Concepts in Calculus I

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 Concepts in Calculus I

Miklos Bona and Sergei Shabanov

University of Florida Department of
Mathematics

University Press of Florida

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 Contents

Chapter 1. Functions 1
1. Functions 1
2. Classes of Functions 4
3. Operations on Functions 7
4. Viewing the Graphs of Functions 10
5. Inverse Functions 13
6. The Velocity Problem and the Tangent Problem 18

Chapter 2. Limits and Derivatives 23

7. The Limit of a Function 23
8. Limit Laws 31
9. Continuous Functions 36
10. Limits at Infinity 40
11. Derivatives 45
12. The Derivative as a Function 48

Chapter 3. Rules of Differentiation 53

13. Derivatives of Polynomial and Exponential Functions 53
14. The Product and Quotient Rules 57
15. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 59
16. The Chain Rule 62
17. Implicit Differentiation 66
18. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions 68
19. Applications of Rates of Change 71
20. Related Rates 75
21. Linear Approximations and Differentials 81

Chapter 4. Applications of Differentiation 89

22. Minimum and Maximum Values 89
23. The Mean Value Theorem 96
24. The First and Second Derivative Tests 104
25. Taylor Polynomials and the Local Behavior of a Function 111
26. L’Hospital’s Rule 118
27. Analyzing the Shape of a Graph 123
vi CONTENTS

28. Optimization Problems 129

29. Newton’s Method 135
30. Antiderivatives 142

Chapter 5. Integration 149

31. Areas and Distances 149
32. The Definite Integral 156
33. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 167
34. Indefinite Integrals and the Net Change 172
35. The Substitution Rule 177
 CHAPTER 1

Functions

1. Functions
A function f is a rule that associates to each element x in a set D
a unique element f (x) of another set R. Here the set D is called the
domain of f , while the set R is called the range of f . The fact that f
associates to each element of D an element of R is represented by the
symbol f : D → R. Instead of saying that f associates f (x) to x, we
often say that f sends x to f (x), which is shorter. See Figure 1.1 for
an illustration.

Domain Range
x
a
y
b
z
f

Figure 1.1. Domain and range.

If the sets mentioned in the previous definition are sets of numbers,

then it is often easier to describe f by an algebraic expression. Let N
be the set of all natural numbers (which are the nonnegative integers).
Then the function f : N → N given by the rule f (x) = 2x + 3 is
the function that sends each nonnegative integer n to the nonnegative
integer 2n + 3. For instance, it sends 0 to 3, 1 to 5, 17 to 37, and so on.
In this case, the algebraic description is simpler than actually saying
“f is the function that sends n to 2n + 3.”
The rule that describes f may be simple or complicated. It could
be that a function is defined by cases such as
⎧
⎨ 0.1x if 0 ≤ x ≤ 40,
f (x) = 4 + 0.15(x − 40) if 40 < x ≤ 80,
⎩
10 + 0.2(x − 80) if x > 80.
This example could describe an income tax code. The first $40,000
of income is taxed at a rate of 10%, income above $40,000 but be-
low $60,000 is taxed at a rate of 15%, and income above $80,000 is
1
2 1. FUNCTIONS

taxed at a rate of 20%. The value of f (x) is the amount of tax to

be paid after an income of x thousand dollars for any positive real
number x.
There are times when the rules that apply in various cases are
closely connected to each other. A classic example is the absolute value
function, that is,

x if 0 ≤ x,
f (x) = |x| =
−x if x < 0.

y
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

x
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

Figure 1.2. Graph of |x|.

In this case, f (x) = f (−x) for all x. When that happens, we say that f
is an even function. For instance, g(x) = cos x and h(x) = x2 are even
functions. There are also functions for which −f (x) = f (−x) holds for
all x. Then we say that f is an odd function. Examples of odd functions
include g(x) = sin x and h(x) = x3 .
There are times when a plain English description of a function is
simpler than an algebraic one. For instance, “let g be the function
that sends each integer that is at least 2 into its largest prime divisor”
is simpler than describing that function with algebraic symbols (and
symbols of formal logic). If the sets D and R are not sets of numbers,
an algebraic description may not even be possible. An example of this
is when D and R are both sets of people and f (x) is the biological
father of person x. Note that it is not by accident that we said that
f (x) is the father (and not the son) of x. Indeed, a function must send
x to a unique f (x). While a person has only one biological father, he
or she may have several sons.
Sometimes the rule that sends x to f (x) can only be given by listing
the value of f (x) for each x, as opposed to a general rule. For instance,
let D be the set of 200 specific cities in the United States, let R be the
set of all nonnegative real numbers, and for a city x, let f (x) be the
 1. FUNCTIONS 3

amount of precipitation that x had in 2009. Then f is a function since

it sends each x ∈ D into an element of R. This function is given by its
list of values, not by a rule that would specify how to compute f (x) if
given x.
Finally, functions can also be represented by their graphs. If
f : D → R is a function, then let us consider a two-dimensional co-
ordinate system such that the horizontal axis corresponds to elements
of D, and the vertical axis corresponds to elements of R. The graph of f
is the set of all points with coordinates (x, f (x)) such that x ∈ D. The
requirement that f (x) is unique for each x will ensure that no vertical
line intersects the graph of f more than once. This is called the vertical
line test.

1.1. Exercises.
(1) For each person x, let f (x) denote the birthday (day, month,
and year) of x. Is f a function?
(2) For each person y, let g(y) denote the biological mother of y.
Is g a function? If yes, what is the domain of g and what is
the range of g?
(3) For two people x and y, let us say that f (x) = y if y is a child
of x. Is f a function?
For the remaining exercises in this section, all functions are
defined on some real numbers.
(4) Let f (x) = x + |x|. Find the domain and the range of f .
(5) Let f (x) = (x + 1)/(x − 2). Find the domain and the range
of f .
(6) Let g(x) = x/|x|. Find the domain and the range of f .
x
(7) Let h(x) = x+3 + x+3
x
. Find the domain and the range of f .
(8) Can the graph of a function intersect a vertical line twice?
(9) Can the graph of a function intersect a horizontal line
twice?
(10) An infinite sequence is an infinite array of numbers a1 , a2 , . . . .
Explain why infinite sequences are, in fact, functions. What
is the domain of these functions?
(11) Let f (x) = 3x + 2. Find four points that are on the graph
of f . What can be said about the curve determined by those
four points?
(12) Let f and g be two functions and let us assume that there is
exactly one point (x, y) that is on the graph of both f and g.
What is the algebraic meaning of that fact?
4 1. FUNCTIONS

2. Classes of Functions
2.1. Power Functions. A power function is a function f given by the
rule f (x) = xa , where a is a fixed real number. Note that x−a = 1/xa ,
so, for instance, x−3 = 1/x3 . The special case of a = −1, that is, the
function f (x) = 1/x, is called the reciprocal function. Note that the
rule g(x) = 1 for all real numbers x also defines a power function, one
in which a = 0. If a = 1/n, where n is a positive integer, then the
power function f given by the rule
√
f (x) = xa = x1/n = n a
is also called a root function.

2.2. Polynomials. A polynomial function is the sum of a finite number

of constant multiples of power functions with nonnegative integer ex-
ponents, such as the function f given by the rule f (x) = 3x4 + 2x2 +
7x − 5. The domain of these functions is the set of all real numbers.
The largest exponent that is present in a polynomial function is called
the degree of the polynomial. So the degree of f in the last example is
4. The real numbers that multiply the power functions in a polynomial
are called the coefficients of the polynomial. In the last example, they
are 3, 2, 7, and −5.
Some subclasses of polynomial functions have their own names as
follows:
• Polynomials of degree 0, such as f (x) = 6, are called constant
functions.
• Polynomials of degree 1, such as g(x) = 3x − 2, are called
linear functions.
• Polynomials of degree 2, such as h(x) = x2 − 4x − 21, are
called quadratic functions.
• Polynomials of degree 3, such as p(x) = x3 − x2 + 6x − 2, are
called cubic functions.

2.3. Rational Functions. A rational function is the ratio of two polyno-

mial functions such as
3x2 + 4x − 7
R(x) = .
x3 − 8
The domain of a rational function is the set of all real numbers, except
for the numbers that make the polynomial in the denominator 0. In
the preceding example, the only such number is x = 2.
 2. CLASSES OF FUNCTIONS 5

2.4. Trigonometric Functions Periodicity. The reader has surely encoun-

tered the trigonometric functions sin, cos, tan, cot, sec, and csc in ear-
lier courses. We will discuss these functions, and their inverses, later
in the text. For now, we mention one of their interesting properties,
their periodicity. A function f is called periodic with period T > 0 if
f (x) = f (x + T ) for all x and T is the smallest positive real number
with this property.
For example, sin and cos are both periodic with period 2π, and tan
and cot are periodic with period π. See Figure 1.3 for an illustration.
The reader will be asked in Exercise 2.7.1 about the periodicity of sec
and csc.

sin x cos x
1 1

0.5 0.5

3


3

2
 2

 2 2

2
2
2
32


2

2


3

2
2

0.5 0.5

1 1

csc x sec x

1 1
3


3
3


3

2
 2

 2 2

2
2
2
 2 
 2 2

2
2

tan x cot x

1 1
3


3
3


3

2
 2

 2 1 2

2
2
2
 2

2 1 2

2
2

Figure 1.3. Trigonometric functions.

2.5. Algebraic Functions. An algebraic function is a function that con-

tains only addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and taking
roots. For instance, power functions with integer exponents are al-
gebraic functions, since they only use multiplication, though possibly
many times. Therefore, polynomials are algebraic functions as well since
they are sums of constant multiples of power functions. This implies
6 1. FUNCTIONS

that rational functions are also algebraic since they are obtained by
dividing a polynomial (also an algebraic function) by another one.
The preceding list did not contain all algebraic functions since it
did not contain any functions in which roots were involved. So we get
additional examples
√ if we include√roots, such as the functions given by
the rules f (x) = x + 3, g(x) = 3 x, h(x) = (x + 1)/(x − 1).

2.6. Transcendental Functions. Functions that are not algebraic are

called transcendental functions. These include trigonometric functions
and their inverses, exponential functions, which are functions that con-
tain a variable in the exponent, such as f (x) = 2x , and their inverses,
which are called logarithmic functions. See Figure 1.4 for an illustra-
tion. We will discuss these functions in later sections of this chapter.
There are many additional examples, which do not have their own
names.

y
5

2
2x
1

x log2 (x)
5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4 5
1
x
2

3

4

5

Figure 1.4. Logarithmic functions.

2.7. Exercises.
(1) Are secant and cosecant periodic functions? If yes, what is
their period?
(2) Are f (x) = 3x5 + 7x − 31 and g(x) = (2x + 7)/(3x − 1)
polynomial functions?
(3) Are f (x) = 2x and g(x) = sin2 x power functions?
(4) Are 1/(x + 3), g(x) = (x2 + 3x + 9)/(x3 + 1), and h(x) =
(sin x)/(x + 2) rational functions?
 3. OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS 7

(5) Let f (x) = x2/3 . Is f an algebraic function?

(6) Is sin(3x) a periodic function? If yes, what is its period?
(7) Show an example of a periodic function that has period 1.
(8) Let f (x) = x−2/7 . Is f an algebraic function?
(9) Is g(x) = (2/3)x an algebraic function? √
(10) Show an example of a periodic function with period π.
(11) Is sin x + tan x a periodic function? If yes, what is its period?
(12) Is sin2 x a periodic function? If yes, what is its period?

3. Operations on Functions
3.1. Transformations of a Function. We have seen the basic mathemat-
ical functions and their graphs in the last section. In this section, we
will look at their transformations.
It is easy to see what happens to the graph of a function if we
increase or decrease each value of a function by a constant. Indeed, the
graph of the function g given by g(x) = f (x) + 5 for all x is simply the
graph of the function f translated by five units to the north. Similarly,
the graph of the function h given by h(x) = f (x) − 7 is the graph of f
translated by seven units to the south.
Horizontal translations are a little bit trickier. The reader is invited
to verify that if g is the function given by g(x) = f (x − 2), then the
graph of g is the graph of f translated by two units to the east, that is,
in the positive direction. Indeed, we must substitute a larger number
into g to get the same value as from f . For instance, g(8) = f (6).
See Figure 1.5 for an illustration. Similarly, if h is the function given
by h(x) = f (x + 3) for all x, then the graph of h is the graph of f
translated by three units to the west, that is, in the negative direction.

y
10

7 f(x)

6
f(x5)
5

f(x2)
4

x
2 1 0 1 2 3 4

Figure 1.5. Horizontal and vertical translations of f (x).

8 1. FUNCTIONS

The interactive website http://www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalc

book/translations.html provides further tools to visualize transforma-
tions of functions.
The effect of multiplication and division on functions can be de-
scribed similarly. If f is a function and g is the function given by
g(x) = c · f (x), where c > 1 is a real number, then the graph of g
is simply the graph of f “stretched” vertically by a factor of c. That
is, each point on the graph of g is c times as far away from the hor-
izontal axis as the corresponding point on the graph of f . It goes
without saying that dividing by c > 1 has the opposite effect. That is,
if h(x) = f (x)/c, then the graph of h is a vertically compressed version
of the graph of f . In other words, each point on the graph of h is c
times as close to the horizontal axis as the corresponding point on the
graph of f . See Figure 1.6 for an illustration.
At this point, the reader should stop and think about what hap-
pens if c < −1 is a negative constant. As the reader probably figured
out, the stretching or compressing effect will not change (it will only
depend on |c|), but each point on the graph will be reflected through
the horizontal axis.
y
3

2 f (x)

1
1 f(x)
2
3f(x)
x
1 2 3 4 5
f (x)
1

2

Figure 1.6. Effects of multiplying a function by a constant.

The reader is encouraged to consult the interactive website http://

www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalcbook/squeeze.html for further
illustrations.
Horizontal transformations involving multiplication and division are
similar to their counterparts involving addition and subtraction in that
their effect is the opposite of what one might think at first. If c > 1
and g is the function obtained from f by the rule g(x) = f (cx), then
the graph of g is the graph of f compressed horizontally by a factor
 3. OPERATIONS ON FUNCTIONS 9

of c. That is, each point on the graph of g is c times as close to the

vertical line as the corresponding point on the graph of f . In other
words, if (x, y) is a point on the graph of f , then (x/c, y) is a point on
the graph of g. On the other hand, if h is obtained from g by the rule
h(x) = f (x/c), then the graph of h is a horizontally stretched version
of the graph of f . That is, each point on the graph of h is c times as
far from the vertical axis as the corresponding point on the graph of
f . So if (x, y) is a point on the graph of f , then (cx, y) is a point on
the graph of h. Again, the reader should stop for a minute and think
about the graphs of the functions f (cx) and f (x/c) when c < −1 is a
negative constant.

3.2. Combining Two Functions. If f and g are two functions, then their
sum, difference, and product are defined wherever both f and g are
defined. That is, the domain of f + g, f − g, and f g is the intersection
of the domains of f and g. Furthermore, (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x),
(f −g)(x) = f (x)−g(x), and (f g)(x) = f (x)g(x). Figure 1.7 illustrates
the sum of two functions. We have to be just a little bit more careful
with f /g, since this function is not defined when g(x) = 0, even if
x is in the domain of both f and g. So the domain of f /g is the
intersection of the domain of f and the domain of g, with the exception
of the points x satisfying g(x) = 0. For each point of this domain,
(f /g)(x) = f (x)/g(x).

y
3

2
f(x)

g (x)
1

f(x)g (x)

x
1 2 3 4 5

1

Figure 1.7. Adding two functions together.

If the range of f is part of the domain of g, then we can compose f

and g by first applying f and then g. The function we obtain in this
way sends x to g(f (x)) and is called the composition of f and g. It is
denoted by g ◦ f . Note that in g ◦ f , first f , and then g is applied.
10 1. FUNCTIONS

Example 1.1. Let R be the set of all real numbers. If f and g are
both functions from R to R and f (x) = x2 and g(x) = x + 1, then
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = x2 + 1,
while
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = (x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1.
Note that f ◦ g and g ◦ f are, in general, different functions.

3.3. Exercises.
(1) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 , g(x) = (x − 3)2 , and h(x) =
(2x + 5)2 .
(2) Sketch the graph of f (x) = (x + 4)2 and g(x) = x2 + 4.
(3) Sketch the graph of f (x) = |x + 5| and g(x) = |x| + 5.
(4) Sketch the graph of f (x) = sin(x/2) and g(x) = (sin x)/2.
(5) Sketch the graph of f (x) = |√sin x|. √
(6) Sketch the graph of f (x) = √x and g(x) = 1/ x.√
(7) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x + 10 and g(x) = x + 10.
(8) Sketch the graph of f (x) = cos(2x), g(x) = sin(x − 2), and
h(x) = 3 tan x.
(9) Show examples for f and g when g ◦ f is defined for all real
numbers, but f ◦ g is not.
(10) Show examples when f ◦ g = g◦ f . 
(11) Sketch the graph of g(x) = sin x − π4 .
(12) Let f (x) = sin x and g(x) = x2 . Determine f ◦ g and g ◦ f and
sketch their graph.
4. Viewing the Graphs of Functions
The graph of a function f is the set {(x, f (x))|x ∈ D(f )}. It is
a good way of visually describing what a function does. Today, we
have plenty of advanced tools, such as computer software packages and
graphing calculators, to study the graph of functions. In this section,
we point out a few of the common mistakes in using these tools.
In order to facilitate the discussion, let us agree on some terminol-
ogy. If the domain of f contains an interval I and for all real numbers
x and x in I, it is true that x < x implies f (x) < f (x ), then we say
that f is increasing on I. Visually, this means that the graph of f goes
roughly from the southwest to the northeast while x ∈ I. Similarly,
if, for all real numbers x and x in I, it is true that x < x implies
f (x) > f (x ), then we say that f is decreasing on I. In terms of the
graph of f , this means that the graph goes roughly from the northwest
to the southeast.
 4. VIEWING THE GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS 11

If we simply ask a computer or graphing calculator to plot the graph

of a function without specifying the interval [x1 , x2 ] in which the value
of x can range, we may get an error message, or the computer may
simply substitute default values for x1 and x2 . For example, the soft-
ware package Maple 13 uses the default values x1 = −10 and x2 = 10.
The interval [x1 , x2 ] is often called the viewing window. See Figure 1.8
for an illustration.

0.6
4000
0.4
2000
0.2
10 5 5 10
2000 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2
0.2

Figure 1.8. Viewing g(x) = 4x3 + 9x2 + 6x + 1 with

viewing window [−10,10] and [−1,0].

We have to be careful, however, since not all viewing windows are

appropriate for all functions, and choosing an inappropriate viewing
window may cause misleading results.
For functions like f (x) = x, g(x) = |x|, or h(x) = x2 + 3, the view-
ing window [−10, 10] is appropriate as the behavior of these functions
outside that window is similar to their behavior inside the window.
Now let f (x) = (x + 10)2 . In this case, using the viewing window
[−10, 10], we get the graph of an increasing function. That is misleading
since f is decreasing on the interval (−∞, −10]. So, in this case, a
viewing window that starts at a point x1 < −10 is necessary.
This problem becomes more difficult if we are dealing with functions
that change from increasing to decreasing many times, perhaps in an
irregular fashion and perhaps far away from the origin. For this reason,
it is worth noting that if f is a polynomial function of degree n, then it
cannot change directions more than n − 1 times. If we found all n − 1
direction changes, then we can be sure that we did not miss any of
them. We will return to this topic in a later chapter, when we discuss
the derivative of a function.
The preceding example showed why selecting a viewing window
that is too small can be misleading. The next example shows why a
viewing window that is too large can also mislead us. Plot the graph
of the function g(x) = 4x3 + 9x2 + 6x + 1. Using the default viewing
window [−10, 10], or some window containing that one, many software
12 1. FUNCTIONS

packages will show a graph that increases everywhere and disappears in

a small interval to the left of 0. This should raise our suspicion that the
program does not properly display the graph of g around 0. Indeed,
g is defined for all real numbers, so its graph should not disappear
anywhere. Taking a closer look, that is, changing the viewing window
to [−1, 1], we see a function that is actually decreasing between x = −1
and x = −1/2.
Trigonometric functions, with their periodicity, are particularly
good examples to demonstrate what software packages can and can-
not do. The reader is encouraged to plot the graph of the functions
sin x, cos(2x), tan(x/4), and, finally, sin(1/x) and explain the obtained
graphs. In particular, the reader should try to explain why, for sin(1/x),
the choice of the viewing window is not important as long as it contains
x = 0.
Applications of graphical representations of functions include count-
ing the solutions of certain equations even when we cannot explicitly
solve those equations, and finding asymptotes. A horizontal asymptote
of a function f is a horizontal line y = a so that the values of f (x) are
never equal to a, but get closer and closer to it as x gets closer and
closer to positive infinity or negative infinity. A vertical asymptote of
f is a line x = b so that the function f is not defined at x = b, but as
x gets closer and closer to b, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to
infinity, or negative infinity. For instance, the function f (x) = 1/x has
a horizontal asymptote at y = 0, and a vertical asymptote at x = 0.
We will make these notions more precise in the next chapter, when
we introduce the concept of limits. For now, we can use a graphing
software package to find asymptotes, as you will be asked to do in the
exercises.

4.1. Exercises. In the following exercises, use a graphing software

package with the appropriate viewing window to find the number of
solutions (among real numbers) for the given equation. Also find the
intervals on which the left-hand side is increasing and on which the left-
hand side is decreasing. Approximate the endpoints of these intervals
to one decimal.
(1) x4 − x + 1 = 0.
(2) x4 − 1 = 0.
(3) x3 − 6x + 1 = 0.
In the following exercises, use a graphing software package with the
appropriate viewing window to find the number of solutions (among
real numbers) for the given equation.
 5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 13

(4) x3 − x2 − 1 = 0.
(5) x2 − x − 7 = x3 − 1.
(6) x2 = sin x
(7) x/2 = cos x.
In the following exercises, use a graphing software package to decide if
the given function has a vertical or horizontal asymptote.
(8) f (x) = (x + 3)/(x + 2).
(9) g(x) = 1/(2 − x).
(10) h(x) = x + 1/x.
(11) s(x) = (x − 4)/(x − 3).
(12) z(x) = (x2 + 1)/(2x2 − 3).

5. Inverse Functions
The inverse f −1 of a function f : A → B “undoes” what f did.
That is, if f (x) = y, then f −1 (y) = x, so f sends x to y, while f −1
sends y back to x. It goes without saying that this f −1 will only be
a function if f −1 (y) is unambiguous, that is, when there is only one
x ∈ A so that f (x) = y. In that case, and only in that case, it is clear
that f −1 (y) = x.
Let us now formalize these concepts.
Definition 1.1. A function f : A → B is called one-to-one if
it sends different elements into different elements, that is, if x = x
implies that f (x) = f (x ).
One-to-one functions are also called injective functions or injections.
Visually, no horizontal line can intersect the graph of a one-to-one
function more than once.
For instance, if A and B are both the set of real numbers, then
f (x) = x and g(x) = x3 are both one-to-one, but h(x) = x2 is not.
Definition 1.2. Let f be a one-to-one function with domain A and
range B. Then the inverse of f is the function f −1 : B → A given by
f −1 (y) = x if f (x) = y.
Example 1.2. Let A and B both be the set of all real numbers. Let
f : A → B be given by f (x) = 2x + 7. Then f −1 (y) = (y − 7)/2.
Solution: If f (x) = y, then y = 2x + 7, so y − 7 = 2x and (y − 7)/
2 = x. As x = f −1 (y), it follows that f −1 (y) = (y − 7)/2. 2

The preceding example shows a general strategy for finding the inverse
of a function. Write the equation f (x) = y, with the appropriate
algebraic expression replacing f (x). Then solve for x. If there is more
14 1. FUNCTIONS

than one solution, then f is not one-to-one, and so it has no inverse

function. If there is one solution, then that expression is the value of
f −1 (y).
Example 1.3. If A is the set of positive real numbers, B is the
√ than 1, and f : A → B is given by
set of real numbers that are larger
−1
f (x) = x + 1, then f (y) = y − 1.
2

Solution: We have f (x) = x2 + 1 = y. So x2 = y − 1, and because we

know that x is positive
√ and y > 1, we can take the
√ square root of both
sides, leading to x = y − 1. Hence, f −1 (y) = y − 1. 2

Note that the graphs of f and f −1 are reflected images of each other
through the line y = x as illustrated in Figure 1.9.
Finally, we point out that if f is a one-to-one function with domain
A and range B, then f −1 ◦ f is the identity function of A and f ◦ f −1
is the identity function of B.

y
3

2
f(x)
f 1 (x)
1 x

x
0 1 2 3

Figure 1.9. f (x) and f −1 (x) are symmetric about the

identity function x.

For instance, using the functions of Example

 1.3, for all √positive
real numbers x, the identity (f −1 ◦ f )(x) = (x2 + 1) √ − 1 = x2 = x
holds, and for all y > 1, the identity (f ◦ f −1 )(y) = ( y − 1)2 + 1 =
y − 1 + 1 = y holds.

5.1. Logarithmic Functions. If a function contains only additions, sub-

tractions, multiplications, and divisions, then its inverse is often easy
to compute. Power functions, that is, functions of the form f (x) = xα ,
where α is a real number, are not much more difficult. However, what
is the inverse of an exponential function?
 5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 15

Let f (x) = 2x . It is easy to see, by plotting the graph of f or

otherwise, that f is a one-to-one function whose domain is the set of
all real numbers and whose range is the set of all positive real numbers.
So the inverse of f is a function from the set of positive reals to the set
of all reals. But what is that inverse function f −1 ? By the definition
of inverse functions in general, this is the function that sends 2x to x
for all positive real numbers 2x . In particular, f −1 (2) = 1, f −1 (4) = 2,
f −1 (32) = 5, and f −1 (1/2) = −1. That is, f −1 (y) tells us to what power
we have to raise 2 if the result is to be y. This important concept has
its own name.
Definition 1.3. Let m be a positive real number. Then the inverse
of the function f (x) = mx is called the logarithmic function with base
m, and is denoted by logm .
So if f (x) = xm = y, then logm (y) = x. For instance, log2 (64) = 6,
log3 (81) = 4, log5 (1/25) = −2, and log0.5 (16) = −4.
Logarithmic functions satisfy certain rules that are very similar to
those satisfied by exponential functions and can, in fact, be deduced
from them. These are
(I) log(xy) = log x + log y.
(II) log(x/y) = log x − log y.
(III) log (xa ) = a log x.
√
(IV) log b x = logb x .
(V) aloga x = x.
(VI) loga (ax ) = x.
The last two rules simply express the fact that the functions f (x) =
ax and f −1 (y) = loga (y) are inverses of each other, so their composition
is an identity function.
If we know the logarithm of a number in a base and want to compute
it in another base, we can do so using the following theorem.
Theorem 1.1. For positive real numbers a, b, and x, we have
logb x
loga x = .
logb a
Proof. Start with the identity
x = aloga x .
Now take the logarithm of base b of both sides to get
logb x = loga x logb a.
Now divide both sides by logb a to get the identity of the theorem. 2
16 1. FUNCTIONS

Example 1.4. We can use Theorem 1.1 to compute log16 (256) from
log2 (256) as follows:

log2 (256) 8
log16 (256) = = = 2.
log2 (16) 4
So if a calculator or computer can provide the logarithm of all
positive real numbers in one base, we can compute the logarithm of any
positive real number in any base. For this reason, many calculators and
computers are programmed to work primarily with logarithms of one
given base, namely of base e, where e
2.718 is an irrational number
that will be formally defined in Chapter 2.
The logarithm of base e is so important that it has its own name,
natural logarithm, and its own notation, ln. So ln x = loge x.

5.2. Inverses of Trigonometric Functions. Basic trigonometric functions,

such as sin, cos, and tan, are very important in calculus, so it is no sur-
prise that their inverse functions are important as well. However, we
have to be precise when we define them since trigonometric functions
are not one-to-one. In fact, they are periodical, of period 2π or π, and
so they take every value in their range infinitely often.
In order to get around this difficulty, we will restrict our trigono-
metric functions to just a short interval, in which they are one-to-one,
and define their inverses based on that restriction.
For instance, consider sin as a function whose domain is [−π/2, π/2].
In that interval, sin is a one-to-one function (since it is increasing),
and its range is the interval [−1, 1]. See Figure 1.10 for an illustration.
So the inverse of sin : [−π/2, π/2] → [−1, 1] is the function sin−1 :
[−1, 1] → [−π/2, π/2]. That is, if y ∈ [−1, 1], then sin−1 y is the (only)
x ∈ [−π/2, π/2] for which sin x√= y. For instance, sin−1 (1/2) = π/6,
while sin−1 (0) = 0 and sin−1 ( 2/2) = π/4. Figure 1.11 shows the
graph of sin−1 x.

y
1

x
3


3

2π  2

2 2

2
2

1

Figure 1.10. sin x is one-to-one on the interval [−π/2, π/2].

 5. INVERSE FUNCTIONS 17

y


2

1 1
x

2

Figure 1.11. Graph of sin−1 x.

The inverses of the other trigonometric functions are defined simi-

larly, just the intervals to which we restrict the functions (in order to
make them one-to-one) can change.
That is, cos−1 is the inverse function of the cos function that is
restricted to the interval [0, π]. So cos−1 is a function with domain
[−1, 1] and range [0, π]. Similarly, tan−1 is the inverse function of the
tan function that is restricted to the interval (−π/2, π/2). Its domain
is the set of all real numbers, and its range is the interval (−π/2, π/2).
See Figure 1.12 for illustrations.
The inverse functions of cot, sec, and csc, while not used often, can
also be defined analogously.

5.3. Exercises.
(1) Is there a function f defined on all positive real numbers for
which f −1 = f ?
(2) If we are given loga x, how can we compute log1/a x?
(3) For which values of a is loga an increasing function, and for
which values of a is it a decreasing function?
(4) What is the geometric connection between the graphs of f
and f −1 ?
(5) Is it true that if g is the inverse function of the one-to-one
function f , then g is one-to-one?
18 1. FUNCTIONS

cos x cos1 x
y y


1

x 2
2


2

1
x
1 1

1
tan x tan x
y y
10

2

x x

2 2

5 5

5

10 2

Figure 1.12. Graphs of cos x and tan x with their inverses.

(6) Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = |x|. Is f a one-to-one

function?
(7) Let f : R → R be defined by f (x) = x5 . Is f a one-to-one
function?
(8) Let f : R+ → R+ be defined by f (x) = x2 . Is f a one-to-one
function?
(9) Is f (x) = loga x a one-to-one function on the set of all positive
real numbers?
(10) Express x in terms of y if loga (loga x) = y.
(11) Let us assume that f : R → R is a strictly increasing function,
that is, if x < y, then f (x) < f (y). Can we conclude that
f : R → R is a one-to-one function?
(12) Let f : R → R be a function that has an inverse function
f −1 : R → R. If f is strictly increasing, can we conclude that
f −1 is strictly increasing?

6. The Velocity Problem and the Tangent Problem

6.1. The Velocity Problem. Let us assume that a car was on the road
from 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. on a given afternoon, and it traveled a
distance of 100 miles, all due west. From the data, it is easy to compute
 6. THE VELOCITY PROBLEM AND THE TANGENT PROBLEM 19

the average speed of the car by the formula

s
(1.1) v= ,
t
where t is the time passed, s is the distance covered in time t, and v
is the average speed for the given time period. In physics, when the
direction in which an object is moving is taken into account, we talk
about velocity instead of speed, hence the abbreviation v. In the given
example, all travel was in one direction (west), so there is no danger
of confusion, and we can use either word. Let us assume that time is
measured in hours and distance is measure in miles.
Then Equation (1.1) yields
100 mi mi
v= = 50 ,
2 hr hr
so the average velocity of the car for the given two-hour period is 50
miles per hour.
The car probably did not cover the entire distance at its average
velocity. For various traffic-related or other reasons, it sometimes may
have gone faster or slower. If we want to know its average velocity
for the time period between 4:00 p.m. and 4:10 p.m., then we need
know the distance it covered in that time period. If that distance is
10 miles, then we conclude that in that 10-minute time period, the
average velocity of the car was
10 mi mi
v= = 60 .
1/6 hr hr
If we want more precise information, like the average velocity of
the car between 4:02 p.m. and 4:05 p.m., we can proceed similarly,
decreasing the value of both the numerator and the denominator of
the fraction s/t. However, what if we want to know the instantaneous
velocity of the car in a given moment, such as exactly at 4:02:23 p.m.
(and not in the second that passed between 4:02:23 p.m. and 4:02:24
p.m.)? In that case, a direct application of Equation (1.1) is impossible,
because the denominator t is equal to 0. The numerator s is also equal
to 0, since the car needs time to cover any distance; if it is given no
time, it will cover no distance.
In this section, we will not give a completely formal answer to the
problem of defining instantaneous velocity; we will leave that task to
an upcoming section. However, we will say the following. The instan-
taneous velocity of a car in a given moment m can be approximated by
choosing smaller and smaller time periods containing m and computing
20 1. FUNCTIONS

the average speed of the car for those time periods. These averages will
approximate the instantaneous velocity.

6.2. The Tangent Problem. The problem of finding the instantaneous

velocity of a moving object is simply a special case of a much more
general problem, that of finding the slope of a tangent line to a curve
at a given point.
In the previous problem, the distance the car covered can be viewed
as a function of the time that passed since the car started moving. So
s(t) is the distance covered from the moment when the car started
moving to the moment t hours later. In order to compute the average
velocity for the time period from t1 to t2 , we simply compute the value
of the fraction
s(t2 ) − s(t1 )
.
t2 − t1
This fraction is precisely the slope of the line that intersects the graph
of the function s at points (t1 , s(t1 )) and (t2 , s(t2 )). If we choose t1
and t2 closer and closer together, then these points will get closer and
closer together as well. Finally, if we set t1 = t2 , then we will not
immediately know the slope of the line that touches the graph of s at
the point (t1 , s(t1 )) since we will know only one, not two, point of this
line. However, and this will be made more precise in the next section,
the slope we are looking for will be approximated by the sequence of
slopes of the lines that we got when we chose t1 and t2 closer and closer
together.
Finally, we point out that there is nothing magical about the func-
tion s(t) here. We could consider any function f : R → R, and ask
what the slope of the tangent line to this curve is at the point (x, f (x)).

6.3. Exercises.
(1) A car travels one hour at a speed of 60 miles per hour, then
two hours at a speed of 45 miles per hour. What is the average
speed of the car during this three-hour period?
(2) Consider the car of the previous exercise. What is its average
speed during the first two hours of its trip?
(3) I drove at 40 miles per hour for two hours. How fast do I have
to drive in my third hour if I want to reach an average speed
of 45 miles per hour for my three-hour drive?
(4) A car travels 300 miles on a given day. During the first 100
miles, the car travels at a speed of 40 miles per hour, during
the second 100 miles, it travels at a speed of 50 miles per hour,
 6. THE VELOCITY PROBLEM AND THE TANGENT PROBLEM 21

and during the third 100 miles, it travels at a speed of 60 miles

per hour. What is the average speed of the car for the entire
300-mile trip?
(5) Tim has ridden his bicycle to school, covering a 5-mile distance
in half an hour. Can we conclude that there was a segment of
his ride for which his average speed was more than 10 miles
per hour?
(6) Consider the function f (x) = x2 . Can you find two points P
and Q on the graph of f such that the slope of the line P Q is
between 0 and √ 0.01?
(7) Let f (x) = x and let P = (1, 1). Find the slope of the
three lines that connect P to the points (4, 2), (2.25, 1.5), and
(1.44, 1.2).
(8) Let f be as in the previous exercise. Find the slope of the three
lines connecting P = (1, 1) to the points (0.25, 0.5), (0.64, 0.8),
and (0.81, 0.9).
(9) Let g(x) = ex and let P = (0, 1). Find the slope of the three
lines connecting P to the points (−1, e−1 ), (1, e), and (ln 2, 2).
(10) Consider the function f (x) = x2 . Let P = (1, 1). Can you
find a point Q on the graph of g such that the slope of the line
P Q is 2?
(11) Consider the function g(x) = x3 . Let P = (1, 1). Can you find
a point Q on the graph of g such that the slope of the line P Q
is between 1 and 1.01?
(12) Consider the function f (x) = 1/x. Choose two points P and
Q of the graph of f such that P = Q and the x coordinates of
P and Q are small and positive. What can be said about the
slope of the line P Q?
 CHAPTER 2

Limits and Derivatives

7. The Limit of a Function

7.1. Two-Sided Limits. Consider the function given by the rule f (x) =
1/(1 + x). Let us compute the values of f (x) for various real numbers
x that are close to 0. We find that
• f (1) = 1/2,
• f (1/2) = 2/3,
• f (1/3) = 3/4, and, in general,
• f (1/n) = n/(n + 1).
Similarly, for negative values of x, we get
• f (−1/2) = 2,
• f (−1/3) = 3/2,
• f (−1/4) = 4/3, and, in general,
• f (−1/n) = n/(n − 1).
What we see is that if x gets close to 0 (from either side), then
f (x) gets close to f (0) = 1. In fact, we can get f (x) to be as close
to f (0) = 1 as we want; all we need to do is to choose x sufficiently
close to 0. Indeed, looking at the previous examples, we conclude that
if 0 < x < 1/n, then n/(n + 1) < f (x) < 1, and if −1/n < x < 0, then
1 < f (x) < n/(n − 1). So for instance, if we want f (x) to be closer
1 1
than 1000 to 1, then any choice of x in the interval [0, 999 ) or any choice
1
of x in the interval (− 1001 , 0] will work. That is, any choice of x in the
1
interval (− 1001 1
, 999 ) will imply that |f (x) − f (0)| < 0.001.
This phenomenon, that is, the fact that there exists an interval such
that, for each real number in that interval, the value of f (x) is closer
to f (0) than a prescribed bound is so important in mathematics that
it has its own name.
Definition 2.1. Let f : R → R be a function and let a be a real
number. We say that the limit of f in a is the real number L if the
values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily close to L
when x is suitably close to a without being equal to a.
The fact that the limit of f in a is L is expressed by the notation
lim f (x) = L.
x→a

23
24 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

So, if f is the starting example of this section, then limx→0 f (x) = 1.

