear.
• Make sure that the learners sit close to the
teacher.
• Alert the learner so as to seek for their at-
tention.
Sensory impairment (visual) • Use extra-large print in practical sheets,
questionnaires and assessment papers.
• Large diagrams and use bold letters on the
chalkboard.
• Those using braille machines should be
given a comfortable place for them.
• Should be paired with sighted learners.
Sensory impairment (motor) • Assigned to other learners to assist.
• Practical activities to be conducted in one
area to reduce movement.
Gifted or talented learners • Give them more tasks to do.
• Assign them to different groups.
• Encourage them to assist the slow learners.

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 Slow learners • Assist them when carrying out practical
activities.
• Take time when giving instructions.
• Arrange for remedial teaching.
• Assign them to gifted learners to be
assisted.

4.12  Formative Evaluation

1. Describe the procedure of making hay from legumes fodder.
2. Explain four cultural practices carried out when growing groundnuts.
3. State two reasons why fodder legumes should be chopped into small pieces
ensiling.
4. Outline three control measures taken against soya bean rust disease.
5. Explain three practices carried out to prepare legume seed for planting.

4.13  Additional Content to the Teacher

Importance of legumes
Legumes are grouped into two broad categories. These are legumes grown for human
consumption and those grown for livestock, also known as fodder legumes.

1. Legumes grown for human consumption

Legumes grown for human consumption are either consumed when fresh as
vegetables or when dry. Those consumed fresh include; French beans, garden pea
and pigeon. Legumes that are consumed after the seeds dry are referred to as
pulses that are consumed together with cereal crops such as maize and rice. They
include; peas and grams. Soya bean is used as a beverage while groundnut is used
for production of oil. They are also roasted and eaten as a confectionary.

(a)  Importance of soya beans

(i) They are used as a source of protein in the production of mushrooms.
(ii) It is an excellent substitute for tea when processed.
(iii) They are useful in the preparation of a variety of fresh, fermented and dried
food products such as milk.
(iv) Soya beans have mechanical value and serves as a cure for ailments such as
heart, liver, kidneys and stomach ailments.
(v) They are processed to extract oil for food such as salad oil and cooking oil.
(vi) Produce soya beans, seed cake, a livestock feed.
(b)  Importance of groundnuts
(i) They provide a substrate for mushroom production.
(ii) They are processed to produce peanut butter which is used on bread as
margarine.
(iii) They are believed to promote fertility in human beings.
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 (iv) They help in reducing mental depression since they contain amino acid,
tryptophan which produces serotomin a brain chemical involved in mood
regulation.
(v) They contain vitamin B2 which boosts memory power and normal brain
functioning.
(vi) They protect the body against cancer and blood pressure because they
contain phytosterols which interfere with cholesterol absorption and
inhibition of tumor growth.
(vii) They reduce the risk of developing gall stone.
(viii) They lower the risk of obesity.
(ix) Used as a source of livestock feed as groundnut seed cake.
(c)  Importance of peas
(i) They boost the body’s immune system because they contain anti-oxidants.
(ii) They help in the prevention of stomach cancers since they contain chemical
called coumestrol.
(iii) They prevent wrinkles in human beings.
(iv) They have medicinal value and are believed to cure arthritis and bronchitis.
(v) They prevent constipation in human beings due to their high fibre content.
(vi) They promote healthy bones because they are rich in vitamin K.
(vii) They help in improving eyesight because they have vitamin A.
(viii) They lower the risk of obesity.

2. Fodder legumes
(i) They complement natural pastures as a source of protein in livestock.
(ii) Legume fodders reduce water consumption in livestock and hence are
essential for semi-arid areas where water for livestock is scarce.
(iii) They lower the cost of livestock production where they replace expensive
commercial protein concentrates.
(iv) Legumes fodder trees and shrubs provide shades for livestock.
(v) They also form an important component of agroforestry trees and shrubs.
(vi) Legumes fix nitrogen to the soil improving soil fertility.
(vii) Their roots protect the soil against soil erosion by holding the soil and
binding soil particles together improving soil structure.
(viii) Legume trees and shrubs increase soil and water infiltration during flush
floods reducing soil water seen off and hence checking on soil erosion.
(ix) Their flowers provide food for honey bees increasing honey production.
(x) Fodder trees and shrubs provide fuel reducing pressure on natural and
planted forests.
(xi) Some fodder trees provide timber for construction of farm structures and
also act as windbreakers.
(xii) Some fodders shrubs and trees act as nurse crops for other planted crops.
(xiii) Desmodium grown in association with maize and Napier grass helps in
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 controlling the maize stalkborer through what is called push and pull
technology. Desmoduim produces a chemical that repulses the stalkborer
while Napier grass produces a chemical that attracts them. The Napier then
produces a substance that drowns them. They also produce chemical that
destroys witch weed.
(xiv) Some legumes such as the pigeon pea (canjanus canjan) can be used as
stakes for climbing plants such as passion fruits.

Fig. 4.1: Peas plant

4.14  Notes to the Teacher

(i) Prepare lesson plans in advance so as to plan the materials and methods
to be used in teaching.
(ii) Prepare practical sheets required for the practical activities.
(iii) Prepare questionnaire for field trips beforehand.
(iv) Prepare the learner for field trips a day before the trip.
(v) Attempt the practical activities beforehand to make sure that they are
workable.
(vi) Attempt the assignments before giving the learners.
(vii) Cater for the varied abilities of the learners.
(viii) Guide the learners in defining the key terms.
(ix) Encourage learners to make presentations on their experience in legume
production.
(x) Keep progressive records on the learners and give feedback to the parents.

4.15  Additional remedial consolidation and extension activities

High order questions for fast learners

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 1. Describe the procedure of making silage from lucerne through the trench silo
method.
(i) A gentle slopy ground is selected for making the trench silo.
(ii) A trench silo measuring 5 m long 3 m wide and 1.25 m deep is prepared.
(iii) The lucerne crop is harvested when 20 –50% of the crop has flowered.
(iv) The harvested crop is chopped into small pieces using a machete or chaff
cutter.
(v) The chopped plant materials are wilted.
(vi) A polythene sheet is laid in the trench. It should be large enough to overlap
on the surface.
(vii) The chopped materials are filled into the silo and compacted at every
stage.
(viii) Heavy rollers are used to compact the materials or a drum full of water is
used to compact the materials.
(ix) The temperature within the silo should be maintained at 32°C optimum. A
thermometer should be used to check temperature.
(x) The material is covered with the polythene sheet to keep off the oxygen and
maintain anaerobic conditions.
(xi) A layer of soil is put over the polythene to form a dome shape.
(xii) A trench is dug around the silo to prevent water runoff from entering the
silo.
(xiii) The temperature should constantly be checked during the first three weeks
until it becomes stable.
(xiv) The lactic acid produced by the action anaerobic micro-organisms stops
further action by the micro-organisms and preserves the material for a
long period of time.
2. Explain the importance of legumes in soil conservation.
(i) The canopy of the growing legume crop covers the ground preventing rain
drop/splash erosion.
(ii) The roots of the legume crop holds the soil particles together thus
preventing soil erosion.
(iii) The vines and leaves of the creeping type legumes traps/filters the soil
particles in the running water thus preventing the carrying away of the soil
by runoff.
(iv) The leaves dropping from the legumes decompose adding nutrients to the
soil.
(v) The Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the root nodules of the legumes convert
free Nitrogen in the soil into Nitrates thus improving soil fertility.
(vi) The leave cover prevents excessive evaporation of soil moisture.
3. Describe four post-harvest techniques carried out on groundnuts.
(i) Shelling – This is the removal of the nuts from the shells. It can be done

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 manually or by hand operated machine which separates the shells from the
nuts.
(ii) Drying – The shelled grains are sun-dried to a moisture content of 6.6 –
7.0%. Driers can be used in case of a cloudy day.
(iii) Cleaning and grading – Cleaning is done to ensure that all foreign
materials such as weed seeds, split seeds, stones and leaves are removed.
The nuts are then sorted according to colour and size.
(iv) Packaging and storage – Dry nuts are packed in dry containers such as
gunny bags, pots and gourds. The bags are stacked up to 10 bags high on
separate stacks to allow free circulation of air. The bags should be dusted
with insecticides to protect the pods from pests.
4. Give two reasons why shallow cultivation is recommended in a field of young
legumes.
(i) To prevent root disturbance.
(ii) To prevent loss of soil moisture through evaporation.
(iii) To prevent destruction of soil structure.

Low order questions

1. Give four cultural practices carried when growing soya beans.
(i) Gapping
(ii) Thinning
(iii) Weed control
(iv) Fertiliser application
(v) Pests and disease control
2. What is a pulse crop?
It is a legume crop grown for its grains which are used as food for human beings.
3. Give two reasons why legumes fodder for hay making should be harvested at 50%
flowering.
(i) At this stage the herbage/leaves have the highest nutrient content before
seed formation starts.
(ii) At this stage the plants are less fibrous.
4. Why is top dressing legumes with nitrogenous fertilisers not recommended?
Because legumes fix nitrogen in their root nodules with the help of Nitrogen fixing
bacteria.

4.16  Summative Evaluation Questions

1. Explain importance of legumes.
2. Explain the conditions necessary for the rooting of stem cutting when propagating
legumes.
3. Explain how weed control is carried out when growing groundnuts.
4. Explain the process of making silage.

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 4.17  Additional Questions

1. Give two uses of soya beans.

(i) Used for making protein based supplement used as human food.
(ii) Used for making concentrates for livestock.
(iii) Soya beans are roasted and ground to prepare beverage.
2. Name two fodder legumes grown in Rwanda
(i) Lucerne
(ii) Desmodium
(iii) White clover
(iv) Lupins
3. Name one fodder legume propagated using layering method
(i) Desmodium
(ii) Sesbania
(iii) Leuceana
4. Give four methods of controlling bacterial blight in soya beans.
(i) Use of clean and certified seeds to prevent infection.
(ii) Crop rotation
(iii) Close season
(iv) Control of vectors
(v) Rogueing/destroying infected plants

4.18  Suggestions for assignment

(i) Identifying the legumes locally grown at home.
(ii) Visit a nearby farm produce shop and identify the pulses being sold.

4.19  Support for developing of positive skills, value and attitudes

1. Positive life skills developed in this unit include:
(i) Post-harvest techniques in legumes.
(ii) Skills in propagation of legumes
(iii) Creative and critical thinking skills.
(iv) Report writing and public speaking skills.
2. Positive values and attitude developed:
(i) Group work encourages co-operation with others.
(ii) Practical activities build curiosity to explore more.
(iii) Sharing materials in group activities encourage unity and caring for each
other.
(iv) Reporting develops responsibility and leadership.

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 4.20  Suggested answers to formative evaluation questions
1. (i) The fodder is cut when 50% of the crop has flowered.
(ii) The fodder is spread on the ground under a shade to dry.
(iii) The fodder is turned regularly to ensure uniform drying.
(iv) It is chopped into small pieces when dry.
(v) A bailing box measuring about 75 30 30 cm is used for bailing.
(vi) Two sisal strings are placed inside the box at both sides.
(vii) Dry chopped fodder filled in the box and compressed properly to remove
air.
(viii) The compressed materials are tied tightly with the string on both ends.
(ix) The box is turned upside down to remove the hay bale.

2. (i) Land preparation – This is done early

• Land is ploughed deeply
• Land is harrowed to a fine tilt.
(ii)   Planting:
• Planting is done at the onset of rains.
• Certified seeds of groundnuts are used.
• Seeds are planted at 30–35 cm 4 – 7 cm spacing.
• Seeds are placed at 5–7 cm deep.
• Phosphatic fertilisers are used at planting
(iii)   Weed control:
• The field is kept weed free during the early stages of groundnuts growth.
• Cultivation is carried out physically.
• Weeding should be avoided during flowering to prevent shedding of
flowers.
• Uprooting of weeds is done at podding stage to prevent injury.
(iv) Diseases and pest control:
• Aphids are controlled using insecticides and also close spacing.
• Groundnuts mosaic virus disease is controlled by controlling aphids.
(v) Harvesting:
• Done when the crop is dry and the pods are mature.
• Pods are mature when they turn to dare brown colour.
• Harvesting is done by lifting the pods from the soil with a fork jembe.
• Pods are further dried and shelter.
3. (i) To facilitate compaction.
(ii) To make it easy for the animal to eat.

4. (i) Planting resistance varieties.

(ii) Use foliar fungicides such as Benlate.
(iii) Use of crop rotation with cereals.

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 5. (i) Seed inoculation – Seeds are coated with nitro-culture.
(ii) Breaking seeds dormancy – This is done by soaking the seeds in water.
(iii) Seed dressing – Seeds which are not inoculated are coated with a mixture of
powder insecticides and fungicides.

4.21  Suggested Answers to Summative Evaluation Questions

1. (a) Provide food for human and livestock – Legume grains provide pretentious
food for human beings while fodder legumes provide proteinous feeds for
livestock.
(b) Provide stakes for climbing crops – Legume shrubs such as pigeon peas,
calliandra leucaena produce woody stems which are used to support vine
growing crops.
(c) Importance of soil fertility – Legume fix nitrogen into the soil, enriching soil
with nutrients.
(d) Raw materials for industries – Legume seeds such as groundnuts are used to
produce manufactured products such as peanut butter.
(e) Sold for income – The farmer gets income from the sales of the legume grains.
(f) Some have medicinal value – They produce certain chemical substances
which control some disorders in human body.
(g) Source of fuel – When the woody legumes are pruned, they provide wood
fuel.