Note that the definition of limx→a f (x) requires that f (x) stay close
to L when x is close to a, regardless of which of x or a is larger. That
is, f (x) has to be close to L if x is a little bit less than a, and f (x) has
to be close to L if x is a little bit more than a, though f (x) does not
have to be close to L if x = a.
Several comments are in order. First, limx→a g(x) does not always
exist.
Example 2.1. Let

1 if 0 ≤ x,
g(x) =
0 if x < 0.
Then the limit of g at a = 0 does not exist. Indeed, no matter how
small an interval I we take around the point a = 0, that interval I
will contain some positive and some negative real numbers. Hence, the
values of g(x) will sometimes equal 1 and sometimes equal 0 for x ∈ I,
no matter how small I is. There is no number L such that both 0 and
1 are arbitrarily close to it– in fact there is no number such that both
0 and 1 are both closer than 0.5 to it. So limx→0 g(x) does not exist.
Second, if limx→0 f (x) exists, it is unique; that is, f cannot have
two different limits at any given point a. Let us illustrate this using
the introductory example of this section, the function f (x) = 1/(1+x).
We have seen that limx→0 f (x) = 1. Indeed, we saw that the values
of f (x) can get arbitrarily close to 1 if the real numbers x are chosen
from a suitably small interval around 0. At this point, one could ask the
following question. If 1 satisfies the requirements to be the limx→0 f (x),
why does 1.0001 not? After all, what is close to 1 is also close to 1.0001.
In order to answer this question, we must have a good understand-
ing of the definition of limits. That definition says that if limx→0 f (x) =
L, then the values of f (x) will get arbitrarily close to f (0) if x is chosen
from a suitably small interval around 0. The key word in the previous
sentence is arbitrarily. While 1.0001 is close to 1, it is not arbitrarily
close to 1; it is exactly 0.0001 away. And that is a problem, since we
have seen at the beginning of this chapter that, as x approaches 0, the
values of f (x) will get arbitrarily close to 1. In particular, if x is close
enough to 0, then f (x) will be closer than 1016 to 1, but then it cannot
also be closer than 1016 to 1.0001.
An analogous argument shows that no function can have two dif-
ferent limits at any one point.
Sometimes it can happen that h is not even defined in a, but
limx→0 h(x) still exists. Note that the fact that h(a) is not defined
 7. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 25

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

x2 −9
Figure 2.1. h(x) = x−3
.

is not a problem since the definition of limits specifically states that x

should not be equal to a anyway.
Example 2.2. Let h(x) = (x2 − 9)/(x − 3). Then h is defined for
all real numbers except x = 3. Still, limx→3 h(x) = 6. In particular,
limx→3 h(x) exists.
See Figure 2.1 for an illustration.
Solution: If x = 3, then
x2 − 9 (x + 3)(x − 3)
f (x) = = = x + 3.
x−3 x−3
So if we want f (x) = x + 3 to be closer to 6 than a given distance a,
then all we have to do is to choose x such that |x − 3| < a. 2

At this point, the reader should test his or her understanding of the
material by finding limx→−2 ((x2 + 3x + 2)/(x + 2)).
Sometimes, limits are not easy to determine. Plotting the graph of
the function h(x) = (sin x)/x, we are led to believe that
sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 x

See Figure 2.2 for an illustration.

26 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

However, we have not yet learned the techniques to rigorously

prove this. Plotting the graph of the function or producing more
numerical data should not be considered as a complete answer, since,
as x approaches 0, eventually x and sin x will get so small that the
computer will no longer manipulate them, or their ratio, accurately.

Figure 2.2. Viewing (sin x)/x on the TI-89 graphing

calculator with viewing window [−5, 5] × [−0.5, 1.5].

Finally, we point out that in the definition of the limit, the require-
ment that f (x) get close to L and stay close to L is important. Consider
the function f (x) = sin(1/x) around x = 0. As x approaches 0, the
value of 1/x will increase very fast, and so it will equal a multiple of π
many times. All those times, f (0) = 0 will hold, so f (x) will be as
close to 0 as possible. However, limx→0 f (x) does not exist, since f (x)
will take all other values in the interval [−1, 1] infinitely often as well
as x approaches 0. So the value of f (x) will not stay arbitrarily close
to 0, no matter how close x is to 0. See Figure 2.3 for an illustration.

y
1.0

0.5

x
1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0

0.5

1.0

Figure 2.3. f (x) = sin(1/x).

 7. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 27

7.2. The Precise Definition of Limits. It is time for us to give a precise

mathematical definition of limits. The advantage of this formal defini-
tion is that we can finally do away with the words arbitrarily close and
sufficiently close. The price to pay for that is that we have to use more
notation.
Definition 2.2. Let f be a function defined on some open interval
that contains the real number a, with the possible exception of a itself.
Then we say that the limit of f at a is L, denoted by limx→a f (x) = L,
if, for all  > 0, there exists δ > 0 such that if |x − a| < δ, then
|f (x) − L| < .
See Figure 2.4 for an illustration.

15

10

L
5

1 1 2 3 4 5
a
5

Figure 2.4. As x approaches a, f (x) approaches L.

Example 2.3. We have limx→0 2x sin x = 0.

Solution: Let  be any positive real number. Then let δ = /2. We
know that | sin x| ≤ 1 for all x. So if |x − 0| = |x| < δ = /2, then
|f (x) − 0| = |f (x)| = |2x sin x| ≤ |2x| < 2δ = , as required. 2

7.3. One-Sided Limits. There are functions that behave in a certain

way up to a point a, and then behave very differently after that. We
have seen such a function in Example 2.1. The function g of that
example satisfied g(x) = 0 for negative values of x, and g(x) = 1 for
positive values of x. We have seen that limx→0 g(x) does not exist,
since no real number L is arbitrarily close to both 0 and 1.
Nevertheless, there are weaker, one-sided notions of limits that are
relevant in this example.
28 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Definition 2.3. Let f : R → R be a function and let a be a real

number. We say that the left-hand limit of f in a is the real number L
if the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily close
to L when x is suitably close to a and x < a.
The fact that L is the left-hand limit of f in a is denoted by
lim f (x) = L.
x→a−
For instance, if g is the function defined in Example 2.1, then
lim g(x) = 0.
x→0−

Indeed, if we choose x close to 0 but less than 0, then g(x) = 0, so g(x)

is arbitrarily close (in fact, equal) to 0.
Definition 2.4. Let f : R → R be a function and let a be a real
number. We say that the right-hand limit of f in a is the real number
L if the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily
close to L when x is suitably close to a and x > a.
The fact that L is the right-hand limit of f in a is denoted by
lim f (x) = L.
x→a+
For instance, if g is the function defined in Example 2.1, then
lim g(x) = 1.
x→0+

Indeed, if we choose x close to 0 but more than 0, then g(x) = 1, so

g(x) is arbitrarily close (in fact, equal) to 1.
At this point, the reader should compare the definitions of limit,
left-hand limit, and right-hand limit. The definition of limit (Defini-
tion 2.1) imposes the strongest requirements on the values of f . Indeed,
the values of f (x) have to be close to L when x is close to a and x < a
and also when x is close to a and x > a. The definitions of the left-
hand and right-hand limits impose weaker requirements in that each
definition only requires that f (x) be close to L when x is on a given
side of a and close to a.
It then follows—and the reader should spend a minute verifying it—
that if limx→a f (x) = L, then limx→a− f (x) = L and limx→a+ f (x) = L.
Conversely, if both the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit of
f in a is equal to L, then the limit of f in a exists and is equal to L.
At this point, the reader should check his or her understanding of
the material by considering the function
x
h(x) =
|x|
 7. THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION 29

as x approaches 0 and deciding if the limits limx→0 h(x), limx→0− h(x),

and limx→0+ h(x), exist. It may help to consult Figure 2.5.

2 1 1 2

1

2

Figure 2.5. Graph of h(x) = x/|x|.

7.4. Infinite Limits. In our definitions of limits in this section, the limit
L was always a real number. In this section, we extend those definitions
to the cases of infinite limits. If L = ∞, then the values of f have to
get arbitrarily close to ∞; that is, they have to get as large as we want.
This is the content of the following definition.
Definition 2.5. Let f : R → R be a function. We say that the
limit of f in a is ∞ if we can get f (x) arbitrarily large and keep it
arbitrarily large if we choose x suitably close to a without being equal
to a.
Similarly, if g : R → R is a function, we say that the limit of g in a
is −∞ if we can make g(x) a negative number with an arbitrarily large
absolute value and keep g(x) that way if we choose x suitably close to a
without being equal to a.
The fact that the limit of f in a is ∞ is denoted by
lim f (x) = ∞.
x→a

Example 2.4. Let f (x) = 1/x2 . Then limx→0 f (x) = ∞.

Solution: If we want f (x) to be larger than an arbitrary positive
realnumber N , all we need to do is to choose x from the interval
2
(− 1/N , 1/N ). Then x < 1/N will hold, implying that f (x) =
1/x2 > N . 2

Similarly, if g(x) = −1/x4 , then limx→0 g(x) = −∞. Note that

if the limit of a function at a given point a is ∞ or −∞, then, as x
approaches a, the graph of the function will approach a vertical line
30 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

intersecting the horizontal axis at x = a. This phenomenon is referred

to by saying that f has a vertical asymptote at a.
7.4.1. The Precise Definition of Infinite Limits. The formal definition of
infinite limits is similar to that of finite limits. The difference lies in
the fact that it is not the same to be close to ∞ or to be close to a real
number.
Definition 2.6. Let f : R → R be a function. We say that the
limit of f in a is ∞ if, for all positive real numbers N , there exists
 > 0 such that if |x − a| < , then f (x) > N .
Similarly, let g : R → R be a function. We say that the limit of g
in a is −∞ if for all negative real numbers M , there exists  > 0 such
that if |x − a| < , then g(x) < M .
7.4.2. One-Sided Infinite Limits. One-sided infinite limits are defined in
an analogous way, as we can see in the following definition.
Definition 2.7. Let f : R → R be a function and let a be a real
number. We say that the left-hand limit of f in a is ∞ if the values of
f (x) get arbitrarily large and stay arbitrarily large when x is suitably
close to a and x < a.
Similarly, we say that the right-hand limit of f in a is ∞ if the
values of f (x) get arbitrarily large and stay arbitrarily large when x is
suitably close to a and x > a.
Example 2.5. Let f (x) = 1/x. Then f is not defined in 0. Fur-
thermore, limx→0− = −∞ and limx→0+ = ∞. As the two one-sided
limits are different, limx→0 does not exist.
Solution: We can make f (x) = x1 smaller than any given negative
number M by choosing x from the interval (1/M, 0). We can make
x larger than any positive number P by choosing x from the interval
(0, P ). 2

7.5. Exercises.
2
(1) Find limx→3 x −4x+3
x−3
.
x2 −4x+7
(2) Does limx→3 x−3 exist?
(3) Find limx→0 cos x.
x2
(4) Find limx→0 |x| .
(5) Let f (x) = x be equal to the largest integer that is at most
as large as x. So f (3.7) = 3. Note that f is often called the
floor function or integer part function. Find the values a for
 8. LIMIT LAWS 31

which limx→a f (x) exists. If a is such that f has no two-sided

limits at a, decide if f has one-sided limits at a.
(6) Let g(x) = x be equal to the smallest integer that is at
least as large as x. So g(3.7) = 4. Note that g is often called
the ceiling function. Find the values a for which limx→a g(x)
exists. If a is such that g has no two-sided limits at a, decide
if g has one-sided limits at a.
(7) Does limx→π/2 tan x exist?
1
(8) Does limx→0 |x| exist?
(9) Give an example of a function f such that limx→0− f (x) = 0
and limx→0+ f (x) = ∞. 
(10) Does limx→0  x13 + x12  exist?
(11) Does limx→0 x14 + x12 exist?
(12) Give an example of a function f such that limx→1− f (x) = ∞,
limx→1+ f (x) = −∞, and f (1) is a real number.

8. Limit Laws
8.1. Basic Limit Laws. If f and g are two functions and we know the
limit of each of them at a given point a, then we can easily compute
the limit at a of their sum, difference, product, constant multiple, and
quotient. The rules that provide this limit are given below, and they
are very similar to the ways in which the sum, difference, product,
constant multiple, and quotient of two functions are defined. Indeed,
(I)
lim (f + g)(x) = lim f (x) + lim g(x),
x→a x→a x→a

(II)
lim (f − g)(x) = lim f (x) − lim g(x),
x→a x→a x→a

(III)
lim (f · g)(x) = lim f (x) · lim g(x),
x→a x→a x→a

(IV)
lim (c · f )(x) = c · lim f (x),
x→a x→a
where c is a real number, and
(V)

f limx→a f (x)
lim (x) =
x→a g limx→a g(x)
if limx→a g(x) = 0.
32 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

It is not difficult to believe that these rules are valid. For instance,
if f (x) gets arbitrarily close to L as x approaches a and g(x) gets
arbitrarily close to L as x approaches a, then, as x approaches a, the
value of f (x) + g(x), that is, the value of (f + g)(x), will get arbitrarily
close to L + L . This intuitive argument can be made formal using the
precise definition of limits.
Example 2.6. Let f (x) = |x| and let g(x) = x2 . Find the limits of
f + g, f − g, f g, 3f + 2g, and f /g at a = 2.
Solution: Based on the five limit laws given earlier, it makes sense to
first compute the limits of f and g at 2. The reader is invited to verify
that
lim f (x) = lim |x| = lim x = 2,
x→2 x→2 x→2
and
lim g(x) = lim x2 = lim x · lim x = 2 · 2 = 4,
x→2 x→2 x→2 x→2
where we used the fact that g(x) = x2 = x · x, so law III can be applied
to compute the limit of g at 2.
Now it is simply a matter of basic algebra to compute the five limits
that we have been asked to find. Indeed, applying the five limit laws,
we get that
(I) limx→2 (f + g)(x) = limx→2 f (x) + limx→2 g(x) = 2 + 4 = 6,
(II) limx→2 (f − g)(x) = limx→2 f (x) − limx→2 g(x) = 2 − 4 = −2,
(III) limx→2 (f · g)(x) = limx→2 f (x) · limx→2 g(x) = 2 · 4 = 8,
(IV) limx→2 (3f + 2g)(x) = 3 limx→2 f (x) + 2 limx→2 g(x) = 3 · 2 +
2 · 4 = 14 (note that here we applied limit law IV to first f ,
then to g, and then we applied law I to 3f and 2g), and
(V)

lim f (x)
f 2 1
lim (x) = x→2 = = .
x→2 g lim g(x) 4 2 2
x→2

8.2. Frequently Used Special Cases of Limit Laws. A few special cases
of limit laws I–V are used so frequently that it is worth mentioning
them separately. First, if we repeatedly multiply a function by itself,
we get a power of that function. Applying law III each time, we get
that for all positive integers n,
 n
(2.1) lim (f (x))n = lim f (x) .
x→a x→a
Note that we have essentially applied this rule in the special case
of n = 2 when we computed limx→2 x2 in Example 2.6.
 8. LIMIT LAWS 33

The reader is invited to verify that the limits of the constant func-
tion f (x) = c and the identity function f (x) = x are given by limx→a
c = c for all a and limx→a x = a. Formal proofs will be given in the
next section.
Applying Equation (2.1) to the identity function f (x) = x yields
the equation
(2.2) lim xn = an .
x→a

It turns out (though it is not obvious) that in Equation (2.1) the

exponent n can be replaced by 1/n; in other words, powers can be
replaced by roots, yielding

(2.3) lim n f (x) = n lim f (x).
x→a x→a

(Here f (x) has to be nonnegative if n is even.) So, in particular, if

f (x) = x, then
√ √
lim n x = n a.
x→a

8.3. Other Useful Facts About Limits. In this section, we discuss a few
facts about limits that are often used to compute limits, but are slightly
different in nature from the limit laws we discussed so far.
First, let us recall that the definition of L = limx→a f (x) requires
that f (x) get arbitrarily close to L if x is sufficiently close to a but
not equal to a. That is, the value of f (a) does not have to satisfy any
requirements. In fact, we can change f (a) to anything we want, and
L = limx→a f (x) will not change. What matters is what happens at
points other than a. Hence, we can conclude that if f (x) = g(x) for all
points x = a, then limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x) as long as these limits
exist. For instance, let f (x) = (x2 − 4)/(x − 2) for all real numbers
x = 2 and let f (2) = 2010. Let g(x) = x + 2 for all real numbers. Then
f (x) = g(x) unless x = 2, and hence limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x) = 4.
The statement that if f (x) = g(x) for all points x = a, then
limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x) as long as these limits exist can be sig-
nificantly strengthened. See Exercise 8.4.1 for a possible direction for
that.
Second, Equation (2.2) can be interpreted by saying that the limit
of a power function f (x) = xn at any point a is simply the value of
f (a). Now note that polynomials are nothing else but sums of con-
stant multiples of power functions with nonnegative integer exponents.
Hence, using limit laws I and IV, we get the following theorem.
34 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

Theorem 2.1. Let p be a polynomial function. Then, for any real

number a, we have
lim p(x) = p(a).
x→a

Now recall that a rational function is just the ratio of two polyno-
mials. Hence, using limit law V, we get the following statement from
Theorem 2.1.
Corollary 2.1. Let R(x) be a rational function and let a be a real
number such that R(a) is defined. Then
lim R(x) = R(a).
x→a

Proof. If R(x) = p(x)/q(x), where p and q are polynomials, then

by first applying limit law V, and then Theorem 2.1, we get
p(x) limx→a p(x) p(a)
lim R(x) = lim = = = R(a).
x→a x→a q(x) limx→a q(x) q(a)
2
So far all the relationships that we discussed for limits involved
equations. We will now discuss two rules that, involve inequalities.
Theorem 2.2. Let f and g be two functions and assume that, for
all real numbers x, the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x) holds. Then
(2.4) lim f (x) ≤ lim g(x)
x→a x→a

for any real number a as long as both limits exist.

Proof. If (2.4) did not hold, then
Lf = lim f (x) = D + lim g(x) = D + Lg
x→a x→a

would hold, for some positive real number D. That would lead to a
contradiction, since if x is so close to a that |f (x) − Lf | < (D/3), then,
in particular, f (x) > Lf − (D/3), so
D 2D
g(x) > Lf − = Lg + .
3 3
This inequality says that no matter how close x is to a, the distance
between g(x) at Lg is more than 2D/3. This contradicts the definition
of Lg , since if Lg exists, then the values of g(x) should get arbitrarily
close to it, provided that x is sufficiently close to a. 2
Note that in Theorem 2.2, the fact that the inequalities are not
strict is important. See Exercise 8.4.7 for a relevant question.
 8. LIMIT LAWS 35

Corollary 2.2 (Squeeze Principle). If f , g, and h are functions

such that, for all real numbers x, the inequality f (x) ≤ g(x) ≤ h(x)
holds and
lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L,
x→a x→a

then limx→a g(x) exists and limx→a g(x) = L.

See Figure 2.6 for an illustration of this important principle.

Proof. If limx→a g(x) exists, then by applying Theorem 2.2 to f

and g, it follows that L ≤ limx→a g(x), and by applying Theorem 2.2
to g and h, it follows that limx→a g(x) ≤ L. So if limx→a g(x) exists, it
is equal to L. In Exercise 8.4.3 you are asked to prove that this limit
exists. 2

The squeeze principle is very useful since it allows us to compute

the limits of rather complicated functions as long as we can squeeze
them between two functions with identical limits.

h(x)

g(x)

f(x)

Figure 2.6. Concept of squeeze theorem where f (x) ≤

g(x) ≤ h(x).

Example 2.7. Let g(x) = x cos(log x). Then limx→0 g(x) = 0.

Solution: Indeed, let f (x) = −x and h(x) = x. Then, since cos(log z)
is always a real number in the interval [−1, 1], the inequality f (x) ≤
g(x) ≤ h(x) holds for all real numbers x. Furthermore, limx→0 f (x) =
limx→0 h(x) = 0, so we can apply Corollary 2.2 to prove our claim. 2

We could not have used limit law III to compute limx→0 g(x) since
limx→0 cos(log x) does not exist. You are asked to prove this in
Exercise 8.4.4.
36 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

8.4. Exercises.
(1) Find limx→2 3x2 + 4x + 9.
2 +5x−2
(2) Find limx→3 3x x+1 .
x−4
(3) Find limx→2 √x−2 .
2
(4) Find limx→4 x x+2x+5
3 +1 .
x2 −4
(5) Find limx→2 x3 +8 .
(6) Let f (x) and g(x) be two functions that only differ for a
finite number of values of the variable x. Is it true that
limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x) as long as these limits exist? Why
or why not?
(7) Find an example of two functions f and g such that f (x) <
g(x) for all real numbers x, but there exists a real number a
such that limx→a f (x) = limx→a g(x).
(8) Explain why limx→a g(x) exists if the conditions of Corol-
lary 2.2 hold.
(9) Prove that limx→0 cos(log√x) does not exist.
(10) Prove that limx→0 |x sin( x)| = 0.
3
(11) Compute limx→0 x √ sin(1/x).
(12) Compute limx→0 x4 + x5 sin(ln x).

9. Continuous Functions
Intuitively speaking, a function is called continuous at a point x = a
if its graph in a neighborhood of x = a can be drawn without lifting
the pencil from the paper, that is, by a “continuous” line. The formal
definition of continuity is as follows.
Definition 2.8. A function f is called continuous at a if the
equality
lim f (x) = f (a)
x→a
holds.
Note that Definition 2.8 really requires three things. The limit of
f at a must exist, the function f must be defined in a such that f (a)
exists, and the value of f (a) must agree with the limit of f at a.
If all these conditions hold, then the behavior of f at a is very
similar to the behavior of f around a; in particular, the graph of f can
be drawn without lifting the pencil from the paper. If we had to lift
the pencil from the paper, that would mean that some kind of “gap”
would exist in the graph of f , so the requirements of Definition 2.8
would not be satisfied.
 9. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 37

If a function f : R → R is continuous at all a ∈ R, then it is called

continuous. If f is continuous at each point of the open interval (c, d),
then we say that f is continuous on (c, d). Finally, if you really want
a formal definition, the neighborhood of a is a set S that contains an
open interval (c, d) containing a.
9.0.1. The Precise Definition of Continuity. As the informal definition
of continuity is very close to that of limits, it is not surprising that
their precise definitions are also similar.
Definition 2.9. Let f be defined in an open interval containing a.
We say that f is continuous in a if, for all  > 0, there exists δ > 0
such that if |x − a| < δ, then |f (x) − f (a)| < .

9.1. Examples of Continuous Functions. Let us consider some of the

most frequently used continuous functions.
Example 2.8. Polynomial functions are continuous.
Solution: This is a direct consequence of Theorem 2.1, which we
discussed in the last section. Theorem 2.1 stated that the limit of
a polynomial function at a is equal to the value of the polynomial at
a, which is precisely what the definition of continuity requires. 2

There are many classes of functions that are continuous at every

point where they are defined. If they are not defined somewhere, then,
of course, they cannot be continuous there.
Example 2.9. The following are examples of functions that are
continuous in every point where they are defined.
(I) Rational functions
(II) Exponential functions
(III) Trigonometric functions
(IV) Logarithmic functions
(V) Inverse trigonometric functions
The reader is invited to recall the graphs of each of these functions
and verify that they consist of continuous lines as long as they are
defined.

9.2. Functions That Are Not Continuous. It is time to stop for a moment
and think about functions that are not continuous at a given point a.
There can be three reasons for this. First, it could be that f (a) is not
defined, for instance, when f is a rational function whose denominator
38 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

becomes 0 when x = a. Or it could be that g is defined at a, but

limx→a g(x) does not exist at a. An example of this is the function
defined by g(x) = 1 if x ≥ 0 and g(x) = 0 if x < 0. As we have seen
before, the limit of this function does not exist in a = 0, even if g(0) is
defined. So g is not continuous at 0. Finally, it could happen that h is
defined in a and the limit of h at a exists, but h(a) is not equal to this
limit. That happens, for example, if h(x) = (x + 3)/(x2 − 9) if |x| = 3
and h(x) = 1 if |x| = 3. Let a = −3. Then
1
h(a) = 1 = lim h(x) = − .
x→a 6
The interested reader is invited to think about the following
example.
Excursion 2.1. The following function is not continuous any-
where. Let f (x) = 1 if x is rational and let f (x) = 0 if x is irrational.

9.3. New Continuous Functions from Old. It follows from the limit laws
that several transformations preserve the continuous property of func-
tions.
Theorem 2.3. Let f and g be two functions that are continuous
at a and let c be a real number. Then all of the following are also
continuous functions at a:
(I) f + g,
(II) f − g,
(III) f · g,
(IV) cf , and
(V) f /g as long as g(a) = 0.
Example 2.10. It follows from successive √ applications of the pre-
vious theorem that h(x) = ex · sin x + 3 ln x − x is continuous at all
positive real numbers a.
The following important theorem also holds, though it is not a
direct consequence of our limit laws.
Theorem 2.4. Let f and g be two functions such that f is contin-
uous at a and g is continuous at f (a). Then the composition function
g ◦ f is continuous at a.
This theorem is important since it enables us to prove the continuity
of functions that would otherwise be cumbersome to handle.
√
Example 2.11. The function h(x) = 2 + sin x is continuous at
all real numbers a.
 9. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS 39

√
Solution: Let f (x) = 2 + sin x and let g(x) = x. Then f is contin-
uous everywhere, and g is continuous at all positive real numbers. As
f (x) is always a positive real number, the statement follows. 2

9.4. One-Sided Continuity. A function may happen to be continuous in

only one direction, either from the “left” or from the “right.” Formally,
this means the following.
Definition 2.10. We say that the function f is left-continuous at
a if f (a) = limx→a− f (x). Similarly, we say that f is right-continuous
at a if f (a) = limx→a+ f (x).
Example 2.12. Let g be the function defined by g(x) = 1 if x ≥ 0
and g(x) = 0 if x < 0. Then limx→0− g(x) = 0 = 1 = g(0), so g is not
left-continuous at 0. On the other hand, limx→0+ g(x) = 1 = g(0), so g
is right-continuous at 0.
The reader is invited to verify that f is continuous at a if and only
if f is both left-continuous and right-continuous at a.
We say that a function is continuous on an interval [a, b] if it is con-
tinuous at all points of (a, b), left-continuous at a, and right-continuous
at b.

9.5. Intermediate Value Theorem. Perhaps the most important property

of continuous functions is that they do not skip any values between two
values that they actually take. For instance, if a tree grows from 3 feet
to 6 feet, then there is a time in between when the tree is exactly 4.47
feet tall. The intuitive reason for this is that if there were a value in
between that is not taken by the function, then there would be a gap
in the graph of the function, contradicting the requirement that the
function be continuous. This is the content of the next theorem.
Theorem 2.5 (Intermediate Value Theorem). Let f be a function
that is continuous on the interval [a, b]. Then, if f (a) = y1 and f (b) =
y2 and y is a real number that is between y1 and y2 , then there exists
x ∈ [a, b] such that f (x) = y.
In other words, f takes all values between y1 and y2 on the interval
[a, b].
Example 2.13. There is a real number x in the interval [0, 1] such
that x + ex = 2.
Solution: Let f (x) = x+ex . Then f is continuous everywhere, f (0) =
1, and f (1) = 1 + e > 3.71. So, by the intermediate value theorem,
40 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

we get that f takes all values between 1 and 1 + e on that interval,

including y = 2. 2

9.6. Exercises.
(1) Is e3x+7 sin x continuous?
(2) Is (x2 + 1) ln(x + 1) continuous?
3 2 +3x+4
(3) Is x +2x
x2 +4
continuous?
(4) Where is tan x continuous?
(5) Where is 1/x not continuous?
(6) Where is 5x23x+2
−6x+1
continuous?
2
(7) Where is sin(x ) continuous?
(8) Let f (x) = x. Determine the set of points a for which f
is continuous at a. What can be said about f at the points
where f is not continuous?
(9) Let g(x) = x. Determine the set of points a for which g
is continuous at a. What can be said about g at the points
where g is not continuous?
(10) Prove that the equation x5 −x−1 = 0 has a root in the interval
(−1, 2).
(11) Prove that the equation x3 − 3x − 1 = 0 has at least two roots
in the interval (−1, 2).
(12) Define a function f : R → R that is not continuous in any
point a.

10. Limits at Infinity

10.1. Finite Limits at Infinity. In Section 7, we defined what it meant
for a function to have a limit L at a real number a. In this section, we
extend that definition and define what it means for a function to have
a limit L at ∞ or at −∞.
Definition 2.11. Let f : R → R be a function that is defined on
some interval (b, ∞). We say that the limit of f at ∞ is the real number
L if the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily close
to L when x is suitably large.
The fact that the limit of f at ∞ is L is expressed by the notation
lim f (x) = L.
x→∞

This definition follows the idea of the definition of limits at finite

points. Indeed, in order for limx→∞ f (x) = L to hold, we require that
the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily close
 10. LIMITS AT INFINITY 41

to L if x is large enough. Here “x is large enough” means that x is

in a suitably selected neighborhood of ∞, in other words, in an open
interval (c, ∞). Recall that this is analogous to what we required in the
finite case. There we said that limx→a f (x) = L if f (x) got arbitrarily
close to L and stayed arbitrarily close to L once x was suitably close
to a, that is, when x was in a suitably selected neighborhood of a.
Example 2.14. Let f (x) = 1/x. Then
lim f (x) = 0.
x→∞

Solution: If we want the value of f (x) to be closer than  to 0, all we

have to do is to select x such that x > 1/ holds. Once x gets past 1/,
the values of f (x) will stay between 0 and . 2

The definition of limits at −∞ is what the reader probably expects.

Definition 2.12. Let f : R → R be a function defined on some
interval (−∞, b). We say that the limit of f at −∞ is the real number
L if the values of f (x) get arbitrarily close to L and stay arbitrarily
close to L when x is a negative number with a suitably large absolute
value.
The fact that the limit of f at −∞ is L is expressed by the notation
lim f (x) = L.
x→−∞

Example 2.15. Let f (x) = 1/x2 . Then

lim f (x) = 0.
x→−∞

Solution: If we want to get f (x) closer√

than  to 0 and keep it there,
it suffices to choose x such that x < −1/ . Then x2 > 1/, and hence
f (x) = 1/x2 < . 2

10.1.1. The Formal Definition of Limits at Infinity. The formal definition

of limits at infinity is very similar to that of limits at finite points. The
only difference is in the formal description of what it means to be in a
neighborhood of infinity versus what it means to be in a neighborhood
of a real number.
Definition 2.13. Let f : R → R be a function defined on some
interval (b, ∞). We say that limx→∞ f (x) = L if, for all positive real
numbers , there exists a positive real number N such that if x > N ,
then |f (x) − L| < .
42 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

The formal definition of limits at negative infinity is analogous. The

only difference is again in the formal description of what it means for x
to be in a neighborhood of −∞. It means to be in an interval (−∞, c).

Definition 2.14. Let f : R → R be a function defined on some

interval (−∞, b). We say that limx→−∞ f (x) = L if, for all positive real
numbers , there exists a negative real number N such that if x < N ,
then |f (x) − L| < .

10.1.2. The Graphical Meaning of a Finite Limit at Infinity. If a function f

has limit L at ∞ or −∞, then the graph of the function will approach
the horizontal line y = L at that infinity. The graph may or may
not actually touch that line or even become that line. The line y =
L is called a horizontal asymptote of the graph of y = f (x) when
limx→∞ f (x) = L or limx→−∞ f (x) = L holds.

10.2. Infinite Limits at Infinity. It can happen that the limit of a function
at ∞ is not a real number but rather ∞ or −∞.

Definition 2.15. Let f : R → R be a function defined on some

interval (b, ∞). We say that the limit of f at ∞ is ∞, denoted by

lim f (x) = ∞,
x→∞

if f (x) gets arbitrarily large and stays arbitrarily large if x gets suffi-
ciently large.

Example 2.16. Let f (x) = ex . Then limx→∞ f (x) = ∞.

Solution: In order to get f (x) to be larger than some given positive

real number M , it suffices to choose x > ln M . 2

The following notation is defined in an analogous way:

(I) limx→∞ f (x) = −∞.
(II) limx→−∞ g(x) = ∞.
(III) limx→−∞ h(x) = −∞.
Each of these definitions refers to a fact that the values of a function
get arbitrarily far away from 0 and stay arbitrarily far away from 0 (in
the appropriate direction) if x gets sufficiently far away from 0 (in the
appropriate direction). The reader should test his or her understand-
ing of these concepts by verifying that limx→∞ 1 − x = −∞, while
limx→−∞ x2 = ∞, and limx→−∞ x3 = −∞.
 10. LIMITS AT INFINITY 43

10.2.1. The Formal Definition of Infinite Limits at Infinity. By now, the

formal definition of infinite limits at infinity probably does not come
as a surprise. We are providing a formal definition for one of the four
possible scenarios that can occur due to changes in sign. The other
three cases are analogous.
Definition 2.16. Let f : R → R be a function defined on some
interval (b, ∞). We say that limx→∞ f (x) = ∞ if, for all positive real
numbers M , there exists a positive real number N such that if x > N ,
then f (x) > M .

10.3. Computing Limits at Infinity. The limit laws that we learned for
limits at finite points stay true for limits at infinity as well, provided,
of course, that they make sense. Here are a few examples.
Example 2.17. We have
x+3
lim = 1.
x→∞ x − 4

It would be wrong to argue as follows: “The numerator is the func-

tion f (x) = x + 3, and the denominator is the function g(x) = x − 4.
At ∞, they both have limit ∞, so, by the limit law for quotients, the
limit of their quotient is 1.”
The problem with this argument is that ∞ is not a number. So
∞/∞ is not defined. It is possible for f and g both to have limit ∞
at ∞, and for f /g to have limits c at ∞, for any given real number c.
Indeed, let f (x) = cx and let g(x) = x.
Instead, we can solve Example 2.17 as follows.
Solution:
x+3 (x − 4) + 7
lim = lim
x→∞ x − 4
x−4

x→∞
7
= lim 1 +
x→∞ x−4
7
= 1 + lim
x→∞ x − 4
=1+0
= 1. 2

We would like to point out other pitfalls when dealing with the
application of limit laws and infinite limits. The following expressions
are not defined:
(I) ∞ + (−∞)
44 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

(II) ∞ · 0 and −∞ · 0
(III) 1∞ and 1−∞
The following theorem is very useful when dealing with limits at ∞.
Theorem 2.6. Let r be a positive rational number. Then
1
lim r = 0.
x→∞ x

If r is an integer, then this statement follows from the fact that

limx→∞ 1/x = 0 by applying limit law III (for products) r times. If
r = p/q, where p and q are positive integers, then we can first
√ prove
p p/q q p
the theorem for x , and then, using the root law, for x = x .
Many limits can be computed with the help of this theorem.
Example 2.18. We have
x2 + 3x + 1
lim = 0.
x→∞ x3
Solution: We have
x2 + 3x + 1 x2 3x 1
3
= 3 + 3 + 3,
x x x x
and each of the three summands has limit 0 at ∞ by the preceding
theorem. Hence, by the limit law for sums, so does their sum. 2

Note that the limit would not change if we changed the denominator
from x3 to x3 +3x2 +4x+5. This would have decreased the value of our
function, but would have still kept it positive. Hence, by the squeeze
principle, we can then conclude that
x2 + 3x + 1
lim = 0.
x→∞ x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 5

10.4. Exercises.
(1) Find limx→∞ xx+1
2 +4 .
3x2 +4x+1
(2) Find limx→∞ x2 +5 .
3 +2x
(3) Find limx→∞ x2x+4x+6 .
3x2 +4x+1
(4) Find limx→−∞ x2 −4 .
(5) Let R(x) = p(x)/q(x) be a rational function. Explain how
limx→∞ R(x) depends on p(x) and q(x).
2 −3x+1
(6) Compute limx→∞ x+2 x−3
+ 2x
x2 −2x+1
.
sin x
(7) Compute limx→−∞√ x .
2
(8) Compute limx→∞ xx+1 .
 11. DERIVATIVES 45

(9) Compute limx→−∞ x100x+4

2 −4x+5 .
x3 +1
(10) Is there a real number L such that L = limx→∞ 1000x2 +9x+35
holds?
(11) Compute limx→∞ x−0.1 + x−0.9 .
(12) Does limx→∞ x sin x exist?

11. Derivatives
11.1. Tangent Lines. Let us consider a function, such as f (x) = x2 , and
its graph. Let us choose a point on the graph, say the point P = (3, 9).
Now let us look for the slope of the tangent line to the graph at that
point.
That is, consider a sequence of points P1 , P2 , . . . that are all on the
graph of f and are closer and closer to P . For each of these points,
draw the line Pi P . The slope of these lines will approach a certain
slope, and so the lines Pi P will approach a certain line. That line is
called the tangent line of f at P . See Figure 2.7 for an illustration.
Definition 2.17. Let f be a function and let P = (a, f (a)) be a
point on the graph of f . Then the tangent line to f at P is the line
that contains P and has slope
f (x) − f (a)
(2.5) lim ,
x→a x−a
provided that this limit exists.

1 1

2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2

1 1

(a, f(a)) (a, f(a)) (x, f(x))

(x, f(x))
2 2

3 3

Figure 2.7. Notice that as x approaches a the secant

line approaches the tangent line.
46 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

The interactive website http://www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/

ufcalcbook/derivative def.html provides further examples of this
phenomenon.
Note that in the preceding definition, (f (x)−f (a))/(x−a) is simply
the slope of the line connecting the points P and (x, f (x)).
Example 2.19. In our running example, that is, when f (x) = x2
and P = (3, 9), the tangent line is the line that goes through P and has
slope
f (x) − f (3) x2 − 9
lim = lim = lim (x + 3) = 6.
x→3 x−3 x→3 x − 3 x→3

11.2. Velocities. Recall that in Section 6, we mentioned that the av-

erage velocity of a moving object, such as a car, can be computed by
the rule v = s/t. That is, the average velocity is equal to the distance
covered divided by the time needed to cover that distance. However,
what can be said about the instantaneous velocity, that is, the velocity
in a given moment?
We could not answer that question in Section 6 since we did not
have the tools to handle the fact that when only a given moment is
considered, both the numerator and the denominator of the formula
v = s/t are 0. Now that we have learned about limits, we can overcome
that difficulty as follows.
Definition 2.18. Let f (t) be a function such that f (t) is the dis-
tance covered by a moving object in t units of time. Then the instan-
taneous velocity of the object a units of time after it starts moving is
f (t) − f (a)
v(t) = lim ,
t→a t−a
provided that this limit exists.
Example 2.20. A car starts out by accelerating for 10 seconds so
that the distance covered in the first t seconds is obtained (in meters)
by the function f (t) = 12 t2 if t ≤ 10. What is the instantaneous velocity
of the car after 4 seconds?
Solution: By the definition of instantaneous velocity, we must
compute
f (t) − f (4) t2 − 16 t+4
v(4) = lim = lim = lim = 4.
t→4 t−4 t→4 2(t − 4) t→4 2
 11. DERIVATIVES 47

So, at the end of the fourth second (exactly 4 seconds after starting
out), the car will move at a rate of 4 meters per second. 2

11.3. The Derivative of a Function. The fact that the last two concepts,
the tangent line and the instantaneous velocity, led to very similar
definitions suggests that there is a very general principle at work and
we have seen two special cases of that principle.
This is indeed the case.
Definition 2.19. Let f be a function. The derivative of f at a is
the limit
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim
x→a x−a
if this limit exists and is finite.
So, in particular, f  (a) is the slope of the tangent line of f at a
(unless that tangent line is vertical). Furthermore, the instantaneous
velocity at time a is the derivative of the distance covered (as a function
of the time t needed to cover that distance) at t = a.
In other words, the derivative is a common generalization of the
concepts of tangent line and instantaneous velocity.

11.4. Exercises.
(1) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f (x) = 3x2 − 7
at the point (2, 5).
(2) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x3 at
x = 0.
(3) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x(1 − x)
at x = 1/2.
(4) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x2 at
three different points. Do you see a pattern?
(5) Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve f (x) = x2 + x
at three different points. Do you see a pattern?
(6) Show an example of a curve that does not have a tangent line
at some point a because the limit defined in (2.5) does not
exist or is infinite.
(7) The distance covered by a car in a certain time period is de-
scribed by the function
t2 (b − m)
f (t) = tm + ,
2
48 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

where b and m are positive constants. Let us assume that

t ∈ [0, 1]. Find the instantaneous velocity of the car at a
given moment t = a.
(8) A car is moving at a speed of 20 meters per second when its
driver applies the brakes and the car starts slowing down. The
car stops 10 seconds later. The distance covered by the car in
t seconds starting at the moment when the driver steps on the
brakes is given by the function f (t) = 20t − t2 for t ∈ [0, 10].
What is the velocity of the car t seconds after the brakes are
applied?
(9) Find the derivative of the function f (x) = x + 5 at a = 7.
(10) Find the derivative of the function f (x) = 2x2 at a = 2.
(11) Find the derivative of the functions g(x) = 2x2 + 1 at a = 2
and h(x) = 2(x − 1)2 at a = 3.
(12) Let 
2x if 0 ≤ x,
g(x) =
x if x < 0.
Does f  (a) exist?

12. The Derivative as a Function

12.1. Rates of Change. In the last section, we saw that the derivative
of a function at a given point was a common generalization of the
concepts of tangent lines and instantaneous velocities. We will now
further elaborate on that, in order to understand how far-reaching the
concept of derivatives is.
If f is a function and f (x) = y, then the quantity denoted by y
depends on the quantity denoted by x. This is sometimes expressed
by saying that x is the independent variable and y is the dependent
variable. If x changes, then the change in y can be described in terms
of the change in x.
In particular, if x changes from x1 to x2 , then y = f (x) changes
from y1 = f (x1 ) to y2 = f (x2 ). The average rate of change for the
interval (x1 , x2 ) is then the ratio
y2 − y1 Δy
= ,
x2 − x1 Δx
where Δx is the change (or increment) of x. We have to use the word
“average” since we only have information about the values of y at the
endpoints of the interval (x1 , x2 ); we do not know how f (x) = y behaves
in the rest of the interval. If we want more precise information, such
as the instantaneous rate of change of f (x) = y at a given point, then
 12. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION 49

we have to use the notion of limits again, just as we have done twice
in the last section. That is, at a given point x = a, we define the
instantaneous rate of change of f (x) = y as
f (x2 ) − f (a) Δy
lim = lim .
x2 →a x2 − a Δx→0 Δx

12.2. The Derivative of the Function f . Recall that, at a given point a,

the derivative of the function f is defined as the limit
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim .
x→a x−a
Note that this definition associates the real number f  (a) to the
real number a. That is, f  : R → R is a function. The function f  is
called the derivative of f . The operation that takes f into f  is called
differentiation. This explains the following definition.
Definition 2.20. A function f is called differentiable at a if f  (a)
exists.
We say that f is differentiable on the interval (a, b) if f is differen-
tiable at d for all d ∈ (a, b).
Example 2.21. The function f (x) = x3 is differentiable in every
real number a, and f  (a) = 3a2 .
Solution: We have
f (x) − f (a) x3 − a3
lim = lim
x→a x−a x→a x − a

(x − a)(x2 + xa + a2 )
= lim
x→a
 2 x − a
= lim x + xa + a2
x→a
2
= 3a .
2

The functions we have considered so far had only one independent

variable, usually the variable x. The dependent variable was usually
denoted by y, so y = f (x) held. So it was always clear that the de-
rivative was taken with respect to x. However, there are circumstances
when this is not so clear, usually when f depends on more than one
variable. Therefore, there are additional ways to denote the function
f  such as
• dx
dy
,
• dx ,
df
50 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

• dx
d
f (x),
• Dx f (x), or
• Df (x).

12.3. Differentiability Versus Continuity. The definitions of differentia-

bility and continuity are similar. Which one imposes stronger require-
ments on a function at a given point? The following theorem shows
that differentiability is the stronger requirement.
Theorem 2.7. If f is differentiable at a, then f is continuous at a.
Proof. If f is differentiable at a, then
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim ;
x→a x−a
in particular, the limit shown on the right-hand side exists. Multiplying
both sides by the function g(x) = x − a, we get
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a)(x − a) = (x − a) lim ;
x→a x−a
Now, taking limits at a on both sides, we obtain
(2.6) f  (a) · lim (x − a) = lim (f (x) − f (a)),
x→a x→a
since we can apply the limit law for products on the right-hand side to
get that

f (x) − f (a) f (x) − f (a)

lim (x − a) lim = lim (x − a) ·
x→a x→a x−a x→a x−a
= lim (f (x) − f (a)) .
x→a

Finally, note that the left-hand side of (2.6) is equal to 0 since f  (a)
(x − a) is a polynomial that takes value 0 when x = a. Hence, the
right-hand side of (2.6) is equal to 0 as well, that is,
0 = lim (f (x) − f (a)) = (lim f (x)) − f (a).
x→a x→a

Adding f (a) to both the far left and far right sides, we get that
f (a) = lim f (x),
x→a
which means that f is continuous at a. 2
The converse of Theorem 2.7 is not true. Indeed, the function
f (x) = |x| is continuous at a = 0, but it is not differentiable. The
reader is invited to prove this by showing that
|x| − 0 |x| |x| |x| − 0
lim− = lim− = lim+ = lim+ ,
x→0 x−0 x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x−0
 12. THE DERIVATIVE AS A FUNCTION 51

and hence
|x| − 0
f  (0) = lim
x→0 x − 0

does not exist.

In general, there are several reasons a continuous function may fail
to be differentiable at a given point. It could be that the graph of the
function has a “corner,” like that of |x| at 0, and hence the slope of
the tangent line cannot be defined because the left-hand limit and the
right-hand limit of the lines approaching the purported tangent line
are not equal. Or, it could be that the function has a vertical tangent
line at the given point. See Exercise 12.5.6 for an example of this.

12.4. Higher-Order Derivatives. In upcoming chapters, it will often be

useful to consider not only the derivative of a function but also the
derivative of the derivative and even the derivative of the derivative
of the derivative. These functions appear so often that they have their
own names.
If f is a differentiable function on an interval (a, b) and its derivative
f  is also differentiable on (a, b), then the derivative of f  is called
the second derivative of f and is denoted by f  . Similarly, if f  is
differentiable on (a, b), then its derivative is called the third derivative
of f and is denoted by f  . Higher-order derivatives are defined in
an analogous way, but denoted slightly differently. For instance, the
seventh derivative of f is denoted by f (7) , and, in general, the nth
derivative is denoted by f (n) .

Example 2.22. We have seen in Example 2.21 that if f (x) = x3 ,

then f  (x) = 3x2 . Therefore,

 f  (x) − f  (a)
f (a) = lim
x→a x−a
3(x2 − a2 )
= lim
x→a x−a
= lim 3(x + a)
x→a
= 6a.

So f  (x) = 6x.

In Exercise 12.5.2, you are asked to prove that f  (x) = 6 for all x,
and in Exercise 12.5.3, you are asked to compute higher-order deriva-
tives of f .
52 2. LIMITS AND DERIVATIVES

12.5. Exercises.
√
(1) Compute f  (a) if f (x) = 4x + 1.
(2) Let f (x) = x3 . Prove that f  (x) = 6 for all real numbers x.
(3) Let f (x) = x3 . Compute f (4) (x). What can be said about
higher-order√derivatives of f ?
(4) Let f (x) = x. Compute f  (a) at some point a > 0.
(5) Let f (x) = 1/x. Compute f  (a) at some point a = √ 0.
(6) Let f be defined on the interval [0, 2] by f (x) = 1 − x2 if
0 ≤ x ≤ 1, and f (x) = − 1 − (x − 2)2 if 1 < x ≤ 2. So
the graph of f (x) is the union of two quarters of a unit circle.
Prove that, at x = 1, the graph of f has a vertical tangent
line, that is,
 
 f (x) − f (1) 
lim   = ∞.
x→1  x−1 

(7) Find an example of a function f and a real number a such that

f  (a) exists, but f  (a) does not exist.
(8) Find an example of a function f and a point a such that f  (a)
and f  (a) exist, but f  (a) does not exist.
In the remaining exercises of this section, decide whether
the derivative of the given function in the given point exists
or not.
(9) f (x) = |x|x at a = 0.
(10) f (x) = x at a = 1.
(11) f (x) = ln x at a = 0.
(12) f (x) = 2x2 + x3 at any real number a.
 CHAPTER 3

Rules of Differentiation

13. Derivatives of Polynomial and Exponential Functions

13.1. Polynomials. Let us recall that polynomials are sums of power
functions with nonnegative integer exponents, such as the function
f (x) = 3x2 + 4x + 6. In this section, we will deduce general rules for
the derivatives of polynomial functions. We start by their “building
blocks,” power functions. The simplest of these is the class of constant
functions.

Theorem 3.1. Let c be a real number and let f (x) = c for all x.
Then f  (a) = 0 for all real numbers a.

Before we prove the theorem, we point out that, intuitively, it makes

perfect sense. The derivative of a function f describes the rate of
change of f , but if f is a constant function, then f never changes (it
has zero change).

Proof of Theorem 3.1. We have

f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim
x→a x−a
c−c
= lim
x→a x − a
= 0.

Note that limx→a (c − c)/(x − a) = 0 since (c − c)/(x − a) = 0 for all

values x = a. 2

We now turn our attention to a more general class of power func-

tions, those of the form f (x) = xn , where n is a positive integer. Let
us recall the algebraic identity

xn − an = (x − a) · (xn−1 + xn−2 a + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 ).

Theorem 3.2. Let n be a positive integer and let f (x) = xn . Then

f  (a) = an−1 .

53
54 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Proof. We have
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim
x→a x−a
xn − an
= lim
x→a x − a

(x − a) · (xn−1 + xn−2 a + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 )

= lim
x→a x−a
= lim (x n−1
+ x a + · · · + xan−2 + an−1 )
n−2
x→a
n−1
= na .
2
Note that this agrees with our result from the last section that
showed that if f (x) = x3 , then f  (x) = 3x2 .
It turns out that Theorem 3.2 holds even if n is not a positive
integer. That is, for all real numbers α, if f (x) = xα , then f  (x) =
αxα−1 . We will see a formal proof of this fact later. In the exercises,
you are asked to prove two special cases of this general result.
13.1.1. Three Simple Rules. Derivatives are limits of certain functions,
so it is not surprising that some of the laws governing their computation
are very similar to limit laws. That is, if we know the derivative of f
and g, then we can easily compute the derivative of f + g, f − g, and
cf , where c is a given real number. The rules are as follows.
Theorem 3.3. Let f and g be two functions that are differentiable
at a. Then f + g is differentiable at a, and
(f + g) (a) = f  (a) + g  (a).
Proof. We have
(f + g)(x) − (f + g)(a)
(f + g) (a) = lim
x→a
x−a

f (x) − f (a) g(x) − g(a)

= lim +
x→a x−a x−a
 
= f (a) + g (a).
2
The other two rules and their proofs are so similar that they are
left as exercises.
Theorem 3.4. Let f and g be two functions that are differentiable
at a. Then f − g is differentiable at a, and
(f − g) (a) = f  (a) − g  (a).
 13. DERIVATIVES OF POLYNOMIAL AND EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS 55

Theorem 3.5. Let f be a function that is differentiable at a and

let c be a real number. Then cf is differentiable at a and
(cf ) (a) = cf  (a).
It is very important to point out that the other limit laws do not
carry over to derivatives in the same fashion. That is, in general,
(f g) = f  g  , and (f /g) = f  /g  . We will learn some more complicated
rules to compute the derivatives of f g and f /g in the next section.
Theorems 3.3 to 3.5 enable us to compute the derivative of any
polynomial function.
Example 3.1. Let p(x) = 3x3 + 5x2 − 6x + 8. Find p (x).
Solution: Note that p(x) is just a sum (and difference) of constant
multiples of power functions. The derivatives of power functions are
computed in Theorem 3.2. Then we can apply Theorems 3.3 to 3.5
to get
p (x) = (3x3 ) + (5x2 ) − (6x) + (8)
= 3(x3 ) + 5(x2 ) − 6(x) + (8)
= 9x2 + 10x − 6.
2

13.2. Exponential Functions. Let us now compute the derivative of the

exponential function f (x) = bx , where b is some positive constant. By
the definition of derivatives, we get
f (x) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim
x→a x−a
b − ba
x
= lim
x→a x − a
ba+z − ba
= lim
z→0 z
b z
−1
= ba lim
z→0 z
= ba f  (0).
Several comments are in order. First, note the substitution z = x−a
in the third line. Second, note that ba is a constant that does not
depend on z; hence, the limit law for constant multiples was used in
the fourth line. Third, in the special case when a = 0, the definition
of the derivative yields f  (0) = limz→0 (bz − 1)/z. We used this fact in
the last line.
56 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

In other words,
(3.1) f  (x) = f  (0)bx = f  (0)f (x).
That is, the derivative of the function f is a constant multiple of f .
The constant in question is f  (0), that is, limz→0 (bz − 1)/z. Numerical
experimentation suggests that the larger b is, the larger this limit is.
Graphical experimentation suggests this as well. Indeed, f  (0) is the
slope of the tangent line to the curve of f (x) = bx at the point x = 0,
and plotting f for various values of b suggests that the larger b is, the
larger this slope is.
In particular, it can be proved that there exists a real number e,
close to 2.71, such that
ez − 1
lim = 1.
z→0 z
The reader may wish to consult the interactive website http://
www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalcbook/exponent.html for further il-
lustrations.
Definition 3.1. Let e be the real number such that
ez − 1
lim = 1.
z→0 z
So, in the special case of b = e, Equation (3.1) takes the form
(ex ) = ex ,
since
ez − 1
f  (0) = lim = 1.
z→0 z
That is, the derivative of f (x) = ex is f (x) = ex itself. In the next
section, we will see what this implies for the derivatives of exponential
functions with bases different from e.

13.3. Exercises.
(1) Let f (x) = x3 + 2x2 + 3x + 4. Compute f  (x) and f  (x).
(2) Let f (x) = x4 − 3x + 9. Compute f  (x) and f  (x).
(3) Prove that if f is a polynomial function, then f  (x) is also a
polynomial function.
(4) Prove that if f is a polynomial function of degree d, then
f (d+1) (x) = 0 for all real numbers x.
(5) Let p be a polynomial function of degree d and let k ≤ d be a
nonnegative integer. What kind of function is f k ?
(6) Prove that if f (x) = x1/2 and a > 0, then f  (a) = 2√1 a .
(7) Prove that if f (x) = 1/x and a = 0, then f  (a) = − a12 .
 14. THE PRODUCT AND QUOTIENT RULES 57

(8) Prove Theorem 3.4.

(9) Prove Theorem 3.5.
(10) Let f (x) = 3x3 − 4x2 + x − 2 + 4ex . Compute f  (x).
(11) Could it happen that f and g are two different functions, but
f  (x) = g  (x) for all x?
(12) Could it happen that f and g are two different functions, f 
and g  are two different functions, but f  (x) = g  (x) for all x?

14. The Product and Quotient Rules

14.1. The Product Rule. We mentioned in the last section that, in gen-
eral, (f g) = f  g  . For instance, if f (x) = 2x + 1 and g(x) = x + 2, then
(f g)(x) = 2x2 + 5x + 2, so (f g) (x) = (2x2 + 5x + 2) = 4x + 5, while
f  (x) = 2 and g  (x) = 1, so f  (x)g  (x) = 2.
It turns out that there is a rule to compute the derivative of a
product; it is just a little bit more complicated than the limit law for
products. This is the focus of our first theorem in this section.

Theorem 3.6. Let f and g be two functions that are differentiable

at a. Then f g is differentiable at a, and

(f g) (a) = f (a)g  (a) + f  (a)g(a).

Proof. By definition, we have

f (x)g(x) − f (a)g(a)
(3.2) (f g) (a) = lim .
x→a x−a
The crucial idea is to decompose the difference f (x)g(x) − f (a)g(a) as
(f (x)g(x) − f (x)g(a)) + (f (x)g(a) − f (a)g(a)) in the numerator of the
right-hand side of (3.2).
Using this idea, we obtain from Equation (3.2)

 f (x)g(x) − f (x)g(a) f (x)g(a) − f (a)g(a)

(f g) (a) = lim +
x→a x−a x−a
f (x)g(x) − f (x)g(a) f (x)g(a) − f (a)g(a)
= lim + lim
x→a x−a x→a x−a
g(x) − g(a) f (x) − f (a)
= lim f (x) · + lim g(x) ·
x→a x−a x→a x−a
= f (a)g  (a) + g(a)f  (a).
2
58 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Example 3.2. The derivative of h(x) = x2 ex can be computed as

follows. Let f (x) = x2 and g(x) = ex . Then
h (x) = (f g) (x)
= f (x)g  (x) + f  (x)g(x)
= x2 (ex ) + (x2 ) ex
= x2 ex + 2xex
= ex (x2 + 2x).

14.2. The Quotient Rule. The rule for the derivative of the quotient of
two functions is a little bit more complicated than that for the deriva-
tive of the product of two functions. Though more complex, both the
rule and its proof bear some similarity to the rule given in Theorem 3.6.
Theorem 3.7. Let f and g be two functions that are differentiable
at a and let us assume that g(a) = 0. Then f /g is differentiable at a,
and we have

f g(a)f  (a) − f (a)g  (a)
(a) = .
g g(a)2
Proof. By definition, we have


f
f (x)
g(x)
− f (a)
g(a)
(3.3) (a) = lim .
g x→a x−a
Let us multiply both the numerator and the denominator of the right-
hand side by g(x)g(a) to get


f f (x)g(a) − f (a)g(x)
(a) = lim .
g x→a (x − a)g(x)g(a)
Now transform the numerator of the right-hand side by subtracting
and then adding g(a)f (a) to get


f f (x)g(a) − g(a)f (a) + g(a)f (a) − f (a)g(x)
(a) = lim
g x→a (x − a)g(x)g(a)
g(a) f (x) − f (a) f (a) g(x) − g(a)
= lim · − lim ·
x→a g(x)g(a) x−a x→a g(x)g(a) x−a
 
g(a)f (a) − f (a)g (a)
= .
g(a)2
2
Theorem 3.7 now enables us to compute the derivative of rational
functions.
 15. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 59

Example 3.3. Let h(x) = (x + 3)/(x2 + 1). Find h (x).

Solution: Let f (x) = x + 3 and let g(x) = x2 + 1. Then f  (x) = 1
and g  (x) = 2x. So, by Theorem 3.7, we have
g(x)f  (x) − f (x)g  (x) x2 + 1 − (x + 3)2x −x2 − 6x + 1
h (x) = = = .
g(x)2 x4 + 2x2 + 1 x4 + 2x2 + 1
2
14.3. Exercises.
(1) Let h(x) = ex x3 . Find h (x) and h (x).
(2) Let f (x) = (2x + 7)ex . Compute f  (x).
(3) Find a rule to compute (f 2 ) (x).
(4) Find a rule to compute (1/f ) (x).
(5) Use the result of the previous exercise to prove a formula for
g  (x) if g(x) = xn for a negative integer n.
(6) Let g(x) = e−x . Find g  (x).
(7) Let h(x) = x/ex . Find h (x).
(8) Let f (x) = ex /(x + 2). Compute f  (x).
(9) Let g(x) = (x − 3)/(ex + 1). Compute g  (x).
(10) Let f (x) = (2x + 3)/(4x + 7). Compute f  (x). Try to find two
different ways of getting the same answer.
(11) Let f (x) = g(x)h(x), where g is a polynomial function of x,
and h(x) = eax for some constant a. Prove that f  (x) and
f  (x) are both equal to the product of a polynomial function
and the function eax .
(12) Prove that if f (x) is a rational function, then f  (x) is also a
rational function.

15. Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions

In this section, we show how to compute the derivatives of trigono-
metric functions. First, we compute (sin x) . This will be a somewhat
lengthy procedure, due to the fact that this is the first trigonometric
function we will differentiate and we will have to apply new methods.
However, once we know the derivatives of sin x and cos x, it will be
much simpler to deduce the derivatives of other trigonometric func-
tions, since those functions can be obtained from sin and cos, and then
the various differentiation rules can be used.
Theorem 3.8. We have (sin x) = cos x.
Proof. Recall the identity sin(a + b) = sin a cos b + sin b cos a. We
have
60 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

sin(x + h) − sin x
(sin x) = lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + sin h cos x − sin x
= lim
h→0
h

cos h − 1 sin h cos x

= lim sin x +
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= sin x lim + cos x lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

Note that as, h approaches 0, we certainly have limh→0 sin x = sin x and
limh→0 cos x = cos x, since these functions do not even depend on h.
There remains the task of computing the two nontrivial limits
cos h − 1 sin h
lim and lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

We will carry out this task in two lemmas.

Lemma 3.1. We have
sin h
lim = 1.
h→0 h

Proof. Let us consider a circle with unit radius and a regular n-

gon whose center is at the center O of the circle and whose n vertices
are all on the unit circle. Then the area of the circle is π, and the area
of the n-gon is n · 12 · sin α, where α = 2π/n is the angle AOB, with A
and B being adjacent vertices of our n-gon.
Considering just 1/n of both the circle and the n-gon, we see that
the area of the triangle AOB is (sin α)/2, and the area of 1/n of the
circle bordered by the lines AO, BO, and the arc AB is π · α/(2π) =
α/2. So the ratio of the two areas is
(sin α)/2 sin α
= .
α/2 α
On the other hand, as n gets larger and larger, α gets smaller and
smaller, while the area of the n-gon gets closer and closer to the area
of the circle. Hence, their ratio, sin α/α, will get arbitrarily close to 1
and stay arbitrarily close to 1. 2
Lemma 3.2. The equality
cos h − 1
(3.4) lim =0
h→0 h
holds.
 15. DERIVATIVES OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 61

Proof. We will manipulate the expression (cos h − 1)/h so that we

can use the result of Lemma 3.1. First, we multiply both the numerator
and the denominator by cos h + 1 to get

cos h − 1 cos2 h − 1 − sin2 h

= = .
h h(1 + cos h) h(1 + cos h)

Therefore, we have

cos h − 1 sin2 h
lim = − lim
h→0 h h→0 h(1 + cos h)

sin h sin h
= − lim ·
h→0 h 1 + cos h

sin h sin h
= − lim · lim
h→0 h h→0 1 + cos h

= (−1) · 0 = 0.
2

We can now finish the proof of Theorem 3.8. At the end of the first
displayed chain of equations in that proof, we saw that

cos h − 1 sin h
(sin x) = sin x lim + cos x lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

The previous two lemmas showed that, on the right-hand side, the first
limit is 0 and the second limit is 1, so (sin x) = cos x as claimed. 2

The following theorem can be proved by very similar methods.

Theorem 3.9. The equality (cos x) = − sin x holds.

You are asked to prove this theorem in Exercise 15.1.1.

Now that we have the derivatives of sin and cos, the derivatives
of other trigonometric functions can be obtained by simply using the
quotient rule. The next theorem shows an example of this.

Theorem 3.10. We have (tan x) = sec2 x.

Proof. Note that tan x = sin x/cos x, so we can apply the quotient
rule. This leads to
62 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION


 sin x
(tan x) =
cos x
cos x · (sin x) − sin x(cos x)
=
cos2 x
cosx + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
1
=
cos2 x
= sec2 x.
2
The derivatives of the other three trigonometric functions are given
in the exercises.

15.1. Exercises.
(1) Prove that (cos x) = − sin x.
(2) Prove that (cot x) = − csc2 x.
(3) Prove that (csc x) = − csc x cot x.
(4) Prove that (sec x) = sec x tan x.
(5) Let h(x) = ex cos x. Find h (x).
(6) Let h(x) = ex / sin x. Find h (x).
(7) Compute (sin2 x) .
(8) Compute (cos2 x) . Try to get the same answer in two different
ways.
(9) Compute (sin x tan x) .
(10) Compute (tan2 x) .
(11) Compute (sin3 x) . You may want to use the result of exer-
cise 7.
(12) Compute (cos3 x) . You may want to use the result of exer-
cise 8.

16. The Chain Rule

16.1. The Derivative of the Composition of Two Functions. In previous
sections, we learned how to compute the derivative of the sum, differ-
ence, product, and quotient of two functions. We still do not know
how to compute the derivative
√ of the composition of functions, such as
h(x) = sin(3x), t(x) = x2 + 1, or r(x) = e4x . In this section, we will
learn a rule, called the chain rule, that applies in these situations.
Theorem 3.11 (Chain Rule). Let h(x) = f (g(x)), where g is dif-
ferentiable at x and f is differentiable at g(x). Then h is differentiable
 16. THE CHAIN RULE 63

at x, and we have
h (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x).
The proof of the chain rule is somewhat technical, so we will post-
pone it until the end of this section. Now we will discuss some examples
of the applications of the chain rule.
Example 3.4. Find the derivative of h(x) = sin(3x).
Solution: Let f (x) = sin x and let g(x) = 3x. Then h(x) = f (g(x)),
so, by the chain rule, we have
h (x) = f  (g(x)) · g  (x) = (cos(3x)) · 3 = 3 cos(3x).
2
√
Example 3.5. Let h(x) = x2 + 1. Find h (x).
√
Solution: Let f (x) = x and let g(x) = x2 + 1. Then h(x) = f (g(x)),
so, by the chain rule, we have
1 x
h (x) = f  (g(x))g  (x) = √ · 2x = √ .
2 x2 + 1 x2 + 1
2

Sometimes the chain rule is written in the Leibniz notation, that

is, as
dh dh dg
= · .
dx dg dx
16.2. Two Applications of the Chain Rule.
16.2.1. A Simple Way of Obtaining (cos x) . Recall that in the last sec-
tion, it took considerable time and effort to prove that (sin x) = cos x.
Finding (cos x) with similar methods is just as time-consuming. On
the other hand, the chain rule enables
 us to compute (cos x) faster.
Recall that cos x = sin x + π2 . So we can write cos x as the com-
position of two functions, namely cos x = f (g(x)), with f (x) = sin x
and g(x) = x + π2 . So the chain rule applies, and we get
(cos x) = f  (g(x)) · g  (x)
 π
= cos x + ·1
2
π π
= cos x cos − sin x sin
2 2
= 0 − sin x
= − sin x.
64 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

16.2.2. The Derivatives of Exponential Functions. Recall that we de-

fined the number e such that the derivative of the exponential function
f (x) = ex was f (x) itself. Now the chain rule enables us to compute
the derivatives of exponential functions with any base.
Theorem 3.12. Let a be a positive real number and let h(x) = ax .
Then we have
h (x) = ax ln a.
Proof. Note that
h(x) = ax = (eln a )x = ex ln a .
So we have succeeded in writing h as the composition of two functions,
namely h(x) = f (g(x)), where f (x) = ex and g(x) = x ln a. Therefore,
the chain rule applies, and we get
h (x) = f  (g(x)) · g  (x) = ex ln a · ln a = ax ln a.
2

16.3. Proof of the Chain Rule. It is time that we proved the chain rule.
Proof of Theorem 3.11. As g is differentiable at x, we know
that

g(x + r) − g(x) 
(3.5) lim − g (x) = 0.
r→0 r
Set
g(x + r) − g(x)
t= − g  (x).
r
Note that t depends on r, and as r approaches 0, t approaches 0.
Similarly, let y = g(x). As f is differentiable at y, we have

f (y + s) − f (y) 
(3.6) lim − f (y) = 0.
s→0 s
Set
f (y + s) − f (y)
u= − f  (y).
s
Again, note that u depends on s and that u approaches 0 as s ap-
proaches 0.
Now we undertake a series of manipulations of the preceding two
equations. Our goal is to express
f (g(x + r)) − f (g(x))
f (g(x)) = lim
r→0 r
 
in terms of f (g(x)) and g (x).
 16. THE CHAIN RULE 65

Rearranging the equation that defines the variable t that we just

introduced, we get
(3.7) g(x + r) = g(x) + (g  (x) + t)r.
Similarly, rearranging the equation that defines the variable u, we get
(3.8) f (y + s) = f (y) + (f  (y) + u)s.
Now apply the function f to both sides of (3.7) to get
(3.9) f (g(x + r)) = f (g(x) + (g  (x) + t)r) .
Observe that (3.8) holds for all y and s, so, in particular, it holds
when y = g(x) and s = (g  (x) + t)r. Making these substitutions in
(3.8), Equation (3.9) yields
(3.10) f (g(x + r)) = f (g(x) + (g  (x) + t)r)
(3.11) = f (g(x)) + (f  (g(x)) + u) · (g  (x) + u)r.
We can now express the quotient (f (g(x + r)) − f (g(x)))/r from
the equality of the left-hand side of (3.10) and the expression in (3.11) as
f (g(x + r)) − f (g(x)) (f  (g(x)) + u)(g  (x) + t)r
=
r r
= (f (g(x)) + u) (g  (x) + t).


Finally, we are in a position to compute the derivative we were

looking for as the limit of the left-hand side as r approaches 0. We get
f (g(x + r)) − f (g(x))
lim = lim (f  (g(x)) + u)(g  (x) + t)
r→0 r r→0
   
 
= lim f (g(x)) + lim u · lim g (x) + lim t
r→0 r→0 r→0 r→0
= f  (g(x)) · g  (x)
since both t and u approach 0 as r approaches 0. 2

16.4. Exercises.
(1) Let h(x) = (x2 + 1)5 . Find h (x).
(2) Let h(x) = sin(x2 ). Find h (x).
(3) Let h(x) = sin3 x. Find h (x). Compare your result to the
result of exercise 11 of the previous section. Which other ex-
ercises of the previous section can be solved by the chain rule?
(4) Let f (x) = 2x + 3x . Find f  (x).
(5) Let h(x) = esin x . Find h (x).
2
(6) Let h(x) = ex sin x . Find h (x).
66 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

(7) Let h(x) = sin(2x). Find h (x). How could you get the same
result without using the chain rule?
(8) Let h(x) = cos(2x). Find h (x). How could you get the same
result without using the chain rule?
2
(9) Let h(x) = 2x . Find h (x).
(10) Let h(x) = 1/(1 − x). Find h (x).
(11) Let h(x) = √ln(1/(1 − x)). Find h (x).
(12) Let h(x) = 1 − x2 . Find h (x).

17. Implicit Differentiation

In the last several sections, we computed the derivatives of many
different functions. Although these functions were different, they had
one important feature in common. They were explicitly given. That
is, they were given by a rule that directly described how f (x) = y is
obtained from x.