2. (i) Temperature – The day and night temperatures of 15o –27o C are suitable for
inducing rooting in cuttings.
(ii) Relative humidity – This should be high.
(iii) Light intensity– Soft wood cuttings require high light intensity, while
hardwood cuttings require dark conditions for rooting.
(iv) Oxygen supply – Cuttings require proper air circulation in order to root.
(v) Chemical treatment – rooting of cuttings can be induced using growths
hormones.
(vi) Leaf area – Soft wood cuttings produce roots faster when planted with
leaves while the hardwood cuttings, the leaves are pruned off.

3. (i)   The groundnut field should be kept weed free during the early stages of
growth.
(ii) Shallow weeding is done to prevent root damage.
(iii) Weeding should be carried out when the ground is moist.
(iv) Weeds should be uprooted during flowering to prevent shedding off the
flowers.
(v) Chemical weed control is discouraged since groundnuts are very susceptible
to chemicals.

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 4. (i) A silo trench of 5 long 3 m wide should be made.
(ii) It should be on a gently sloppy ground.
(iii) The crop is harvested at 20–50% flowering.
(iv) The material is chopped into small pieces.
(v) A polythene sheet should be spread on the trench made/silo.
(vi) The chopped materials is filled into the trench and compacted.
(vii) The temperature of the compacted materials should be checked and
maintained at 32o C.
(viii) The material is covered with the polythene sheet at the top and left airtight.
(ix) A layer of soil is then placed over the polythene sheet.
(x) Runoff is prevented from getting in by digging a trench around the silo.

Key Terms (page 125 – 126 of Students’ Book 2)

1. Legume – Plant which bears its fruit inside a pod.
2. Pulse – Legume used as food.
3. Fodder – Pasture cut before feeding to livestock.
4. Substrate – A substance or materials that provide nutrients and support to a
growing plant.
5. Agroforestry – Growing of trees or shrubs, pasture (keeping livestock) and
growing crops on the same piece of land.
6. Commercial concentrates – Processed livestock supplementary feeds which are
usually used to provide protein, energy, minerals and vitamins to livestock.
7. Nurse crops– Crops that provide shade to other crops.
8. Pull and push technology – A technique of controlling stolk borer pest by using
the association of Napier, desmodium and cereals attacker by stalk borer such
as maize. The desmodium pushes the stalk borer away from the cereals while
Napier’s grasses attack and destroys them.
9. Witch weed – A parasitic weed in some cereals.
10. Stakes – Support for growing plants.
11. Layering – Forcing part of a plant, usually a branch to produce roots while still
attached to the mother plant. The layered part is then cut off and planted to give
a new plant.
12. Plant propagation – Multiplication of plant.
13. Dormancy – A period when planting materials cannot sprout or germinate.
14. Scarification – Mechanical damage to a seed coat to break dormancy.
15. Growth regulator – Hormones that control growth.
16. Certified seeds – Seeds that are of high quality and resistant to diseases attack.
17. Volunteer plants – Undesired plants that emerge on their own in a described
crop field.
18. Threshing – Separation of the seed from the pod. It is also called shelling.
19. Conditioning – Preparing produce to escape rotting and attack by pest, for
example, by drying to the right moisture content.
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 20. Viability – Ability to germinate or sprout.
21. Ecology – Environment conditions which affect plants distribution and growth.
22. Crop rotation – Growing of different crops on the same piece of landing in
particular order or sequence.
23. Inoculation – Coating legumes seeds with the right type of artificial nitrogen
fixing bacterium to increase their nitrogen fixation ability.
24. Herbicides – Chemicals that kill weeds.
25. Sorting– Selecting.
26. Grading – Grouping according to size, colour, texture and quality.
27. Forage – Plant materials either growing naturally or planted for the purpose of
feeding to livestock.
28. Hay – Fodder preserved in dry form.
29. Silage – Fodder preserved in fermented and succulent form.
30. Silo – Structure for preserving silage.
31. Ensiling – Preparation of silage.

Answers to Revision Questions (page 126 – 127 of Students’ Book 2)

1. A plant which bears a fruit known as a pod.
2. (i)  Soya beans (ii) Beans

3. (i) They are used as cover reducing soil erosion

(ii) Their roots bind soil particles together improving soil structure
(iii) Their leaves drop and decomposed to form humus which binds the soil
particles together.
(iv) Their roots encourage water infiltration reducing surface water runoff and
thus reducing soil erosion.
(v) Their roots hold the soil reducing the erosive power of moving water after
heavy rains.
4. (a) Pulses – edible by humans
(b) Fodder legumes – those fed on livestock.
5. (i) Should be fertile.
(ii) Well drained.
(iii) Good water holding capacity.
(iv) Free from disease-causing organisms.
6. A (ii)  (iii)  (i)   (iv)
7. (i) Shelling – To free the nuts from the shells.
(ii) Drying – To reduce moisture content of 7% to prevent rotting.
(iii) Cleaning and grading – Removing foreign materials to enable sorting.
(iv) Handling – Need carefull handling to prevent contact with water.
(v) Conditioning, packing and storage – Dry nuts are packed in dry containers
and stored on racks to prevent dampness.
8. (a) Hay – Less succulent with low moisture content.
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 (b) Silage – Succulent with high moisture content.
9. (i) Cut the crop when about 50% of the crops have flowered.
(ii) Spread the cut crop on the ground under a shade to dry.
(iii) Turn it regularly as it dries to ensure uniform drying.
(iv) Dry the crop 2–3 days ensuring the fodder retains its original colour and
rattles with little noise.
(v) When the stems are twisted, they should not break and sap should not ooze
out.
(vi) Chop the forage with a machete to make it easy to compact during balling.
(vii) Use a balling box with the dimensions of the hay bales measuring 75 cm
30 cm 30 cm.
(viii) Place two strings at each end of the balling box.
(ix) Fill the box with dry fodder (Hay).
(x) Compress the hay to make a compact cube in the box.
(xi) Tie the bale tightly with a string and turn the box upside down to remove
the bale of hay.
(xii) Store the hay bales in a shade.

10. The coating of legume seeds with the right strain of Rhizobium bacteria to increase
nitrogen fixation.
11. Give five methods of breaking dormancy in legume seeds.
(i) Stratification – Exposure to cold temperatures.
(ii) Scarification – Mechanical damage.
(iii) Soaking in water.
(iv) Exposure to light.
(v) Slight burning.
(vi) Drying in the sun.
12. B.   (iii)  (iv)

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 Topic Area: Animal Production
Unit 5: Ruminants

Number of periods: 14

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to conduct successfully ruminant

rearing.

5.1  Learning Objectives

(a)  Knowledge and Understanding
• Give examples of ruminant species and breeds.
• Describe ruminant species and breeds by their physical appearances.
• Explain characteristics of ruminant breeds.
• Propose materials to construct a goat shelter.
• Outline the characteristics of ruminant breeds to real.
• Identify the components of an appropriate diet for goat.
• Identify and describe common diseases for ruminant.
• Carry out sanitation rules in ruminant fur.
(b)   Skills
• Recognise ruminant definition.
• Observe ruminant species for deducing their differences.
• Detect ruminant breeds.
• Watch and distinguish ruminant breeds with comparison of their characteristics.
• Select and gather materials to construct a goat shelter.
• Perform a goat shelter construction.
• Recognise characteristics of good ruminant breed.
• Practise goat feeding.
• Proceed correctly in solving problems of diseases.
• Perform hygiene in ruminant shelters.

5.2  Content Students’ Book page 128 – 179

• Definition of ruminant.
• Ruminant species reared in Rwanda (cattle, goat, sheep).
• Ruminant breeds (cattle: Ankole, Fresian, Jersey; Goat: local, Alpine, Boe,
Ethiopian Galla, Saneen; Sheep: Local, mountain white, Merinos.
• Characteristics of ruminant breeds.
Answers to group work activity on page 131 of the Students’ Book
(i) Ankole cattle
(ii) Local goats
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 (iii) Local sheep

• Ruminant shelter standards.
• Selection criteria of breed to rear (Goat and sheep: Natural base width,
muscling, volume and capacity, style and balance, growth potential, a hooves
and pasterns, walking, fat and muscle for beef and udders, tear size, fertility,
navel for cows).
• Feeding (Fodder species: for ruminants (fodder grasses and fodder legumes)
and concentrate).
• Feeding (fodder species for ruminants and concentrates).
• Ruminant diseases (cattle: brucellosis, theirelliosis, tuberculosis, bovine
anaplasmosis, East coast fever, heart water, enteric; Goats: encephalitis,
clostridia diseases; sheep: blue tonge, cryptococcosis, heart fever, vesicular
stomatitis

5.3  Learning Activities

• Visit to Agricultural and Veterinary schools or ruminant farms to observe
ruminant species and indicate through discussion the difference between
them by their characteristics.
• Watching videos on different ruminant animals to find out after groups’
discussions characteristics of each breed.
• Field visit on multipurpose farm to observe a goat shelter and materials it is
made of and how they are arranged and discuss in groups used standards and
different operation to carry out in constructing a goat shelter.
• Field work to construct a standardised goat shelter according to the number
of goats in one shelter.
• Field trip to ruminant farms to find out criteria (age, types of products,
quantity of products, prolificacy) taken into account when choosing good
ruminant breeds for rearing.
• Field trip to goat farms to find out distributed food with a given frequency
and in group discussions extrapolate different ingredients of goat’s diet and
come up with a feeding plan as implemented in the farm.
• Videos or pictures of different goat diseases to observe and list characteristic
(symptoms and damages) of each diseases individually and after discussion
in groups on found characteristics (symptom damages) for each diseases.
• Field trip to a ruminant farm to find out required activities to be performed
and inmate them in school farm.

5.4  Links to Other Subjects

• Mathematics – For measurement of distance and dimensions of structures.
• Geometry – For measuring angles, plane and slope of the floor of structures.

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 • Home science – For nutritious, proper nutrition for livestock, provision of a
balance diet, feeding pan for all ages.
• Biology – For genetic and classification of animal organisms.

5.5 Assessment Criteria

Assess the learner’s ability to:
• Differentiate ruminant species and breeds by their characteristics.
• Construct a goat shelter according to the number of goats in one shelter and
to sort out materials available in the area.
• Conduct goat feeding successfully in a goat farm considering the weight,
production-quality, type of intended product.
• Find out/recognise goat diseases and enemies in a goat farm by referring to
their symptoms and damages.
• Carry out sanitation in ruminant shelter.

5.6 Materials and Resources

Ruminant farms, projector, CD-videos on ruminant shelter, construction
materials, fodder and concentrates, water, brooms, sholve, manure fold,
wheelbarrow, disinfectants feeding equipment and waters.

5.7   Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials

(a) Ask learners to bring materials such as timber, nails, tools like hammers and
crowbars from home.
(b) Ask learners to bring sample of livestock fodder and concentrates such as
Napier grass, Lucerne calliandra, leucaena.
(c) Borrow pictures of ruminants and videos of ruminant animals suffering
different diseases from neighbouring schools, research institutions and
veterinary institutions.
(d) Use free sites in the internet to download and observe ruminant breeds,
fodders and concentrate, ruminant diseases and routine sanitation plan.

5.8 Methods of Teaching

Content Method(s)
1. Definition of ruminants Discussion: Learners to interact among them-
selves by giving their opinion on the definition
of ruminants after searching from the internet,
library books and textbooks. They write their
findings and present them to the class. The
teacher to introduce the topic and guide the
discussion then makes final conclusion.

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 2. Ruminant species reared in Field visit: The teacher to organise a visit,
Rwanda prepare questionnaires as shown in Annex 14
and control the learners’ discipline. The learn-
ers make observations of the ruminant species
reared in Rwanda as required in the question-
naire, discuss and present their findings to the
class. The teacher concludes the lesson and
gives summary notes.
3. Ruminant breeds Discussion: The teacher introduces the topic
ruminant breeds and their characteristics and
guides the discussion. Note: The two activities
on ruminant breeds and their characteristics
can be combined as an activity. The learners
to find out the ruminant breeds and their char-
acteristics from internet, library books and text
books. The learners then give their opinion,
record and present their findings to class. The
teacher to summarise by giving conclusion
about the facts and summary notes.
4. Characteristics of ruminant Discussion: The teacher to introduce the topic,
breeds divide the learners in groups and guides the
discussion. The learners to give their opinion,
record and present their findings to the class.
The teacher to conclude and give summary
notes.

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 5. Ruminant shelter standards (i) Field visit: The teacher to prepare a ques-
tionnaire as shown in Annex 15, organise
for the trip and instructs the learners to
make observations on ruminant shelter
standards (cattle, sheep and goat struc-
tures). The teacher also controls the learn-
ers while in the visit. The learners to make
observations on the ruminant shelter stan-
dards, discuss and present their findings to
the class. The teacher to give conclusion
and summary notes.
(ii) Supervised activity: The teacher should
provide the materials needed and super-
vises the learners when constructing a
goat shelter. The learners to discuss and
record their observations and experiences
and then present to the class. The teacher
to make conclusion and give summary
notes.
6. Selection criteria of breeds to Field visit: The teacher to prepare a question-
rear (goats, sheep and cattle) naire as shown in Annex 16 and organise a
field visit and instructs the learners to observe
the selection criteria of ruminant breeds to
rear. The learners to observe, discuss and pres-
ent their findings to the class. The teacher to
conclude and give summary notes.

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 7. Feeding ruminants (i) Discussion: The teacher to introduce
the topic on the feeding of ruminants on
fodder and concentrates, divide the learn-
ers into groups and supervise the discus-
sion from group to group. The learners to
interact freely by giving the opinion and
suggestions on feeding of ruminants on
fodder and concentrates and present their
findings to the class. The teacher then con-
cludes and gives summary notes.
(ii) Field visit: The teacher to prepare a
questionnaire as shown in Annex 17 and
organises for a field visit for the learn-
ers to observe the feeding of ruminants.
cattle, sheep and goats and make a feeding
plan for goats. The learners make observa-
tions on how ruminants are fed and feeds.
Then learners make observations, discuss
in groups and present their findings to the
class. The teacher to give conclusion and
summary notes.