17.1. Tangent Lines to Implicitly Defined Curves. Sometimes we have to

deal with curves that are given by a different kind of rule. Consider
the curve given by the equation
(3.12) x3 + y 3 = 4xy.
Let us say that we want to compute the slope of the tangent line
to this curve at the point (2, 2). If we could express y as a function
of x, we could simply take the derivative of that function at x = 2.
However, it is not clear how to write y explicitly in terms of x, even if
(3.12) implicitly describes this dependence.
It is in these situations that we resort to implicit differentiation.
Keep in mind that we do not need to explicitly know how y depends
on x, that is, we do not need an explicit expression for the function
y(x); we only need to know the derivative dy/dx of that function at
x = 2.
Consider Equation (3.12), and differentiate both sides with respect
to the variable x to get
d  3  d
x + y3 = (4xy).
dx dx
Now recall that y = y(x) is a function of x. So, when computing
(d/dx)y 3 on the left-hand side, we need to use the chain rule. On the
right-hand side, we need to use the product rule. Using these rules,
we get
dy dy
3x2 + 3y 2 = 4y + 4x .
dx dx
 17. IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION 67

Expressing dy/dx from this equation, we get

dy (4y − 3x2 )
= .
dx (3y 2 − 4x)
At the point (2, 2), the right-hand side is −4/4 = −1, so the slope of
the tangent line at (2, 2) is −1.
Note that the fact that the tangent line at (2, 2) has slope −1 makes
(intuitively) perfect sense, since the curve in question is symmetric in
x and y. That is, if (x, y) is on the curve, then (y, x) is also on the
curve.

17.2. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions. One place where

implicit differentiation is a very powerful tool is in the computation of
the derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions. Recall that tan−1 x =
y is the function that is the inverse of the restriction of the function
tan x to the interval (−π/2, π/2). That is, if
tan−1 x = y,
then
(3.13) x = tan y,
where y ∈ (−π/2, π/2).
Our goal is to determine
d dy
tan−1 x = .
dx dx
To that end, let us take the derivative of both sides of (3.13) with
respect to x. Recalling that
d
tan z = sec2 z and y = y(x),
dz
we get
dy
1 = sec2 y · .
dx
Solving for dy/dx and recalling the identity sec2 z = 1 + tan2 z, we
obtain
dy 1 1 1
= 2
= 2
= .
dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2
In other words, we proved the suprisingly simple formula
1
(tan−1 x) = .
1 + x2
This formula is interesting for two reasons. First, it is surprisingly sim-
ple. Second, it does not even contain trigonometric functions. Imagine
68 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

trying to get this result without implicit differentiation, using just the
definition of derivatives.
You will be asked to compute the derivatives of the other inverse
trigonometric functions in the exercises.

17.3. Exercises.
(1) Let C be the circle given by the equation x2 + y 2 = 169. Use
implicit differentiation to find the slope of the tangent line to
C at the point (5, 12).
(2) Prove that (sin−1 x) = √1−x 1
2.
−1 
(3) Prove that (cos x) = − 1−x2 . √ 1

(4) Prove that (cot−1 x) = − 1+x 1

2.
−1  1
(5) Prove that (sec x) = x√x2 −1 .
(6) Prove that (csc−1 x) = − x√x12 −1 .

(7) Compute (cos−1 (2x + 0.1)) .

(8) Compute sin−1 (x2 ) .
 −1 
(9) Compute sin (1/x) .

(10) Compute (tan−1 (2x)) .

(11) Compute (csc−1 (x/3)) .

(12) Compute (sec−1 (x − 0.01)) .

18. Derivatives of Logarithmic Functions

18.1. The Formula for (loga x) . As another powerful application of im-
plicit differentiation, we compute the derivative of the function f (x) =
ln x.
Theorem 3.13. We have
1
(ln x) =.
x
Proof. Set y = ln x. Then ey = x. Differentiating both sides with
respect to x, we get
dy
ey · = 1,
dx
dy 1
= y.
dx e
y
However, e = x by definition, so
dy 1
=
dx x
as claimed. 2
 18. DERIVATIVES OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 69

It is now a breeze to determine the derivative of logarithmic func-

tions of any base.
Corollary 3.1. Let a = 1 be a fixed positive real number. Then
1
(loga x) = .
x ln a
Proof. Note that
 log x
x = eln a a = e(ln a)(loga x) .
So ln x = (ln a)(loga x) and
ln x
f (x) = loga x = .
ln a
As ln a is a constant, it follows that
1 1
f  (x) = (ln x) =
ln a x ln a
as claimed. 2

18.2. The Chain Rule and ln x. An interesting consequence of

Theorem 3.13 is the following.
Corollary 3.2. Let f (x) be a differentiable function that takes
positive values only. Then
d f  (x)
ln f (x) = .
dx f (x)
Proof. By the chain rule,
d d df f  (x)
ln f = · = .
dx df dx f (x)
2
Example 3.6. Let f (x) = cos x. Then
d − sin x
ln(cos x) = = − tan x.
dx cos x
18.3. Logarithmic Differentiation. Sometimes we need to compute the
derivative of a complicated product. This is sometimes easier by taking
the logarithm of the product, which will be a sum, and using implicit
differentiation. This procedure, which is called logarithmic differenti-
ation, has the inherent advantage that it deals with sums instead of
products, and sums are much easier to differentiate than products.
70 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Example 3.7. Let √

x3 x + 1
y= √ .
x−2
Compute dy/dx.
Solution: Taking logarithms, we get
1 1
ln y = 3 ln x + ln(x + 1) − ln(x − 2).
2 2
Now taking derivatives with respect to x and using Corollary 3.2, we
have
dy 1 3 1 1
· = + − .
dx y x 2(x + 1) 2(x − 2)
Finally, we can solve this equation for dy/dx to get

dy 3 1 1
=y + −
dx x 2(x + 1) 2(x − 2)
√

x3 x + 1 3 1 1
= √ · + − .
x−2 x 2(x + 1) 2(x − 2)
2

18.4. Power Functions Revisited. Recall that in an earlier section, we

proved that if n is a fixed positive integer, then (xn ) xn−1 . We stated
that this was the case for all real numbers n, not just positive integers,
but we have not proved that claim. Now we have the tools, namely
logarithmic differentiation, to prove it.
Theorem 3.14. Let n be any real number. Then we have
d n
x = nxn−1 .
dx
n
Proof. Set y = x . Let us assume for the case of simplicity that
x is positive. Taking logarithms, we have
ln y = n ln x.
Differentiating both sides with respect to x, we get
dy 1 n
· = .
dx y x
Solving for dy/dx yields
dy ny nxn
= = = nxn−1
dx x x
as claimed. 2
 19. APPLICATIONS OF RATES OF CHANGE 71

18.5. The Number e Revisited. Recall that we have defined the num-
ber e, the base of the natural logarithm, as the number for which
limh→0 (eh − 1)/h = 1. Our new knowledge lets us express e more di-
rectly, as a limit.
Note that if f (x) = ln x, then f  (x) = 1/x, so f  (1) = 1. By the
definition of derivatives, this means that
ln(1 + h) − ln 1
lim = 1.
h→0 h
Observing that ln 1 = 0 and using the power rule of logarithms, we get
lim ln(1 + h)1/h = 1,
h→0
or, applying the exponential function ez to both sides, we have
lim (1 + h)1/h = e.
h→0

Equivalently, setting x = 1/h, we get

x
1
lim 1 + = e.
x→∞ x
Either of the last two formulas can help to determine the approximate
value 2.712828 of e.

18.6. Exercises.
d
√
(1) Compute dx ln( x + 1).
(2) Compute (ln|x|) .
(3) Compute (xx ) . √
3
(4) Compute f  (x) if f (x) = x4 x+1x+4
.
 
1 2x
(5) Compute limx→∞  −11 + x .
(6) Let h(x) = ln sin x . Compute h (x).
(7) Let h(x) = sin−1 (ln x). Compute h (x).
(8) Let h(x) = 4−x √
. Compute h (x).
(9) Let h(x) = 2 x . Compute h (x).
(10) Let h(x) = esin x . Compute h (x).
(11) Use logarithmic differentiation to find y  (x) = dy/dx if y(x) =
xln x .
(12) Use
√
logarithmic differentiation to find y  (x) = dy/dx if y(x) =
3x
x .

19. Applications of Rates of Change

In this section, we consider a few applications of derivatives in var-
ious disciplines.
72 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

19.1. Physics. Recall that if an object moves along a line and the
distance it covers in time t is described by the function s(t), then
ds s(t + h) − s(t)
(3.14) v(t) = = s (t) = lim
dt h→0 h
is the instantaneous velocity of the object at time t.
We can take this concept one step further. If the object moves at
a changing velocity, then the rate of change of the velocity itself can
be important information. For instance, when considering a vehicle’s
performance, we may be interested in how fast it can reach its top
speed, not only what its top speed is.
The corresponding notion in physics is called acceleration, and is
denoted by a(t). That is, keeping the previous notation, we have
dv
(3.15) a(t) = v  (t) = = s (t).
dt
Example 3.8. The position of a particle is described by the equation
1
(3.16) s(t) = t3 − 3t2 + 5t.
3
Here s is measured in meters and t in seconds.
(I) What is the velocity of the particle after 3 seconds?
(II) Find the acceleration of the particle after 10 seconds.
(III) When does the particle move backward?
Additional questions about the movement of this particle will be
given in the exercises.
Solution:
(I) The velocity of the particle is described by the function v(t) =
s (t) = t2 − 6t + 5. This yields v(3) = 9 − 18 + 5 = −4. So
the velocity of the particle after 3 seconds is −4 m/s, meaning
that the particle is moving backward at a speed of 4 meters
per second after 3 seconds.
(II) The acceleration of the particle is given by the formula a(t) =
v  (t) = 2t − 6. So, after 10 seconds, the particle is accelerating
at 14 m/s2 .
(III) The particle is moving backward when its velocity v(t) is nega-
tive. That happens when v(t) = t2 −6t+5 = (t−1)(t−5) < 0,
that is, when t ∈ (1, 5). In other words, the particle is moving
backward between the first and fifth seconds. 2
 19. APPLICATIONS OF RATES OF CHANGE 73

19.2. Economics. Let us say that a company estimates that it costs

C(x) dollars to produce x units of a new product. It is often the case
that C(x), which is called the cost function, can be described by a
polynomial function, such as
C(x) = a + bx + cx2 + dx3 .
The reason for this is as follows. There will be some costs, such as
designing the product and obtaining permits, that will be present re-
gardless of the number of units produced. These will be represented by
the constant term a. Then there will be costs, such as renting a location
and buying supplies, that will be more or less in direct proportion to
the number of units produced. These will be represented by the linear
term bx. Then there will be other factors, such as hiring workers, mar-
keting the product, and organizing production, that will be in direct
proportion to a higher power of x as the differences in size turn into
differences in kind. Taxes may factor in at an even higher rate.
Because the cost function C(x) is not a linear polynomial, producing
the 1001st unit does not cost of the same as producing the first unit
or the 5001st unit. The cost of increasing production from n units to
n + 1 units, in other words, the cost of producing the (n + 1)th unit,
can be computed by the formula
M (n) = C(n + 1) − C(n).
The marginal cost function C  (x) describes how the cost function
changes. In that, C  (x) and M (n) are similar. There is one important
difference. As we know, the derivative C  (x) is given by
C(x + Δx) − C(x)
(3.17) lim .
Δx→0 Δx
However, it could well be that the smallest meaningful positive value
of Δx is 1, in case the products are such that fractional units do not
make sense (e.g., automobiles). In that case, Δx → 0 is impossible
in its precise mathematical meaning; the closest that Δx can get to
0 is when Δx = 1. In that case, however, the expression after the
limit symbol in (3.17) simplifies to C(x + 1) − C(x), justifying the
approximation
(3.18) M (x) = C(x + 1) − C(x) ≈ C  (x).
Example 3.9. The cost function of a bottle of a new medication is
given by C(x) = 106 +20x+0.001x2 +0.000001x3 . Find the approximate
cost of producing the 101st and the 1001st bottles.
74 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Solution: By the preceding discussion, we need to compute the func-

tion C  (x). By the rules of differentiating a polynomial function, we
get C  (x) = 0.000003x2 + 0.002x + 20. So the 101st bottle costs
0.0003 · 1002 + 0.002 · 100 + 20 = 20.23 dollars to produce, while the
1001st bottle costs 0.000003 · 10002 + 0.002 · 1002 + 20 = 43 dollars to
produce. 2

It is important to note that the result of the previous example, that

is, the fact that it costs more to produce the 1001st bottle than the
101st bottle does not mean that the more bottles are produced, the
more expensive it is to produce the average bottle. This is because
the cost of producing the first bottle is astronomical, since C(1) > 106 .
Compared to that, the cost of each of the first thousand, or even, first
ten thousand bottles is very small, so the production of each of them
will bring the cost of producing the average bottle down. (The cost
of producing the average bottle if n bottles are produced is of course
C(n)/n.)
In the exercises, you are asked to compare these results to the results
obtained by using the formula C(n + 1) − C(n).

19.3. Exercises.
(1) Consider the particle of Example 3.8. After 6 seconds, how far
from its starting point is that particle? In what direction?
(2) Consider the particle of the previous exercise. Are there any
moments when the particle is not moving?
(3) The location of an object moving vertically is described by the
2
function s(t) = t − t5 for t ∈ [0, 5], where time is measured
in seconds and distance is measured in meters. When will the
object have an instantaneous velocity of 0.2 m/s?
(4) Consider the object of the previous exercise. When does it
have the greatest speed going up? When does it have the
greatest speed going down?
(5) Consider the particle of the previous exercise. Will its accel-
eration ever be 1 m/s2 ?
(6) Consider the particle of the previous exercise. When will its
acceleration be negative?
(7) Use the formula M (n) = C(n + 1) − C(n) to find the cost of
producing the 101st and 1001st units in Example 3.9. Com-
pare your results with the estimates that we found using the
function C  (x).
(8) Two race cars speed up from a standing start to 60 m/s so
that each car has constant acceleration. The first car reaches
 20. RELATED RATES 75

one-third of its top velocity in 4 seconds, while the second car

reaches one-fourth of its top velocity in 3 seconds. Which car
will have covered more distance by the time it reaches its top
velocity?
(9) The cost function for a company to produce x laptops is
C(x) = 1500 + 2x + 0.4x2 + 0.01x3 . Find the marginal cost
function for this product.
(10) Consider the cost function of the previous exercise. Explain
the meaning of C  (200).
(11) A certain insect population has been exposed to an insecticide,
which resulted in the population changing according to the
function f (t) = 10,000 − 1000t − 500t2 , where t is measured in
hours. Find the growth rate of the insect population after one
hour and after five hours.
20. Related Rates
20.1. Preliminaries. An intuitive idea of the notion of related rates
comes from a simple fact of everyday life: If there are two related quan-
tities that are changing with time, then their rates of change should
also be related. For example, the volume V of water in a pool of area
20 m2 is related to the water level h (the pool depth in meters) as
V = 20 h. Suppose the water level is low and needs to be increased. A
hose is put into the pool that can pump water at a rate of 0.2 m3 /h.
At what rate does the water level increase? The volume and the water
level are both functions of time, V = V (t) and h = h(t). For every
instance of time t, their values are related as V (t) = 20h(t) and so
must be their derivatives or rates of change:
(3.19) V (t) = 20h(t) =⇒ V  (t) = 20h (t) .
Now the question is easy to answer. Since V  (t) = 0.2 m3 /h, h (t) =
V  (t)/20 = 0.01 m/h = 1 cm/h. The water level rises by 1 cm every
hour. A somewhat practical estimate! You would know exactly when
to come back and turn off the water if you needed an inch or so of the
water level increase. Apparently, the same idea of related rates would
work for lowering the water level after rain.

20.2. Units. It is important to bring all the quantities to the same

system of units. For example, in the above problem the pool area
is often given in square feet, for example, 200 ft2 , while the pump-
ing rate is given in gallons per hour, for example, V  = 60 gal/h.
One gallon is 3.785 · 10−3 m3 and therefore V  = 60 · 3.785 · 10−3 =
0.2271 m3 /h. One square foot is 9.29 · 10−2 m2 , so the pool area is
76 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

200 · 9.29 · 10−2 = 18.58 m2 . Hence, h = 0.2271/18.58 ≈ 1.2 cm/h.

In 1999, NASA lost a $125 million Mars orbiter because a Lockheed
Martin engineering team used English units of measurement while the
agency’s team used the more conventional metric system for a key
spacecraft operation.

20.3. Formal Definition of Related Rates. The very notion of related

quantities can be stated in proper mathematical terms.

Definition 3.2. Two quantities y and x are said to be related if

there is a function f such that y = f (x).

In the previous example, V = f (h) = 20h. Suppose now that the

quantities y and x are functions of another variable t (e.g., t is time):
x = x(t) and y = y(t). Then the rate of change of x or y with respect
to t is nothing but the derivative x (t) or y  (t). The problem of “related
rates” can now be cast in the proper mathematical terms: What is the
relationship between the derivatives x (t) and y  (t) if the values of x(t)
and y(t) are related by y = f (x)? The values of the functions x(t) and
y(t) are related as y(t) = f (x(t)) for any t. Taking the derivative of
both sides with respect to t by means of the chain rule (Theorem 3.11),
we obtain a generalization of (3.19):

(3.20) y(t) = f (x(t)) =⇒ y  (t) = f  (x(t))x (t).

Equation (3.20) establishes the sought-after relation between the rates

y  and x . However, it seems somewhat different from (3.19): The rates
are still proportional to one another, but the proportionality coefficient
f  (x) is no longer a constant, but a function. How do we use it? Take
a particular value of t = t0 . Let the values of x and y at t = t0 be x0 =
x(t0 ) and y0 = y(t0 ). The number a = f  (x0 ) can be calculated. Then
the equality y  (t0 ) = ax (t0 ) determines the relation between the rates
y  and x at the instance when x has the value x0 (or y has the value
y0 = f (x0 )).

Example 3.10. Let a laser pointer be positioned at a distance

D = 1 m from a wall. The pointer can be rotated so that the bright
spot created by the laser beam travels horizontally on the wall.
(I) At what speed does the bright spot travel along the wall if the
pointer revolves at a constant rate ω rad/s?
(II) At what direction of the laser beam does the bright spot travel
at the speed v = 4π m/s if ω = π rad/s?
 20. RELATED RATES 77

v  y'

D



Figure 3.1. A laser pointer is positioned at a distance
D from a wall and rotates clockwise. Its beam makes a
bright spot that moves to the right along the wall.

Solution:
(I) The analysis of any problem on related rates must begin with
defining the quantities whose rates are being studied. In other
words, one has to answer the question: How are these quan-
tities measured? The orientation of the laser beam can be
described by the angle ϕ between the perpendicular to the
wall and the laser beam. The position of the bright spot may
be set by the distance y traveled by it from the point on the
wall when ϕ = 0, that is, when the laser beam is perpendic-
ular to the wall. If the pointer rotates, the angle becomes a
function of time, ϕ = ϕ(t), and so does the position of the
bright spot, y = y(t). Thus, the question is about the relation
between the rates y  (t) = v (the speed at which the bright spot
travels) and ϕ (t) = ω (the rate at which the pointer rotates).
(II) The next step is to find a function that determines the relation
between the quantities of interest, that is, between the distance
y and the angle ϕ: y = f (ϕ). It is clear that D and y are
related as the catheti of the right triangle whose hypotenuse
is the laser beam: y = D tan ϕ = f (ϕ).
78 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

(III) Once the relation between the quantities of interest has been
established, the relation between their rates can be found.
Since (tan ϕ) = 1/ cos2 ϕ, Equation (3.20) yields
D D
(3.21) y = D tan ϕ =⇒ y  = 2
ϕ =⇒ v = ω.
cos ϕ cos2 ϕ
The first question is answered.
(IV) Note that the rate y  = v is not constant even if the rate ϕ = ω
is constant. To answer the second question, one has to find
the value of ϕ when v = 4π m/s, D = 1 m, and ω = π rad/s.
It follows from Equation (3.21) that
Dω 1 π
cos2 ϕ = = =⇒ ϕ = ;
v 4 3
that is, the bright spot moves at the speed 4π m/s when the
laser beam makes 60◦ with the perpendicular to the wall. 2

20.4. Can Anything Travel Faster Than Light? The solution (3.21) has
an interesting feature. When ϕ approaches 90◦ , that is, the laser beam
is getting closer to being parallel to the wall, the cosine, cos ϕ, tends to
0 in Equation (3.21), and hence the rate y  = v grows unboundedly. It
seems like just with merely a laser pointer, a superluminal object can
be created in a lecture hall! Let us investigate this. The speed of light is
c ≈ 300,000 km/s ≈ 186,000 mi/sec. The light can make a trip around
the world in merely 0.13 seconds! Example 3.10 is now supplemented
by two additional questions:
(I) Is it possible that v can exceed the speed of light? If so, at
which direction of the laser beam does it happen?
(II) At which position of the bright spot does it happen?
The answers read:
(I) Setting D = 1 m = 10−3 km (watch the units: all distances
are now in kilometers!) and v = c = 3 · 105 km/s, the angle
at which the bright spot exceeds the speed of light satisfies
the equation cos2 ϕ = Dω/c ≈ 1.05 · 10−8 , and hence ϕ ≈
89.99414◦ . So the bright spot becomes superluminal if ϕ >
89.99414◦ !
(II) Since y = D tan ϕ, v > c if y > 9772 m. Well, a lecture
hall appears to be a “bit” small for this experiment! Take
a Dremel miniature grinder (sold in Lowe’s stores) for which
ω ≈ π · 103 rad/s (it can be used to rotate the pointer), and set
D = 0.1 m, then v > c if y > 98 m; not yet exactly a lecture
hall experiment, but it can be managed on the campus!
 20. RELATED RATES 79

Einstein’s theory of relativity states that no material object can

travel faster than light. Has a counterexample to Einstein’s theory just
been found? The answer is “no.” In the motion of the bright spot,
no material object actually moves along the wall. Bright spots at y
and y + Δy are created by different portions of the laser beam that
are emitted by the laser at two distinct moments of time. A lump of
light that arrived at y was reflected by the wall (that is why we see
the bright spot!), and hence it could not appear at the next position
y + Δy (at this position arrived a different lump of light emitted by the
laser at a later time). So the rate Δy/Δt cannot possibly be associated
with the motion of any material object.

20.5. Related Problem. The next time you watch a Florida sunset, look
at your shadow. Does there exist a position of the Sun above the
horizon at which your shadow extends faster than the speed of light?

20.6. More Than Two Related Rates. There are situations when several
quantities are related among themselves. If these quantities become
functions of a variable t, then their rates are linearly related. A proof of
this statement is given in a more advanced course, where the functions
of several variables are studied. However, the basic idea of finding
relations between the rates has not changed: They are obtained by
differentiating the relations between the quantities in question with
respect to t. The procedure is illustrated in the following example.
Example 3.11. Consider a rectangle with sides x and y. Sup-
pose that x and y change with time. Find their rates of change when
x = 3 cm and y = 1 cm if, at that moment, the area of the rectangle
decreases at a rate of 2 cm2 /s while the perimeter does not change.
Solution:
(I) There are four quantities involved: the rectangle dimensions x
and y, the area S, and the perimeter P .
(II) There are two relations between them:
S = xy , P = 2(x + y) .
(III) If x = x(t) and y = y(t), then S(t) = x(t)y(t) and P (t) =
2(x(t)+y(t)). Using the derivative of the product and the sum
of two functions, the linear relations between the rates are
S  = x y + xy  , P  = 2(x + y  ).
(IV) Since P  = 0 (the perimeter does not change), x = −y  and
S  = (x − y)y  . Now let S  = −2 cm2 /s because S decreases
80 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

(S  must be negative). With x = 3 cm and y = 1 cm, one

has −2 = (3 − 1)y  and y  = −1 cm/s. It then follows that
x = −y  = 1 cm/s. 2

20.7. Exercises.
(1) A ladder 24 ft long leans against a vertical wall. If the lower
end is being moved away from the wall at a rate of 3 ft/sec,
how fast is the top descending when the lower end is 8 ft from
from the wall? When are the lower and upper ends moving at
the same rate?
(2) A man 6 ft tall walks away from an arc light 15 ft high at a
rate of 3 miles per hour. How fast is the farther end of his
shadow moving? How fast is his shadow lengthening?
(3) The volume of a sphere is increasing at a rate of 16 cm3 /s.
How fast is the radius increasing when it is 6 cm? How fast is
the surface area increasing when it is 36 cm2 ?
(4) Sand is being poured on the ground from an elevated pipe and
forms a pile that has always the shape of a circular cone whose
height is equal to the radius of the base. If the sand falls at a
rate of 0.5 m3 /min, how fast is the height of the pile increasing
when it is 2 m?
(5) A particle moves along the curve defined by the algebraic equa-
tion x2 − 2y 3 = 9 so that the coordinate x increases steadily
at a rate of 3 units of length per second. Find the rate of
change of the coordinate y when the particle is at the point
(x, y) = (5, 2).
(6) The velocity of a particle moving along a straight line satisfies
the condition v 2 = c + 2b/s, where a and b are constants
and s is the distance traveled by the particle. Show that the
acceleration (the rate of change in velocity with respect to
time) is a = dv/dt = −b/s2 .
(7) Consider two lines y + x = 2a and y − x = 0, where a is a num-
ber. Suppose that a particle moves along the first line toward
the point of intersection of the lines at a constant speed v1 ,
while another particle moves along the second line in the direc-
tion away from the point of intersection at a constant speed v2 .
Find the rate of change of the distance between the particles
when the first and second particles are at the distances s1 and
s2 from the point of intersection, respectively. In particular,
what is the value of this rate if s1 = s2 and v1 = v2 ?
(8) The blades of a pair of scissors have width 2h. Find the rate
at which the point of intersection of the edges of the blades
 21. LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS AND DIFFERENTIALS 81

is moving if the angle between the blades decreases at a con-

stant rate ω. Assume that the blades are attached by a screw
through the midpoint of each blade (i.e., through a point that
is at distance h from the edges of the blade). If h = 4 mm and
ω = −2 rad/s, how long should the blades be to see the point
of intersection going superluminal?
(9) If y 2 = 2x and x is decreasing steadily at a rate of 0.25 units
per second, find how fast the slope of the graph is changing at
the point (x, y) = (8, −4).
(10) A pool has a spherical bottom of radius R and the maximal
depth h < R at the pool center. A man walks on the bottom
of the pool toward the pool center at a constant speed v. Find
the rate at which the man is submerging under the water.
(11) Consider a rectangle with sides x and y. Suppose that x and
y change with time. Find their rates of change when x = 3
cm and y = 1 cm if, at that moment, the area of the rectangle
decreases at a rate of 2 cm2 /s while the perimeter increases at
a rate of 4 cm2 /s
(12) Consider a planar region that is a sector of a disk with radius
R and angle ϕ. Suppose that R and ϕ change with time so
that the area of the region does not change, while its perimeter
increases at a rate of 2 m/s. Find the rate of change of the
angle ϕ and the radius R at the moment when ϕ = 30◦ and
R = 10 m.
21. Linear Approximations and Differentials
21.1. Tangent Line Approximation. The derivative of a function f (x)
at a point x = x0 defines the slope of the line tangent to the graph
y = f (x) at the point (x0 , f (x0 )) (see Equation (2.5)). The equation
of the tangent line is
y − f (x0 )
= f  (x0 ) or y = f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 ) .
x − x0
Definition 3.3. Suppose f (x) is differentiable at x = x0 . The
linear function
(3.22) L(x) = f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 )
is called the linearization of f (x) in a neighborhood of x0 .
Since the values of f and L coincide at x = x0 , one might expect
that the difference f (x) − L(x) is small, provided x is close enough to
x0 . So the linear function L(x) may be used to approximate f (x) in
a small neighborhood of x0 , that is, f (x) ≈ L(x). This approximation
82 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

is called the linear approximation or tangent line approximation. The

concept of the tangent line approximation is illustrated in Figure 3.2.

y y  L(x)

y  f (x)
f (x0)

x
x0 x0 x0

Figure 3.2. Tangent line approximation. In a neigh-

borhood of x0 (an interval [x0 − δ, x0 + δ]), the tangent
line y = L(x) stays close to the graph y = f (x). By re-
ducing the width of the interval δ, one can make the error
ε of the tangent line approximation as small as desired,
i.e., |f (x) − L(x)| ≤ ε for all x ∈ [x0 − δ, x0 + δ].

√
Example 3.12. Use the linear approximation to estimate the
value 3.92.
Solution:
√
(I) Consider f (x) = x. The closest value of x to 3.92 at which
the square root can be evaluated without a calculator is x0 = 4:
f (x0 ) = 2. Note the two important steps here: the choice of
f (x) suitable for the problem and the choice of x0 near which
the linear approximation
√ is√
to be used.
(II) Since f  (x) = ( x) = 1/(2√ x) and f  (4) = 1/4, by Equation
(3.22) the linearization of x near x = 4 is
1
L(x) = 2 + (x − 4).
4
(III) The
√ linear approximation means that the value f (3.92) =
3.92 is approximated by the value L(3.92):
√ 1
3.92 ≈ L(3.92) = 2 + (3.92 − 4) = 1.98.
4 2
√
√ A calculator gives 3.92 −4≈ 1.9799. So the approximation error is
| 3.92 − L(3.92)| < 1.02 · 10 . It is easy to see that L(4.08) = 2.02
 21. LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS AND DIFFERENTIALS 83

√
and | 4.08 − L(4.08)| < 1.02 · 10−4 . In notations given in the caption
of Figure 3.2, this observation can be summarized by the following
inequality:
√
| x − L(x)| < 1.02 · 10−4 = ε if |x − 4| ≤ 0.08 = δ.
√
In other words, the values of x and its linearization differ by no more
than 1.02·10−4 for all 3.92 ≤ x ≤ 4.08. Naturally, a decrease (increase)
in the upper bound for the error would lead to a decrease (increase) in
the size of a neighborhood of x = 4 where the linear approximation is
accurate.

21.2. Accuracy of the Linear Approximation. The previous example leads

to a problem that is extremely important in applications: Given an up-
per bound for the error ε of the linear approximation of a function f (x)
near x0 , find δ such that
|f (x) − L(x)| ≤ ε if |x − x0 | ≤ δ,
or, alternatively, given δ, that is, the neighborhood x0 −δ ≤ x ≤ x0 +δ,
estimate the error ε of the linear approximation. The following theorem
is useful to answer these questions.
Theorem 3.15. Suppose a function f (x) is twice differentiable in
(a, b) such that |f  (x)| ≤ M for all x ∈ (a, b) and some number M .
Let L(x) be the linearization of f (x) at x0 ∈ (a, b). Then
|f (x) − L(x)| ≤ 12 M (x − x0 )2 , x ∈ (a, b).
This theorem is a simpler version of the Taylor theorem, which
is proved in advanced calculus courses. The following example illus-
trates the use of this theorem to assess the accuracy of the linear
approximation.
Example 3.13. Consider the linearization of sin x at x = 0. Find
an interval |x| ≤ δ in which the error of the linear approximation does
not exceed ε = 0.5 · 10−3 .
Solution:
(I) Since f  (x) = (sin x) = cos x, f  (0) = 1, and f (0) = 0, the
linearization is L(x) = x.
(II) In Theorem 3.15, let a = −δ and b = δ. Next, one has to find
M . The simplest way to do this is to take the maximal value
of |f  (x)| in the interval |x| ≤ δ. Note that there should be
δ < π/2 because L(π/2)−sin(π/2) = π/2−1 exceeds the given
84 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

error ε. So sin x is monotonic in |x| ≤ δ, and hence |(sin x) | =

| sin x| ≤ sin δ = M for all |x| ≤ δ. By Theorem 3.15,
(3.23) | sin x − x| ≤ 12 M x2 ≤ 12 M δ 2 = ε if |x| ≤ δ.
With M = sin δ, the solution of the equation δ 2 sin δ = 2ε =
10−3 determines δ. An analytic solution of this equation is im-
possible. So a value of δ has to be found numerically (actually,
δ ≈ 0.100057).
(III) Otherwise, one can choose a larger M , for example, sin x ≤
1 for any x. So M = 1 is acceptable, too. This simplifies
Equation (3.23): δ 2 = 10−3 and hence δ ≈ 0.0362. This value
of δ appears to be smaller than that in the case M = sin δ. It
follows from Equation (3.23) that a larger value of M leads to
a smaller δ. So this option should not be “abused.” A good
M is not too large and yet is simple enough to solve Equation
(3.23). This requires some skills to achieve.
(IV) A good compromise is to use the inequality sin δ ≤ δ. So
the choice M = δ also fulfills the conditions of Theorem 3.15.
Equation (3.23) becomes δ 3 = 10−3 and δ = 0.1, which is to
be compared with δ = 0.0362 when M = 1 and δ ≈ 0.100057
when M = sin δ. 2

The converse problem is simpler: Find an upper bound for the

error of the linear approximation of sin x at x = 0 in the interval |x| ≤
0.2. By monotonicity of sin x in the interval (−π/2, π/2), |(sin x) | =
| sin x| ≤ sin(0.2) = M for |x| ≤ 0.2 and, hence, | sin x − x| ≤ ε =
1
2
M δ 2 = 0.5 · sin(0.2) · (0.2)2 ≈ 3.9734 · 10−3 .

21.3. Differential. For a real variable x, the differential dx is defined as

an increment of x. It can be given the value of any real number inde-
pendently of the value of x; that is, dx is considered as an independent
variable. So, with every real variable, one can associate another real
variable, called the differential. If two real variables are related, the
following rule postulates the relation between their differentials.
Definition 3.4. Let two variables y and x be related as y = f (x),
where f is a differentiable function. The differential dy = df (x) is
defined by the linear transformation of dx:
(3.24) dy = df (x) = f  (x) dx .
Note that the variables x and dx on the right-hand side are independent
variables. Equation (3.24) states that, if the variables y and x are
 21. LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS AND DIFFERENTIALS 85

related, then the differential dy is no longer an independent variable

and is determined by x and dx; specifically, dy depends linearly on dx.

21.4. Geometrical Significance of the Differential. Put dx = Δx, where

Δx is a real number. Fix x = x0 and consider an increment of the
variable y = f (x) between x0 + Δx and x0 : Δy = f (x0 + Δx) − f (x0 ) =
Δf (x0 ).

y
y  f(x) y  L(x)
f(x0 x)
L(x0 x)
f
df

f(x0)

x
x0 x0 x

Figure 3.3. Geometrical significance of the differential.

The differential df (x0 ) = f  (x0 ) dx is the increment along
the tangent line: df (x0 ) = L(x0 + Δx) − L(x0 ), dx =
Δx. The differential df (x0 ) does not coincide with the
increment of the function Δf (x0 ) = f (x0 +Δx)−f (x0 ) =
df (x0 ). Only when Δx becomes infinitesimally small,
Δx → 0, does it coincide up to terms that go to 0 faster
than Δx, i.e., [Δf (x0 ) − df (x0 )]/Δx → 0 as Δx → 0.

The differential df (x0 ) = f  (x0 ) Δx does not generally coincide with

the increment Δf (x0 ). For example, put f (x) = x2 , x0 = 1, Δx = 0.2,
then Δf (1) = (1+0.2)2 −1 = 0.44, whereas df (1) = f  (1) Δx = 2·0.2 =
0.4. Since the derivative f  (x0 ) determines the slope of the tangent line
L(x) = f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 ) to the graph y = f (x), the differential
df (x0 ) is the increment of the linearization y = L(x) of the function
at x = x0 in the interval [x0 , x0 + Δx]; that is, for a particular value
x = x0 and an arbitrary chosen increment dx = Δx,
df (x0 ) = L(x0 + Δx) − L(x0 ) = f  (x0 )Δx.
Thus, df (x0 ) = Δf (x0 ) because the tangent line does not generally
coincide with the graph. This observation is summarized in Figure 3.3.
In particular, the tangent line approximation can now be stated as
f (x0 + Δx) ≈ L(x0 + Δx) = f (x0 ) + df (x0 ), dx = Δx.
86 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

An intuitive understanding of the differential stems from its geo-

metrical interpretation. Let Δx tend to 0. The ratio
Δy − dy Δf (x) − f  (x)Δx Δf (x)
= = − f  (x) → 0 as Δx → 0
Δx Δx Δx
because by the existence of f  (x), Δf (x)/Δx → f  (x) as Δx → 0. This
means that the difference Δy − dy must go to 0 faster than Δx. An
increment Δx is said to be infinitesimally small if (Δx)n , n > 1, can
always be neglected. So one might think of differentials as infinitesimal
variations of variables. From this point of view, the definition (3.24)
looks rather natural: Infinitesimal variations of two related variables
must be related linearly as their higher powers can always be neglected.
The concept of the differential becomes rather practical when one has to
establish relations between variations of related quantities in situations
when these variations may be viewed as infinitesimal.

21.5. Inverse Function and the Differential. The concept of the differ-
ential offers a simple way to find the derivative of an inverse function.
Suppose that a function f has the inverse g = f −1 and g is differen-
tiable (conditions under which g exists and is differentiable are stated
later in the inverse function theorem of Section 23). If y = f (x),
then the differentials are related as dy = f  (x) dx. On the other hand,
x = f −1 (y) = g(y) and hence dx = g  (y) dy. Since the ratio of the
differentials is the derivative, it follows that
dx 1 1 1
= dy ⇐⇒ g  (f (x)) = ⇐⇒ g  (y) = .
dy dx
f  (x) f  (g(y))
For example, f (x) = tan x and g(y) = tan−1 y. Then
1 1 1
f  (x) = = 1 + (f (x))2 =⇒ g  (y) = = ,
cos2 x f  (g(y)) 1 + y2
where the relation f (g(y)) = y has been used.

21.6. Related Errors. Every physical quantity is known only with a

certain degree of accuracy. Errors are inherent in the very process of
taking measurements. As a point of fact, a value of a physical quan-
tity given without its measurement error does not make much sense;
neither should one draw any conclusion from data without a proper
analysis of the errors. One of the important practical applications of
the differential lies in the error analysis of related quantities.
Suppose there is a relation between two quantities y and x, y =
f (x). Let x be measured with an error. This means the following.
 21. LINEAR APPROXIMATIONS AND DIFFERENTIALS 87

After n measurements, one gets n values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn . The average is

x = (x1 + x2 + · · · + xn )/n is viewed as the actual value. The measured
values deviate from the average by amounts Δx1 = x − x1 , . . . , Δxn =
x − xn . If Δx = max{|Δx1 |, . . . , |Δxn |} (i.e., Δx is the maximal of the
absolute values of all the deviations), then all measured values lie in the
interval [x − Δx, x + Δx]. The quantity Δx is an absolute error of the
measurement, and one writes for the measured value x±Δx to indicate
the average measured value and its absolute error. The error Δx is
known and determined by the very process of taking measurements.
A standard question in error analysis: What is the accuracy of the
value y = f (x)? Apparently, x and Δx are independent variables as
the error Δx depends on the way in which the variable is measured
(there are more and less accurate methods which would lead to smaller
and higher values of Δx independently of the value of x). Naturally,
one might assume that the errors are small; that is, they are infinites-
imal variations of measured quantities. Then the errors of the related
quantities must be related as their differentials! This is a standard
assumption of the error analysis. The absolute value of the differential
|dy| represents an absolute error of y = f (x), that is, y = f (x) ± df (x).
The quantity |dy/y| is called a relative error.
Example 3.14. What are the absolute and relative errors of the
volume of a cube if its side is 10 ± 0.1 cm?
Remark. When measuring the length by a ruler with a grid, the
measurement error should not exceed the ruler grid spacing (e.g., a
ruler with a millimeter grid).
Solution: The volume V and side x are related as V = x3 . So dV =
3x2 dx. Setting dx = 0.1 cm and x = 10 cm, dV = 30 cm3 and
V = 1000 ± 30 cm3 . The relative error is dV /V = 0.03 or 3% (note
that dx/x = 0.01, i.e., only 1%). 2

The error analysis for several related quantities is studied in multi-

variable calculus courses. It is based on the concept of the differential
of functions of several variables.

21.7. Exercises.
(1) Find the linearizations of each of the following functions at the
specified point:
(i) cos x, x = π/4
(ii) tan x, x = 0
2
(iii) e−x , x = 0
88 3. RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

(iv) √ln x, x = e
(v) 1 + x, x = 3
(2) Estimate the error of the tangent line approximation of each
of the following functions over an interval |x − x0 | ≤ δ for the
specified
√ point x0 and the width δ:
(i) 1 + x, x0 = 3, δ = 0.1
(ii) ln x, x = 1, δ = 0.2
(iii) tan x, x = 0, δ = π/4
(3) Find the differentials of each of the following functions:
(i) x(1 − x2 )3
√− 2)/(y + 1)
(ii) (y
(iii) 1 + x2 /x
(iv) sin2 t + cos(t2 )
(v) ln(x + 2) + xex
(4) Use differentials (the tangent line approximation) to estimate
the√ following numbers and assess the accuracy of the estimates:
(i) 24.6
(ii) e0.08
(5) Find√ dy in terms of x, y, and dx if
√
(i) x + y = 4
(ii) y 3 + x3 = 2xy
(iii) cos(x + 3y) = sin(xy)
(6) Find an approximate formula for the area of a circular ring of
radius r and width dr. What is the exact formula?
(7) Find an approximate formula for the volume of a spherical
shell of radius r and thickness dr. Assess the accuracy of the
approximation by stating the condition on r and dr so that
the relative error does not exceed ε = 0.01 (i.e., 1%).
(8) Use differentials to find the derivatives of the inverse functions
sin−1 x and cos−1 x.
 CHAPTER 4

Applications of Differentiation

22. Minimum and Maximum Values

Some of the most important applications of calculus are optimiza-
tion problems. An example of an ancient optimization problem: A man
can throw a stone at a speed of v0 . At what angle should the stone be
thrown in order to get the maximal range? An example of a modern
optimization problem: How can one optimize the information flow in
the World Wide Web to avoid crashes of servers? Many of these prob-
lems can be reduced to finding the maximal and minimal values of a
given function.

Definition 4.1 (Absolute Maximum and Minimum). A function

f has an absolute maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in the domain
D of f . Similarly, the value f (c) is called the maximum value of f . A
function f has an absolute minimum at c if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in
the domain D of f . The value f (c) is called the minimum value of f .
The maximum and minimum values of f are called the extreme values
of f .

For example, the function f (x) = cos x attains its maximum value
1 at x = 2πn, where n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., and its minimum value −1 at
x = π +2πn. A function does not always have a maximum or minimum
value. For instance, the function f (x) = 1/x defined for all real x = 0
has neither maximum nor minimum value because, for any real M , one
can always find x such that f (x) > M (0 < x < 1/|M |). So no real
number can be the maximum value of f (x). Similarly, for any real
M , f (x) < M if −1/|M | < x < 0; that is, no minimum value exists.
The function f (x) = x2 has no maximum value on the real axis, but it
does have an absolute minimum at x = 0 because x2 ≥ 0 for all x and
f (0) = 0, that is, f (x) ≥ f (0).

22.1. Relative Maxima and Minima.

Definition 4.2 (Local Maximum and Minimum). A function f

has a local (or relative) maximum at c if f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x in
some open interval containing c. Similarly, a function f has a local (or
89
90 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

relative) minimum at c if f (x) ≥ f (c) for all x in some open interval

containing c.
Example 4.1. Does the function f (x) = x3 − x = x(x2 − 1) have
an absolute maximum (minimum) value and relative maxima (minima)
on the real axis?
y

3
x
1
3

1

Figure 4.1. Graph of the function f (x) = x3 − x =

x(x2 − 1). It does not have an absolute maximum or
minimum value. However,
√ it does have a relative maxi-
√ at x = −1/ 3 and a relative minimum at x =
mum
1/ 3.

Solution:
(I) The function has neither an absolute maximum nor an abso-
lute minimum because it grows unboundedly with increasing
x and it decreases unboundedly as x attains larger negative
values.
(II) The function vanishes at three points x = 0, ±1. It can have
relative minima and maxima between its zeros because the
values of f are bounded from above and below: |f (x)| ≤ |x|3 +
|x| ≤ 2 for |x| ≤ 1, that is, −2 ≤ f (x) ≤ 2 if −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
(III) Consider the open interval x ∈ (0, 1). The function is strictly
negative in it and bounded from below: M < f (x) < 0 for
all x ∈ (0, 1) (e.g., M = −3). By increasing M , one can even-
tually reach the situation when there is 0 < c < 1 such that
M = f (c) ≤ f (x) for all 0 < x < 1. This happens when the
horizontal line y = M touches the graph y = f (x). Thus, f
must have a relative minimum in (0, 1).√
Remark. The actual value c = 1/ 3. How is it obtained?
There is a technique to find c, which will be studied shortly.
 22. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES 91

(IV) Similarly, f is strictly positive in (−1, 0) and bounded from

above 0 < f (x) < M for some M . By lowering the horizontal
line y = M (or decreasing M ) to the point when it touches
the graph y = f (x), one can find a point c ∈ (−1, 0) such
that f (x) ≤ f (c) for all x ∈ (−1, 0); that is, f has a relative
maximum in (−1, 0). √
Remark. The actual value is c = −1/ 3 (see below). 2

One of the lessons that can be learned from this example is that one
can think of a relative minimum (maximum) as an absolute minimum
(maximum) when f is restricted to a sufficiently small subset in its
domain. This observation is accurately stated by the following theorem.
Theorem 4.1 (The Extreme Value Theorem). If f is a continuous
function on a closed interval [a, b], then f attains its absolute maximum
and minimum values in [a, b]; that is, there exist c1 and c2 in [a, b] such
that f (c1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (c2 ) for all x in [a, b].

f(x)

c1

Figure 4.2. Extreme value theorem. An example of a

continuous function with several local minima and max-
ima. The minimal value coincides with one of the lo-
cal minima, while the maximal value is reached at the
endpoint of the interval: f (c1 ) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (b) for all
x ∈ [a, b]. The hypothesis of the closedness of the inter-
val is crucial. If the point b is excluded, then f has no
maximal value on [a, b).

The continuity hypothesis is essential. In fact, the continuity of

f (x) = x3 − x was implicitly used in Example 4.1 to establish the
92 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

existence of its relative maximum and minimum! The following exam-

ple illustrates the point. Consider the function f (x) = 2x if x ∈ [0, 1)
and f (x) = 1 if x ∈ [1, 2]. So the function is defined on the closed
interval [0, 2] and bounded from above f (x) < M (e.g., M > 2). An
attempt to establish the existence of a maximum value of f by lowering
M fails! Indeed, the lowest upper bound is M = 2, but there is no c
such that f (c) = 2. The values of f approach 2 as x approaches 1 from
the left, but f (1) = 1! For any positive  > 0, f (1 − ) < f (x) for
x ∈ (1 − , 1) no matter how small  is. Thus, f does not have an abso-
lute maximum value because of its discontinuity at x = 1. The absolute
minimum exists: f (0) ≤ f (x). Note that the function f (x) = 2x when
x ∈ [0, 1] and f (x) = 1 when x ∈ (1, 2] has an absolute maximum and
minimum, f (0) ≤ f (x) ≤ f (1), despite its discontinuity at x = 1. So
the continuity hypothesis is a sufficient condition, but not necessary.
The hypothesis of the closedness of the interval is also a sufficient
condition, but not necessary. The continuous function f (x) = x does
not attain its absolute maximum or minimum value on any open in-
terval (a, b). But it does so if the interval becomes closed: f (a) ≤
f (x) ≤ f (b) for any x ∈ [a, b]. On the other hand, the continuous
function f (x) = x3 − x in the open interval (−1, 1) attains its absolute
maximum and minimum value as one can see in Figure 4.1.

22.2. Derivatives at Local Maxima and Minima. The second observation

resulting from Example 4.1 is that at the point where a continuous func-
tion attains its local minimum or maximum value there is a horizontal
line that touches the graph of this function. So, if, in addition, the func-
tion is differentiable, then this horizontal line is a tangent line with the
vanishing slope; that is, the derivative of the function vanishes at points
where the function attains its local maximum or minimum value.
Theorem 4.2 (Fermat’s Theorem). If f has a local maximum or
minimum at c, and if f  (c) exists, then f  (c) = 0.
Proof. By the existence of f  (c)
f (c + h) − f (c)
lim = f  (c).
h→0 h
Therefore, the right and left limits must coincide with f  (c) (see
Section 7.3):
f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
(4.1) lim− = f  (c) = lim+ .
h→0 h h→0 h
Let f have a local maximum (the case of a local minimum can be
treated similarly). Then f (c) ≥ f (x) or f (x) − f (c) ≤ 0 in some open
 22. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES 93

interval a < x < b. In particular, [f (c + h) − f (c)]/h ≤ 0 for any

positive h > 0 such that c < c + h < b. By Theorem 2.2,
f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
(4.2) ≤ 0 =⇒ lim+ ≤ 0.
h h→0 h
Similarly, for any negative h < 0 such that a < c + h < c, one has
[f (c + h) − f (c)] ≤ 0 and [f (c + h) − f (c)]/h ≥ 0. Hence,
f (c + h) − f (c) f (c + h) − f (c)
(4.3) 0≤ =⇒ 0 ≤ lim− .
h h→0 h
By inequalities (4.2) and (4.3), it follows from (4.1) that
0 ≤ f  (c) ≤ 0 ,
which is only possible if f  (c) = 0. 2
This theorem provides a powerful tool to determine the actual po-
sitions of local maxima and minima. Let us go back to Example 4.1
(f (x) = √x3 − x). The slope f  (x) = 3x2 − 1 vanishes at two points
x = ±1/ 3. According to the analysis √ carried out in Example 4.1,
f has a local
√ maximum at x = −1/ 3 ∈ (−1, 0) and a local minimum
at x = 1/ 3 ∈ (0, 1).
Definition 4.3. A number c in the domain of a function f is said
to be a critical point of f if either f  (c) = 0 or f  (c) does not exist.
Does the equation f  (x) = 0 determine all local maxima and minima
of f ?
(I) A function may have a local minimum or maximum at a point
where the derivative does not exist. A simple example is the
function f (x) = |x|. It has an absolute minimum at x = 0,
but f  (x) does not exist at x = 0. So this minimum cannot be
found from f  (x) = 0.
(II) If f is differentiable everywhere, then, by solving f  (x) = 0,
all local minima and maxima can be found. However, not all
the solutions generally correspond to either a local maximum
or a local minimum. The function f (x) = x3 has no minimum
or maximum, but its derivative f  (x) = 3x2 vanishes at x = 0.
In other words, the converse of Fermat’s theorem is false.
(III) If all critical points of a function are found, then their type
(local maximum, local minimum, or none of the above) can be
analyzed by comparing values f (c ± h) with f (c), where c is
a critical point (cf. Definition 4.2). If f  (c) exists, then the
second derivative test can be used, which is discussed later.
94 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(IV) A function defined on a closed interval [a, b] can have its ab-
solute maximum or minimum at the endpoints. When finding
the absolute maximum and minimum values, the values of f
at the critical points must be compared with f (a) and f (b).
The largest (smallest) of them is the absolute maximum (min-
imum) value. 2
Example 4.2. If a stone is thrown at a speed v0 m/s and an angle θ
with the horizontal line, then its trajectory is a parabola:
g
(4.4) y = x tan θ − x2 2 ,
2v0 cos2 θ
where y is the stone height (vertical position), x is the horizontal posi-
tion (all the positions are in meters), and g = 9.8 m/s2 is a constant
universal for all objects near the surface of the Earth (the free-fall ac-
celeration). This is a consequence of the Newton’s second law. At what
angle should one throw a stone to reach the maximal range at a given
speed v0 ?
Solution:
(I) The range as a function of the angle θ has to be found first.
The stone lands when its height y vanishes. The equation
y = 0 has two solutions x = 0 (naturally, this is where the
stone was thrown) and x = L(θ), where
2v02 2v 2 v2
L(θ) = tan θ cos2 θ = 0 sin θ cos θ = 0 sin(2θ).
g g g

(II) The range L(θ) is a differentiable function of θ so the values

of θ at which L attains its extreme values may be found from
the equation
v02
L (θ) = 0 =⇒ 2 cos(2θ) = 0 =⇒ cos(2θ) = 0 .
g
This equation has countably many solutions 2θ = π/2 + πn,
where n is any integer. But in the interval of the physical
values of θ ∈ [0, π/2], it has only one solution θ = π/4. Since
sin(2π/4) = 1 (the absolute maximum of the sine), L attains
its maximum value at θ = π/4; that is, the range is maximal,
Lmax = v02 /g, when a stone is thrown at 45◦ . 2

Remark. The conclusion in the preceding example is independent

of the stone’s mass and its initial speed v0 . In reality, for larger values
of v0 , like a projectile shot by a gun, the trajectory would deviate a bit
 22. MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM VALUES 95

from the parabola (due to friction with the air). So the optimal angle
would deviate a bit from π/4. The deviation would also depend on the
mass and the initial speed. The range optimization problem becomes
more involved and would require the theory of differential equations.
It should also be noted that the angle at which the maximal range is
attained depends on the initial height at which the stone is thrown. So
the angle would be different from 45◦ when, for example, the stone is
thrown from a cliff.

22.3. Exercises.
(1) Examine the following functions for maxima and minima.
Draw the graph in each case.
(i) y = x2 − 5x + 3
(ii) y = 2x3 − 3x2 + 6x − 3
(iii) y = x2 + 16/x
(iv) y = x2 − 1/x2
(v) y = 4x/(x2 + 1)
(vi) y = sin x + cos x
(vii) y = xex
(2) Find all critical points of the following functions and determine
whether there is a local maximum, a local minimum, or none
of the above at each critical point.
(i) y = |x − 3|
(ii) y = |x2 − 4| + 2x
(iii) y = |x3 − 1|
(iv) y = | sin(2x)|
(v) y = |x3 |ex
(vi) y = (x − 1)1/3
(vii) y = x(x + 1)2/3
(viii) y = (1 − x2 )3/2
(3) Find extreme values of the following functions on the specified
interval or show that such values do not exist.
(i) y = x4 − 4x2 , −3 < x < 3
(ii) y = x4 − 4x2 , −3 ≤ x ≤ 3
(iii) y = ex + e−x , −∞ < x < ∞
(iv) y = x3 , −1 < x ≤ 2
(v) y = x1 + 1−x1
, 0<x<1
(4) On the circle given by the equation x2 +y 2 = 25, find the point
nearest to the point (6, 8).
(5) A line is drawn through a point (a, b) such that the part inter-
cepted between the axes has a minimum length. Prove that
the minimum length is (a2/3 + b2/3 )3/2 .
96 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(6) Find the maximum area of an isosceles triangle with fixed

perimeter p.
(7) Let the sum of two numbers be s. Find the numbers in each
of the following cases:
(i) The sum of their squares is a minimum.
(ii) The sum of their cubes is a minimum.
(iii) Their product is a maximum.
(iv) The difference between one and the reciprocal of the other
is a maximum.

23. The Mean Value Theorem

Theorem 4.3 (Rolle’s Theorem). Let f be a function that satisfies
the following three hypotheses:
(I) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(II) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
(III) f (a) = f (b).
Then there is a number c in (a, b) such that f  (c) = 0.

c b
x
a

Figure 4.3. Rolle’s theorem. The continuity of f guar-

antees the boundedness of f . So the graph of f lies be-
tween two horizontal lines. By lowering an upper bound
or increasing a lower bound until one of the horizontal
lines (or both) touches the graph and becomes its tan-
gent line, differentiability of f ensures the existence of
the tangent line at every point in (a, b). The slope of the
horizontal tangent line is 0 and so is the derivative at
that point.
 23. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 97

This theorem provides a useful method to prove the existence of a lo-

cal maximum or minimum of a function f when analytic solutions of the
equation f  (x) = 0 are hard to find. In fact, it has already been used in
Example 4.1: The function f (x) = x3 − x on the intervals [−1, 0], [0, 1],
[−1, 1] satisfies the hypotheses of Rolle’s theorem because f (±1) =
f (0) = 0. The proof follows closely the arguments of Example 4.1.
Proof of Theorem 4.3.
(I) If f (x) = f (a) = k is a constant function, then f  (x) = 0
everywhere.
(II) Let f (x) > f (a) for some x ∈ (a, b) (cf. Example 4.1 for
x ∈ [−1, 0]). Since f is continuous, the extreme value theorem
applies, and therefore f has a maximum in [a, b]. Since f (a) =
f (b), the maximal value must be attained at c ∈ (a, b). By Fer-
mat’s theorem, f  (c) = 0 because f is differentiable in (a, b).
(III) If f (x) < f (a) for some x ∈ (a, b) (cf. Example 4.1 for x ∈
[−1, 1] or x ∈ [0, 1]), then, by the extreme value theorem, f has
a minimum at c ∈ (a, b), and, by Fermat’s theorem, f  (c) = 0.
2
Rolle’s theorem is also useful to analyze the root pattern of a
function.
Example 4.3. How many real roots does the equation x5 + x3 + x −
1 = 0 have?
Solution:
(I) Let f (x) = x5 + x3 − 1. Evidently, f (−1) = −4 < 0 and
f (1) = 2 > 0. By continuity, f has to take all intermediate
values between −4 and 2 (the intermediate value theorem). So
f has at least one root in (−1, 1).
(II) Suppose it has two roots a and b, that is, f (a) = f (b) = 0.
Then, by Rolle’s theorem, f  (x) has to vanish somewhere in
(a, b). But this is not possible because f  (x) = 5x4 +3x2 +1 > 0
for any x. Thus, f has the only real root. 2

Theorem 4.4 (The Mean Value Theorem). Let f be a function

that satisfies the following hypotheses:
(I) f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b].
(II) f is differentiable on the open interval (a, b).
Then there is a number c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
(4.5) f  (c) = or f (b) − f (a) = f  (c)(b − a) .
b−a
98 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

The geometrical interpretation of the theorem is simple (see

Figure 4.4). Consider the line through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)).
Its slope is (f (b) − f (a))/(b − a). The theorem asserts the existence
of a point where the graph y = f (x) has a tangent line with the same
slope (cf. Equation (4.5)) (as f  (c) is the slope of the tangent line at
x = c). Let us turn to a formal proof.

(b, f (b))

c x

(a, f (a))

Figure 4.4. Mean value theorem. The secant line of

the graph of f through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))
has the slope tan α = [f (b) − f (a)]/(b − a), where α
is the angle between the secant line and the horizontal
line. If f does not coincide with the secant line, then near
x = a the slope of the tangent line does not coincide with
tan α. Here the case when this slope is greater than tan α
is shown. Then the graph of f lies above the secant line
near x = a. But the graph has to return to the secant line
again. Near the point where the graph and the secant
lines meet again, the tangent line has to have a smaller
slope than tan α. So at some point c the tangent line has
to be parallel to the secant line, meaning that f  (c) =
tan α.

Proof of Theorem 4.4.

(I) Consider the line through the points (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). Its
equation is
 23. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 99

f (b) − f (a)
(4.6) y = L(x) = f (a) + (x − a) ,
b−a
L(a) = f (a) , L(b) = f (b) .
Next, consider the function
f (b) − f (a)
(4.7) h(x) = f (x) − L(x) = f (x) − f (a) − (x − a) .
b−a
Its values determine the deviation of the graph y = f (x) from
the secant line y = L(x) on the closed interval [a, b].
(II) The function h(x) satisfies the three hypotheses of Rolle’s the-
orem. First, it is continuous on [a, b] as the sum of two con-
tinuous functions f (x) and −L(x) (a linear function is contin-
uous). Second, it is differentiable on (a, b) as the sum of two
differentiable functions:
f (b) − f (a)
(4.8) h (x) = f  (x) − , x ∈ (a, b) .
b−a
Finally, by (4.6) and (4.7), h(a) = f (a) − L(a) = 0 and h(b) =
f (b) − L(b) = 0, that is, h(a) = h(b).
(III) By Rolle’s theorem, there is a number c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
h (c) = 0 =⇒ f  (c) = ,
b−a
where Equation (4.8) has been used. 2
Example 4.4. A speeding car was pulled over on an interstate road
and a state trooper gave a warning to the driver. Forty five minutes
later and passed 65 miles on the road, the car stopped at a rest area.
Another state trooper approached the driver and issued a speeding ticket,
claiming that the driver exceeded 86 miles per hour. Was the trooper’s
claim correct?
Solution: Let s(t) be the distance traveled by the car after it was
pulled over the first time. The rate of change s (t) = v(t) is the speed
of the car at any moment of time. The function s(t) is defined between
t = 0 and t = 45 min = 0.75 hr so that s(0) = 0 and s(0.75) = 65 mi.
It is differentiable as s (t) is the car speed! By the mean value theorem,
there is a time moment t = c ∈ (0, 0.75) when
s(0.75) − s(0) 65
s (c) = v(c) = = ≈ 86.7 mi/hr.
0.75 − 0 0.75
The speeding ticket is justified. 2
100 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

For any two moments of time a and b, the ratio (s(b) − s(a))/(b − a)
is the average speed on the time interval [a, b]. The mean value theorem
simply states that a moving object always attains its average speed at
least at one moment of time between a and b. So, if at time moment b
the object appears to be traveling slower than its average speed, prior
to that it must have been traveling faster than its average speed.
Example 4.5. Suppose the derivative f  exists and is bounded on
(a, b), that is, m ≤ f  (x) ≤ M . If f (a) is given, how small and how
large can f (b) possibly be?
Solution: By the mean value theorem, there is a c ∈ (a, b) such that
f (b) = f (a) + f  (c)(b − a). Since m ≤ f  (c) ≤ M ,
f (a) + m(b − a) ≤ f (b) ≤ f (a) + M (b − a) .
This equation is easy to understand with the help of a mechanical
analogy: How far can a car travel in time b − a if its speed is not lower
than m, but cannot exceed M ? 2

23.1. Properties of the First Derivative. The derivative of a constant

function vanishes. How about the converse? The following theorem
answers this question.
Theorem 4.5. If f  (x) = 0 for all x in an interval (a, b), then f is
constant on (a, b).
Proof. Take any two numbers x1 and x2 between a and b. By the
mean value theorem, there is a number c between x1 and x2 such that
f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = f  (c)(x1 − x2 ). By hypothesis, f  (c) = 0 for any c.
Thus, f (x1 ) − f (x2 ) = 0 or f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) for any x1 and x2 in (a, b);
that is, f is constant. 2
The hypothesis that f  (x) = 0 in a single interval is crucial. For
example, the sign function f (x) = 1 if x > 0, and f (x) = −1 if
x < 0, has zero derivative at any point of its domain, but it is not
constant. The key point to note is that the domain is not a single
interval, but a union of two disjoint intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞) So
the mean value theorem is not applicable to any interval containing
x = 0. This example is easily extended to the case when the domain is
any collection of disjoint intervals and f takes different constant values
on different intervals.
Corollary 4.1. If f  (x) = g  (x) for all x in an interval (a, b),
then f − g is constant, that is, f (x) = g(x) + k, where k is a constant.
 23. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 101

Proof. Let h(x) = f (x) − g(x). Since h = f  − g  = 0 in (a, b), h

is constant, and the conclusion follows. 2
The sing of the first derivative defines intervals of growth and de-
crease of a function.
Theorem 4.6 (Increasing-Decreasing Test).
(I) If f  > 0 on an interval, then f is increasing on that interval.
(II) If f  < 0 on an interval, then f is decreasing on that interval.
Proof. Take any two numbers x1 and x2 in the interval so that
x1 < x2 . A function is increasing if f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) and decreasing if
f (x1 ) > f (x2 ). Since f is differentiable, the mean value theorem states
that there is a number c between x1 and x2 such that
(4.9) f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) = f  (c)(x2 − x1 ) .
If f  > 0, then it follows from (4.9) that f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) > 0 because, by
assumption, x2 > x1 ; that is, the function is increasing. Similarly, for
f  < 0, f (x2 ) − f (x1 ) < 0, and the function is decreasing. 2
The increasing-decreasing test is further illustrated on the interac-
tive website at http://www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalcbook/inc
dec.html.

23.2. The Inverse Function Theorem. A Baby Version. Given a function f ,

its inverse function exists if f is one-to-one as explained in Section 5.
A simple rule to calculate the derivative of the inverse function was pre-
sented in Sections 17 and 21. However, the very question of whether
the inverse function is actually differentiable has not been addressed. It
appears that the questions about the existence of the inverse function
and its differentiability can be answered by looking at the sign of the
derivative.
Theorem 4.7. (A Baby Version of the Inverse Function Theorem).
Let f be a function on −∞ ≤ a < b ≤ ∞. Suppose that f  (x) > 0 (or
f  (x) < 0) for all x ∈ (a, b). Then f has the inverse g = f −1 on (c, d)
for some −∞ ≤ c < d ≤ ∞ and
1
g  (f (x)) =  , a < x < b.
f (x)

Proof. 1. Let f  (x) > 0. The other case is similar. By the

increasing-decreasing test, f (x1 ) < f (x2 ) for any a < x1 < x2 < b.
Therefore, x1 = x2 implies that f (x1 ) = f (x2 ) and hence f is one-to-
one. So f has the inverse g = f −1 .
102 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

f
y  f 1(x)

f 1

 y  f(x)

Figure 4.5. Inverse function theorem. An increasing

function f , f  > 0, is one-to-one and hence has the in-
verse g = f −1 . The graphs of f and g are obtained from
one another by the reflection about the line y = x. A se-
cant line of the graph of f with the slope tan α = Δf /Δx
is mapped on the secant line of the graph of g with the
slope tan β = Δf −1 /Δf by this reflection. The an-
gles α and β are related as α + β = π/2 and hence
tan β = 1/ tan α. In the limit Δx → 0, which also
implies Δf → 0, the secant lines become the tangent
lines so that tan α → f  (x) and tan β → g  (y), where
y = f (x). Hence, g  (f (x)) = 1/f  (x).

2. The function f is continuous on (a, b) because it is differentiable

on (a, b). By the intermediate value theorem, f takes all intermediate
values between f (x1 ) and f (x2 ) > f (x1 ) for any interval [x1 , x2 ] in
(a, b). This shows that the range of f is a single interval (c, d) for
some −∞ ≤ c < d ≤ ∞ and if f : [x1 , x2 ] → [f (x1 ), f (x2 )], then
g : [f (x1 ), f (x2 )] → [x1 , x2 ] for any [x1 , x2 ] ⊂ (a, b).
3. To show that g is differentiable, fix x ∈ (a, b) and y = f (x) ∈ (c, d).
Put Δf = f (x + Δx) − f (x). Then Δf /Δx → f  (x) as Δx → 0. Any
interval I with endpoints x and x+Δx is mapped by f onto an interval
 23. THE MEAN VALUE THEOREM 103

I  with the corresponding endpoints f (x) = y and f (x + Δx) = y + Δy,

where Δy = Δf . Put Δg = g(y + Δy) − g(y). Since g maps the
interval I  onto I, Δg = Δx. The limit Δy → 0 implies that Δx → 0.
Therefore, Δg/Δy = Δx/Δy = 1/(Δy/Δx) → 1/f  (x) as Δx → 0,
which shows that g  (y) exists, and g  (y) = 1/f  (x), where y = f (x). A
graphic illustration is given in Figure 4.5. 2
For example, the exponential function f (x) = ex has the derivative

f (x) = ex > 0 for all −∞ < x < ∞. The image of the interval
(−∞, ∞) is (0, ∞). So the exponential function has the differentiable
inverse on (0, ∞), which is, of course, the natural logarithm ln x. The
function f (x) = cos x has the derivative f  (x) = − sin x, which is
negative on, for example, (0, π). Since the image of (0, π) is (−1, 1),
the inverse cos−1 x exists and is a differentiable function on (−1, 1).

23.3. Exercises.
(1) Prove the theorem:
If a function f has a derivative at each point of an open interval
(a, b), and if f is continuous at a and at b, and if f (a) = f (b) =
0, then there is a point c, with a < c < b, such that f  (c) = 0.
(2) Prove the theorem:
If a function f has a derivative at each point of an open interval
(a, b), and if f is continuous at a and at b, then there is a point
c, with a < c < b, such that f (b) = f (a) + (b − a)f  (c).
(3) Let f be a function whose domain of definition is the closed
interval [a, b] and which is differentiable at each point of this
interval. Show that if f  (a) > 0, then f (a) is a relative mini-
mum value of f .
Remark. The derivative at a is defined as the right limit,
f (a + h) − f (a)
f  (a) = lim+ .
h→0 h
(4) Let f be a function whose domain of definition is the closed
interval [a, b], which is continuous at a and b, which is differ-
entiable in the interval (a, b), and for which f  (a) = 0 or does
not exist. Show that if there is a point c such that f  (x) > 0
for a < x < c, then f (a) is a relative minimum value for f .
Give examples of functions with nonexisting f  (a) to illustrate
this result.
(5) State and prove results similar to those given in the two previ-
ous exercises for relative maxima instead of minima and also
for b instead of a.
104 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(6) Investigate whether each of the following equations has solu-

tions. If so, for each solution, find an interval in which no
other solution lies.
(i) cos x = x2
(ii) ex = 4 − x4 − x2
(iii) ln x = 4 − x2
(iv) 2 tan x = tan−1 x
(v) x6 + 3x4 + 3x2 + x − 7 = 0
(7) Prove the generalized mean value theorem:
If f and g are functions that are differentiable in an interval
[a, b] and if g  (x) = 0 for any x in [a, b], then there is a number
c, with a < c < b, such that
f (b) − f (a) f  (c)
=  .
g(b) − g(a) g (c)
Hint: Consider the function h defined by
f (b) − f (a)    
h(x) = g(x) − g(a) − f (x) − f (a) .
g(b) − g(a)
(8) Two hikers walked the same path in three hours. Prove that
there was at least one moment of time when they had the same
speed.
(9) Find intervals in which the given function f is increasing or
decreasing.
(i) f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 1
(ii) f (x) = cos2 x + 1
(iii) f (x) = sin x + x/2
(iv) f (x) = ex + 3e−x + 2x
(10) Find intervals in which the function f has a differentiable in-
verse f −1 .
(i) f (x) = 2x3 − 9x2 + 12x + 1
(ii) f (x) = x2 + 16/x
(iii) f (x) = ex + e−x

24. The First and Second Derivative Tests

Suppose the critical points of a function f are known. If f is differ-
entiable, then all critical points can be found by solving the equation
f  (x) = 0. How can one figure out the nature of a critical point, that is,
whether it is a local maximum, local minimum, or none of the above?
It turns out that this question can be answered by studying the deriva-
tives f  and f  . In addition, many qualitative features of the graph
y = f (x) can be deduced from properties of the derivatives of f .
 24. THE FIRST AND SECOND DERIVATIVE TESTS 105

24.1. The First Derivative Test. By the increasing-decreasing test, f is

increasing on interval if its derivative is positive, and f is decreasing
on an interval if its derivative is negative. Suppose f  is continuous
such that f  (a) = m and f  (b) = M . Then, on the interval [a, b], f 
must take all intermediate values between m and M . Suppose m < 0
and M > 0 or m > 0 and M < 0, that is, the derivative changes
its sign on the interval [a, b], then f  must vanish between a and b.
This means that f has a critical point a < c < b, f  (c) = 0. More
to the point, if the derivative f  changes from negative to positive
at c, then, according to the increasing-decreasing test, the function f
changes from increasing to decreasing at c, that is, f (c − h) < f (c)
and f (c) > f (c + h) for some small positive h. We can then conclude
that f attains its local maximum at c. Similarly, if the derivative f 
changes from negative to positive at c, then f changes from decreasing
to increasing at c, f (c − h) > f (c) and f (c) < f (c + h), and hence f
attains its local minimum at c. Naturally, there is a possibility that
f  (c) = 0 but f  (x) does not change its sign at c. In such a situation,
the increasing-decreasing test yields f (c − h) < f (c) < f (c + h) or
f (c − h) > f (c) > f (c + h); that is, in either case the function f
has neither a local minimum nor a local maximum. The findings are
summarized in the following theorem.
Theorem 4.8 (The First Derivative Test). Suppose that c is a crit-
ical point of a continuous function f .
(I) If f  changes from positive to negative at c, then f has a local
maximum at c.
(II) If f  changes from negative to positive at c, then f has a local
minimum at c.
(III) If f  does not changes its sign at c, then f has neither a local
maximum nor a local minimum at c.
It is important to note that the very existence of f  at c is not
required in the first derivative test. Recall the definition of a critical
point (f  (c) = 0 or f  (c) does not exist). In fact, in the preceding proof
of the first derivative test, the condition f  (c) = 0 can be dropped
because all that is needed to apply the increasing-decreasing test is
the sign of the derivative f  (x) for x < c and x > c. For example,
f (x) = |x|. Then f  (x) = −1 for x < 0 (the function is decreasing)
and f  (x) = 1 for x > 0 (the function is increasing). Hence, f (x)
has a minimum at x = 0, even though f  does not exist at x = 0. The
continuity hypothesis is also crucial. Consider the function f (x) = 1/x2
for x = 0 and f (0) = 0. Then f  (x) = −2/x3 for x = 0 and f  (0) does
106 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

not exist. So x = 0 is a critical point. The function is increasing for

x < 0 because f  > 0, and it is decreasing for x > 0 because f  < 0.
However, f has no maximum at x = 0 because f is discontinuous at
x = 0. In fact, it attains its absolute minimum at x = 0!
There are plenty of mechanical analogies of the first derivative test.
Let H(t) be the height (relative to the ground) of a stone thrown up-
ward as a function of time t. At the beginning, the stone moves upward
so H  > 0 (the height is increasing). When the stone comes back to
the ground, it moves downward so H  < 0 (the height is decreasing).
Naturally, at some moment of time, the stone has to reach the maxi-
mal height. Analyze the motion of a pendulum (or a see-saw) from this
point of view! The height would have two maxima and one minimum.
Example 4.6 (Example 4.1 Revisited). Find all local maxima and
minima of f (x) = x3 − x and the intervals on which the function is
increasing or decreasing (the function is depicted in Figure 4.1).
Solution:
(I) Since f is differentiable (it is a polynomial), all its critical
points satisfy the equation
 √  √ 
f  (x) = 3x2 − 1 = 3 x − 1/ 3 x + 1/ 3 = 0 .
√ √
Hence, the critical points are c1 = −1/ 3 and c2 = 1/ 3.
(II) For x < c1 , the product (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) is positive (as the
product of two negative numbers), and hence f  > 0 (f is
increasing on (−∞, c1 )). For c1 < x < c2 , the product (x −
c1 )(x−c2 ) is negative (as the product of a negative and positive
number), and hence f  < 0 (f is decreasing on (c1 , c2 )). For
x > c2 , the product (x − c1 )(x − c2 ) is positive (as the product
of two positive numbers), and hence f  > 0 (f is increasing on
(c2 , ∞)).
(III) The derivative changes from positive to negative at c1 . There-
fore, f has a local maximum at c1 . The derivative changes
from negative to positive at c2 . Therefore, f has a local mini-
mum at c2 . 2

24.2. Properties of the Second Derivative: Inflection Points.

Definition 4.4 (Concavity). The graph of a function f is called
concave upward on an interval I if it lies above all of its tangent lines
on I. The graph is called concave downward on I if it lies below all of
its tangent lines on I.
 24. THE FIRST AND SECOND DERIVATIVE TESTS 107

Note that the notion of concavity implies that f is differentiable

(otherwise, the tangent lines do not exist). If f is twice differentiable,
then the concavity is determined by the sign of the second derivative
f  . Suppose that the graph of f is concave upward on I. Consider the
tangent lines at two points c and c + h in I:
L1 (x) = f (c) + f  (c)(x − c) , L2 (x) = f (c + h) + f  (c + h)(x − c − h).
The graph of f lies above the lines L1 and L2 , that is, f (x) − L1 (x) > 0
and f (x) − L2 (x) > 0 for all x in I. Putting x = c in the last inequality
and x = c + h in the former one, we obtain
f (c) − L2 (c) = f (c) − f (c + h) + f  (c + h)h > 0,
f (c + h) − L1 (c + h) = f (c + h) − f (c) − f  (c)h > 0
The sum of the right-hand sides of these inequalities is positive as the
sum of two positive numbers:
  f  (c + h) − f  (c)
(4.10) h[f (c + h) − f (c)] > 0 =⇒ > 0,
h
where the first inequality has been divided by a positive number h2 .
Inequality (4.10) is true for any h. Therefore, by taking the limit
h → 0, we can conclude that f  (c) > 0 if the graph is concave upward.
Inequality (4.10) shows that f  (c + h) > f  (c) for h > 0 and f  (c) >
f  (c+h) for h < 0. In other words, the derivative f  , or the slope of the
tangent line of the graph of f , increases for the upward concavity, and
hence (f  ) = f  must be positive by the increasing-decreasing test.
Similarly, the downward concavity implies that f  is negative. It turns
out that the converse is also true.
Theorem 4.9 (The Concavity Test). Let f be twice differentiable
on an interval I.
(I) If f  (x) > 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave
upward on I.
(II) If f  (x) < 0 for all x in I, then the graph of f is concave
downward on I.
How does the graph of f look near a point c where f  (c) = 0? There
are four possibilities. First, f  (c ± h) > 0 for some small h > 0. This
means that the graph is concave upward to the left and right of c. As
an example, consider f (x) = x4 . Second, f  (c ± h) < 0. This implies
that the graph is concave downward to the left and right of c. As an
example, take f (x) = −x4 . These two cases are depicted in Figure 4.6.
Third, f  (c − h) > 0 and f  (c + h) < 0, that is, the concavity changes
from upward to downward (e.g., f (x) = −x3 ). Fourth, f  (c − h) < 0
108 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

y y
f"(x) > 0 f "(x) < 0

x x
x0 x0

Figure 4.6. Concavity near a point x0 at which

f  (x0 ) = 0. The graph is concave downward if f  (x) > 0
for x > x0 and x < x0 (left panel). Such a local behavior
can be illustrated by f (x) = c + (x − x0 )4 , where c is a
constant, so that f  (x) = 12(x − x0 )2 ≥ 0. The graph
is concave upward if f  (x) < 0 for x > x0 and x < x0
(right panel). Such a local behavior can be illustrated by
f (x) = c − (x − x0 )4 so that f  (x) = −12(x − x0 )2 ≤ 0.

and f  (c + h) > 0, that is, the concavity changes from downward to

upward (e.g., f (x) = x3 ).