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 8. Diseases of ruminants (i) Field visit: The teacher to prepare a
questionnaire and organise a field trip to
a ruminant farm, instruct the learners to
make observations on ruminant diseases,
activity to be carried out and maintain dis-
cipline. The learners to make observations
on diseases that attack cattle, sheep and
goats, discuss and present their findings
to class. The teacher to conclude and give
summary notes.
(ii) Discussion: The teacher uses a video
show and colour photographs for the
learners to view diseases that attack goats.
The teacher to divide the learners into
groups, guide the learners to discuss what
they saw on the video and photographs.
The learners observe and interact freely by
giving their opinion on what they viewed.
They record and present their findings to
the class. The teacher concludes and gives
summary notes.
9. Sanitation Field visit: The teacher to prepare a question-
naire as shown in Annex 19 and organises a
field trip to a ruminant farm for the learners
to observe sanitation. The learners to make ob-
servations, discuss and present their findings
to the class. The teacher to give conclusion
and summary notes.

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 10. Group activity (i) Field visit: The teacher to prepare a
questionnaire as shown in Annex 20 and
organises a field trip to the school farm or
outside for the learners to participate in
the maintenance of sanitation in a rumi-
nant livestock farm. The learners to use
their findings to carry out the supervised
activity when back to school.
(ii) Supervised activity: The teacher to avail
materials required and then supervise the
learners carrying out sanitation measures
in ruminant shelters.
The learners to carry out sanitation mea-
sures indicated in the questionnaire,
discuss their findings and experiences and
present these to the class.

5.9  Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercise to support delivery
of content and development of students’ competences

Competences
(i) Explaining key concepts in the topic such as definitions, the selection
criteria.
(ii) Teacher demonstrating feeding a goat, how to make the goat house and how
to carry out sanitation in the ruminant shelter.
(iii) Group discussion on how to feed goats, the factors to consider when siting
a goat shelter, diseases which affect ruminant livestock.
(iv) Practical activities in groups.
(v) Report writing and reporting.
(vi) Questions and answers.
(vii) Assessment of practical activities

5.10 Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in the teaching and learning activities

(i) Environment and sustainability – Acquires skills and attitudes to address
environment and climate change issues.

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 (ii) Peace and values education – Working together brings peace and harmony
and commitment to avoid conflict.
(iii) Standardisation culture – Develops understanding of the importance of
standards as a pillar of economic development.
(iv) Inclusive education– Embraces every individual regardless of gender or
ability.

5.11 Suggestions for accommodating special education needs (SEN)

(a)  Visual impairment

• Ask other learners to assist in colour identification.
• Use large prints instruction sheets, questionnaires and assessment papers.
• Allow them to sit near the chalkboard when in class.

(b)  Hearing impairment

• Be audible enough to the learners.
• Allow them to sit close to the teacher.

(c)  Physical impairment

• Pair them with other able-bodied learners to be assisted.
• Organise activities to be close to prevent too much movement.

(d)  Gifted learners

• Give extra duties such as assisting slow learners and special need learners.
• Place them in different working groups to assist other learners.

(e)  Slow learners

• Give individualised attention.
• Take time when going through the procedures.
• Ask fast learners to assist them.

5.12  Formative Evaluation

1. Define a ruminant.
2. Name the ruminant reared in Rwanda using the local names.
3. Give difference between ruminant species reared and possibly the products they
produce.
4. List the characteristics of the Ankole breed.
5. Which colour is a Jersey breed of cattle?
6. Both the Saanen goat and Galla goat are white in colour. What is used to
differentiate them?
7. Give difference between the Boer goat and Alpine goat.
8. Give the different characteristics between the local sheep and merino.
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 9. Name the sheep kept for both wool and mutton.
10. Which observable differences can be seen between dorper breed and mountain
white breed?
11. Give the reasons for carrying out selection in ruminants.
12. Name the types of feed given to goats.
13. Name the types of plants that goats feed on.
14. Apart from plants, which other materials are given to goats for feeding?
15. What do we use to feed young goats?
16. What is weaning?
17. Why would we give a lactating doe extra feed?
18. Do goats like browsing or grazing?
19. What is a disease?
20. What are the symptoms that we can observe when the goats are sick and when
they are healthy?
21. Name some methods we can use to control diseases which are transmitted with
ticks.
22. Give a simple routine practice which is carried out daily in a ruminant shelter.

5.13  Additional Content to the Teacher

Importance of keeping livestock

• To provide food such as milk and meat.
• To provide livestock by-products such as wool and skin.
• For cultural practices such as paying dowry.
• To provide animal power.
• Used for recreation.

Other ruminant livestock breeds

• Dairy cattle breeds kept in Rwanda also include brown Swiss. These dairy breeds
are used to upgrade the local breeds for milk and meat production improvement.
• Dual purpose breeds of cattle provide both meat and milk; these breeds include
sahiwal.
• Goat breeds are classified into meat and dairy goats. Some breeds are kept for hair
production such as Boer and Alpine.
• Sheep provide both wool and mutton, wool sheep are best in the highlands while
mutton sheep are best kept in the lowlands.

Ruminant shelter standards

When selecting structure for making livestock houses, it is important to consider the
following:
(i) The number of operations to be carried out.
(ii) The number of livestock to be kept.
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 (iii) The potential for expansion.
(iv) Accessibility.

Selection of materials for a goat house:

When selecting the materials to construct a goat house, the following factors are
considered.
(i) Availability of materials.
(ii) Cost of materials.
(iii) Suitability of materials.
(iv) Durability of materials.
(v) Strength of materials.
(vi) Workability of materials.

Ruminant livestock diseases:

Causes of livestock diseases include nutritional, physical, chemical and pathogens.
Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, protozoa, rickets and fungi.
  Large organisms that affect ruminants are parasites and can either be classified as
internal or external parasites. These include tapeworms, round worms, ticks, tsetse
flies, mosquitos, among others.
  Most viral diseases are notifiable and are controlled through vaccination, quarantine
and isolation. Viral diseases have no cure.
  Bacterial diseases are infectious and contagious, are controlled through vaccination,
quarantine, isolation, culling and treatment using antibiotics.
  Protozoa and rickettsia diseases are mainly vector borne. These are controlled
effectively through management of vectors. Fungus diseases may affect livestock
with low immunity. These are controlled using antifungal medication.
  Some of the diseases which affect livestock can also affect man. These are said to
be zoonotic. Farmers are advised to be cautious when handling the livestock and their
products. These include brucellosis, anthrax, clostridia infection and cryptococcosis.

5.14  Notes to the Teacher

• Prepare assessment sheets.
• Prepare lesson plan for method of teaching.
• Collect materials for practical activity before the exercise.
• Carry demonstration before practical activity to ensure the practical works.
• Prepare practical sheets.
• Carry out a reconnaissance tour to the site before trip.
• Prepare questionnaire before trip.
• Prepare students a day before the trip.
• Allow learners adequate time to give report of the findings after a practical activity.
• Encourage learners to discuss and present their findings.
• Probe fast learners with simulating questions.
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 • Encourage slow learners to participate in discussion and answering low order
questions.
• Provide physical and moral support to physically, visually and hearing impaired
students.
• Give summary notes to the learners after a practical activity.
• Keep learners progressive record and give feedback to the parents.

5.15 Additional Remedial Consolidation and Extension Activities

High order questions for fast learners

1.  Explain the meaning of the term breed.
A group of animals with similar characteristics and common origin which when
mated produce young ones with characteristics similar to those of parents.
2. Describe the observable differences between Saanen and the local goat breeds.
Saanen has purely white coat colour while the local goat breed have a mixture of
colours on their skin.
3. Explain the structural requirement of a goat shelter.
(i) Spacious enough – to allow freedom of movement.
(ii) Draught free – should not allow any cold dry winds to prevent pneumonia.
(iii) Well ventilated – to allow for free gaseous exchange.
(iv) Leak proof roof – to avoid humid conditions that may predispose the goats
to infections.
(v) Strong – to support the intended weight of goats and farmer while working
inside.
4. Analyse the nutrients contained in the following foodstuffs in ruminant production.
(a) Napier grass – rich in carbohydrates
(b) Molasses – supply carbohydrates
(c) Oil seed cakes – supply carbohydrates and proteins

Low order questions for average learners

1. List the observable characteristics of Friesian.

(i) Black colour with white patches or white colour with black patches
(ii) Large in size with bulls weighing 900 – 1000 kgs and cows 550 – 680 kgs.
Calves are born with a weight of 35 – 40 kgs liveweight.
(iii) It produces the highest milk yield of 9,150 kg per a lactation of 305 days (10
months) with good management.
(iv) Heifers mature at 21 months and calves down at the age of 30 months.

2. Give the observable differences between the Ankole and the Jersey breed.

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 Ankole Jersey
(i) Long distinctive horns that can (i) They are polled.
reach a length of up to 1.2 metres (ii) Colour varies from light yellow,
each. brown or fawn to a shade of
(ii) Brown in colour or deep red black.
though there are some shades of (iii) Have no dewlap and umbilical
black and white. fold.
(iii) Have a pendulous dewlap and an (iv) Have no humps.
umbilical fold.
(iv) Have humps of varying sizes.

3. List the materials and tools used to construct

(i) Timber (v) Claw hammer
(ii) Plywood (vi) Nails
(iii) Crow bar (vii) Iron sheets
(iv) Concrete (viii) Wire mesh

4. Name feedstuffs given to a goat
(i) Grass fodder such as Napier grass, Guatemala grass such as grass and
maize.
(ii) Legume fodder such as Lucerne desmodium, vetch and leucaene and
sosbania.
(iii) Energy concentrates such as molasses and ground flow of various grains.
(iv) Protein concentrates obtained from animal sources such as milk, blood,
bones, legume plants, oil crops such as soya beans, groundnuts, simsim and
sunflower.

5.16  Summative Evaluation Questions

1. Identify the ruminant species shown in the diagrams below.

 
 
(a) (b)
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 2. List the goat breeds reared in Rwanda.
3. Describe the rearing of goats under the following topics:
(a) Breeds
(b) Feeding
(c) List of sanitation rules in a goat farm

5.17  Additional Questions

1. Explain the selection criteria for the following animals
(i) Dairy Cattle
• Body conformation–Dairy cattle should have wedge shaped body also
known as the dairy conformation while beef cattle should have blocky
shaped body conformation.
• Hind quarters–Should have well developed hind quarters with a wide space
for large udder.
• Udder– Large and well developed udder and teats with prominent milk veins
• Body size–Have lean body with little flesh.
• Stomach capacity– Large stomach capacity to hold a lot of food.
• Temperament–Should have mild temperament and docile.
• Calving period– Should be fertile with short calving period/regular breeders.
• Umbilical fold–Little or no umbilical fold/reduced navel.
(ii) Wool Sheep
• Wool staple length– Should have long staple length with low shrinkage.
• Wool colour– Preferably white for easy dyeing.
• Fleece weight– Should have a high fleece weight.
• Wool elasticity–Wool should be of high elasticity.
(iii) Dairy goats
• Udder structure and teat placement–Should have a large udder. The udder
should have two teats.
• Growth rate– Should have a fast growth rate and mature early.
• Health– Should be alert and active.
• Appetite–Should have a normal and good appetite (ravenous appetite
indicates abnormality).

2. East coast fever–A protozoa known as Thieleria parva.

Tuberculosis – A bacterium known as Mycobacterium bovis.

3. Colostrum is highly nutritive, digestible and contains antibodies needed by the

young animals.
4.  (i)   Steaming up – To give the pregnant animals energy in preparation for
giving birth so that they will have enough energy and produce enough milk
for the young ones.

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 (ii) Flushing up– To give the males enough energy for mating and increase
chances of conception in females.
5. Notifiable disease–A disease that is highly contagious and infectious and whose
outbreak must be reported to the relevant government authorities for appropriate
action to be taken.
Zoonotic disease– A disease that affects both livestock and human beings.

5.18  Suggestions for Assignment

(a) Identify ruminant species kept in Rwanda.
(b) Visit an abattoir to observe the digestive system of ruminant.
(c) Visit a carpenter and observe the use of tools when working with timber.
(d) Visit an agrochemical shop and observe commercial livestock feeds.

5.19  Support for Developing of Positive Skills and Values

• Active participation in group discussion and interact positively with other
colleagues.
• Be aware of differences between ruminant species and breeds.
• Appreciating each other’s views when discussing characteristics of ruminant
breed.
• Choose required materials for a given activity with diligence.
• Showing kindness and gentleness to the animals when inspecting them.
• Take initiative to feed ruminants.
• Be creative to solve problems of diseases.
• Take initiative to feed ruminants so as to ensure a healthy herd/flock.
• Be creative and attentive to solve problems of diseases in ruminants.
• Co-operate with colleagues to carry out sanitation rules fostering communicating
and participating in community work positively.