Definition 4.5 (Inflection Point). A point P on the graph y =

f (x) is called an inflection point if f is continuous there and the graph
changes from concave upward to concave downward or from concave
downward to concave upward.

Let c be a critical point of f . Suppose f  is continuous near c.

What can f  (c) tell us about the nature of the critical number (local
minimum or maximum)? There are three possibilities. First, f  (c) > 0.
This means that f  (x) > 0 for all x in some neighborhood of c (by
the continuity of f  ). Hence, f is concave upward near c; that is,
its graph lies above the tangent line at c, which is a horizontal line
because f  (c) = 0. So f must have a local minimum. Similarly, the
condition f  (c) < 0 implies that the concavity is downward near c
and f has a local maximum. If f  (c) = 0, then the concavity may
or may not change at c as discussed earlier. The function may have
a local maximum, a local minimum, or an inflection point; that is, no
conclusion about the nature of the critical point can be reached.
 24. THE FIRST AND SECOND DERIVATIVE TESTS 109

f" < 0
f" > 0

x
x0
Figure 4.7. Concavity near a point x0 at which
f  (x0 ) = 0 (continued from Figure 4.6). Inflection point.
The second derivative changes its sign at the inflection
point x = x0 . The concavity of the graph of f also
changes at the inflection point. Such a local behavior
can be illustrated by f (x) = c + a(x − x0 ) + (x − x0 )3 ,
where c and a are constants, so that f  (x) = 6(x − x0 )
changes its sign at x0 . Note that f  (x0 ) = a; i.e., a de-
fines the slope of the graph at x = x0 .

Theorem 4.10 (The Second Derivative Test). Suppose f  is con-

tinuous near c.
(I) If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) > 0, then f has a local minimum at c.
(II) If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) < 0, then f has a local maximum at c.
(III) If f  (c) = 0 and f  (c) = 0, then f may have a local maximum,
a local minimum, or an inflection point.
In Example 4.6, the√function f (x) = x3 − x is shown to have two

critical √

√ ±1/ 3 as depicted in Figure 4.1.
points: x =

Since
√ f (x)√= 6x,
f (−1/ 3) = −2 3 < 0 (a local maximum) and f (1/ 3) = 2 3 > 0
(a local minimum). The function also has an inflection point at x = 0:
f  (x) = 6x < 0 if x < 0 and f  (x) = 6x > 0 if x > 0. Note that an
inflection point may not be related a critical point! In other words, the
tangent line at an inflection point can have any slope. In the example
discussed, f  (0) = −1 (see also Figure 4.7).
110 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

y y y
f"(c) < 0 f "(c) > 0 f "(c) = 0
(inflection)

x x x
c c c
Figure 4.8. Second derivative test. The graph of f has
a horizontal tangent line at a critical point, f  (c) = 0. If
f  (c) < 0, the graph is concave upward near x = c and
f has a local maximum at c (left panel). If f  (c) > 0,
the graph is concave downward near x = c and f has
a local minimum at c (middle panel). If f  (c) = 0, the
graph may have an inflection point when f  changes its
sign at c (right panel), but f  may not change its sign
at c, and hence the behavior depicted in the left and
middle panels is also possible in the case f  (c) = 0. The
second derivative test is inconclusive. The function may
have a local minimum, a local maximum, or an inflection.
Examples are given in the captions of Figures 4.6 and 4.7
(with a = 0).

24.3. Exercises.

(1) Find all critical points of the given function in its domain. Use
either the first or second derivative test to determine whether
there is a local maximum, a local minimum, or an inflection
at each critical point.
(i) f (x) = 8x3 − 9x2 + 1
(ii) f (x) = x4 − 6x2 + 8x + 2
2
(iii) f (x) = x√ − 2/x
(iv) f (x) = x√ 1 − x2
(v) f (x) = x x − x2
(vi) f (x) = sin(2x) + x
(vii) f (x) = ln x − x3
2 −4
(viii) f (x) = xx+1
(ix) f (x) = tan x
(x) f (x) = (ex − e−x )/(ex + e−x )
(xi) f (x) = x2/3 (1 − x)1/3
 25. TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS AND THE LOCAL BEHAVIOR 111

(2) For which values of a and b will the function h(x) = ax2 +
b/x3 have a horizontal tangent (x, y) = (1, 5)? Does h have a
relative maximum or minimum at (1, 5)?
(3) At a point P in the first quadrant on the curve y = 7 − x2 ,
a tangent is drawn, meeting the coordinate axes at A and B.
Find the position of P that makes the distance between A and
B a minimum.
(4) Water flows out of a hemispherical basin through a hole at the
bottom so that the volume of the water remaining at any time
decreases at a rate proportional to the square root of the depth
of the water remaining. Prove that the level of the water falls
most slowly when the depth is two-thirds of the radius of the
basin.
Hint: The volume of a spherical segment of one base is
π
V = (3Rh2 − h3 ),
3
where R is the radius of the sphere and h is the height of the
segment.
(5) A function f is such that f  is continuous on the interval [a, b].
The equation f (x) = 0 has three different solutions in the open
interval (a, b). Show that the equation f  (x) = 0 has at least
one solution in (a, b).
(6) If f is a function that has a second derivative at each point
of an interval [a, b], show that there is a number c inside this
interval such that
f  (c)
f (b) = f (a) + f  (a)(b − a) + (b − a)2 .
2
Hint: Consider the function h defined by
h(x) = f (x) − f (a) − f  (a)(x − a) − k(x − a)2 ,
where the number k is so chosen that h(b) = 0.

25. Taylor Polynomials and the Local Behavior of a Function

The tangent line approximation L(x) is the best linear approxima-
tion of f (x) near x = a because L(x) and f (x) have the same rate
of change at a. In the previous section, it was shown that the second
derivative at a provides important information about the behavior of
f (x) near a, namely the concavity. The tangent line L(x) has no con-
cavity as L (x) = 0. The question arises whether there is a systematic
method to improve the accuracy of the tangent line approximation to
112 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

capture more essential features of the behavior of f (x) near a (i.e., the
local behavior of f ).

25.1. Taylor Polynomials. The function L(x) is a polynomial of the first

degree. Consider the second-degree polynomial
T2 (x) = f (a) + f  (a)(x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 = L(x) + c2 (x − a)2 ,
where c2 is an arbitrary coefficient. This polynomial has the same
features as L(x), that is, T2 (a) = L(a) = f (a) and T2 (a) = L (a) =
f  (a) because T2 (x) = f  (a) + 2c2 (x − a). So it might provide a better
approximation of f (x) than L(x) near a if the coefficient c2 is chosen
so that T2 (x) has the same concavity as f (x) near a. By the concavity
test, it is then reasonable to assume that T2 (a) = f  (a), which yields
2c2 = f  (a) or c2 = f  (a)/2. The idea can be extended to a polynomial
of degree n:
Tn (x) = c0 + c1 (x − a) + c2 (x − a)2 + · · · + cn (x − a)n ,
where the coefficients are fixed by the conditions
Tn (a) = f (a) , Tn (a) = f  (a) , Tn (a) = f  (a) , . . . , Tn(n) (a) = cn .
The resulting polynomial is called the nth-degree Taylor polynomial:
f  (a) f (n) (a)
Tn (x) = f (a) + f  (a)(x − a) + (x − a)2 + · · · + (x − a)n .
2! n!
25.2. Accuracy of Taylor Polynomials. The accuracy of the tangent line
approximation is assessed in Theorem 3.15. Let us compare it with
the accuracy of higher-degree Taylor polynomials. Consider Taylor
polynomials of the exponential function ex near x = 0. Since (ex ) = ex
and e0 = 1, the Taylor polynomials are
1 1 1
f (x) = ex: Tn (x) = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn .
2 6 n!
Let us take a few values of x near x = 0 and compare the values of the
Taylor polynomials with the value of the function:
x = 1: f = 2.718 T1 = 2.000 T2 = 2.500 T3 = 2.667
x = −0.5 : f = 0.607 T1 = 0.500 T2 = 0.625 T3 = 0.604
x = 0.25 : f = 1.284 T1 = 1.250 T2 = 1.281 T3 = 1.284
Two observations can be made from this table. First, the accuracy
increases with increasing the degree of the Taylor polynomial (reading
the rows of the table from left to right). Second, lower-degree Taylor
polynomials become more accurate as the argument gets closer to the
point at which the Taylor polynomials are constructed (reading the
 25. TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS AND THE LOCAL BEHAVIOR 113

columns of the table from top to bottom). For example, the approxi-
mation ex ≈ T3 (x) is accurate up to four significant digits if |x| ≤ 1/4.
So the accuracy of the approximation ex ≈ T2 (x) is determined by
the difference T2 − T3 = −x3 /6, that is, by the next monomial to be
added to T2 to get the next Taylor polynomial. This observation is a
characteristic feature of Taylor polynomials:
Theorem 4.11. Let f be continuously differentiable n + 1 times on
an open interval I containing a. Let f (n+1) be bounded on I, |f (n+1) (x)|
≤ M . Then
 M
(4.11) |f (x) − Tn (x) ≤ |x − a|n+1 ,
(n + 1)!
where Tn is the Taylor polynomial at a.
Theorem 3.15 is a particular case of this theorem for n = 1. In-
equality (4.11) is a consequence of the Taylor theorem whose proof is
given a more advanced calculus course. For example, what is the accu-
racy of the Taylor polynomial T5 (x) near a = 0 for the exponential ex
in the interval [−1, 1]? To get the upper bound on errors, one should
take the maximal value of the right-hand side of (4.11) for n = 5 in the
interval, that is, (ex )(n) = ex ≤ M = e, and |x| ≤ 1, so the absolute
error cannot exceed e/6! ≈ 0.0038.

25.3. Taylor Polynomials near Critical Points. Let a be a critical point

of f . Provided f is enough times differentiable, Taylor polynomials can
be constructed near a. The linear term vanishes because f  (a) = 0.
The second derivative test is easy to understand by looking at T2 (x) =
f (a) + f  (a)(x − a)2 /2. If f  (a) > 0, then f looks like a downward
parabola near a as depicted in the left panel of Figure 4.8 (a local
maximum). If f  (a) < 0, then f looks like an upward parabola near
a as depicted in the middle panel of Figure 4.8 (a local minimum).
For example, cos x has a local maximum at a = 0, and it behaves
near a = 0 as cos x ≈ T2 (x) = 1 − x2 /2. The second derivative test
is inconclusive if f  (a) = 0. In this case, f (x) behaves near a as
T3 (x) = f (a) + f  (a)(x − a)3 /6. So, if f  (a) = 0, f has an inflection
point at a as depicted in the right panel of Figure 4.8. If f  (a) = 0, one
should look at T4 (x) = f (a)+f (4) (a)(x−a)4 /24. A function has a local
maximum (minimum) at a if f (4) (a) > 0 (f (4) (a) < 0) as the concavity
does not change at x = a. This is to be compared with examples given
in the caption of Figure 4.6. It is now clear that the local behavior
of f near its critical point is determined by a Taylor polynomial that
114 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

has the first nonvanishing correction to f (a), provided the function is

differentiable sufficiently many times.
Example 4.7. Investigate f (x) = x − tan x near x = 0.
Solution: Find a Taylor polynomial for tan x with two nontrivial
terms. In this case, it is T3 : tan x ≈ T3 (x) = x − x3 /3. Therefore,
f (x) ≈ x − T3 (x) = x3 /3. So there is an inflection point at x = 0. 2

25.4. Asymptotes. How can the behavior of a function near a be an-

alyzed if the function is not differentiable at a, or not even defined at
a, or how does it behave in the asymptotic regions x → ±∞?
Definition 4.6 (Vertical Asymptotes). The line x = a is a ver-
tical asymptote of the graph y = f (x) if at least one of the limits
limx→a± f (x) is infinite (∞ or −∞).
In other words, the function f (x) increases (decreases) unboundedly
as x approaches a from either the left or the right. For example, the
function
x(x2 + 3) x(x2 + 3)
(4.12) f (x) = =
x2 − 1 (x − 1)(x + 1)
has two vertical asymptotes because the denominator vanishes at x = 1
and x = −1. When x approaches −1 from the left, f (x) tends to −∞,
while it tends to ∞ if −1 is approached from the right. Similarly,
f (x) → −∞ as x → 1− and f (x) → ∞ as x → 1+ .
Suppose f has a vertical asymptote at a. How does it behave near
a? How “fast” does it diverge when x gets closer to a?
Definition 4.7 (Asymptotic Behavior). The functions f (x) and
g(x) on an open interval x > a (including x > −∞) or x < a (including
x < ∞) are said to have the same asymptotic behavior at x = a if
(4.13) lim (f (x) − g(x)) = 0 or lim (f (x) − g(x)) = 0 .
x→a+ x→a−

In particular, if x → ±∞ and g(x) = mx + b, then f is said to have

a slant asymptote, and for m = 0, the slant asymptote is called a
horizontal asymptote.
For a given f , there are many g that have the same asymptotic be-
havior because one can always change g by adding h such that h(x) → 0
as x → a± . A practical problem is to find as simple a g as possible
with the property (4.13). In other words, one looks for a simple way
to estimate the values of f (x) near a.
 25. TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS AND THE LOCAL BEHAVIOR 115

Example 4.8. Find the asymptotic behavior of the function (4.12)

at x = ±1.
Solution: The function has to be investigated near x = ±1 and also
when x → ±∞.
(I) Near x = −1, the unbounded growth of f (x) is associated with
the divergent factor 1/(x + 1) so that f (x) = h(x)/(1 + x),
where h(x) is finite near x = −1. Then f (x) ≈ h(−1)/(x +
1) = g(x):
1 x(x2 + 3) 2
f (x) = ≈ = g(x) .
x+1 x−1 x+1
Apparently, limx→−1± (f (x) − g(x)) = 0. The graphs of f (x)
and g(x) = 2/(x + 1) are close near x = −1,
(II) Similarly, near x = 1
1 x(x2 + 3) 2
f (x) = ≈ = g(x) .
x−1 x+1 x−1

20

10

10 5 5 10

10

20

Figure 4.9. Graph of f (x) given in (4.12) (the blue

solid curve). It has a slant asymptote g(x) = x as
x → ±∞ (the dashed line). In these asymptotic regions,
f (x) ≈ g(x) = x. The function also has two vertical
asymptotes x = 1 (the red vertical line) and x = −1 (the
blue vertical line). The red solid curve is the graph of
g(x) = 2/(x − 1), which shows the asymptotic behav-
ior of f (x) near x = 1. In a neighborhood of x = 1,
f (x) ≈ g(x) near x = 1. The function f exhibits a simi-
lar behavior near x = −1 (not depicted here).
116 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(III) When x is a large negative or positive number,

x · x2 (1 + x32 ) x3
f (x) = ≈ = x = g(x) ,
x2 (1 − x12 ) x2
where 1/x3 and 3/x2 are small as compared to 1 for large x2
and can be neglected, that is, limx→±∞ (f (x) − x) = 0. So the
graph of f asymptotically approaches the line y = x. Since
1 + 3/x2 > 1 − 1/x2 , the ratio (1 + 3/x2 )/(1 − 1/x2 ) > 1 for all
x2 > 1, and hence f (x) > x when x > 0, while f (x) < x when
x < 0. This means that the graph of f approaches the slant
asymptote y = x from above when x is large positive, while
it approaches the slant asymptote from below when x is large
negative. 2

25.5. Asymptotic Behavior and Taylor Polynomials. Taylor polynomials

also provide a powerful technique to investigate an asymptotic behavior
of a function. This is illustrated by the following example.
Example 4.9. Investigate f (x) = x−8/3 (1 − cos x) near x = 0.
Solution: The factor x−8/3 diverges as x → 0, but cos x is smooth
near x = 0 and can be approximated by the Taylor polynomial T4 =
1 − x2 /2 + x4 /24:
f (x) ≈ x−8/3 (1 − T4 (x)) = x−8/3 ( 12 x2 − x ) = 12 x−2/3 − 24
1 4
24
1 4/3
x .
1 −2/3
Therefore, for a sufficiently small x, f (x) ≈ 2 x = g(x) because
f (x) − g(x) ≈ 24 x → 0 as x → 0. Note that the use of T2 in place of
1 4/3

T4 would not be enough to establish the asymptotic behavior of f . 2

25.6. Exercises.
(1) Find the nth-degree Taylor polynomials of the given function
at a specified point.
(i) f (x) = sin x, x = 0
(ii) f (x) = cos x, x = 0
(iii) f (x) = ln x, x = 1
(iv) f (x) = 1/x, x = 2
(v) f (x) = tan x, x = 0
(iv) f (x) = ex − e−x , x = 0
(2) If f is twice continuously differentiable near x = 0 and f (0) =
0, find the local behavior of the function F (x) = f (|x|p ) near
x = 0 where p > 0.
 25. TAYLOR POLYNOMIALS AND THE LOCAL BEHAVIOR 117

(3) Let f and g be twice differentiable at a and g(a) = 0. Find

the second-degree Taylor polynomial for the function F (x) =
f (g(x)) near x = a.
Hint: Use f (u) ≈ T2 (u) = f (0) + f  (0)u + f  (0)u2 /2, where
u = g(x) and g(x) is also approximated by the corresponding
T2 near a.
(4) Find the third-degree Taylor polynomial for the following func-
tions at a specified point by using the results from the previous
exercises (i.e., by using Taylor polynomials of a suitably cho-
sen argument).
(i) f (x) = sin(x3 ), x = 0
(ii) f (x) = sin(sin x), x = 0
(iii) f (x) = tan(1 − cos x), x = 0
(5) Use Taylor polynomials to investigate the local behavior of a
given function near a specified critical point (whether it has a
local maximum, a local minimum, or an inflection).
(i) f (x) = sin(x4 ), x = 0
(ii) f (x) = 1 − x2 /2 − cos x, x = 0
(iii) f (x) = ln(1 + x) − x + x2 , x = 0
(6) Use Taylor polynomials of successive degrees for f (x) = ln(1 +
x) near x = 0 to evaluate ln 2. What degree is required to
calculate ln 2 with five significant digits?
(7) Find vertical and slant asymptotes, if any, of a given function.
Investigate the asymptotic behavior of the function near the
points where it has vertical asymptotes and in the asymptotic
regions x → ±∞.
(i) f (x) = x + 4/x
(ii) f (x) = x2 /(x2 − 1)
(iii) f (x) = (x3 − 3x2 )/(x2 − 2x + 1)
(iv) f (x) = x2/3 (x2 − 1)−1/3
(v) f (x) = (cos x − 1)/x2
(vi) f (x) = (x − sin x)/x4
(8) Approximate the given function near a specified point by using
Taylor polynomials.
(i) f (x) = x−2/3 ln(1 + x), x = 0
(ii) f (x) = x−4/3 sin2 (2x2/3 ), x = 0
(iii) f (x) = x−5/3 (x − tan(x1/3 )), x = 0
(iv) f (x) = [sin(x − 1) − x + 1]/(x − 1)3 , x = 1
(9) Suppose that the functions f and g are such that f (a) =
g(a) = 0, f (k) (a) = 0 for k = 1, 2, . . . , n, and g (k) (a) = 0
for k = 1, 2, . . . , m, while f (n+1) (a) = 0 and g (m+1) (a) = 0.
118 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Investigate the local behavior of the function h(x) = f (x)/g(x)

near x = a if n = m, if n > m, and if m < n.
26. L’Hospital’s Rule
If a function f is not defined at a, then its behavior near a depends
on the limit of f as x → a, whether it is finite, infinite, or does not even
exist. So this question is of importance when investigating a function.
There is a special technique to answer it.
0 ∞
26.1. Indeterminate Forms 0
and ∞
Consider the behavior of the fol-
.
lowing functions:
ex − 1 1 − cos x tan x − x
(4.14) , 2
, as x → 0 .
x x x3
Do they have a vertical asymptote at x = 0? These functions have a
common feature. They are ratios f /g of two functions f and g such
that f (x) → 0 and g(x) → 0 as x → 0. Similarly, one can make ratios
where the limits of the numerator and denominator at a particular
point are infinite:
ln x
(4.15) as x → 0+ .
x−1
In general, a limit of the form
f (x)
lim
x→a g(x)

is called an indeterminate form of type 00 if both f (x) → 0 and g(x) → 0

as x → a; it is called an indeterminate form of type ∞ ∞
if both f (x) → ∞
(or −∞) and g(x) → 0 (or −∞). The limit itself may or may not
exist. The following theorem provides a powerful method to study the
indeterminate forms of these types.
Theorem 4.12 (L’Hospital’s Rule). Suppose f and g are differen-
tiable and g  (x) = 0 on an open interval that contains a (except possibly
at a). Suppose that
lim f (x) = lim g(x) = 0
x→a x→a
or that
lim f (x) = ±∞ and lim g(x) = ±∞.
x→a x→a
Then
f (x) f  (x)
(4.16) lim = lim 
x→a g(x) x→a g (x)

if the limit on the right-hand side exists (or is infinite).

 26. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 119

For the special case in which f (a) = g(a) = 0, the derivatives f 

and g  are continuous, and g  (a) = 0, it is not difficult to see why
l’Hospital’s rule (4.16) holds:
f (x)−f (a) f (x)−f (a)
f (x) x−a
limx→a x−a f  (a) f  (x)
lim = lim = = = lim .
x→a g(x) x→a g(x)−g(a) g(x)−g(a)
limx→a x−a g  (a) x→a g  (x)
x−a

The first equality follows from f (a) = g(a) = 0, the second and third
equalities are the consequence of the limit laws and the assumption
that g  (a) = 0, and the last equality follows from the continuity of the
derivatives. This simplified version of l’Hospital’s rule can be under-
stood geometrically. The functions f and g can be approximated by
their tangent lines at a, f (x) ≈ f  (a)(x − a) and g(x) ≈ g  (a)(x − a),
so that f (x)/g(x) ≈ f  (a)/g  (a) near a.
It is not so easy to prove the general version of l’Hospital’s rule
(the proof is omitted here). L’Hospital’s rule is also valid for one-sided
limits x → a± and for the limits at ±∞. The conditions of l’Hospital’s
rule must be verified for the corresponding limits.
What happens if f  (a) = g  (a) = 0? Apparently, the conditions of
l’Hospital’s rule are satisfied for the derivatives f  (x) and g  (x) in this
case. So l’Hospital’s rule may be applied again to the ratio f  (x)/g  (x).
For functions differentiable many times, l’Hospital’s rule is easy to un-
derstand via the Taylor polynomials. Suppose that functions f and g
are continuously differentiable sufficiently many times near a. Then by
Theorem 4.11 the following approximation holds
f (x) f (a) + f  (a)(x − a) + 12 f  (a)(x − a)2 + · · ·
≈ .
g(x) g(a) + g  (a)(x − a) + 12 g  (a)(x − a)2 + · · ·
If f (a) = g(a) = 0, then the limit of the ratio is determined by
f  (a)/g  (a). If f (a) = g(a) = 0 and f  (a) = g  (a) = 0, then the
limit is determined by f  (a)/g  (a) and so on.
Example 4.10. Investigate the indeterminate forms (4.14) and
(4.15).
Solution:
(I) Let f (x) = ex − 1 and g(x) = x. Then f (0) = g(0) = 0 (the
conditions of l’Hospital’s rule are fulfilled). Hence,
ex − 1 (ex − 1) ex
lim = lim = lim = 1.
x→0 x x→0 (x) x→0 1
120 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(II) Let f (x) = 1 − cos x and g(x) = x2 so that f (0) = g(0) = 0.

Then f  (x) = sin x and g  (x) = 2x. Since f  (0) = 0 and
g  (0) = 0, l’Hospital’s rule can be applied again:
1 − cos x sin x (sin x) cos x 1
lim = lim = lim = lim = .
x→0 x2 x→0 2x x→0 (2x) x→0 2 2

(III) Let f (x) = tan x − x and g(x) = x3 so that f (0) = g(0) = 0.

The derivatives f  (x) = sec2 x − 1 and g  (x) = 3x2 vanish
at x = 0. L’Hospital’s rule can be used again to resolve the
indeterminate form. For complicated functions, taking higher-
order derivatives might be quite an algebraic exercise. Some-
times, simple algebraic transformations of an indeterminate
form in combination with basic limit laws may lead to the
answer faster than a successive use of l’Hospital’s rule:
tan x − x sec2 x − 1 1 − cos2 x
lim = lim = lim
x→0 x3 x→0 3x2 x→0 3x2 cos2 x
2

2
sin x 1 sin x 1
= lim = lim = .
x→0 3x2 3 x→0 x 3
The third equality follows from cos x → 1 as x → 0, and
therefore cos2 x in the denominator can be replaced by 1 in
accord with the basic limit laws.
(IV) Let f (x) = ln x and g(x) = x−1 so that f (x) → −∞ and
g(x) → ∞ as x → 0+ . So the conditions of l’Hospital’s rule
are fulfilled. Therefore,
ln x (ln x) x−1
lim+ −1 = lim+ −1  = lim+ = − lim+ x = 0.
x→0 x x→0 (x ) x→0 −x−2 x→0
2

26.2. Indeterminate Products 0 · ∞. Suppose that f (x) → ∞ and

g(x) → 0 as x → a. How can the indeterminate product f (x)g(x)
be investigated when x → a? It turns out the indeterminate prod-
uct can be transformed into one of the indeterminate forms to which
l’Hospital’s rule is applicable:
f  ∞ g  0
(4.17) f g = ∞·0→ or f g = ∞·0→ .
1/g ∞ 1/f 0
The function x ln x is an indeterminate product of the type 0 · ∞ as
x → 0+ . It can be transformed into an indeterminate form of the
type ∞∞
as in (4.15), which is then resolved by l’Hospital’s rule (see
Example 4.10). Note that, although either of the transformations in
 26. L’HOSPITAL’S RULE 121

(4.17) may be applied with the subsequent use of l’Hospital’s rule, the
technicalities involved might differ substantially. For instance, if the
second option in (4.17) is applied to x ln x = x/(1/ ln x), then
x 1
lim+ x ln x = lim+ = lim+ = − lim+ x ln2 x .
x→0 x→0
1
ln x
x→0 − ln2 x x1
1
x→0

Although our goal has not been achieved, our effort has not been in
vain. Since the left-hand side vanishes by Example 4.10, it follows that
x ln2 x → 0 as x → 0+ . By repeating this procedure recursively, one
can infer that x lnn x → 0 as x → 0+ for any n = 1, 2, . . ..

26.3. Indeterminate Powers 00 , ∞0 , and 1∞ . Several indeterminate

forms arise from the limits of [f (x)]g(x) as x → a:
00 (f (x) → 0 , g(x) → 0) ; ∞0 (f (x) → ∞ , g(x) → 0);
1∞ (f (x) → 1 , g(x) → 0) .
Note c0 = 1 if c = 0 and c = ∞. Similarly, c∞ = 0 if 0 ≤ c < 1 and
c∞ = ∞ if c > 1. The indeterminate powers can be transformed into
an indeterminate product with the help of the identity y = eln y :
g(x) )
lim [f (x)]g(x) = lim eln([f (x)] = lim eg(x) ln(f (x)) = elimx→a g(x) ln(f (x)) .
x→a x→a x→a

The limit of g(x) ln(f (x)) is of type 0 · ∞ and can be treated by the
rule (4.17). The procedure is illustrated with an example of the type
∞0 indeterminate power:
1/x )
lim x1/x = lim eln(x = lim eln(x)/x = elimx→∞ ln(x)/x = e0 = 1 .
x→∞ x→∞ x→∞

26.4. Indeterminate Differences ∞ − ∞. Suppose f (x) → ∞ and

g(x) → ∞ as x → a. The limit of f (x) − g(x) as x → a is called
an indeterminate difference. The following transformations might be
helpful to investigate it:

g 1 − g/f f f /g − 1
f −g =f 1− = or f − g = g = .
f 1/f g−1 1/g
If f (x)/g(x) → 1, then the indeterminate difference is equivalent to an
indeterminate form of type 0/0 and can be investigated by l’Hospital’s
rule. The limit of f /g is an indeterminate form of type ∞/∞ and can
also be investigated by l’Hospital’s rule. Suppose that f (x)/g(x) → k
as x → a, where k can be either a non-negative number or k = ∞.
If k < 1, then f − g = g(f /g − 1) → ∞ · (k − 1) = −∞; that
is, g increases faster than f as x → a. If k > 1 or k = ∞, then
122 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

f − g = g(f /g − 1) → ∞ · (k − 1) = ∞; that is, f increases faster

than g as x → a. For example,
 1 1  1
lim+ ln x + = lim+ 1 + x ln x = lim+ (1 + 0) = ∞.
x→0 x x→0 x x→0 x

If k = 1, then it is also possible that f − g → c, where c is a number. In

this case, f and g increase asymptotically at the same rate: f  −g  → 0.
If c = 0, the functions f and g have the same asymptotic behavior. For
example,
 1  1   sin x
lim − cot x = lim 1 − cos x = lim = 0,
x→0 sin x x→0 sin x x→0 cos x

where l’Hospital’s rule has been used in the second equality. Note that
Taylor polynomials allow us to find the local behavior of this function
near x = 0. Use T2 to approximate cos x and T3 for sin x:

1 1 − cos x x2 /2 x/2 x
− cot x = ≈ = ≈ ,
sin x sin x x − x /6
3 1 − x /6
2 2

where x2 /6 is small as compared to 1 when x is close enough to 0 and

can therefore be neglected in the denominator.

26.5. Exercises.
(1) Find the limits.

ln(1 + x)
(i) lim
x→0 x
x − sin x
(ii) lim
x→0 x3
sin x − cos x
(iii) lim
x→π/4 cos(2x)
(iv) lim+ sin x ln x
x→0
(v) lim [1 − cos x] ln x
x→0+
sin x − x
(vi) lim
x→0 − 1 − x2 /2
ex
tan x − x
(vii) lim x3
x→0 e −1
 √x + 1 − 1 1 
(viii) lim x−2 −
x→0 x 2
 27. ANALYZING THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH 123

 2 x
(ix) lim 1 +
x→∞ x
−x ex
(x) lim (1 − e )
x→∞
 
(xi) lim x − (ln x) ,n
n>0
x→∞
 1/x
(xii) lim x − ln x
x→∞

(xiii) lim (sin(ax))sin(bx) , a > 0, b>0

x→0+

2
(2) Consider the function f (x) = e−1/x if x = 0 and f (0) = 0.
Show first that
2
lim xn e−1/x = 0, n > 0.
x→0

Use this fact and the definition of derivatives to show that

f (k) (0) = 0 for all k. Can Taylor polynomials be used to
investigate the local behavior of the function near x = 0 and
establish the nature of the critical point x = 0?
(3) Find all critical points of the function
⎧
⎨ e−1/x , x > 0,
f (x) = 0, x = 0,
⎩
−e ,
1/x
x < 0,
and investigate the behavior of the function near them.

27. Analyzing the Shape of a Graph

To analyze the shape of a graph y = f (x), it is useful to have
a clear idea of how the basic functions behave. For example, sin x
and cos x are regular everywhere, bounded (e.g., | sin x| ≤ 1), and
periodic with a period of 2π. In addition, sin x has zeros at x = πn,
n = 0, ±1, ±2, . . ., while cos x vanishes at π/2 + πn. The function sin x
is odd, while cos x is even. Their ratio tan x = sin x/cos x is not defined
at roots of cos x. How does tan x behave, say, near x = π/2? Since
both sin x and cos x are smooth near x = π/2, the behavior of tan x
near π/2 can be understood with the help of Taylor polynomials. Let
us approximate sin x by T1 (x) = 1 + (x − π/2) and cos x by T3 (x) =
−(x−π/2)+(x−π/2)3 /6. To simplify the notation, write Δx = x−π/2
(the deviation of x from π/2). Then
1 + Δx 1 1 + Δx 1 1
tan x ≈ =− ≈− =− ,
−Δx + (Δx) /6
3 Δx 1 − (Δx) /6
2 Δx x − π/2
124 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

where the second ratio in the product has been approximated by 1

because Δx is small. Since tan(x + π) = tan x, this behavior repeats
itself at near every root of cos x.