5.20  Suggested answers to formative evaluation questions

1. A herbivorous mammal that chews cud and has a special stomach chamber known
as rumen.
2. (i) Cattle give milk and meat. They are large livestock.
(ii) Sheep give wool and mutton. They are small and have fleece on their body.
(iii) Goats give milk and meat. They are small, hardy and have hair covering their
bodies.
3. (i) Long horns
(ii) Has long loose dewlap and umbilical fold
(iii) Has a hump
(iv) Medium sized
(v) Originates from Africa
4. Roan to cream colour with jet black eyes
5. Skin colour
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 6. Boer is large and kept for meat, alpine is kept for milk.
7. Local sheep is kept for mutton, merino is kept for wool.
8. Corriadale.
9. Dorper lacks fleece, has a black head and kept for mutton, mountain white is kept
for wool.
10. To fetch good market prices.
11. Fodder, concetrates, mineral licks and vitamins.
12. Napier grass, Lucerne, desmodium, sesbania, calloiandra.
13. Vitamin supplements and mineral salts.
14. Colostrum and pellets.
15. Introducing solid feeds to young goats when they are two time market size.
16. To supplement production of milk.
17. Browsing.
18. Any alteration is normal. State any function of livestock.
19. (i) Poor appetite
(ii) Poor gait
(iii) Emaciation
(iv) Diarrhoea
(v) Coughing
(vi) Ulcerated mucus membrane, normal mucus membrane
20. Dipping, spraying, fencing, picking and killing, trapping
21. Washing, mopping, removal of water and feed left-overs.

5.21  Answers to Summative Evaluation

1. A. Cattle
B. Goat
2. (i) Local
(ii) Saanen
(iii) Ethiopian galla
(iv) Alpine
3. (a) Goat breeds
Local
Alpine
Boer
Ethiopian Galla
Saneen

(b) Feeding
Feeding goats mainly involves giving plant materials.
Goats should also be fed according to their age and type of enterprise, either
milk goats or meat goats
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 The following are some of the feeding practices for goats:
(a) Creep feeding or feeding of kids
(b) Feeding when weaning goats
(c) Feeding of adult goats which involve:
(i) Flushing
(ii) Steaming up
(iii) Fattening
When carrying out maintenance, all food nutrient requirements are provided in
their correct proportions but only to sustain the animal life.
When feeding for production, an extra amount above the maintenance is given to
support production such as milk production and meat production.

Feeding your goats after birth

• Colostrum is the first milk that a doe produces after giving birth.
• Suckle colostrum during the first 3–4 hours and continue for three days.
• Meat goats are left with mothers to continue suckling until weaning.
• Dairy goats are separated after 7 days and hand feeding is done or bottle
feeding is done. Giving 0.5 litres of milk per day for the first week and
increased to 1.25 litres of milk per day by 12th week or weaning time twice
daily.
• Introduce soft herbage in form of wilted Lucerne and hay at 8 weeks or two
and a half times the birth weight.
• Dairy meal can be given at a rate of 250 grams per day, also an artificial grain
mix.

Weaning
• Weaning is the introduction of solid feeds to kids of young goats.
• They introduce micro-organisms in the rumen and make rumen strong to
adapt and accept solid feeds.
• Early weaning is done at 35 days of age and when there is a limited supply of
milk.
• The following can be given:
(i) Hay
(ii) Wilted Lucerne
(iii) Dairy concentrates
(iv) Milk in limited amounts
Late weaning is mainly done to meat goats. Weaning is mainly done when the
young goats are two and a half times their birth weight.

Feeding adult goats

• Goats are browsers and prefer feeding on leaves from twigs and short trees.

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 • Goats would browse on moist indigenous shrubs such as acacia, lantana and
grass.
• Supplemented using
(i) Pasture Hay
(ii) Lucerne
(iii) Grain rations
(iv) Concentrations in form of dairy meal
(v) Salt licks or mineral licks
(vi) Vitamin premixes
(vii) Give enough clean water

(c) Sanitation in a goat house

1. Proper housing and hygiene
2. Use of antiseptic and disinfectants
3. Proper disposal of carcasses and waste
4. Isolation of sick animals
5. Imposition of quarantine
6. Slaughtering and burning infected animals
7. Proper nutrition
8. Provision of clean equipment

Key Terms (pages 179 –180 of the Students’ Book 2)

1. Oxen – Castrated male animal used in providing power when pulling carts or
ploughs.
2. Wealth – The assets owned by an individual.
3. Lactation period – A period when a cow produces milk after birth until is dried
up.
4. Butter fat content – The proportion of butter fat in milk.
5. Exotic – Imported from Europe or temperate countries.
6. Polled – Without horns.
7. Native/indigenous – Originated or found locally.
8. Staple length of wool – The quality measure of length of wool.
9. Concrete – A mixture of cement, sand and gravel mixed with water and used for
building.
10. Infectious – A disease which spreads very fast through air, water and food.
11. Contagious –A disease which is spread through contact with the disease-causing
agent.
12. Paralysis – Inability to co-ordinate the body due to damage in the nervous
system.
13. Vaccine – A weakened disease-causing agent introduced to animals to stimulate
the body to produce antibodies.

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 14. Neurological signs – Deviation from the normal behaviour caused by nervous
disorder.
15. Fever – Change in temperature.
16. Isolation – Separation of livestock.
17. Anaemia – Loss of red blood cells.
18. Constipation – Inability to digest.
19. Cross breeding – Breeding two animal breeds of the same species which are not
related.
20. Dehydration– Loss of water in the body.
21. Tick – An external parasite that transmits diseases to livestock.
22. Acaricide – A chemical used to control ticks.
23. Antibiotic – A chemical used to treat bacterial diseases.
24. Ad-libutum – Without a measure.
25. Abbatoir – A livestock slaughter house.
26. Slated floor – A wooden floor with small space between timber slabs to allow
passage of droppings in the goat houses.
27. Tropical diseases – Diseases commonly found within the tropics.
28. Fodder – Crop grown and harvested for livestock.
29. Concentrates – Feeds containing high protein content and low fibre content.
30. Tubercles – Swellings in body tissues due to tuberculosis infection.

Answers to Revision Questions (page 180 – 182 of Students’ Book 2)

1. A ruminant is mammal that chews cud and has a special stomach chambers known
as rumen.
2. (i) Cattle
(ii) Sheep
(iii) Goats
3. (i) Provide food
(ii) Provide powder
(iii) Used for cultural activities
(iv) Provide wool, skin, bones and horns
4. A – Face
B – Muzzle
C – Brisket
D – Udder
E – Switch
F – Rump
5. (a) Mixture of colours from black to speckled brown or white.
(b) Brown to grey in colour with strip on the back and face.
(c) White in colour with white skin.
(d) White in colour with black skin.
(e) White in colour with brown head.
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 6. (a) Merino sheep
(b) Mountain white

7. (i) The direction of prevailing wind

(ii) Accessibility
(iii) Location of homestead
(iv) Security
(v) Drainage
(vi) Relationship with other structures
(vii) Farmers preference and taste
(viii) Nearness to amenities

8. • Select a suitable site with flat gently sloping ground.
• Beware of the wind direction with the windward side facing behind of the
house.
• Clear vegetation and measure at least 3.3m 3.3m for 3 goats.
• Dig hole measuring 60-90 cm apart at the corner.
• Place poles in the holes and reinforce with concrete.
• Fix wooden board on the three sides exposed to wind. Nail the end of the
board to fix them to the poles.
• Make wall plate, fix rafter over the sloping length of the roof.
• Fix purlins.
• Construct a raised slated floor 0.6 m –0.9 m above the ground.
• Fix a floor frame and put on it timber 1.4 cm –1.6 cm apart.
• Construct an inclined passage to the door with an elevation of less than
45oC.
• Put in feeders and waterers and raised bed where the goats can sleep.

9. Large udder
Natural base width, muscling, volume and capacity, style and balance, fast growth
potential, young age;
Natural base width, muscling, volume and capacity, style and balance, fast growth
potential, young age;
10. Napier grass, sorghum, maize, Guatemala grass.
11. Lucerne, desmodium and vetch.
12. It is a feed with a high plane of nutrients.
13. Laxative.
Nutritious
Have antibodies
Palatable and highly digestible

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 14. Give milk
Wilted Lucerne and hay
Give enough water
15. Feeding plan for a goat.
• Feed kids with colostrum during the first 3-4 hours.
• Separate dairy kids with their mothers, leave meat goat kid with their mothers.
• Give 0.5 litres of milk per day.
• Give dairy meal or artificial grain.
• Give water.
• Wean kids at 2 ½ times their birth weight.
• Give wilted lucerne and hay.
• Provide lucerne, hay and other fodder.
• Give vitamins.
• Give enough water.
16. Nutritional, chemical, physical and photogenic.
17. Brucella abortus
Babesia spp
Mycobacteriyum bovis
18. (a) Caprine arthritis encephalitis
(b) Vesicular stomatitis
19. (a) East Coast fever
Control
(i) Control ticks by dipping
(ii) Fencing
(iii) Treatment
(iv) Cross breeding with local breeds
(b) Black quarter
(i) Vaccination using blanthrax
(ii) Treatment with antibiotics
(iii) Use of antitoxins
(iv) Burry carcass deep in soil
(c) Cryptococcosis
(i) Killing of affected sheep
(ii) Treatment using fungicides
(iii) Management of stein lesions
(iv) Isolation and treatment of sick animals

20. (a) Proper housing and hygiene. A ruminant house should have the following
structural features:
(i) Well ventilated but free from drought
(ii) Adequate spaces
(iii) Well drained
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 (iv) Have leak-proof roof
(v) Well lit
(vi) Easy to clean

(b) Use anticeptics and disinfectants. The ruminant house should be disinfected
using recommended antiseptic and disinfectants such as formalin, chlorine,
water and soap detergents.
(c) Proper disposal of carcasses and waste. Carcasses from sick animals should
be buried deeply in soil or burnt completely to prevent spread of diseases.
Droppings and other wastes are possible provisions of clean equipment
Feed and water troughs should be cleaned everyday. Surgical instruments
should be sterilised before use. Animal handling equipment should be cleaned
thoroughly before use to prevent spread of diseases.
(d) Isolation of sick animals
All animals showing clinical symptoms are separated from the rest of the herd
to prevent the spread of infectious and contagious diseases. Isolation should
be continued until the animal recovers.
(e) Imposing quarantine
The movement of animals and their products from a region with a disease
outbreak is restricted. This prevents the spread of diseases. During this period
of restriction, other measures of disease control such as vaccination and
treatment are employed.
(f) Slaughtering and burning infected animals
In this method sick animals with dangerous contagious diseases are
slaughtered and burnt or buried deeply in the soil. In some cases the whole
herd is slaughtered to prevent the spread of the disease.
(g) Proper nutrition
Animals should be provided with clean and fresh foods to prevent disease
spread through water. Provide a high plan of nutrition to give the animals
energy and helps to control nutritional deficiency disorder.

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 Topic Area: Animal Production
Unit 6: Livestock Products

Number of periods: 4

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to preserve safely high quality
livestock products.

6.1  Learning Objectives

(a) Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Discuss the importance of preservation.
(ii) Discuss on the operation of preservation of products and by-products of
cattle.
(iii) Discuss on the operation of preservation of products and by-products of
pigs.
(iv) Analyse a problem of poultry meat that needs a solution.
(v) Give real examples of rabbit products and operation of preserving them.
(b) Skills
(i) Recognise the importance of preservation.
(ii) See and find out the operations of preservation products and by-products of
cattle.
(iii) See and find out the operations of preservation products and by-products of
pigs.
(iv) Pace to find out problem of bad preservation of poultry meat.
(v) Recognise products of rabbit that require preservation and indicate the best
measure of their preservation.
(c) Attitudes and values
(i) Pay attention while discussing in groups.
(ii) Participate actively in group discussion and interact positively with
colleagues.
(iii) Beware of preservation operations of products and by-products of pigs.
(iv) Read voluntarily and obey mentioned instructions to solve problem.
(v) Follow attentively and pay attention to interpret with others for discovering
required measures to preserve rabbit products.
6.2 Content Students’ Book page 183 – 199
(i) Importance of preservation.
(ii) Preservation of cattle products and by-products (meat, milk, skin, ice cream,

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 cheese, yoghurt) and by-products (tallow, gelatin, lather, blood, horns and
bones).

Answers to the questions in table 6.2: Cattle by-products in the Students’ Book
page 193
Cattle by-products Method of preservation
(a) Tallow (i) Freezing
(ii) Use of air-tight containers to
keep off oxygen that may cause
oxidation of unsaturated fats
(b) Gelatin (i) Cooling
(ii) Refrigeration
(iii) Freezing
(c) Leather (i) Dying
(ii) Use of chemicals

(d) Blood (i) Cooling

(ii) Refrigeration
(iii) Adding of salt/additives
(e) Horns and Bones (i) Drying

(iii) Preservation of pig products (meat, lard) and by-products (suede for shows
and clothing, gelatin for fur and non-food uses).

Answers to questions in table 6.3: Methods of preserving pig by-products in the

Students’ Book page 197
Pig by-products Method of preservation
(a) Suede (i) Drying to remove water and prevent
putrification
(ii) Use of chemicals, e.g., tannins
(b) Gelatin (i) Cooling
(ii) Refrigeration
(iii) Freezing

(iv) Preservation of poultry products (meat, eggs).

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 Answers to questions in table 6.4: Methods of preserving poultry products in the
Students’ Book page 197
Poultry product Method of preservation
(a) Meat (i) Refrigeration
(ii) Cooking/boiling
(iii) Freezing
(b) Eggs (i) Pickling/storing under olive oil
(ii) Cooling/keeping in a dry cool
place
(iii) Refrigeration

(v) Preservation of rabbit products (meat for making socks).

Answers to questions in table 6.5: Method of preserving Rabbit products in the

Students’ Book page 198
Rabbit product Method of preservation
(a) Meat (i) Refrigeration
(ii) Heat treatment/cooking
(iii) Freezing
(b) Fur (i) Storing in a cool dry place
(ii) Use of chemicals to prevent pest
attack.

6.3 Learning Activities

(i) Observation of destroyed products to identify their characteristics based on
smell, taste, look, colour and deduce the importance of preservation after
group discussion.
(ii) Trip to livestock products processing industries and dairies to observe and
discuss on different operations to carry out in preserving safely livestock
products.

6.4 Links to Other Subjects

This unit is linked to other subjects such as Home Science on nutrition, Biology
on importance of bacterial and fungi and biotechnology.

6.5 Assessment Criteria

The assessment of this unit will be based on the ability of the learner’s to
identify livestock products preserved badly according to their smell, colour,
taste and physical appearances and preserve livestock products safely referring
to required operations.

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 6.6 Learning Materials/Resources
The following learning materials/resources are needed in teaching this unit:
(i) Damaged livestock products such as rotten meat and eggs.
(ii) Processing industries.
(iii) Dairies.

6.7 Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials

The teacher can ask the learners to bring livestock products such as milk, meat,
eggs, skin, ice cream, yoghurt, horns, bones, leather, tallow; lard, rabbit fur and
any other products fresh or damaged from home.

6.8 Methods of Teaching

The following methods are recommended in the teaching of this unit:
Content Method(s)
1. Importance of preservation Supervise practised activity: The teacher
to exhibit livestock products and instruct the
learners to compare the destroyed and fresh
characteristics of both products. The learn-
ers to make observations, discuss and pres-
ent their findings to the class. The teacher to
make conclusions and give summary notes.
2. Presevation of cattle products Field trip: The teacher to prepare question-
and by-products naire as shown in Annex 21 and organises a
field trip to a livestock processing industry,
activity to be carried out. The learners make
observations of the cattle products and by-
products and how they are processed and
preserved. The learners then discuss and
present their findings to the class. The teach-
er to make conclusions and give summary
notes.
3. Preservation of pig products Discussion: The teacher to introduce the
and by-products topic and instructs the learners to use in-
ternet, photographs, library books and text
books to find out how the products are
processed and preserved. The learners record
and discuss their findings and then present
them to class. The teacher to give a conclu-
sion and summary notes.

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 4. Preservation of poultry prod- Discussion: The teacher to introduce the
ucts topic on preservation of poultry products and
instructs the learners to find out from inter-
net, library books, photographs and text-
books how the products are processed and
preserved. The learners record and discuss
their findings and then present them to the
class. The teacher to make neccessary cor-
rections, give the conclusion and summary
notes.
5. Preservation of rabbit products Discussion: The teacher to introduce the top-
ic on the preservation of rabbit products and
instructs the learners to use internet, library
books, photographs and textbooks to find out
how they are processed and preserved. The
teacher to conclude and give summary notes.
Group Activity Discussion: The teacher to divide learners
into groups and assign each group the topic to
discuss as follows:
Group I: Different methods of preserving
cattle products and by-products.
Group II: Methods of preserving pig prod-
ucts.
Group III: Methods of preserving poultry
products.
Group IV: Methods of preserving rabbit
products.
The learners give their suggestions freely, re-
cord and present their findings to the class.The
teacher to conclude and give summary notes.

References
1. S2 Agriculture Students’ Book.
2. Dictionaries.
3. Library books.
4. Internet.

6.9 Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercise to support delivery of
content and development of students’ competences
The following activities are suggested in the teaching of this unit:
(i) Observation of destroyed products.

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 (ii) A trip to livestock processing industry and a dairy.
(iii) Discussion on the preservation of the following products; cattle products,
pig products, poultry products and rabbit products.
(iv) Report writing and reporting.
(v) Answering the revision questions at the end of the unit.

6.10 Cross-cutting issues

1. Environment and sustainability–Addresses environment and climate issues.
2. Standardisation culture–Develops understanding of the importance of
standards as a pillar of economic development.
3. Inclusive education–Embraces every individual regardless of gender or
ability.
6.11  Suggestion for accommodating special education needs (SEN)
The teacher should identify learners with special needs and cater for them during
teaching.
(a) Sensory impairment (visual)
(i) Teacher to write large print letters on the board.
(ii) Those using braille machines to be provided with comfortable sitting place
and desk for the machine.
(b) Sensory impairment (hearing)
(i) Teacher should be loud enough for the learners.
(ii) Allow learners to sit near the teacher.
(c) Motor impairment (movement)
(i) As much as possible activities should be done in one place to avoid too
much movement.
(ii) Ask the other learners to assist them in identifying damaged livestock
products.
(d) Gifted or talented learners
(i) Give them extra duties during the lesson.
(ii) Ask them to assist slow learners when carrying out activities.
(iii) Place them in different discussion groups while assigning activities.

6.12 Formative Evaluation

1. What is a pathogen?
2. Differentiate between aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
3. State four methods of curing hides.
4. What is drying?
5. Why is drying more commonly used as a method of preservation?
6. What is shelf life?

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 6.13  Additional content to the Teacher

General Method of Preserving Livestock Products

The following are general methods of preserving livestock products:
(a) Drying
This is a method of preservation where water is removed through evaporation.
The evaporation may be done through sun drying or by use an air current (air
drying). Drying inhibit the growth of micro-organisms that causes spoilage of the
products. It is one of the oldest method of preservation. It is used for preserving
meat, fish, hides and skin.
(b) Salting
This is a method of preservation where dry table salt is applied on the surface
of the product. The salt removes water from the products by osmosis. Salting
inhibits the growth of pathogenic organisms such as bacteria and fungi as they
get dehydrated by highly salty environment and die or become temporarily
inactivated. It is also one of the oldest methods of preservation and is used for
preservation of meat, fish, hides and skin.
(c) Smoking
This is a method of preservation where the product is exposed to a smoke from
the burning material usually wood. This method is applied on food products.
Besides preserving the food, smoking also add flavour to it. This method is used
on meat, fish and cheese.
(d) Cooling and refrigeration
Cooling is a method of preservation where ambient temperatures are lowered
to the level where microbial activities are greatly reduced. This may be done
through refrigeration or use of any other coolant such as water to conduct heat
away from the product. It is used for preserving food substances such as meat,
milk and fish.
(e) Heat treatment
This is the preservation of livestock products by the application of heat to
the product. It includes such heat treatment measures as boiling of food, milk
(pasteurisation), cooking and roasting meat. Very high temperatures destroy
micro-organisms that causes food spoilage.
(f) Freezing
This is a method of preservation where the growth of micro-organisms is slowed
down by very low temperatures of about -23oC. The frozen water is also available
to the micro-organisms and this further reduced the activity of micro-organisms.
(g) Canning
In this method of preservation, food is cooked and sealed in sterile container. It
is then boiled to kill any remaining bacteria. This method is used for preserving
meat and milk products.

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 (h) Fermentation
The carbohydrates in the food are converted into alcohol and organic acids, for
example, lactic acids. Lactic acids prevent further action by micro-organisms
thus preserving the food. Fermentation is brought about by beneficial micro-
organisms under anaerobic conditions. This is an old method of food preservation.
It is used to preserve meat and milk products.
(i) Sugaring
This is a method of preserving meat where sugar is applied in form of honey, syrup
and solids. The sugar then absorbs water in the products through osmosis. This
lowers the activity of the micro-organisms which destroys the product. Sugar also
promotes the growth of favourable micro-organisms such as lactobacillus which
produce lactic acid. Lactic acid prevents growth of unwanted micro-organisms.
(j) Jellying – This is a method of preservation where the materials to be preserved is
kept in a substance that solidifies to form a gel, for example, gelatin. It is used in
the preservation of meat.
(k) Use of chemicals
This is the use of chemicals to preserve materials. It is commonly used in the
preservation of food materials such as meat and hides and skins. Common
chemicals used in food preservation include, sodium benzoate, sodium nitrate
and sulphur dioxide. These chemicals inhibit the growth of micro-organisms that
spoil food.
(l) Pickling – This is the use of an edible anti-microbial liquid to preserve food.
Examples of such liquids include brine (strong salt solution), vinegar and
vegetable oils such as olives. This method is used in storing meat and eggs.
(m) Vacuum packing – This is the storing of food in a vacuum environment usually
in an airtight bag or bottle. The vacuum condition deprives micro-organism of
oxygen thus reducing their activity. This method is used for preserving cheese.

6.14  Notes to the Teacher

When teaching this unit, the teacher should do the following:
(i) Prepare a questionnaire for learners when going out for field visit trips.
(ii) Prepare the learners for a field visit a day before the field visit.
(iii) Do follow up activities after the field trips.
(iv) Demonstrate the procedure to be followed as the learners observe.
(v) Divide the learners into groups of five and assign them activities.
(vi) Ensure each group has a leader and a secretary for purpose of order drawing the
activity/discussion.
(vii) Provide the learners with the materials required for the practical activity.
(viii) Supervise the learners as they carry out the practical activity.
(ix) Give the learners adequate time to discuss and report their findings to the class.
(x) Give summary notes to the learners after the activity as indicated in the Students’
Book.
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 (xi) Keep the learners progressive records and give feedback to the parents.

6.15  Additional remedial consolidation and extension activity

High order questions for fast learners

1. Identify the method of curing hides illustrated in the diagram below
Frame drying

2. Differentiate between tallow and lard.

Tallow is a cattle fat while lard is pig fat.
3. Explain how freezing preserves livestock products.
It makes the water in the product and micro-organisms to solidify thus denying
the micro-organism water. This ends up killing the micro-organisms or making
them inactive.
4. Explain how fermentation preserves food products from livestock.
Fermentation which is brought about by anaerobic micro-organisms converts
the sugars in the livestock product into lactic acid. This acid prevents further
action by micro-organisms thus preserving the product.
5. What is pickling– This is the preservation of a livestock product by placing it in
an anti-microbial liquid to preserve it.

Low order questions

1. List four products from milk
(i) Cheese
(ii) Yoghurt
(iii) Ice cream
(iv) Long life milk/UHT milk
2. Differentiate between beef and pork.
Beef is fresh meat from cattle while pork is fresh meat from pigs.
3. Name two rabbit products
(i)  Meat
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 (ii) Fur
(iii) Skin/pelt
4. Name those methods of curing
(i) Salting
(ii) Sugaring
(iii) Smoking
5. State two importance of smoking as a method of preservation.
(i) It removes water from the product thus reducing microbial activities
(ii) Improves the flavour of the product.

6.16  Additional Questions

1. Give one method of preserving bones.
Drying
2. What is the industrial use of tallow?
Preparation of soap.
3. What is suede?
It is leather from the inner lining of the pig skin.
4. What is pasteurisation of milk?
It is the heating of milk up to a temperature of between 50 and 60 °C to
preserve it.
5. Describe the process of preserving blood.
Salt is added to the blood in a container. The blood solidifies. Water is
drained from the blood leaving a solid substance. The solid substance is
then kept in a refrigerator or a freezer for preservation.

6.17  Suggestions for Assignment

(a) Find out the traditional methods of preserving livestock products in Rwanda.
(b) Visit a slaughter house and find out how the following livestock products are
preserved after slaughtering the animal:
(i) Blood
(ii) Skin
(c) Practise answering the revision questions at the end of this unit in the Students’
Book on page 200 – 201.

6.18  Support for development of positive skills, values and attitudes

(a) Life skills
(i) The learner develops skills in preserving livestock products.
(ii) Learners develop skills of making interferences and skill conclusion.
(b) Value and attitudes

Working in groups promotes interpersonal relationships, teamwork, respect for each

other and good time management.
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 6.19  Suggested answers to formative evaluation questions
1. A pathogen is a disease causing organism.
2. Aerobic respiration takes place only in the presence of oxygen(air) while anaerobic
respiration takes place in the absence of oxygen (air).
3.
(i) Wet salting
(ii) Brining
(iii) Dry salting
(iv) Quick salting
4. It is the removal of water from a substance.
5. It is the cheapest and the easiest method of preserving livestock products.
6. Period of time that a product can remain in good condition under storage.

6.20  Suggested answers to summative evaluation questions

1. (a) Curing is the removal of excess water from a substance thus reducing microbial
activity.
(b) Meat is first cut into strips, salt, sugar or smoking is then applied on the meat
strips.
The application of salt on the meat strips is known as salting, the application
of sugar is known as sugaring, while the application of smoke is known as
smoking. The application of salt, sugar or smoke removes excess water and the
meat is said to be cured.
2. Meat is crushed to form minced meat and then mixed with spiced vinegar
and wine. These cause the meat to ferment. It is then packed in natural edible
cellulose casing and hung to dry.
3. Pork is fresh pig meat while bacon is processed pig meat.
4. (i) Refrigeration
(ii) Cooking
(iii) Drying

Key Terms (pages 199–200 Students’ Book)

1. Preservation – Process of preventing deterioration of livestock products.
2. Perishable – Rots easily.
3. Shelf- life– Period of time that a product remains in good condition under storage.
4. Micro-organism – Organisms that are too small to be observed through the
naked eyes.
5. Pathogens – Organisms that cause diseases.
6. Salting – Application of dry salt on the surface of a product to preserve it.
7. Smoking – Exposing a product to smoke in order to preserve it.

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 8. Drying – Removal of water from a product through evaporation.
9. Refrigeration – Removal of heat from a substance under controlled conditions.
10. Cooling – Lowering the temperature of a substance.
11. Freezing – Lowering the temperature of a substance to a point where water
solidifies to form ice.
12. Canning – Preservation of cooked food in sealed containers.
13. Anaerobic respiration –Type of respiration that occurs in the absence of oxygen
14. Fermentation – Preservation by allowing the sugars in a food substance undergo
anaerobic respiration where the organic acids of alcohol produced protect the
food from further spoilage by micro-organisms.
15. Sugaring – The application of sugar to the surface of a substance to withdraw
water by osmosis and thus preserve it.
16. Jellying– Preservation of a food material in a substance that later on solidifies to
form a gel.
17. Pickling – Preservation of food in an anti-microbial edible liquid such as olive
oil.
18. Vacuum packing – Preservation of food in an airtight bag or bottle.
19. Tallow – Fats from cattle meat.
20. Lard –Fats from pig meat.
21. Gelatin – A translucent flavourless food derived from collagen obtained from
various animals by-product.
22. Pork – Fresh pig meat.
23. Bacon – Processed pig meat that has been preserved through salting or brining.
24. Suede – Leather from pig skin.
25. Beef – Cattle meat.