27.1. Growth of the Power, Exponential, and Logarithmic Functions. Let

us compare the growth of the power function xn , the exponential func-
tion ex , and the logarithmic function ln x as x → ∞. The exponential
function grows faster than the power function. Let f (x) = ex and
g(x) = xn . Let us analyze the ratio f /g as x → ∞. The conditions
of l’Hospital’s rule are satisfied: ex → ∞ and xn → ∞ as x → ∞.
L’Hospital’s rule can successively be applied until the indeterminate
form is resolved:
ex ex ex ex
lim n = lim = lim = · · · = lim = ∞.
x→∞ x x→∞ nxn−1 x→∞ n(n − 1)xn−2 x→∞ n!

The conclusion is true for any real n. For any real n, there exists
a positive integer N such that n < N or xn < xN , x > 1. But ex
grows faster than xN . Similarly, it is straightforward to show that the
logarithmic function grows slower than any power function:
ln x (ln x) 1
x 1
lim = lim = lim = lim =0
x→∞ xn x→∞ (xn ) x→∞ nxn−1 x→∞ nxn

for any n > 0 (n may be any positive real number here).

27.2. Asymptotes at x → ±∞. The asymptotic behavior of rational

functions is easily determined by the highest powers of the numerator
and denominator, as in Example 4.8. In general, if limx→∞ f (x) is
infinite, then the limit of f /g can be studied for trial gs with different
growth, g = mx (for slant asymptotes), g = xn , g = ln x, and so on.
Suppose g(x) is found such that f (x)/g(x) → 1 as x → ∞. Does this
mean that g and f have the same asymptotic behavior? The answer is
“no.” If the indeterminate form f (x) − g(x) of type ∞ − ∞ converges
to 0 as x → ∞, then the indeterminate form f (x)/g(x) of type ∞ ∞
converges to 1. Indeed, it follows from 1/g(x) → 0 and f (x)−g(x) → 0
that (1/g(x))(f (x) − g(x)) = f (x)/g(x) − 1 → 0. The converse is not
true. Consider the following simple example: f (x) = x + sin x and
g(x) = x. Evidently, f (x)/g(x) = 1 + sin x/x → 1 as x → ∞. But
the limit limx→∞ (f (x) − g(x)) = limx→∞ sin x does not exist. So, even
if g is found to have the property f (x)/g(x) → 1 as x → ∞, the
indeterminate form f − g of type ∞ − ∞ must still be investigated in
order to determine whether or not g has the same asymptotic behavior
as f .
 27. ANALYZING THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH 125

27.3. Guidelines for Analyzing the Shape of a Graph. The following

guidelines are useful for sketching the graph of a function. It should
be noted that not all the steps can always be carried out. This depends
very much on the complexity of the function in question. So these are
really guidelines, not a “must-do” algorithm. Given a function f , find:
(I) Domain.
The domain consists of all values of x at which f (x) is de-
fined. Typically, it is a collection of intervals. If f is defined
for x > a or x < a, or both, but not at a, the the local behavior
of f near a must be studied (see below).
(II) Roots of f and the value f (0).
Roots of f (x) define the intercepts of the graph y = f (x) with
the x axis. They are not always easy to find. The value f (0)
(if x = 0 in the domain of f ) defines the intercept of y = f (x)
with the y axis.
(III) Symmetry and periodicity.
If f (−x) = f (x) (an even function) for all x in the domain,
then the graph y = f (x) is symmetric about the y axis. If
f (−x) = −f (x) (an odd function) for all x in the domain,
then the graph y = f (x) is symmetric about the origin (or the
rotation through 180◦ about the origin). If there is a number p
such that f (x+p) = f (x), then f is periodic and p is its period.
The graph y = f (x) repeats itself on intervals of length p, for
example [a, a+p], [a+p, a+2p], and so on for any a. Examples
are sin x, p = 2π; tan x, p = π; cos(4x), p = 2π/4 = π/2.
(IV) Asymptotes and asymptotic behavior of f .
If f is a ratio f = h/g, then vertical asymptotes are x = c,
where c solves g(c) = 0 and h(c) = 0. If h(c) = 0, find the
limits limx→c± f (x). If one of the limits or both is infinite,
investigate the local behavior of f near c (e.g., with the help
of Taylor polynomials if possible). The asymptotic behavior of
f (x) near c and for large positive and negative x determines
the shape of y = f (x) near the vertical asymptotes and the
asymptotic shape of the graph when x → ±∞.
(V) Critical points of f .
Critical points are solutions of f  (x) = 0 or the values of x
where f  (x) does not exist. If, for example, f  (x) tends to
∞ (or −∞) as x approaches c, then the line tangent to the
graph y = f (x) at x = c is vertical. For example, f (x) = x1/3
and f  (x) = 1/(3x2/3 ). So f  (x) diverges as x → 0. The graph
y = x1/3 has a vertical tangent line at x = 0.
126 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(VI) Intervals of positive and negative values of f .

These are the intervals where the graph y = f (x) lies above or
below the x axis. Roots of f generally separate the intervals of
positive and negative values of f . However, this is not always
the case. Let c be a root of f . If f  (c) = 0, then the function
f is increasing or decreasing at c and hence must change its
sign. If f  (c) = 0 or f  does not exist at c, that is, a root
of f coincides with its critical point, then f is negative near
c if f has a local maximum at c and f is positive near c if
it has a local minimum at c. So the sign of the derivative f 
must be investigated near c (the first derivative test). Vertical
asymptotes can also separate intervals of positive and negative
values of f . For example, the function (4.12) has one root x = 0
and two vertical asymptotes at x = −1 and x = 1. So f is
negative on (−∞, −1), positive on (−1, 0), negative on (0, 1),
and positive on (1, ∞). The graph is shown in Figure 4.9.
(VII) Intervals of increase (f  > 0) and decrease (f  < 0).
If f  > 0 (f  < 0) on an interval, then f increases (decreases)
on it (the increasing-decreasing test). These intervals are gen-
erally separated by critical points and vertical asymptotes. As
a consequence of this study, the nature of each critical point
is established by the first derivative test.
(VIII) Intervals of upward and downward concavity.
These intervals are separated by inflection points and vertical
asymptotes. The sign of f  (x) must be studied. Yet, the second
derivative test and Taylor polynomials can be used to establish
the nature of a critical point of f .
(IX) Values of f at critical points and inflection points.
These values set relative scales of the graph (e.g., they show
how much the function increases between two critical points).
Example 4.11. Sketch the graph of f (x) = x1/3 (x − 6)2/3 .
Solution: Following the preceding guidelines:
(I) The domain is the whole real line.
(II) The roots of f are x = 0 and x = 6 (the intercepts with the x
axis). The intercept with the y axis is f (0) = 0.
(III) The function is not periodic, and it is neither odd nor even.
(IV) There is no vertical asymptote. To study the asymptotic be-
havior as x → ±∞, it is convenient to factor out the largest
power of x: f (x) = x(1−6/x)2/3 so that f (x) ≈ x. This shows
that the graph has a slant asymptote of the form y = x + m,
 27. ANALYZING THE SHAPE OF A GRAPH 127

Figure 4.10. Graph of f (x) = x1/3 (x−6)2/3 . The roots

of f are x = 0 and x = 6, and they define the intercepts
with the x axis. It has the slant asymptote f (x) ≈ x −
4 as x → ±∞. The derivative vanishes at x = 2 (a
local maximum). It diverges at x = 0 and x = 6; the
graph has vertical tangent lines at these points. The
second derivative is negative if x < 0 so that the graph
is downward concave. It is positive on (0, 6) and (6, ∞).
The graph is concave downward. The point x = 0 is an
inflection point as the concavity changes at it.

where m is yet to be fixed by calculating the limits of f (x) − x

as x → ±∞. The reader is advised to do so and show that
m = 4. Here Taylor polynomials are used instead, which is
proved to be more advantageous. Put u = −6/x so that u → 0
as x → ±∞. Then the factor (1 − 6/x)2/3 = (1 + u)2/3 is ap-
proximated by T2 (u) = 1 + 23 u − 19 u2 = 1 − 4/x − 1/(324x2 ).
Therefore, f (x) ≈ xT2 (u) = x − 4 − 1/(324x). This equation
shows, first, that the graph has the slant asymptote y = x − 4
and, second, that f (x) − (x − 4) ≈ −1/(324x) < 0 if x is large
and positive (i.e., the graph approaches the slant asymptote
128 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

from below) and, similarly, f (x) − (x − 4) > 0 if x is large and

negative (i.e., the graph approaches the slant asymptote from
above).
(V) The derivative reads
x−2
f  (x) = .
x2/3 (x − 6)1/3
It vanishes at x = 2 and does not exist at x = 0 and x = 6.
The critical points are 0, 2, and 6. In particular, f  (x) → ∞ as
x → 0 and it tends to ±∞ as x → 6± , respectively. Therefore,
the graph has vertical tangent lines at x = 0 and x = 6. Near
x = 0, the graph looks like y = f (x) ≈ 62/3 x1/3 , while near
x = 6, it has a downward cusp y = f (x) ≈ 61/3 (x − 6)2/3 .
(VI) The graph lies below the x axis on (−∞, 0) as f (x) < 0 and
above it on (0, ∞) as f (x) ≥ 0. The function does not change
its sign at the root x = 6 (f must have a local minimum at 6,
which is also verified by the first derivative test below).
(VII) The derivative is a product of three factors x − 2, x−2/3 , and
(x − 6)−1/3 . By investigating the signs of these factors on the
intervals separated by the critical points, we can conclude that
f  > 0 (f is increasing) on (−∞, 0), f  > 0 (f is increasing)
on (0, 2), f  < 0 (f is decreasing) on (2, 6), and f  > 0 (f is
increasing) on (6, ∞). Also, f has a local maximum at x = 2
and a local minimum at x = 6 by the first derivative test.
(VIII) The second derivative reads
8
f  (x) = − .
x5/3 (x − 6)4/3
The factor (x − 6)4/3 cannot be negative. The sign of f  is
determined only by that of x5/3 . Thus, f  > 0 on (−∞, 0) (the
graph is upward concave) and f  < 0 on (0, 6) and (6, ∞) (the
graph is downward concave). So x = 0 is the inflection point.
Also, near x = 2, the graph looks like the downward parabola √
y = T2 (x) = f (2) + f  (2)(x − 2)2 /2 = (4 − 14 (x − 2)2 )/ 3 2. 2

In the age of graphing calculators, the preceding guidelines might

look rather obsolete because finding the shape of a graph can be done
just by hitting the appropriate calculator buttons. But what a calcu-
lator cannot do is to provide details of the local behavior of a func-
tion near points of interest (e.g., critical points, asymptotes, etc.). In
science and engineering, this is often much more important than the
 28. OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS 129

overall shape of a graph. In the previous example, a calculator would

show that there is a slant asymptote, a cusp at x = 6, and a local
maximum at x = 2, but it would not be able to determine the local
behavior of the function near the cusp, or at the local maximum, or
in the asymptotic region. Here a good working knowledge of calculus
becomes indispensable, while a graphing calculator is just a useful tool
that greatly facilitates the study of a function.

27.4. Exercises.
(1) Sketch the graph of each of the following functions:
(i) f (x) = x2 (x − 1)(2 − x)
(ii) f (x) = x2 /(4 + x2 )
(iii) f (x) = x3 /(x2 − 3x + 2)
(iv) f (x) = (x5 − x2 )/(x + 1)
(v) f (x) = x sin x
(vi) f (x) = sin(nx)/ sin x, n = 2, 3, 4
(vii) f (x) = (ex + e−x ) cos x
(viii) f (x) = x−1/3 (x − 6)−2/3
(ix) f (x) = sin2 x/x2
(x) f (x) = (x − a)2 + b2
(xi) f (x) = |x2 − 1| − x
(xii) f (x) = [(x − 1)/(x + 1)]1/3
(2) Sketch the graph of the polynomial with k real roots:
f (x) = A(x − x1 )n1 (x − x2 )n2 · · · (x − xk )nk ,
where A > 0 and n1 , n2 , . . . , nk are positive integers. Investi-
gate first the case when n1 = n2 = · · · = nk = 1, then the
case when one of the powers n1 , n2 , . . . , nk is greater than 1
(how does the graph look when this power is odd or when it
is even?). Then proceed to the general case.
(3) Let f and g be second-degree polynomials such that f  > 0
and g  > 0. Sketch all possible shapes of the graph y =
f (x)/g(x).

28. Optimization Problems

Suppose that a quantity Q depends on some variables. The prob-
lem of optimizing Q implies finding the values of the variables at which
the quantity Q attains it maximal or minimal value. The simplest op-
timization problem arises when Q depends on a single variable x such
that Q is a function f (x). Then the optimization problem is reduced
to the problem of finding extreme values of f (x). The latter problem
130 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

has been analyzed in Section 22. To determine extreme values of f , one

has to:
(I) Find all critical points of f .
(II) Investigate the nature of the critical points (local minima and
local maxima). The first or second derivative tests can be used
for this purpose.
(III) Calculate the values of f at the endpoint of the interval [a, b]
(if extreme values are sought only in [a, b]) and compare them
with values of f at its local maxima and minima to determine
absolute extreme values of f .
The following test can also be used to find absolute extreme values of
a function.
Theorem 4.13 (First Derivative Test for Absolute Extreme
Values). Suppose c is a critical point of a continuous function f de-
fined on an interval.
(I) If f  (x) > 0 for all x < c and f  (x) < 0 for all x > c, then
f (c) is the absolute maximum value of f .
(II) If f  (x) < 0 for all x < c and f  (x) > 0 for all x > c, then
f (c) is the absolute minimum value of f .
The conclusion of the theorem is easy to understand. Consider
case (I). Since f  (x) > 0 for all x < c, the function increases for all
x < c. Since f  (x) < 0 for all x > c, the function decreases for all
x > c. By continuity of f , the number f (c) must be the largest value
of f . Case (II) is proved similarly.
Recall Example 4.2. This is a typical optimization problem. Its
solution is rather straightforward, provided Equation (4.4) is given.
Without it, the problem of finding an optimal angle for a projectile
becomes far more difficult. Its major part now involves a derivation
of Equation (4.4)! This is quite typical for optimization problems. As
a rule, they arise in various disciplines, and their formulation as the
mathematical problem of extreme values requires a specific knowledge
outside mathematics, for example, the laws of physics as in Example
4.2, chemistry, biology, economics, and so on. A typical optimization
problem may be split into three basic steps:
(I) Identify a variable with respect to which a quantity Q is to be
optimized.
(II) Use the laws of a specific discipline to express Q as a function
f of that variable, Q = f (x).
(III) Solve the mathematical problem of extreme values of f .
 28. OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS 131

Example 4.12. An aluminum can has the shape of a cylinder of

radius r and height h. Design an aluminum can of volume V = 300 cm3
to minimize the cost (or the amount) of material needed to make the
can.
Solution: Following the preceding guidelines:
(I) Apparently, the least amount of material is used when the
surface area of the can is minimal. So one has to minimize the
surface area S, which depends on r and h. But the variables r
and h are not independent because the volume is fixed.
(II) The surface area is the sum of the areas of the side, top, and
bottom of the can: S = 2πrh + πr2 + πr2 = 2πrh + 2πr2 . The
volume is V = πr2 h. Since the volume is fixed, the variables r
and h are related as h = V /(πr2 ). Hence, S can be written as
a function of the radius r only:
V 2V
S(r) = 2πr 2 + 2πr2 = + 2πr2 .
πr r
One has to find the value of r > 0 at which S(r) attains its
absolute minimum. The corresponding value of h is then found
from the relation h = V /(πr2 ).
(III) The function S(r) is differentiable for all r > 0. Therefore, all
its critical points are roots of the derivative:
2V 4π  V 
S  (r) = − 2 + 4πr = 2 r3 − = 0.
r r 2π
So the critical point is

1/3
V
rc = .
2π
Since S  (r) < 0 for all 0 < r < rc and S  (r) > 0 for all
r > rc , the function S(r) attains its absolute minimum at rc
by the first derivative test for absolute extreme values. The
dimensions of the can with minimal costs of material for a
given volume V are
 V 1/3 V  4V 1/3
r= ≈ 3.6 cm, h = 2 = = 2rc ≈ 7.2 cm.
2π πrc π
The analysis has shown that the height and diameter of a can
of a given volume must be equal in order to minimize the cost
of material (or the surface area of the can). Check out a local
supermarket to see if manufacturers use this fact! 2
132 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

This example is further illustrated on the interactive website

at http://www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalcbook/optimize cylinder
.html
Remark. In the previous example, S has been expressed as a func-
tion of r. The same conclusion could be reached if S is expressed
 as a
function of the height h only, that is, when the relation r = V /(πh)
is substituted into the expression for the surface area to obtain S(h).
The critical point of S(h) can be shown to be hc = 2rc . Verify this!
A Curious Fact. The preceding problem is essential to reduce
waste from plastic, glass, and aluminum containers. It can be stated
more generally. What is the shape of a container that has the smallest
surface area at a given volume? It can be proved by the calculus of
variations that such a container must be a sphere. Even in the example
of an aluminum can, the optimal dimensions appear to be as close to
those of a sphere as the cylindrical geometry would allow: The height
and diameter are the same. Should only spherical containers be used to
“go green”? To answer this question, a far more complicated optimiza-
tion problem must be studied. For example, spheres are not optimal
for storage and hence for transportation; rectangular containers are far
better. Storage maintenance and transportation require energy (hence
carbon emissions). The production waste for containers of different
shapes is different. Finally, what about consumers’ reaction to spheri-
cal Coke cans in a vending machine or spherical aluminum cans in the
supermarket?

28.1. Applications to Economics. In Section 19, we introduced the cost

function C(x), which is the cost of producing x units of a certain prod-
uct. The derivative C  (x) is the marginal cost. It determines the cost of
increasing production from x units to x + 1 units. Let p(x) be the price
per unit that a company can charge if it sells x units. The function p(x)
is also called the price function. Naturally, it is generally expected to
be a decreasing function because the price per unit usually goes down
when a larger number of units is sold. The total revenue R(x) = xp(x)
is called the revenue function. The derivative R (x) is called the mar-
ginal revenue function. It determines the change in the revenue when
the number of units sold increases from x to x + 1. Finally, the profit
function
P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = xp(x) − C(x)

determines the total profit if x units are sold. Its derivative P  (x)
determines the change in the total profit when the number of units
 28. OPTIMIZATION PROBLEMS 133

sold increases from x to x + 1. The standard optimization problem

here is to minimize costs and maximize revenues and profit.
Example 4.13. A small store sells jeans at a price of $80 per
pair. Every week 60 units are sold. The cost to the store for 60 units is
$2500, including the cost of transportation. A market survey indicates
that, for each $10 rebate offered to buyers, the number of units sold will
increase by 20 a week. Also, the purchase and transportation costs will
go down by $10 per each weekly order increase of 5 units. How large a
rebate should the store offer to maximize its profit?
Solution:
(I) What is known about the price function p(x)? First, its value
at a particular number of sold units x = x0 = 60 is p0 =
p(60) = 80. Also, if x increases by an amount of Δx = 20,
the price function decreases by Δp = 10 (the rebate). Thus,
the ratio m = −Δp/Δx = −1/2 is the rate of change of p(x)
(the minus sign indicates the decrease in p(x)). So the price
function is
p(x) = p0 + m(x − x0 ) = 80 − 12 (x − 60) = 110 − 12 x .
(II) What is known about the cost function C(x)? First, its value
at a particular number of supplied units x = x0 = 60 is C0 =
C(60) = 2500. Also, the cost function decreases by ΔC = 20
if x increases by Δx = 5. So the ratio M = −ΔC/Δx = −4 is
the rate of change of C or the marginal cost. Therefore,
C(x) = C0 + M (x − x0 ) = 2500 − 4(x − 60) = 2740 − 4x .
(III) One has to maximize the profit function:
P (x) = xp(x) − C(x) = 114x − 12 x2 − 2740.
Since P  (x) = 114 − x, the function has one critical point
x = 114 at which P (x) attains its absolute maximal value by
the first derivative test for absolute extreme values.
(IV) If x = 114 units can be sold, the price per unit is p(114) =
110 − 57 = 53; that is, the rebate should be p(60) − p(114) =
80 − 53 = 27. Thus, the store should offer a rebate of $27 to
maximize its profit. Note also the increase in the weekly profit:
P (60) = $2300 whereas P (114) = $3758. 2

Remark. In fact, the linear (tangent line) approximation has been

used to get the unknown price and cost functions in the previous exam-
ple. This is a benefit of market surveys: They estimate the derivatives
134 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(or trends) of the price functions. Naturally, an increase in sales leads

to a decrease in the demand for that particular item. So, after a suc-
cessful rebate campaign, the store would need a new market survey
to estimate p (114) and get the linear approximation at x = 114. The
price may go up then. Similarly, the cost function is generally highly
nonlinear. Its linearization near a particular x = x0 cannot be valid for
all x > x0 . Indeed, in the previous example, it vanishes at x = 685 and
becomes negative after that, which cannot possibly be true.

28.2. Exercises.
(1) A piece of wire 1 m long is cut into two pieces. One is bent
into a square and the other into a circle. Where should cuts
be made if the sum of areas of the square and circle is to be an
extreme? Which of these extremes are relative maxima and
which relative minima?
(2) Show that of all triangles inscribed in a circle the equilateral
triangle has the greatest area.
(3) A tank has the form of a cylinder with hemispherical ends.
If the volume is to be V m3 , what are the dimensions for a
minimum amount of material?
(4) The demand for a certain article varies inversely as the cube of
the selling price. If the article costs 20 cents to manufacture,
find the selling price that yields the maximum profit.
(5) A man is in a boat 1 mile from the nearest point, A, of a
straight shore. He wishes to arrive as soon as possible at a
point, B, 3 miles along the shore from A. He can row 2 miles
per hour and walk 4 miles per hour. Where should he land?
(6) The stiffness of a rectangular beam varies as the product of
the breadth and the cube of the depth. Find the dimensions of
the stiffest beam that can be cut from a cylindrical log whose
radius is R.
(7) If the cost per hour for fuel required to operate a given steamer
varies as the cube of its speed and is $40 per hour for a speed
of 10 miles per hour, and if other expenses amount to $200 per
hour, find the most economical rate to operate the steamer a
distance of 500 miles.
(8) A railroad company agreed to run a special train for 50 pas-
sengers at a uniform fare of $10 each. In order to secure more
passengers, the company agreed to deduct 10 cents from this
uniform fare for each passenger in excess of the 50 (i.e., if
there were 60 passengers, the fare would be $9 each). What
 29. NEWTON’S METHOD 135

number of passengers would give the company the maximum

gross receipt?
(9) A sheet of paper for a poster is to contain 16 square feet. The
margins at the top and the bottom are to be 6 inches, and
those on the sides 4 inches. What are the dimensions if the
printed area is to be maximal?
(10) A taxi company charges 15 cents a mile and logs 600 passenger-
miles a day. Twenty-five fewer passenger-miles a day would be
logged for each cent increase in the rate per mile. What rate
yields the greatest gross income?
(11) Two roads intersect at right angles, and a spring is located in
an adjoining field 10 m from one road and 5 m from the other.
How should a straight path just passing the spring be laid out
from one road to the other so as to cut off the least amount of
land? How much land is cut off?
(12) A rectangular box with a square base and an open top is to be
made. Find the volume of the largest box that can be made
from A cm2 of material.
(13) A rectangular field containing S m2 is to be fenced off along
the bank of a straight river. If no fence is needed along the
river, what must be the dimensions requiring the least amount
of fencing?
(14) If a stone is thrown from a cliff of height h at a speed v0 m/s
and an angle θ with the horizontal line, then its trajectory is
a parabola:
g
y = h + x tan θ − x2 2 ,
2v0 cos2 θ
where y is the stone height (vertical position), x is the hori-
zontal position (all the positions are in meters), and g = 9.8
m/s2 is a constant universal for all objects near the surface
of the Earth (the free-fall acceleration). Compare with Equa-
tion (4.4). At what angle is a stone to be thrown to reach the
maximal range at a given speed v0 ?

29. Newton’s Method

Finding roots of a function f (x) is an important problem in various
applications. Unfortunately, an analytic solution of the equation f (x) =
0 is impossible in many practical cases. For example, consider f (x) =
x − e−x . The equation f (x) = 0 is equivalent to x = e−x . The graphs
y = x and y = e−x intersect at some x between 0 and 1. So f (x) has a
root. But how can it be calculated? Here we present one of the simplest
136 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

methods, known as Newton’s method. It provides a recurrence relation

that allows us to compute a root of a differentiable function with any
desired accuracy.

29.1. Newton’s Recurrence Relation for Finding a Root. Suppose f (x)

has a root near x0 . Consider the tangent line approximation of f near
x0 : L(x) = f (x0 ) + f  (x0 )(x − x0 ). It is easy to find the root of L(x),
which is denoted by x1 :
f (x0 )
L(x) = 0 =⇒ x = x1 = x0 −  .
f (x0 )
Note that the root of L(x) exists if f  (x0 ) = 0 (otherwise, the tangent
line is horizontal and cannot have any root).

x2 x1 x0

Figure 4.11. Diagram for Newton’s method. Pick x0

near the root of f . Find the tangent line of the graph
of f at x0 . Determine the intersection point x1 of the
tangent line with the x axis. Find the tangent line to
the graph of f at x1 and its intersection x2 with the x
axis. By repeating this procedure a sequence of numbers
x0 , x1 , x2 , . . . is obtained that converges to the root of f ,
provided x0 was chosen close enough to the root.

Since L(x) is only an approximation to f (x), the number x1 is

closer to the root of f than x0 , but does not coincide with it. In other
words, the value f (x1 ) is closer to 0 than f (x0 ): 0 < |f (x1 )| < |f (x0 )|
(the absolute value is necessary if the function takes negative values).
Therefore, the tangent line constructed at x = x1 , L(x) = f (x1 ) −
 29. NEWTON’S METHOD 137

f  (x1 )(x − x1 ), can be expected to approximate f (x) even better near

its root because x1 is closer to the root than x0 . The root of the new
tangent line is given by the same expression as before where x0 should
be replaced by x1 : x2 = x1 − f (x1 )/f  (x1 ). The procedure may be
recursively repeated to generate a sequence of values xn :
f (xn )
(4.18) xn+1 = xn − , n = 0, 1, 2, . . . ,
f  (xn )
provided f  (xn ) = 0.
Theorem 4.14. If f has a single root r in an open interval and

f (x) = 0 on the interval, then there exists x0 sufficiently close to r
such that the sequence (4.18) converges to the root
lim xn = r .
n→∞

In practical terms, the sequence elements are calculated with a par-

ticular number of significant digits (decimal places). Newton’s recur-
rence is applied until xn+1 and xn agree to all the relevant decimal
places. Then r = xn+1 is correct to the relevant decimal places.
Example 4.14. Find the root of f (x) = x − e−x that is correct to
six decimal places.
Solution:
(I) Determine the position of the root first. The graphs y = x
and y = e−x intersect only once at a point between 0 and 1.
So, in any open interval containing the interval (0, 1), f has
only one root.
(II) Verify the condition f  (x) = 0: f  (x) = 1 + e−x > 0 for all x.
(III) Pick an initial value of Newton’s sequence as close to the root
as possible, e.g. x0 = 0. Then Newton’s sequence for six deci-
mal places is:
x0 = 0 , x1 = 0.5 , x2 = 0.566311 , x3 = 0.567143 , x4 = 0.567143 .
So the root r = 0.567143 is correct to six decimal places (in
fact, f (0.567143) = −4.5 × 10−7 ). 2

29.2. Pitfalls in Newton’s Method. Unfortunately, there is no unique

recipe for choosing an initial point in Newton’s sequence. The choice
depends very much on the function in question. In practice, it is de-
termined by trying different values. A few possible bad behaviors of
Newton’s sequence are useful to keep in mind.
138 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(I) A bad choice of the initial point x0 can produce the value of x1
that is a worse approximation to the root than x0 . Consider,
for example, the function f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 2 in the interval
[0, 2] and f (x) = 2 when x < 0 and f (x) = −2 when x > 2.
This is depicted in Figure 4.12. The function is continuously
differentiable because f  (x) = 3x2 −6x approaches 0 as x → 0+
and x → 2− . The function has the root x = 1 and f  (x) < 0 in
the open interval (0, 2). If 0 < x0 < 2 is close enough to either
x = 0 or x = 2, then x1 would be outside the interval (0, 2).
Note that the actual behavior of f (x) outside the interval [0, 2]
is not relevant for the conclusion. The essential point here is
that such a situation is likely to occur when f  (x0 ) is close
to 0.

1 x0 x2

x1

Figure 4.12. A bad choice of the initial point for New-

ton’s method. The function has the root r = 1, f (1) = 0.
The derivative vanishes at x = 0 and x = 2. If x0 is set
too close to x = 2, then the slope f  (x0 ) of the tangent
line is small; the tangent line is close to a horizontal line.
In this case, the next element of Newton’s sequence xn+1
may happen to be outside the interval [r − xn , r + xn ] so
that Newton’s sequence does not converge to the root r.

(II) A poor choice of the initial point may lead to a cycle in New-
ton’s sequence. Take f (x) = x3 − 2x + 2 and x0 = 0. Since
f  (x) = 3x2 − 2, the next elements are x1 = 0 − 2/(−2) = 1,
x2 = 1 − 1/1 = 0 = x0 . That is, Newton’s sequence is a cyclic
sequence, which never converges. The initial point must be
taken closer to the root.
(III) If f  (x) → ±∞ as x approaches a root r (the graph y = f (x)
has a vertical tangent line at the root), Newton’s sequence may
 29. NEWTON’S METHOD 139

xn1 xn xn xn2


Figure 4.13. A cycle in a Newton’s sequence for f (x) =
|x|. The function has the root r = 0, f (0) = 0, and
it also has the vertical tangent line at the root because
the derivative diverges f  (x) → ∞ as x → r = 0. A
Newton’s sequence exhibits a cycle; it oscillates around
the root r never converging to it. In general, such a cycle
can occur in a Newton’s sequence for a function whose
behavior near a root r is f (x) ≈ a(x − r)2ν , where a is
a constant and ν = 1/4. Furthermore, if 0 < ν < 1/4,
then a Newton’s sequence does not converge.

oscillate around r, never converging to it, or it may diverge for

any initial point. To understand this phenomenon, suppose
f (x) behaves near its root r as f (x) ≈ a(x − r)2ν , ν > 0,
and a is constant. The derivative f  (x) ≈ 2νa(x − r)2ν−1
diverges as x → r when ν < 1/2. Since f (x)/f  (x) = 2ν 1
(x−r),
Newton’s sequence (4.18) xn+1 = xn − 2ν (xn − r) can also be
1

written as xn+1 − r = q(xn − r), where q = 1 − 2ν 1

. Apparently,
xn → r is equivalent to yn = xn − r → 0. But the sequence
yn+1 = qyn = q 2 yn−1 = · · · = q n+1 y0 converges only if |q| =
|1 − 2ν1
| < 1 or ν > 1/4 unless y0 = 0 (i.e., if the root is
accurately guessed!). For example, for f (x) = x1/3 (ν = 1/6),
Newton’s sequence diverges: xn+1 = (1 − 3)xn = −2xn for any
choice of the initial point x0 = 0. For f (x) = |x|1/2 (ν = 1/4),
Newton’s sequence oscillates xn+1 = (1 − 2)xn = −xn (see
Figure 4.13).

29.3. Understanding Money Loans. Suppose that one takes a loan of

P dollars (the principal) for n months with an annual interest rate of
140 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

I%. What is the monthly payment? It is calculated as follows. The

interest rate per month is x = I/12. For example, an annual interest
rate of 6% means that I = 0.06 and x = 0.06/12 = 0.005. Each
payment includes the payment toward the principal and the interest.
Let Fk be the amount yet to be paid after k monthly payments. It
is called the future value of the loan. The sequence Fk satisfies the
conditions: F0 = P and Fn = 0 (the loan and interest are paid off after
n payments). Let A be the monthly payment. Then
F1 = P + P x − A , F2 = F1 + F1 x − A , . . . , Fk = Fk−1 + Fk−1 x − A.
Here F1 is the future value of the loan after one payment, which is the
loan P plus the monthly interest P x minus the payment A. After one
payment, the loan value is F1 . So, after one more payment, its value is
the value F1 plus interest F1 x minus the payment A, and so on. After
n payments,
Fn = Fn−1 (1 + x) − A
= Fn−2 (1 + x)2 − A[(1 + x) + 1] = · · ·
= F0 (1 + x)n − A[(1 + x)n−1 + (1 + x)n−2 + · · · + (1 + x) + 1]
(1 + x)n − 1
= P (1 + x)n − A ,
x
where, in the last equality, the geometric sum formula sn = 1 + q +
q 2 + · · · + q n−1 = (q n − 1)/(q − 1) has been used. The latter is proved
by noting that the sums qsn = q + q 2 + · · · + q n−1 + q n and sn have the
same terms except 1 in sn and q n in qsn so that qsn − sn = q n − 1 − 1
or sn = (q n − 1)/(q − 1). Since Fn = 0, the monthly payment is
Px
(4.19) A= .
1 − (1 + x)−n
For example, a loan of $200,000 for 10 years at a fixed annual inter-
est rate of 6% implies 120 monthly payments of $2220.41. Indeed, in
Equation (4.19), substitute x = 0.06/12 = 0.005, n = 120, and P =
200,000, then A ≈ 2220.41004. The total amount paid after 10 years is
120 × A = $266,449.20. The interest paid is nA − P = $66,449.20.
When selling a car, a dealer might offer a monthly payment for a
few years if a customer cannot afford to pay the price in full. In this
case, the loan amount P is the price of the car; the monthly payment
A and its number n are known. To assess the deal, one has to figure out
the interest rate before signing up. It might be the case that the loan
for a higher-quality car, meaning a higher price and higher monthly
payments, might have a lower interest rate, than the loan for a cheaper
 29. NEWTON’S METHOD 141

car (smaller monthly payments). Knowing the interest rate, one can
also shop for a loan at a lower rate elsewhere (e.g., banks) to buy a
car. If A, P , and n are given, then x can be found by solving Equation
(4.19), which can be written in a more convenient form as
(4.20) f (x) = P x(1 + x)n − A(1 + x)n + A = 0 .
In other words, this is the root-finding problem! It can be solved by
Newton’s method. The number x should be found up to five decimal
places, which is sufficient our purposes.
Example 4.15. A dealer offers a car at a price of $10,000. It can
also be sold for payments of $217.42 per month for 5 years. There is
another car being offered at a price of $15,000, which can also be sold
for payments of $311.38 per month for 5 years. Which loan has a lower
interest rate?
Solution:
(I) For the first car, one has to find the root of Equation (4.20) if
A = 217.42, P = 10,000, and n = 5 × 12 = 60. It is convenient
to initiate Newton’s sequence at x1 = 0.01, which corresponds
to an annual interest rate of 12% (i.e., I = 0.12 and x =
0.12/12 = 0.01). Up to five decimal places, Newton’s method
yields x = 0.00917, which corresponds to I = 12x = 0.11004,
or an annual interest rate of 11%.
(II) For the second car, one has to find the root of Equation (4.20)
if A = 311.38, P = 15,000, and n = 5 × 12 = 60. Newton’s
method, initiated again at x1 = 0.01, yields the root x =
0.00750 (up to five decimal places). This corresponds to an
annual interest rate of 9%. So the second loan has a lower
interest rate. 2

It is interesting to note that the car prices differ by 50%. Similarly,

the monthly payments appear in a similar proportion 311.38/217.42 ≈
1.43. The offers might look like as nearly the same deal. In fact, they
are not!