Answers to Revision Questions (Students’ Book page 200–201)

1. Process of preventing damage of livestock products
2. (i) To increase their shelf-life.
(ii) To lower the activity of micro-organism and therefore prevent rotting.
(iii) To add value to the products.
(iv) To add flavours to the products.
(v) To add flavour to the food products.
3. (i) Smell
(ii) Colour
(iii) Texture
(iv) Appearance ( looks)
(v) Taste

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 4.
Products By-products
(i) Raw milk (i) Hide
(ii) Eggs (ii) Fur
(iii) Yoghurt (iii) Tallow
(iv) Pork (iv) Suede

5. Water is removed from the substance

6. (a) Drying
Meat is cut into thin strips or flat pieces
The strips of meat are sun-dried or open-air-dried to reduce moisture content.
This discourages the growth of micro-organisms.
(b)  Curing – Curing of the meat may be done through salting, sugaring and
smoking. Curing removes excess water from the meat through reducing
microbial spoilage. In salting and sugaring, the pieces of meat are covered
with either salt or sugar which absorb moisture from the meat. In smoking,
the pieces of meat are covered with smoke which removes water from the
meat and prevents microbial attack of the meat.
(c) Boiling or cooking – The meat is cooked or boiled and then packed in sterile
containers.
(d) Freezing or refrigeration – In this method, pieces of raw meat are put in a
freezer where temperatures are low to inactivate the micro-organisms.
(e) Fermentation – In this method, the meat to be preserved is first crushed to
form minced meat and then mixed with spices, vinegar and wine. It is then
packed in natural edible cellulose casing and hung to dry.
7. (i) Fermentation – During fermentation, the carbohydrates in the food product
are converted to alcohol and lactic acid which prevent further action by
micro-organisms thus preserving the food. It is brought about by beneficial
micro-organisms under aerobic conditions.
(ii) Uses of honey – Cooked food materials, for example, meat are placed in
honey and these can remain there for many years without going bad.
(iii) Pickling– This is the use of an edible anti-microbial liquid to preserve food.
The food is placed in such edible liquids as brine, vinegar and olive oil.
8. (i) Remove pieces of meat and fat from the hide.
(ii) Wash the hide to remove blood.
(iii) Suspend the hide in a wooden frame in such a way that there is air circulation
from all the sides.
(iv) Use sisal strings in lacing the hide on the frames to ensure the hide is not
teared during the suspension.

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 9. Salting
10. (i) Meat
(ii) Fur
11. (i) It prevents damage of the material by micro-organisms.
(ii) Adds flavour to the product especially the food products such as meat.
12. C.  (iii) and  (iv)

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 Topic Area: Agriculture Economics
Unit 7: Problems and Solutions of Agriculture in Rwanda

Number of periods: 4

Key Unit Competence: Learners should be able to explain problems and solutions of
agriculture in Rwanda.

7.1  Learning Objectives

(a)  Knowledge and Understanding
(i) Describe problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
(ii) Explain solutions to problems that agriculture in Rwanda is facing.
(b) Skills
(i) Recognise the problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
(ii) Propose solutions to problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
(c) Attitudes and values
(i) Show awareness of problems prevailing in agriculture in Rwanda.
(ii) Display courage in solving agriculture problems.

7.2  Content Students’ Book pages 202 – 210

(i) Problems facing agriculture:
Shortage of land, lack of capital, pest and disease, unstable prices, rainfall
distribution, bad attitude towards agriculture.
(ii) Solutions to problems that agriculture is facing:
Intensive agriculture, borrowing money from banks, construction and maintenance
of feeder roads, plants protection, searching proper market.

7.3  Learning Activities

(i) Entering a research engine or library and find out after group discussion problems
prevailing to agriculture.
(ii) Problem solving of a region faced with different problems (malnutrition, pest and
diseases, shortage of land) and proposing required solutions.

7.4  Links to Other Subjects

The unit is linked to Geography and especially human economic geography.

7.5  Assessment Criteria

The assessment of this unit will depend on the ability of the learners to explain
problems of agriculture in Rwanda and matching them with adequate solutions.

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 7.6 Learning Material/Resources
The following learning resources will be required in this unit:
• Computer laboratory with internet.
• Library books.

7.7 Suggested Low Cost or No Cost Materials

(a) Request for computers from the administration and return them after the lesson.
(b) Ask learners to bring the learning materials they would like to share, for example,
computer equipment.
(c) Use computer labs from the neighbouring schools.

7.8 Methods of Teaching

The following methods are recommended in the teaching of this unit:
Content Method(s)
1. Problems facing Agriculture Discussion: The teacher to introduce the topics
in Rwanda on the problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
Divide the learners into groups and instruct
them to use internet, library books, magazines
and textbooks to find out about these problems.
Learners to give their findings after discussion.
They then present their findings to the class.
The teacher to correct any wrong information
and give summary notes.
2. Solutions to problems that Field visit: The teacher to prepare a question-
Agriculture in Rwanda is naire as shown in Annex 22 and organise a visit
facing to an agricultural institute for the learners to
enquire and find out about the problems facing
farming in Rwanda and how the problems are
solved. The learners to make enquiries, record
and discuss in groups and present their findings
to class. The teacher to correct any misconcep-
tions, make conclusions and give summary
notes.

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 Group Activity Discussion: The teacher to divide the learners
into groups and assign them discussion activities
as follows:
Group I: To find out the meaning of
intensive farming.
Groip II: To find out characteristics of
intensive farming.
Group III: To find out various systems of
intensive farming in Rwanda.
Group IV: To find out merits and demerits
of intensive farming as a solution
to the problems of farming in
Rwanda.
The teacher to assist the groups by moving
from group to group. The learners to give their
opinion, record and present their findings to the
class.
The teacher to conclude and give summary
notes.

References
1. S2 Agriculture Students’ Book.
2. Dictionary.
3. Library books.
4. Internet.

7.9 Suggested teaching and learning activities and exercise to support delivery
of content and development of students’ competences
(i) Discussion on problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
(ii) Entering search engines or library to find out solutions prevailing in
agriculture.
(iii) Entering search engine to find out solutions of problems facing agriculture
in Rwanda.
(iv) Discussion on the term intensive farming under the following:
• Meaning
• Characteristics
• System of intensive farming
• Merits and demerits
(v) Case study of a region faced with different problems such as malnutrition,
pests and diseases and shortage of land.

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 7.10  Cross-cutting issues to be integrated in the teaching
Address the following emerging issues that may affect the economy of Rwanda:
(i) Environment and sustainability – Skills and attitudes to enable them
address the environment and climate change issues.
(ii) Peace and values education – Working together for peace and harmony to
avoid conflict.
(iii) Standardisation culture – Understand the importance of standards as a
pillar of economic developmet.
(iv) Inclusive education – Include every individual regardless of gender or
ability.

7.11  Suggestions for accommodating special education needs (SEN)

(i) The teacher should arrange the class in such a way that learners who have
hearing problems sit near the teacher, those with visual problems be given
large print to read.
(ii) Pair the learners with motor impairment to others so as to be assisted
during field trips and practical activities.
(iii) Slow learners should be given remedial questions.
(iv) Gifted/talented learners to be given extra questions.

7.12  Formative Evaluation

1. Give one solution to the problem of poor distribution of rainfall.
2 . (a) What is diversification?
(b) What is the role of diversification in ensuring economic stability in Rwanda?
3. Give two ways in which intensive farming may be carried out in Rwanda.
4. (a) What is a pest?
(b) Give three ways of controlling crop pests.
5. (a) What is credit?
(b) Give two sources of credit for farmers.

7.13  Additional Content to the Teacher

Risks and uncertainties in farming
Farming as a business is faced with a lot of risks and uncertainties. Farmers face
many variables which are beyond their control, for example, changes in weather/
climate changes, outbreak of pest and diseases and fluctuation of commodity prices.
Uncertainty is, therefore, the state of not knowing about future events or outcome
due to the uncontrollable variables. Risks on the other hand are the difference or
divergence between what the farmer expects and the actual outcome.
Risks and uncertainties go hand in hand and offer a lot of challenges to the farmers.
This calls for great determination on the part of the farmer in bearing the risk involved
so as to succeed in farming.
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 Types of risks and uncertainties
(i) Fluctuation of commodity prices. Farmers may not predict the future market
prices.
(ii) Physical yield uncertainty. The farmer does not know how much to expect.
(iii) Ownership uncertainty. The farmer may lose part or whole of the produce
through theft, changes in government policy, fire, death and association with
other business or institutions such as banks.
(iv) Outbreak of pests and diseases. This will affect the expected outcome.
(v) Sickness and injury uncertainty. This is where the farmer or a member of the
family or employee is affected and loses the ability to work due to sickness or
injury.
(vi) New production techniques uncertainty. The farmer may not be certain as
whether the new technology is as effective as the previous one.
(vii) Obsolescence. A farmer may invest in machinery which may become outdated
within a short time.
(viii) Natural catastrophies or calamities. These include things like floods, droughts,
earthquakes, storms and strong winds may destroy the crops or kill livestock.

Ways in which a farmer may adjust to risks and uncertainties

(i) Diversification
This involves setting up several and different enterprises on the farm so that
should one fail, the farmer does not suffer a total loss.
(ii) Selecting more certain enterprises
Some enterprises have more steady income over time than others; for example,
a maize enterprise has a less variation income than an Irish potato one. Under
conditions of uncertainty, it is better to choose an enterprise which earns a more
steady income though less profitable than to choose a more profitable enterprise
which has a high degree of income variation.
(iii) Contradicting
Farmers may enter into a contract with consumer to supply certain goods over a
specified period of time and at an agreed price. Such a contract guarantees them
a constant, fixed market for their produce.
(iv) Insurance
Insurance companies take the risk of insuring farm machinery, crops and
livestock against loss. Farmers pay small amount of money known as premiums
as insurance cover to the insurance companies. This cover guarantees them
compensation in the event of loss. It covers losses due to crop failure, death of
livestock, theft, fire and accidents involving farm machinery.
(v) Input rationing
In this case farmers control the quantities of inputs used in variation enterprises.
They may apply less input than the optimum required for an enterprise so that,
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 should unfavourable conditions lower yields or price falls, they suffer less loss
than if they had used the optimum amount of inputs in enterprises that have
better chances of giving their returns.
(vi) Flexibility in production methods
Farmers should design their enterprises such that should there be a need to
change from one enterprise to another in response to a change in demand, they
can easily do so with minimum expenses. Livestock building, for example,
should be constructed in such a way that they can with minimum modification
be used to house different types of livestock.
(vii) Adopting modern methods of production
This can be used to reduce the amount of risk, for example, spraying crops
against diseases and pests, vaccinating livestock against diseases and irrigating
crops can enhance the chances of high production. Adopting these modern
methods must involve extra costs. However, by incurring them, they avoid the
would be losses.

7.14  Notes to the Teacher

When teaching this unit the teacher should:
(i) Collect enough economic data/information from newspapers and other sources
to support discussions on problems and solutions of Agriculture in Rwanda.
(ii) Divide the class into groups of five and assign them discussion activities.
(iii) Ensure each group has a leader and a secretary to keep order in the discussion.
(iv) Supervise the discussions.
(v) Allow the learners adequate time to discuss and report their findings to the class.
(vi) Give summary notes to the learners after the activity as indicated in the students’
book.
(vii) Keep the learners’ progressive record and give feedback to the parent.

7.15  Additional remedial consolidation and extension activities

High order questions for fast learners

1. What is the meaning of the following terms as used in agriculture economics?
(a) Buffer stock– Agricultural produce that is stored in large quantities only to
be released during time of scarcity to offset shortage and stabilise prices of
commodities.
(b) Stabilisation fund– Money set aside by the government to import agricultural
commodities in times of a shortage so as to stabilise the prices of commodities.
2. Describe two types of labour in the farm.
(a) Family labour– This is labour from the members of the nuclear family. Tasks
are assigned to members of the family according to age and abilities.
(b) Hired labour– This is labour employed to supplement family labour. It is
further divided into casual labour and permanent labour. Casual labour is
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 that labour which is hired during labour peak periods and is paid a wage
either weekly or after a fortnight. Permanent labour is hired on a monthly
basis and is paid as a salary after the end of the month.
3. What is demand?
(a) This is the quantity of goods and services that consumers are willing and
able to buy at a specified price in a given market and time.
(b) How is demand related to the price of a commodity?
When the demand of a commodity goes up, the price also goes up and vice
versa. This relationship is referred to as direct proportionality.
4. What is supply?
(a) This is the quantity of goods and services that the sellers are willing to sell
at a specified period in given market and time.
(b) How is supply related to the price of a commodity?
When the supply of a commodity in the market increases, the price of that
commodity goes down and vice versa. This relationship is known as indirect
relationship.
5. Explain the ways in which the government gives subsidies to the farmers.
(i) Lowering the tax on agricultural products such as fertilisers, agro-chemicals
and livestock feeds. When the tax is reduced, the prices of these products
goes down and farmers are able to buy them at a cheaper price.
(ii) Buying agricultural products at a higher price and later selling them to
recover its money.
(iii) Giving agricultural inputs such as seeds and fertilisers to the farmers at
planting time.

Low order questions for average learners

1. What is large scale farming?
System of farming done on a piece of land that is over 20 hectares.
2. (a)  What is capital?
This is all man-made assets used in the production of goods and services.
(b)  Give two sources of capital for the farmers
(i) Credit/loans from commercial banks and other money lending agencies
(ii) Co-operatives
(iii) Personal savings
(iv) Donations/grants
(v) Government subsidies
3. What is seed dressing?
This is the coating of seeds with a pesticide to protect them from damage by pests
and diseases.
4. State two importance of forming co-operatives to a farmer
(i) Source of credit/provide soft loans
(ii) Helps in the marketing/sale of agricultural goods
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 (iii) Provides agricultural education to farmers
(iv) Helps in the transport of goods
(v) Supply farm inputs to farmers at affordable prices
5. (a)  What is a high value crop?
  A highly perishable crop that fetch high prices in the market
(b)  (i)  Fruits such as mangoes, citrus fruits and avocados
(ii) Vegetables such as tomatoes, cabbages, onions, French beans and
carrots
(iii) Flowers, e.g., Roses, tuberose and carnations

7.16  Summative Evaluation
1. Briefly explain how the following problems of agriculture can be solved
(a) Inadequate capital
(b) Instable prices
2. Explain two ways in which the government can give subsidies to the farmers.
3. Explain two advantages of diversification.
4. Differentiate between supply and demand as used in marketing of agricultural
produce.

7.17  Additional Questions

1. What is land tenure?
System of land ownership
2. Give two ways in which the problem of bad attitude towards agriculture may be
solved.
(i) Sensitisation of the people on the opportunities existing in agriculture so
that they can view agriculture as a business.
(ii) Improving wages and provision of incentives in the agricultural sector so as
to attract more people into the farms.
3. (a)  What is contracting?
Entering into an agreement that is legally binding between two parties.
(b) State one disadvantage of contracting.
The farmers would not benefit should there be an increase in commodity
prices during the period when the contract is in effect.
4. State two ways in which the problem of insufficient markets may be solved.
(i) Carrying out market research to find out more markets for the agricultural
products.
(ii) Venturing in across border markets.
(iii) Formation of co-operative societies which sells goods for the members.
(iv) Use of the marketing boards to assist farmers in marketing their produce.
5. (a)  What is a greenhouse?
It is a crop production structure in which high value crops are grown under
controlled environmental conditions.
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 (b)  Give four environmental conditions that are controlled in a greenhouse.
(i) Temperature
(ii) Soil moisture
(iii) Carbon (IV) oxide concentration
(iv) Wind
(v) Relative humidity
(vi) Light intensity
(vii) Rainfall intensity

7.18  Suggestions for Assignments

1. Individually, find out the problems that the farmers in your home areas encounter
in the following areas:
(i) Fertilisers acquisition during the planting seasons.
(ii) Getting market for their produce.
(iii) Shortage of produce after harvesting.
Alternatively, if you live in the urban areas pair with those who live in farming
communities and find out about the above problems from them.
2. Find out how the farmers are able to deal with the above problems.
3. Discuss your findings and present a report to the class.

7.19  Support for the development of positive skills, values and attitudes
(a) This topic will help the learners to develop problem solving skills in looking for
solutions to the problems facing agriculture in Rwanda.
(b) Values and attitude
(i) By working together in groups, the learners will learn to appreciate one
another.
(ii) Learners will appreciate the role played by farmers in supporting the
economy of Rwanda.

7.20  Suggested answers to formative questions

1. Irrigation
2. (a) Allocating resources in more than one enterprise.
(b) It ensures that should one enterprise fail, the farmer does not suffer total loss
and instead benefit from the other enterprises that have not been affected.
This motivates the farmer and encourages them to keep on thus ensuring
stability to the economy.
3. (i) Zero grazing.
(ii) Improved capital investment.
(iii) Use of green houses.
(iv) Use of modern farming techniques.
4. (a) A living organism that causes damage to crops.

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 (b) (i) Use of agro-chemicals
(ii) Crop rotation
(iii) Planting resistant crop varieties
(iv) Use of natural enemies/biological control.
5. (a)  Borrowed capital
(b) (i) Commercial banks
(ii) Co-operatives
(iii) Individual money lenders.

7.21  Suggested Answers to Summative Evaluation Questions

1. (a) Inadequate capital. The problem of inadequate capital can be solved through
the following:
(i) Borrowing from commercial banks and individual money lenders.
(ii) Pooling resources together in co-operatives.
(iii) Individual/personal savings.
(b) Instable prices– These problems can be solved through the following:
(i) Contracting–Farmers can enter into agreement with a consumer to supply
goods at a specified price in a specified period of time.
(ii). Diversification –This is the allocation of resources in more than one
enterprise so that should one fail or have poor prices, the farmer benefits
from the others.
2. (i) Reducing taxes on agricultural goods. This in turn lowers the price of farm
inputs (cost of production) and therefore increase the gross margins.
(ii) Buying produce from farmers at a higher price and then selling the produce to
consumers at a higher price to recover its money.
3. (i) Mutual benefits between crop and livestock–Animals get feed from crop
residues while crops get farmyard manure from the animals.
(ii) Should one enterprise fail, the farmer benefits from the others. The farmer
does not suffer total loss.
(iii) The family is likely to have a balanced diet because materials are available at
home.

4. Supply is the quantity of goods that sellers(suppliers) are willing to sell at a

given price and time at a given market while demand is the quantity of goods
that consumers (buyers) are able and willing to buy at a specified price in a given
market and time.

Key Terms (Students’ Book pages 210–212)

1. Field day – A day set aside when farmers meet in a demonstration farm and taken
through various methods of carrying out agricultural activities by agricultural
expert.

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 2. Capital – All man-made assets used in the production of goods and services.
3. Animal drawn implements – Implements that are pulled by trained animals
while working.
4. Extension services – Advice given to farmers by experts in certain fields.
5. “Visit and train” – A method of giving extension services where agricultural
officers visit farmers in their farms and advise them on how to carry out agricultural
activities.
6. Mechanisation – Use of machines in carrying out agricultural activities.
7. Intensive farming – System of farming that involves heavy capital investments.
8. Seed dressing – Coating of seeds with a pesticide to protect them from damage
by pests and diseases.
9. Pests – Living organisms that cause damage to the crops.
10. Parasite – A living organism that derive its livelihood from another and causes
damage to it.
11. Supply – Quantity of goods that the sellers are willing to sell at a specified price
in a given market and time.
12. Demand – Quantity of goods that consumers are willing and able to buy at a
specified price in a given market and time.
13. Perishable – Easily go bad.
14. Middlemen – Traders who move from one farm to another buying agricultural
goods from farmers.
15. Zero grazing – Rearing of livestock in structures known as stalls.
16. Green houses – Crop production structures in which high value crops are grown
under controlled environmental conditions.
17. High value crops – Highly perishable crops that fetch high prices when fresh.
18. Land tenure system – System of land ownership.
19. Large scale farming – System of farming carried on a large piece of land which
is over 20 hectares.
20. Hybrid seeds – Seeds developed by crossing two or more pure lines of crops.
21. Upgrading – The improvement of local animals by crossing with exotic animals
for high production.
22. Co-operative – Organisation of people who have joined together voluntarily with
a common purpose for mutual benefits.
23. Borrowed capital – Credit or loan on borrowed funds used in agricultural
production.
24. Buffer stocks – Agricultural produce that are stored only to be released during
time of scarcity to offset shortage and stabilise prices of commodities.
25. Stabilisation fund – A fund set aside by government to import agricultural
commodities in the event of a shortage so as to stabilise the prices of the
commodities.
26. Diversification – Allocating resources in more than one enterprise so that should
one fail, the farmer benefits from the others.
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 27. Enterprise – A single unit of production.
28. Agro-chemicals – Chemicals used in agricultural production.
29. Government subsidies– Government incentives given to farmers to motivate
them to produce more and therefore prevent shortage.
30. Contracting – Entering into an agreement between two parties that is legally
binding.
31. Farm inputs – Capital used in agricultural production.
32. Marketing boards – Statutory bodies established by an act of parliament to
oversee the production and marketing of a particular produce.
33. Gross margin – Profit realised from the sale of produce when the fixed costs are
not considered.

Answers to Revision Questions (pages 212 Students’ Book 2)

1.
Problem Solution
(a) Shortage of land (i) Intensive farming.
(ii) Use of improved livestock.
(iii) Use of improved seeds.
(iv) Use of modern methods of farming.
(v) Improved land tenure systems.

(b) Lack of adequate (i) Forming co-operative societies.

capital
(iii) Borrowing capital.

(iii) Government subsidies.

(c) Pests and diseases (i) Supply agro-chemicals and animal drugs.

(ii) Planting resistant crop varieties.

(iii) Providing extension services.

(iv) Proper drying of farm produce before storage.

(v) Construction of good storage structures.

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 (d) Poor transport (i) Forming co-operatives to pool resources together.
facilities
(ii) Providing credit facilities to farmers.

(iii) Use of marketing board facilities in transporting

their respective crop produce.

2. (a)  Zero-grazing
This is the rearing of animals in structures known as zero grazing stalls or units.
It is mainly used for dairy cattle and goat rearing. The structures are designed
in such a way that they provide space for feeding, milking and sleeping. Zero
grazed animals provide more milk than those on free grazing due to the energy
saved from the reduced movements. This system is, however labour intensive
and requires heavy capital investments.
(b)  Use of greenhouses
Greenhouses are crop production structures in which the environmental condi-
tions such as temperature, relative humidity, soil fertility, wind and carbon (IV)
oxide concentrations are regulated to create a micro climate. In these structures,
crops which would not grow under normal condition in a particular area are
grown. High value horticultural crops such as tomatoes and cabbages are grown
in greenhouses. Another advantage of using greenhouses is that, it is possible to
grow crops in off seasons because they do not rely on rainfall, instead the crops
are irrigated.
3. (i) Mechanisation – Use of machines in carrying out agricultural activities.
(ii) Diversification – Allocating resources in more than one enterprise so that
should one enterprise fail, the farmer benefits from the other.
(iii) Zero grazing – Rearing of livestock in structures known as stalls.
4. Supply is the quantity of goods that sellers are willing to sell at a specified price
in a given market while demand is the quantity of goods that the consumers are
willing and able to buy at a specified price in a given market and time.
5. (a) Credit or loan is borrowed funds used in agricultural production.
(b) (i) Commercial banks.
(ii) Co-operatives.
(iii) Individual lenders.
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 6. (a) Government incentives given to farmers to motivate them to produce
more and therefore prevent a shortage.
(b) (i) Reducing taxes on agricultural inputs.
(ii) Buying farm produce at a higher price and then later on selling the
produce at a higher price to recover its money.
7. (i) Use of field days.
(ii) Through visit and training.
(iii) Use of demonstration farms.
8.  (a) A single unit of production.
(b) Dairy cattle production
(i) Beef cattle production
(ii) Fruit production
(iii) Mushroom production
(iv) Goat production
(v) Sheep production

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 ANNEXES
Annex 1
Activity 1.2
Questionnaire for a field trip to a neighbouring farm/school farm to study the charac-
teristics of a fertile soil and its plant indicators:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions

1. Identify the colour of the soil in different parts of the farm.
2. Feel the soil between your fingers, when dry and when wet. What is the texture of
the soil?
3. Carry out the ribbon test with wet soil. Does the wet soil form ribbons? What type
of soil is it from the ribbon test?
4. Carry out a pH test using the pH meter or colour indicators provided. What is the
general pH in the farm?
5. Observe the leaves of the crops in the farm. Are there any symptoms of nutrient
deficiencies? If yes, which nutrients would be lacking in the soil?
6. Are there any other problems of the soil that can be identified using the plants as
the indicators.
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 2
Activity 1.9
Questionnaire for field visit to a farm to observe steps followed in making compost
manure:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What method of composting is used in this farm?
2. How would you describe the siting of the compost pit or heap in reference to the
homestead and:
(i) Other farm structures?
(ii) Where the manure is to be used?
3. What is the measurement of the compost pits or heaps in this farm?
4. What materials are used to make the compost manure and what is their uses in the
compost making?
5. What is the order in which the materials are arranged?
6. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 3
Activity 1.12
A questionnaire for a field visit to a zero-grazing unit to observe the steps in making
farmyard manure:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What is the zero-grazing unit?
2. Which type of animals are kept in the zero-grazing unit in this farm?
3. What is the farmyard manure?
4. How are these animals able to make farmyard manure?
5. Where is the litter dung and urine removed from the animal sleeping areas kept?
6. How long are these materials kept before the manure is ready for use?
7. Why do the materials have to be sheltered after removing them from the animal’s
cubicles?
8. Do these materials need constant turning during the decomposition period to
make manure? And why?
9. What would happen to the manure if the materials are exposed to the sun and
rain?
10. Present a written report for discussion.

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Agriculture Teacher

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 Annex 4

Activity 1.11
Questionnaire for a visit to a fertiliser shop to observe and manipulate inorganic
fertilisers:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Name the fertilisers which are sold in this shop.
2. Observe the colours of the various fertilisers and fill the following table:
Fertiliser colour
Fertiliser A
Fertiliser B
Fertiliser C
Fertiliser D
Any other fertiliser seen
3. Describe how the fertiliser feel after touching and feeling them in your hands.
4. What are the farms in which these fertilisers occur?
5. Calculate the fertiliser grades of the compound fertilisers from the grade given
on the bag.
6. Present a written report for discussion.

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Agriculture Teacher

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 Annex 5

Activity 2.5
Questionnaire for a visit to co-operative or a household producing mushrooms to ob-
serve factors affecting mushroom tube making and mushroom cultivation:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Observe a mushroom tube and describe what it is.
2. What is the substrate material used in making the mushroom tubes in the farm?
3. How available are these materials or do the farm owners experience problems in
acquiring them?
4. Where are the mushroom tubes kept after they are ready for sowing?
5. What are the conditions in these nursery houses? How do they ensure that the
substrate materials are clean and sterilised for mushroom growing? Which type of
packing materials are used for the substrate?
Find out the following:
(i) The market outlets for the mushrooms.
(ii) Does the farm get problems of marketing?
(iii) Compare the cost of producing mushrooms and the profit. Would you say it
is a good business?
6. Present a written report for discussion.
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Agriculture Teacher
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 Annex 6

Activity 3.2
A questionnaire for a field to a farm with an established orchard to explore and iden-
tify cultivated fruits in Rwanda and their importance:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Identify the types of fruits grown in these farms.
2. Are these the only types of fruits cultivated in Rwanda or are there others not in
this farm?
3. What is the importance of each type of fruit grown in the farm, nutritionally, eco-
nomically and environmentally?
4. How would you describe the site where the orchard is established with respect to
the:
(i) Source of water?
(ii) Transport system?
(iii) Security?
5. How are the fruits used both in the farm and after sale?
6. Present a written report for discussion.

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Agriculture Teacher

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 Annex 7

Activity 3.5
A questionnaire for a field visit to an avocado and citrus fruit tree nurseries to observe
grafting of avocado and citrus seedlings:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. At what stage of growth are the citrus and avocado tree seedlings? Are they ready
for grafting according to you?
2. Make a list of all the tools and materials required when carrying out grafting.
3. What varieties of avocado and citrus are planted in this farm? Are there other
varieties not in this farm? If yes name them.
4. How long will the grafted seedlings take before they are transplanted?
5. What happens to those seedlings that do not succeed after grafting?
6. Present a written report for discussion.

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Agriculture Teacher

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 Annex 8

Activity 3.8
A questionnaire for field tour to select a site for establishing an orchard:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What type of an orchard is this?
2. Which types of fruits are established in this orchard?
3. Are there fruits grown in mixed stands or in pure stands? If they are in pure
stands, then what are the advantages?
4. Describe your observation on the following:
(i) The slope of the land where the orchard is established.
(ii) The type of soil and drainage of the orchard.
(iii) Shelter of the fruit trees from the wind.
(iv) Distance the orchard is from the homestead and the road.
5. How were you able to access the orchard? What is it easy? How about vehicles?
6. What are other requirements important for selecting an orchard site?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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Agriculture Teacher

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 Annex 9

Activity 3.18

A questionnaire for a field trip to a fruit processing and preservation plant or factory
to observe fruits which are processed:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Identify the type of fruits which are processed and preserved in this factory.
2. What is the difference between the fruits which is processed and those that are
fresh?
3. How would you define fruit processing and preservation after tasting the pro-
cessed fruits?
4. What are the methods used to process and preserve fruits in this factory?
5. How are the processed fruits packed for distribution?
6. What is the difference in value between the fresh fruits and those processed?
7. What are the requirements for the starting of a fruit processing plant? In terms
of capital and legal requirements? Does processing of fruits change their taste,
colour and keeping quality?
8. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 10

Activity 3.23
A questionnaire for a field trip to an orchard to observe and identify fruits that may
be processed:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What type of fruits are grown in this orchard that require processing?
2. Give the characteristics of the fruits which require processing.
3. From your observation, why do you think such fruits require processing?
4. What would happen to these fruits if they are not processed?
5. Do you think that processing these fruits makes them better than when kept fresh?
Why? Give reasons for you answer.
6. How are the processed fruits handled compared to the fresh fruits?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 11

Activity 4.3 and Activity 4.4

A questionnaire for a field visit to a farm where legumes are grown to find out the
importance of legumes and how they are propagated:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Name the legumes that are cultivated in this farm. What other legumes are not
cultivated in this farm?
2. What classes do these legumes fall under?
3. Which legumes are for human consumption and which ones are used as fodder
for livestock?
4. What are the importance of each legume that you have identified to:
(i) Human beings
(ii) Livestock
(iii) Environment
5. How are the legumes propagated in this farm? Which legumes are propagated
from seeds and which ones are propagated vegetatively?
6. How are the legume seeds prepared for planting?
7. How are the cuttings for propagating fodder legumes prepared for planting?
8. Find out the necessary conditions for the rooting of legume stem or root cuttings.
9. List the fodder legumes that are propagated through layering.
10. Observe and find out how layering is carried out in each of the following le-

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 gumes: Lucerne, Sesbania, Pigeon peas, Silver leaf desmodium.
11. What are the condition suitable for layering to succeed?
12. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 12

Activity 4.6
A questionnaire for a field trip to a farm where legumes are grown to observe the cul-
tural practices that are carried out:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Which cultural practices are carried out when growing legumes?
2. How many times is a piece of land cultivated when growing legumes?
3. Which type of legumes require a fine tilth?
4. When are the legumes supposed to be planted with respect to the rains.
5. What type of fertilisers are used when planting legumes?
6. What methods of planting are suitable for planting legumes? State the reasons.
7. List all the field management practices that are carried out to maintain legumes
in the field.
8. Find out the diseases and pests that attack legumes in the field and how they are
controlled.
9. How are legumes harvested and stored?
10. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 13

Activity 4.7
A questionnaire for a field visit to a farm growing legumes to observe post-harvest
techniques for soya beans and groundnuts:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. At what stage are soya beans and groundnuts harvested? And how is it possible
to know that groundnuts are ready to be harvested?
2. How are groundnuts and soya beans harvested?
3. Groundnuts and soya beans are handled differently after harvesting. What are the
processes carried out to remove the grains from their pods?
4. Explain the processes the soya bean and groundnut grains undergo before they
are ready for storage or sale.
5. How are the grains of groundnuts and soya beans packaged and stored?
6. How are the storage pests controlled in groundnut and soya bean store to avoid
damage of the grains?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 14

Activity 5.2
A questionnaire for a field visit to an agricultural and veterinary school/a ruminant
farm to observe ruminant species kept in Rwanda:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Name the species of ruminant animals kept in this farm.
2. Which other animal species are kept in this farm?
3. Apart from the ruminant species you can see in this farm, are there other ruminant
species reared in Rwanda and not in this farm?
4. What are the breeds of each of these ruminants can you identify in these farm?
5. Are there other breeds of these species which are not kept in this farm but reared
in Rwanda?
6. Name the other breeds of ruminant species that are kept in Rwanda but not in this
farm?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 15

Activity 5.4 and Activity 5.5

A questionnaire for a visit to a multipurpose farm to observe ruminant (cattle, sheep
and goat) shelters and their standards:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What are ruminant shelters?
2. What types of shelters are used for cattle, sheep and goats?
3. Find out the features of these shelters both from outside and inside. What can you
see about the security, drainage and space allocated for each animal housed?
4. What were the factors that were considered when siting and constructing these
shelters?
5. Observe the materials used for each shelter and find out the reasons for using each
material on; the roof, walls and the floors.
6. What would you say about the ease in which the specific animals use the shelters?
7. How do the materials fit into each other during construction?
8. Make a survey of the area around the shelters and find out how each shelter relate
to the other. Are there any relationship between:
(a) Cattle shed and calf pens?
(b) Goat house and zero grazing unit?

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 (c) Feed store and zero grazing unit?
(d) Zero grazing unit and calf pens?
(e) Farm house and the ruminant shelters?
9. What are the reasons why the ruminant animals need to be housed other than to
be kept outside in the open?
10. Present a written report for discussion.
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 Annex 16

Activity 5.7
A questionnaire for a field visit to a ruminant farm to observe the selection criteria for
ruminant animals:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What are the types of the cattle, sheep and goats which are kept in this farm?
2. Does the farm keep meat and dairy goats? Wool sheep and mutton sheep? Dairy
cattle and beef cattle?
3. Observe the characteristics of each of the following animals and compare them:
(i) Compare the characteristics of the dairy and meat goat. What are the differ-
ences between them?
(ii) Compare the wool sheep and mutton sheep. What are the differences in
characteristics between them?
(iii) Compare the dairy cattle and beef cattle. What are the differences between
their characteristics?
4. Find out how these differences in characteristics between the different types of
ruminants are used in their selection.
5. Present a written report for discussion.
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 Annex 17

Activity 5.9
A questionnaire for a field visit to a ruminant farm to observe feeding of ruminants:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Find out the types of animals kept, are they for dairy or for meat?
2. What types of feeds are given to the meat goats, dairy goats, beef cattle, dairy
cattle, mutton sheep and wool sheep? Are the feeds the same in terms of ingredi-
ents and nutrients?
3. What is the frequency of feeding these animals? Are they the same for cattle,
sheep and goats?
4. What are the main feed ingredients for feeding goats in this farm?
5. Are the goats fed according to type and age? Do they adopt the same feeding
practices for all the goats?
6. What types of feeds are given to the following groups of goats:
(a) Young kids?
(b) Weaning goats?
(c) Adult goats during flushing?
(d) Adult goats during steaming up?
(e) Adult goats during fattening?
7. How are the young goats after being orphaned?
8. What is the importance of feeding colostrum to the young goats after birth?
9. Prepare a feeding plan for the goats according to the age as follows:
(i) Feeding plan for kids.

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 (ii) Feeding plan for weaners.
(iii) Feeding plan for adult goats.
10. Are the nutritional plans for cattle and sheep prepared according to age?
11. What are the following groups of cattle fed on:
(i) Early weaning calves?
(ii) Late weaning calves?
(iii) Heifers?
(iv) Bulls for fattening?
(v) Lactating cows?
12. What are the young orphaned lambs fed on?
13. Prepare the feeding plan for an ewe in gestation.
14. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 18

Activity 5.10
A questionnaire for a field visit to a ruminant farm to observe diseases of ruminants:
Part I: Administrative information:
(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What is a disease?
2. What type of diseases commonly attack cattle, sheep and goats in this farm?
3. Are the diseases common in the area, and in Rwanda at large?
4. What are the symptoms of each disease that you identify in this farm?
5. Does the farm suffer a lot of loss from the animals attacked? Or is the farm able
to contain the diseases?
6. What are the economic implication of these attacks to the farm?
7. Are there diseases that can be transmitted from human beings to animals and
from animals to human beings in this farm?
8. How do they prevent such diseases from affecting human beings?
9. Does the farm get any assistance from the government in terms of controlling
ruminant diseases? If yes, how and what assistance?
10. Are there diseases in this farm that require the whole country to be notified of
their existence (quarantine)?
11. How does this notification take place when such diseases are identified?
12. What are prevalent diseases in this farm and in the area?
13. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 19

Activity 5.10
A questionnaire for a field visit to a livestock farm to observe and carry out sanitation.

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. Find out the daily activities that are carried out in this farm to ensure proper sani-
tation.
2. Are there any disease outbreaks that have been experienced in this farm? If yes,
what would you attribute these outbreaks to?
3. How does the farm carry out practices that keep off diseases? Are there any strict
restrictions to unauthorised persons entering the farm? What about when entering
the animal shelters?
4. Are there any stray animals that come and leave the farm without notice?
5. What are the daily activities that are carried in cattle, sheep and goat shelter to
maintain cleanliness and sanitation?
6. How does the farm dispose of human refuse, animal carcasses, manure and chem-
ical containers which can be a source of infection?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 20

Group Activity:
A questionnaire for a farm visit to carry out sanitation practices in a ruminant shelter:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What type of ruminant animals are kept in this farm?
2. What type of shelters are used to keep these animals? Are they permanent or
temporary shelters?
3. How do you get into the shelter? Are there any restrictions? Any disinfection?
4. What type of cleaning do you carry out when you come into the farm?
5. Describe the procedure you use to clean the area assigned to you. Do you nor-
mally have a supervisor accompanying you?
6. What equipment do you use for cleaning? Do you use any disinfectants?
7. How are the conditions of the animals living in these shelters before and after
cleaning?
8. How clean is the area surrounding the shelters? Is anybody assigned to work on
the compound?
9. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 21

Activity 6.2
A questionnaire for a field trip to a livestock product processing industry and dairy to
observe processed products:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What type of plants are there in this industry?
2. How are the meat products processed?
3. Do they produce other meat products from the fresh meat?
4. Find out the processes carried out to produce dried meat, cured meat and sweet
meat.
5. Find out the dairy products which are produced from the factory.
6. Explain the process of producing each of the following products from fresh milk:
pasteurised milk, Ultra treated milk, ice cream and cheese. Do these products add
value to milk?
7. Present a written report for discussion.

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 Annex 22

Activity 7.2
A questionnaire for a visit to a field day organised by an agricultural institution to
find out how Rwanda farmers respond to challenges they face:

Part I: Administrative information:

(i) Name of the farm to be visited:
(ii) Name of the visiting institution/school:
(iii) Date of travel:
(iv) Purpose of the trip:

Part II: Leading Questions:

1. What are the common problems faced by farmers in Rwanda?
2. How well is the field day attended by farmers?
3. Who invited these farmers and how did they know that there was a field day to-
day?
4. Which type of farmers attended the field days? Are they the learned and elite in
the society?
5. How do the other farmers who don’t attend the field day get the information
shared here?
6. Are there other forums in Rwanda where the farmers express their problems in
family?
7. How do the solutions provided by the Rwandan government and other private
institutions reach the farmers?
8. What solution is given to lack of enough capital to develop agriculture? And
what initiative do the farmers show to solutions such as:
(a) Forming co-operative societies?
(b) Borrowing capital?

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 (c) Seeking for government subsidies?
9. Present a written report for discussion.

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