29.4. Exercises.
(1) Find the roots of a given equation upto five decimal places.
(i) cos x = 2x
(ii) ex − e−x = 1 − x2
(iii) tan−1 x = x3
(iv) tan−1 x = ln x
142 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

(v) ln(1 + x2 ) = 4 − x
(vi) x5 + x − 4 = 0
(vii) (4 − x2 )2 − x + 4 = 0
(2) Newton’s method is based on the linear approximation of the
function at a sample point xn to generate the next point xn+1
of Newton’s sequence. This approximation does not take into
account the concavity of the function at xn . Generalize New-
ton’s method by using the Taylor polynomial T2 (x) at xn to
generate xn+1 as a root of T2 . Take any of the above exer-
cises and compare the convergence of Newton’s method with
its generalization (i.e., the numbers of steps needed to obtain
the root correct to the same number of decimal places, e.g., 6,
7, or 10, starting with the same initial point x0 ).
(3) Consider a loan of $250,000 at an annual low interest rate of
4% for 15 years. Find the monthly payments. The interest
rate was not fixed and subject to change so that the monthly
payments may increase up to 20%. How much may the annual
interest rate increase (percentagewise)?
(4) A car dealer offers a car at a price of $15,000 for 36 monthly
payments of $477. What is the interest rate?
(5) The fixed annual interest rate on a mortgage is 7%. For how
long should one take a loan if one wants to pay in total interest
no more than a half of the principal? Does the maximum
loan period increase or decrease with increasing or decreasing
interest rate? Does the answer change if the payments will be
done every two weeks (i.e., 30 payments per year instead of
12)?
(6) Find the root of the equation tan−1 x = 1 − x correct up to
four decimal places by initiating Newton’s sequence at x0 = 1.
Investigate the dependence of the number of needed iterations
to achieve this accuracy on the initial point by taking x0 = n,
where n = 1, 2, . . . , 10.

30. Antiderivatives
In many practical problems, a function is to be recovered from its
derivative. For example, if the velocity is given as a function of time,
v = v(t), one might want to find the position as a function of time,
s = s(t), where s (t) = v(t). What is s(t)?
Definition 4.8. A function F is called an antiderivative of f on
an interval I if F  (x) = f (x) for all x in I.
 30. ANTIDERIVATIVES 143

For many basic functions, it is not difficult to find the corresponding

antiderivative. For example, from the rule (xn+1 ) = (n+1)xn , it follows
that if f (x) = xn , n = −1, the antiderivative is F (x) = xn+1 /(n + 1). It
has also been proved that (ln |x|) = 1/x. So the function F (x) = ln |x|
is the antiderivative of f (x) = 1/x for all x = 0.

30.1. Uniqueness of the Antiderivative. Suppose F  (x) = f (x) for all x

in an interval (a, b). Is such an F (x) unique? This question is answered
by Corollary 4.1. Indeed, let F (x) and G(x) be antiderivatives of f (x),
that is, F  (x) = G (x) = f (x) on (a, b). By Corollary 4.1, F and G
may only differ by a constant: G(x) = F (x) + C. Recall that Corollary
4.1 does not hold for the union of disjoint intervals. Thus, any two
antiderivatives of the same function may differ at most by a constant
on an interval.
Theorem 4.15. If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I,
then the most general antiderivative of f on I is
F (x) + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant.
For example, the general antiderivative of the power function f (x) =
x with a positive integer n is F (x) = xn+1 /(n + 1) + C because xn is
n

defined on the single interval (−∞, ∞). The function f (x) = 1/x is de-
fined on the union of disjoint intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). So the gen-
eral antiderivative is F (x) = ln x + C1 if x > 0 and F (x) = ln(−x) + C2
if x < 0, where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants.
The nonuniqueness of the antiderivative is not a drawback of the
concept but rather a great advantage. This is explained by the following
example. The velocity of a piece of chalk thrown vertically upward with
a velocity of v0 is v(t) = v0 − gt, where g = 9.8 m/s2 is the acceleration
of a free fall. At t = 0, the chalk has a velocity of v(0) = v0 . Then it
begins to slow down (v(t) decreases because of gravity). Eventually, at
t = v0 /g, the chalk stops and begins to fall back. If h(t) is the height of
the chalk relative to the floor, then h (t) = v(t); that is, the height is
an antiderivative of v(t). It is easy to find a particular antiderivative of
v(t) using the antiderivative of the power function: h(t) = v0 t − gt2 /2
(indeed, h (t) = v0 −gt). What is the physical significance of the general
antiderivative h(t) = C + v0 t − gt2 /2? It appears as if the position of
the chalk relative to the floor is not uniquely determined. In particular,
h(0) = C is the height at the very moment when the chalk was thrown
upward. But the chalk could be thrown upward at 1 m above the floor
or 2 m above it with the very same initial velocity. So, in both cases,
144 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

v(t) is the same, while the h(t) are not. In the first case, h(0) = 1,
whereas in the second case, h(0) = 2. Thus, the constant C can be fixed
by specifying the value of the antiderivative at a particular point.
This feature of the general antiderivative can also be visualized by
plotting the graphs y = F (x) + C for different values of C. All such
graphs are obtained from the graph y = F (x) by rigid translations
along the y axis. If one demands that the graph y = F (x) + C should
pass through a particular point (x0 , y0 ), then C is fixed: y0 = F (x0 )+C
or C = y0 − F (x0 ). For example, find f (x) if f  (x) = 3x2 and f (2) = 1.
The general antiderivative of 3x2 is f (x) = x3 + C. From f (2) = 1, it
follows that f (2) = 8 + C = 1 or C = −7. Therefore, f (x) = x3 − 7.

30.2. Linearity of the Antiderivative. Let F and G be antiderivatives of

f and g, respectively. Then an antiderivative of f + g is F + G. An
antiderivative of kf , where k is an arbitrary constant, is kF . These
properties are easily verified. Indeed, (F + G) = F  + G = f + g
and (kF ) = kF  = kf , where the linearity of the derivative has been
used. In other words, antidifferentiation is a linear operation just like
differentiation itself.

30.3. Antiderivatives of Basic Functions. An antiderivative of the power

function has been found by studying the derivative of the power and
logarithmic functions. The idea is useful for other basis functions. Their
antiderivatives can be found by reading the table of derivatives of basic
functions backward, that is, from the right to left. For example,
(sin x) = cos x, (− cos x) = sin x, (ex ) = ex ,
1 1
(tan x) = (sec x)2 , (sin−1 x) = √ , (tan−1 x) = .
1−x 2 1 + x2
In particular, this table says that the general antiderivative of f (x) =
1/(1 + x2 ) is F (x) = tan−1 x + C. The table of derivatives of basic
functions combined with the linearity of antidifferentiation is a good
source of antiderivatives of more complicated functions.
Example 4.16. Find the general antiderivative of f (x) = e−2x +
cos(4x) + x2 /(1 + x2 ).
Solution:
(I) By the linearity of the antiderivative, it is sufficient to find
antiderivatives of e−2x , cos(4x), and x2 /(1 + x2 ). The gen-
eral antiderivative is obtained by adding a general constant to
the sum of the particular antiderivatives of the previous three
functions.
 30. ANTIDERIVATIVES 145

(II) From (e−2x ) = −2e−2x , it follows that (−e−2x /2) = e−2x .

Hence, an antiderivative of e−2x is −e−2x /2.
(III) Similarly, from (sin(4x)) = 4 cos(4x), it follows that an anti-
derivative of cos(4x) is sin(4x)/4.
(IV) The table of derivatives does not appear helpful in the case of
x2 /(1 + x2 ). However, a simple algebraic manipulation leads
to the goal:
x2 1 + x2 − 1 1
2
= 2
=1− .
1+x 1+x 1 + x2
So its antiderivative is x−tan−1 x. Thus, the general antideriv-
ative reads:
1 1
F (x) = − e−2x + sin(4x) + x − tan−1 x + C .
2 4
because f (x) is defined on the single interval (−∞, ∞). 2

30.4. Antiderivatives of Higher Order. What is F (x) if F  (x) = f (x)

for a given f (x)? Or, more generally, what is F (x) if F (n) (x) = f (x)?
A function F that satisfies the latter condition is called an antideriv-
ative of f of the nth order. To find it, one has to antidifferentiate f
n times. For example, F  (x) = 6x. Taking the first antiderivative of
f (x) = 6x, one gets F  (x) = 3x2 . Taking the antiderivative one more
time yields F (x) = x3 . What about the uniqueness of higher-order
antiderivatives? To find the general antiderivative of a higher order,
each time antidifferentiation is carried out, the corresponding general
antiderivative must be used. In the preceding example, the general
antiderivative of f (x) = 6x is 3x2 + C1 , where C1 is an arbitrary con-
stant. Hence, F  (x) = 3x2 +C1 . Its general antiderivative reads F (x) =
x3 +C1 x+C2 , where C2 is another arbitrary constant. Thus, the general
second antiderivative can be obtained from a particular one by adding
a general function whose second derivative is 0, which is a general linear
function: (C1 x + C2 ) = 0. Similarly, if F (x) is a particular function
that satisfies the condition F (n) (x) = f (x), then the general antideriv-
ative of the nth order is F (x) + C1 xn−1 + C2 xn−2 + · · · + Cn−1 x + Cn ,
where C1 , . . . , Cn are arbitrary constants. Indeed, the nth derivative of
a polynomial of degree n − 1 is 0. Note that this analysis is justified
only when f was defined in an interval. Why? What happens if the
domain of the function f consists of disjoint intervals?
The following example illustrates the significance of arbitrary con-
stants in general higher-order antiderivatives.
146 4. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Example 4.17. Any free-falling object near the surface of the Earth
has the free-fall acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 . A piece of chalk is thrown
vertically upward at a speed of 7 m/s and at 1.5 m above the floor. When
does the chalk hit the floor?

Solution:
(I) Let h(t) be the height of the chalk relative to the floor. Then
its velocity is v(t) = h (t), and its acceleration is a(t) =
v  (t) = h (t). Since all free-falling objects have an acceleration
of 9.8 m/s2 , one has h (t) = −9.8. The minus sign indicates
that the acceleration is directed downward.
(II) The general second antiderivative of the constant function
−9.8 is h(t) = −9.8t2 /2 + C1 t + C2 , where C1 and C2 are
arbitrary constants.
(III) To fix C1 and C2 , the initial conditions of the motion must
be used. The initial velocity is v(0) = 7. Since v(t) = h (t) =
−9.8t+C1 , one can infer that v(0) = C1 = 7. The initial height
is h(0) = 1.5. Hence, h(0) = C1 = 1.5.
(IV) The height is h(t) = −9.8t2 /2 + 7t + 1.5. The chalk hits the
floor when its height vanishes, that is, at the time moment
t > 0 when h(t) = 0. A positive root of the quadratic equation
−9.8t2 /2 + 7t + 1.5 = 0 is t ≈ 1.62 s. The maximum height
reached by the chalk is 4 m. Why? 2

30.5. Exercises.
(1) Find an antiderivative of each of the following functions:
(i) f (x) = sin(4x) + x − 1/x
(ii) f (x) = 1/(x2 + 4) √
(iii) f (x) = e3x + e−3x + x
(iv) f (x) = cos2 x, (Hint: 2 cos2 x = 1 + cos(2x))
(v) f (x) = sin(ax) cos(bx)
(2) Find the general antiderivative of each of the following func-
tions
(i) f (x) = x1/3
(ii) f (x) = x−1/3
(iii) f (x) = 1/(x + 2)
(iv) f (x) = |x|
(v) f (x) = 1/(x2 − 1)
Hint: 1/[(x − a)(x − b)] = A[1/(x − a) − 1/(x − b)]; find A.
 30. ANTIDERIVATIVES 147

(3) Find the general second antiderivative of each of the following

functions.
(i) f (x) = f0 = const if x ∈ [a, b] and f (x) = 0 otherwise
(ii) f (x) = |x| + 1
(iii) f (x) = sin(2x)
(iv) f (x) = e3x + e−3x
(4) A car that was at rest accelerates at a rate of 1 m/s2 for one
minute. Then it decelerates at a rate of 0.5 m/s2 until it stops.
Find the distance traveled by the car.
 CHAPTER 5

Integration

31. Areas and Distances

Consider the linear function f (x) = x. What is the area below the
graph y = f (x) and above the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 1? This question is
easy to answer because the area in question is the area of the right
triangle with catheti of unit length: A = 1/2. Let f (x) = x2 . What
is the area now? To calculate it, consider a partition of the interval
[0, 1] by n segments on length 1/n. The partition is defined by the
set of points x0 = 0, x1 = 1/n, x2 = 2/n, . . . , xn−1 = (n − 1)/n, and
xn = n/n = 1, that is, xk = k/n, where k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. The area
under the parabola y = x2 over the interval [0, 1] is the sum of the
areas Sk under the parabola over the partition interval [xk−1 , xk ] where
k = 1, 2, . . . , n,
A = S 1 + S 2 + · · · + Sn .
The area Sk cannot exceed the area of a rectangle with base 1/n and
height f (xk ) = (k/n)2 . Let us denote this upper bound by SkU = k 2 /n3 .
The area Sk is greater than the area of a rectangle with base 1/n
and height f (xk−1 ) = (k − 1)2 /n2 . The lower bound is denoted by
SkL = (k − 1)2 /n3 . Thus,
(k − 1)2 k2
SkL = < Sk < = SkU .
n3 n3
Therefore, the area A is bounded above by the sum of SkU and below
by the sum of SkL :
S1L + S2L + · · · + SnL = ALn ≤ A ≤ AUn = S1U + S2U + · · · + SnU
for any number n of partition segments.
Let us calculate the difference
2k − 1 2n − 1 2
0 < SkU − SkL = ≤ <
n3 n3 n2
for any k = 1, 2, . . . , n; in the second inequality, the condition k ≤ n
has been used. This inequality allows us to estimate the difference
AUn − ALn :
2 2
0 < AUn − ALn = (S1U − S1L ) + (S2U − S2L ) + · · · + (SnU − SnL ) < n 2 = .
n n
149
150 5. INTEGRATION

1.0 1.0
0.8 0.8
0.6 0.6
0.4 0.4
0.2 0.2

0 1 1 3 1 0 1 1 3 1
4 2 4 4 2 4

Figure 5.1. The upper and lower bounds for the area
under the graph y = f (x) = x2 for n = 4 partition in-
tervals in [0, 1]. The upper bound is obtained by taking
the maximum value of f on each partition interval (left
panel). The lower bound is obtained by taking the mini-
mum value of f on each partition segment (right panel).
When n increases, the upper bound decreases, while the
lower bound decreases, both approaching the area under
the graph as n → ∞.

Thus, if the limit limn→∞ AUn exists, then lim AUn = lim ALn because
0 < AUn − ALn < 2/n → 0 as n → ∞. On the other hand, ALn ≤ A ≤ AUn
for any n. Taking the limit n → ∞ in this inequality yields
lim ALn = A = lim AUn .
n→∞ n→∞

From a geometrical point of view, when n gets larger, the area AUn
approaches A from above while ALn does so from below. For n large
enough, both AUn and ALn may serve as a good approximation of A.
In fact, the error of either of the approximations does not exceed 2/n
because 0 < AUn − ALn < 2/n and ALn ≤ A ≤ AUn . It appears that the
limit limn→∞ AUn can actually be calculated by means of the formula
for the sum of squares of the first n positive integers:
1 n
(5.1) 12 + 22 + · · · + n2 = n(n + 1)(2n + 1) = (2n2 + 3n + 1).
6 6
Indeed, by making use of this formula, one can infer that
1 2 2n2 + 3n + 1 1 1 1 1
AUn = 3
(1 + 22
+ · · · + n 2
) = 2
= + + 2 →
n 6n 3 2n 6n 3
as n → ∞. So the area is A = 3 . 1

Let x∗k be a number in the interval [xk−1 , xk ]. Then the area Sk

can also be approximated by the area Sk∗ of a rectangle with base
 31. AREAS AND DISTANCES 151

1/n and height f (x∗k ) = (x∗k )2 , that is, Sk∗ = f (x∗k )/n. Then the total
area under the graph is approximated by the sum A∗n of all Sk . Since
SkL ≤ Sk∗ ≤ SkU (owing to the monotonicity of the function x2 in each
interval [xk−1 , xk ]), the following inequality holds for any n:
ALn ≤ S1∗ + S2∗ + · · · + Sn∗ = A∗n ≤ AUn .
Taking the limit n → ∞ in this inequality leads to a remarkable result
lim A∗n = A ;
n→∞

that is, the limit of A∗n does not depend on the choice of sample points
x∗k . The area could have been approximated by, for example, A∗n with
the sample points as the midpoints x∗k = (xk + xk−1 )/2, or any other
convenient choice. This analysis can be extended to any continuous
function.
The calculation of the area under the graph is further illustrated in
the video website at http://www.math.ufl.edu/∼mathguy/ufcalcbook/
riemann.html.

31.1. The Area Under the Graph of a Continuous Function. Let f (x) be
continuous on [a, b]. Consider a partition of [a, b] by n segments of
length Δx = (b − a)/n. The endpoints of the partitions segments are
xk = a + k Δx with k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, such that x0 = a and xn = b. Let
x∗k be a sample point in the interval [xk−1 , xk ].
Definition 5.1. The area A of the region that lies under the graph
of a continuous function f (x) ≥ 0 on an interval [a, b] is
 
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
(5.2) A = lim An = lim f (x1 ) Δx + f (x2 ) Δx + · · · + f (xn ) Δx
n→∞ n→∞

for any choice of sample points x∗k .

Let us assess this definition. Any continuous function attains its
maximum and minimum values on a closed interval. Let Mk and mk
be, respectively, the maximum and minimum values of f (x) on the
interval [xk−1 , xk ]. If Sk is the area under the graph y = f (x) on the
interval [xk−1 , xk ], then SkL = mk Δx ≤ Sk ≤ SkU = Mk Δx. The area
Sk∗ = f (x∗k ) Δx of the rectangle with base Δx and height f (x∗k ) is a
continuous function of x∗k on the interval [xk−1 , xk ]. Therefore, Sk∗ must
take all the values between its minimum and maximum values, SkL and
SkU . In particular, Sk∗ = Sk for some x∗k ∈ [xk−1 , xk ]. Thus, for any
fixed n, there is a choice of sample points such that A∗n = A.
Continuing the analogy with the example of f (x) = x2 , let us show
that the limit (5.2) is independent of the choice of sample points,
152 5. INTEGRATION

provided the lower sums ALn = S1L + · · · + SnL and the upper sums
AUn = S1U + · · · + SnU converge to the same number as n → ∞. Indeed,
for any choice of sample points SkL ≤ Sk∗ ≤ SkU and, hence, by tak-
ing the sum over the partition in the latter inequality, one infers that
ALn ≤ A∗n ≤ AUn . Therefore both the numbers A∗n and A lie between ALn
and AUn :
 L
An ≤ A∗n ≤ AUn
(5.3) =⇒ |A∗n − A| ≤ AUn − ALn
ALn ≤ A ≤ AUn
Thus, if AUn − ALn → 0 as n → ∞, then A∗n → A for any choice of
partition. The following theorem holds.
Theorem 5.1. Let f be a continuous function on [a, b]. Suppose
that for any partition x0 = a < x1 < x2 < · · · < xn = b, the length of
the largest partition interval, Δn = maxk Δxk , Δxk = xk − xk−1 , k =
1, 2, . . . , n, decreases as the number n of partition interval increases,
Δn > Δn+1 . Then the upper and lower sums converge to the same
limit as n → ∞.
This theorem justifies the definition (5.2). Note also that the parti-
tion is not generally required to be equispaced. The above theorem only
requires that the length Δn of the largest partition interval decreases
with increasing the number of partition intervals (Δn = (b−a)/n = Δx
for an equispaced partition).

31.2. Approximating the Area Under a Graph. In practice, Equation (5.2)

can be used to find the area under the graph that is correct to any de-
sired number of decimal places. Take a partition of the interval [a, b],
e.g., fix some n so that Δx = (b − a)/n. Choose sample points xk − 1 ≤
x∗k ≤ xk . Convenient choices might be the left points x∗k = xk−1 , the
right points x∗k = xk , or the midpoints x∗k = (xk−1 + xk )/2. Calculate
the sum A∗n , keeping the desired number of decimal places. Refine the
partition by, for example, doubling the number of segments, and cal-
culate A∗2n . If A∗n and A∗2n coincide in the desired number of decimal
places, then A = A∗2n is correct to that number of decimal places. If
not, refine the partition further and compute A∗4n and compare it with
A∗2n and so on, until the needed accuracy is reached. For any n, the
absolute error of the approximation may estimated by the inequality
on the right in (5.3).

31.3. Sigma Notation for Sums. To avoid writing lengthy expressions

for sums of an arbitrary number of terms, it is convenient to adopt the
 31. AREAS AND DISTANCES 153

following notation:

n
A∗n = S1∗ + S2∗ + · · · + Sn∗ = Sk∗ ,
k=1

where the index k is called the summation index. The symbol means
∗
adding all Sk , starting with k = 1 up to k = n. For example, the
geometric sum formula can now be written as

n
q n+1 − 1
(5.4) 1 + q + q + ··· + q =
2 n
qk = .
k=0
q−1

31.4. The Distance Problem. If an object moves with a constant veloc-

ity v during a time interval a ≤ t ≤ b, then the distance traveled by
the object is D = v(b − a). How does one calculate the distance if the
speed is a nonconstant continuous function of time v = v(t) ≥ 0?
Let D(t) be the distance as a function of time a ≤ t ≤ b. It
satisfies the condition D(a) = 0. Since v(t) ≥ 0, the object travels in
the same direction all the time, and D(t) increases because D (t) =
v(t) ≥ 0. Thus, D = D(b). To calculate D(b), consider a partition
of [a, b] by interval [tk−1 , tk ] where tk = a + Δt k, Δt = (b − a)/n,
k = 0, 1, . . . , n. The distance ΔDk = D(tk ) − D(tk−1 ) traveled by the
object in the time interval [tk−1 , tk ] can be found by the mean value
theorem: D(tk ) − D(tk−1 ) = v(t∗k ) Δt for some t∗k in [tk−1 , tk ]. Recall
that v(t∗k ) is the average velocity over the time interval [tk−1 , tk ]. The
total distance is D = ΔD1 + · · · + ΔDn . On the other hand, points
t∗k represent a particular choice of sample points in the definition (5.2)
applied to a continuous function v(t). Therefore, D is the area under
the graph of v(t) and, hence, can be calculated with any choice of
sample points t∗k , not necessarily with those at which v coincides with
the average velocity in each partition interval:

n
D = lim v(t∗k ) Δt ,
n→∞
k=1

Furthermore, by the condition D (t) = v(t) the function D(t) is

the antiderivative of v(t) satisfying the initial condition D(a) = 0. If
D̃(t) is any antiderivative of v(t), then D(t) and D̃(t) can differ only
by a constant, D(t) = D̃(t) + C. The constant C is fixed by the
condition D(a) = 0 and, hence, C = −D̃(a). The distance traveled
is D = D(b) = D̃(b) − D̃(a) This establishes the following relation
154 5. INTEGRATION

between the area under the graph of v(t) and its antiderivative:

n
(5.5) D = lim v(t∗k ) Δt = D̃(b) − D̃(a)
n→∞
k=1

Example 5.1. A moving object slows down so that its velocity is

v(t) = e−2t . What is the distance traveled by the object during the time
interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 1?

Solution: Let Δt = 1/n so that tk = k/n, k = 0, 1, . . . , n. Take

t∗k = (k − 1)/n, k = 1, 2, . . . , n (the left points of partition intervals).
Then v(t∗k ) Δt = q k−1 /n, where q = e−2/n . The distance traveled is

1 k
n−1
1 qn − 1 1 − e−2
D = lim q = lim = ,
n→∞ n n→∞ n q − 1 limn→∞ n(1 − e−2/n )
k=0

where the sum formula (5.4) has been used. To compute the limit in
the denominator, let x = 1/n, that is, x → 0. The limit becomes the
indeterminate form (1 − e−2x )/x of type 0/0, which can be resolved by
l’Hospital’s rule: (1 − e−2x ) /(x) = 2e−2x /1 → 2 as x → 0. Thus, the
distance traveled is D = (1 − e−2 )/2. 2

Alternative solution. An antiderivative of v(t) = e−2t is D̃(t) =

−e−2t /2. By Equation (5.5), D = D̃(1) − D̃(0) = (1 − e−2 )/2.
When compared to the previous solution, this one looks like cheat-
ing! More to the point, take v(t) = t2 (the example discussed at the
beginning of this section). Its antiderivative is D̃(t) = t3 /3. So the dis-
tance traveled, or the area under the graph of t2 , is D̃(1) − D̃(0) = 1/3.
It turns out that the relation (5.5) between an antiderivative of a func-
tion and the area under the graph of the function is not specific for the
distance problem. Its generalization will be established with the help
of the concept of the definite integral.

31.5. Exercises.
(1) Find explicit formulas for the upper and lower sums, AUn and
ALn , for f (x) = 2x + 1 on [0, 2] using an equispaced parti-
tion. Find the limits of AUn and ALn as n → ∞. What is the
geometrical significance of this limit?
(2) Find explicit formulas for the upper and lower sums, AUn and
ALn , for f (x) = x3 on [0, 1] using an equispaced partition. Show
 31. AREAS AND DISTANCES 155

that AU,L
n → 1/4 as n → ∞. What is the geometrical signifi-
cance of this limit? Hint:
 n
1
k 3 = n2 (n − 1)2 .
k=1
4
2
(3) Find the area under the graph of f (x) = e−x on [−1, 1] correct
up to five decimal places. √
(4) Find the area under the graph f (x) = 1 − x2 , where −1 ≤
x ≤ 1, correct up to three decimal places. Use the geometrical
interpretation of this area to find its exact value.
(5) Find the area under the graph of each of the following functions
on the given interval using the relation (5.2):
(i) f (x) = 3 − 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) f (x) = 1 + x + x2 , 0 ≤ x ≤ 2
(iii) f (x) = e3x , −1 ≤ x ≤ 1
(6) Use the relation

n−1
sin(nx) sin[(n − 1)x]
sin(2kx) =
k=0
sin x

to find the following:

(i) The upper and lower sums for f (x) = sin x on the interval
[0, π]. Calculate AUn − ALn and investigate its behavior as n
increases. What is the significance of this number for a fixed
n?
(ii) The area under the graph of f (x) = sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π,
using (5.2).
(iii) The area under the graph of f (x) = cos x, 0 ≤ x ≤ π/2,
using (5.2).
(7) An object travels with velocity v(t) = cos2 t. Find the distance
passed by the object over the time interval 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π.
(8) Use antiderivatives to find the area under the graph of each of
the following functions. Explain why this method can be used
to find the area in each case.
(i) f (x) = 1/(x2 + 1), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) f (x) = sin(ax), 0 ≤ x ≤ π/a
(9) Let f (x) = (x5 − 1)/(x − 1) if 0 ≤ x < 1 and f (1) = 5. Show
that f (x) is continuous on [0, 1]. Use antiderivatives to find
the area under the graph of f . Hint: See Equation (5.4).
(10) Find the area of a planar region bounded by the curves y =
2 − x2 and y = 1.
156 5. INTEGRATION

(11) Find the area of a planar region bounded by the curves y = x2

and y = x.
32. The Definite Integral
A generalization of the concept of the area under a graph leads to
one of the most fundamental concepts in calculus, the definite integral.

32.1. Supremum and Infimum. The area under a graph is also well de-
fined if the function has some number of bounded jump discontinuities.
The difference with the case of a continuous function f is that now f
may or may not attain its maximum or minimum values on each par-
tition interval. What should be changed in the definition of the area
to accommodate possible jump discontinuities of the graph? Suppose
a function f is bounded on an interval [a, b]; that is, there are numbers
m and M such that m ≤ f (x) ≤ M for all x ∈ [a, b]. If m is a lower
bound, then any number m1 < m is also a lower bound, but a number
m2 > m may or may not be a lower bound. So one can find the greatest
lower bound that is unique for f on [a, b]. Similarly, one can find the
lowest upper bound of f on [a, b]. These bounds have special names.
Definition 5.2. (Infimum and Supremum). The number m is
called the infimum of a bounded function f on an interval I = [a, b]
if m is a lower bound of f but m + a is not a lower bound for any
a > 0. This number is denoted as m = inf I f . The number M is
called the supremum of f on [a, b] if M is an upper bound of f but
M − a is not an upper bound for any a > 0. This number is denoted
as M = supI f .
Naturally, if the function is continuous, then sup f is nothing but
the maximum value of f and inf f is its minimum value. However, if
a function has jump discontinuities, then sup f and inf f always ex-
ist, while the maximum and minimum values may not exist. This is
illustrated in Figure 5.2.

32.2. Definition of the Definite Integral. Let f be a bounded function

on an interval [a, b]. Consider a partition of [a, b] by n intervals Ik =
[xk−1 , xk ], k = 1, 2, . . . , n, where a = x0 < x1 < · · · < xn = b. Let
Mk = supIk f (x) (the supremum of f (x) on the interval Ik ) and mk =
inf Ik f (x) (the infimum of f (x) in the interval Ik ). The length of Ik is
Δxk = xk −xk−1 . The lower ALn and upper AUn sums for f are defined by
 n n
L U
An = mk Δxk , An = Mk Δxk
k=1 k=1
 32. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 157

1 1

1/2 1/2

a c b a c b
sup f 1 > f (x) sup fmax f 1
f(c)1/2

1 1

1/2 1/2

a c b a c b
inf f1/2 <f (x) inf f mix f 1/2

Figure 5.2. Relations between the supremum and in-

fimum of f and the maximal and minimal values of f .
Upper left panel: The values of the function approach
1 as x approaches c from the left, but f (c) = 1/2 < 1.
The maximum value of f does not exist, but the lowest
upper bound does exist, sup f = 1.
Lower left panel: The values of f approach 1/2 as x
approaches c from the right, but f (c) = 1. The function
has no minimum value, but the greatest lower bound is
inf f = 1/2.
Upper right panel: The values of f approach 1 as x
approaches c from the left and f (c) = 1. In this case,
the maximal value f (c) = 1 coincides with sup f = 1.
Lower right panel: The values of f approach 1/2 as x
approaches c from the right and f (c) = 1/2. The mini-
mum value f (c) = 1/2 coincides with the greatest lower
bound inf f = 1/2.
158 5. INTEGRATION

for every partition of [a, b]. Put Δn = maxk Δxk which is the length
of the largest partition interval for a fixed n. The sequences of lower
and upper sum are defined so that Δn > Δn+1 ; that is, the length of
the largest partition interval decreases with increasing the number of
partition intervals.
Definition 5.3 (The Definite Integral). A bounded function f is
said to be integrable on an interval [a, b] if the sequences of its lower
and upper sums converge to the same number. This number is called
the definite integral of f from a to b and is denoted by
 b
f (x) dx = lim ALn = lim AUn ;
a n→∞ n→∞

the numbers a and b are called the lower and upper integration limits,
respectively, and the function f is called the integrand.
Apparently, for a continuous and nonnegative f on [a, b], the definite
integral coincides with the area under the graph of f . Similarly to
the area under the graph of a continuous nonnegative function, an
integrable function has the property
 b
An ≤
L
f dx ≤ AUn
a
for any n (see Exercise 32.9.4).

32.3. Riemann Sums. There is an analog of Equation (5.2) for the

definite integral.
Definition 5.4. Let Ik be partition intervals of [a, b], Δxk be the
length of Ik , and x∗k ∈ Ik . The sum

n
Rn (f ) = f (x∗k ) Δxk
k=1

is called a Riemann sum of a function f on [a, b].

The sum Rn (f ) is named after the German mathematician Bern-
hard Riemann (1826–1866). Evidently, the value of the Riemann sum
generally depends on the choice of partition intervals and sample points
x∗k . However, for integrable functions Riemann sums have a remarkable
property.
Theorem 5.2. If f is integrable on [a, b], then, for any number
ε > 0, there exists an integer N such that
 b 
 
 f (x) dx − R (f )<ε
 n 
a
for every integer n > N and for every choice of x∗k in Ik .
 32. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 159

A proof of this theorem is given as an exercise (see Exercise 32.9.5;

see also Exercises 32.9.12 and 32.9.13). The theorem asserts that a
Riemann sum for a sufficiently large n can approximate the definite
integral with any desired accuracy; that is, for any (small) designated
b
absolute error ε, Rn (f ) differs from a f dx no more than ε for a suffi-
ciently large n. In other words,
 b
(5.6) lim Rn (f ) = f (x) dx ,
n→∞ a
for any choice of sample points x∗k .
Equation (5.6) is the analog of Equa-
tion (5.2). It can be understood from the inequality ALn ≤ Rn (f ) ≤ AUn ,
which follows from mk ≤ f (x∗k ) ≤ Mk for any x∗k (see Figure 5.3).

a x1* x2* x3* x4* x5* b

Figure 5.3. Riemann sum for n = 5 partition inter-

vals. Its value always lies between the lower and upper
sums, AL5 ≤ R5 ≤ AU5 , for any choice of sample points x∗k
because mk ≤ f (x∗k ) ≤ Mk .
For an integrable function, ALn and AUn converge to the same num-
ber, which is the value of the definite integral, and, by the squeeze
principle, so should Rn (f ) independently of the choice of sample points.

32.4. Continuity and Integrability. The relation (5.6) can be used to

calculate the definite integral, provided the function f is integrable.
The question of integrability requires investigating the convergence of
160 5. INTEGRATION

the sequences of the upper and lower sums, which might be a tedious
task even for such simple functions as, for example, f (x) = x2 , as
discussed in the previous section. The following theorem is helpful
when studying the question of integrability.

Theorem 5.3. If f is continuous on [a, b], or if f has only a finite

number of bounded jump discontinuities, then f is integrable on [a, b];
b
that is, the definite integral a f (x) dx exists.

A bounded function f with infinitely many jump discontinuities

may or may not be integrable. So, in general, the area under the
graph of such a function cannot be unambiguously defined. As an
example, consider a bounded nonnegative function f on [0, 1] such that
f (x) = 1 if x is a rational number, and f (x) = 0 otherwise (i.e., if x
is irrational). The function is not continuous anywhere in [0, 1] and
has infinitely many jump discontinuities. For example, f (1/2) = 1,
but when x approaches 1/2, the value f (x) keeps jumping from 0 to
1 and back, no matter how close x is to 1/2 because, for any δ > 0,
the interval ( 21 − δ, 12 + δ) always contains both rational and irrational
numbers. This function is not integrable. Indeed, take a partition
xk = k/n, k = 0, 1, . . . , n. Any partition interval [(k − 1)/n, k/n]
contains both rational and irrational numbers. Therefore, mk = 0 and
Mk = 1. Hence, the lower sumvanishes for any partition, ALn = 0,
whereas the upper sum is AUn = nk=1 Δx = 1, that is, limn→∞ ALn = 0
while limn→∞ AUn = 1. The function is not integrable. The integral
does not exist. Note that the Riemann sum can still be defined, but
its limit would depend on the choice of sample points (e.g., take x∗k to
be rational numbers or take x∗k to be irrational numbers; both options
are possible since any partition interval always contains rational and
irrational numbers).

32.5. Properties of the Definite Integral. Suppose f (x) = c, where c is

a constant. In this case, for any partition interval Ik , Mk = mk = c
and An = An = c nk=1 Δx = cn Δx = c(b − a). In other words, a
U L

constant function is integrable and its integral is c(b − a):

 b
(5.7) c dx = c(b − a).
a

For any two integrable functions f (x) and g(x) and constants c1 and
c2 , it follows from the convergence of the Riemann sums (5.6) for f and
g that
 32. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 161

 b 
n
[c1 f (x) + c2 g(x)] dx = lim [c1 f (x∗k ) + c2 g(x∗k )] Δxk
a n→∞
k=1

n 
n
= c1 lim f (x∗k ) Δxk + c2 lim g(x∗k ) Δxk
n→∞ n→∞
k=1 k=1
 b  b
(5.8) = c1 f (x) dx + c2 g(x) dx .
a a
So the integration is a linear operation. In particular, the integral of
the sum of two functions is the sum of their integrals. The integral of
a function multiplied by a constant is the product of the constant and
the integral of the function. If the integration limits are reversed, then
all Δxk change their signs as xk becomes less than xk−1 . Therefore,
 b  a
(5.9) f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
a b
and, in particular,
 a
(5.10) f (x) dx = 0 .
a
It can be proved that
 b  c  b
(5.11) f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx
a a c
for f integrable on [a, b] and any a ≤ c ≤ b. The proof is rather
technical and is omitted. If f is continuous and positive on [a, b], then
the property (5.11) is trivial: The area under the graph of f on [a, b]
is the sum of the areas under the graph of f on [a, c] and [c, b].

32.6. Geometrical Significance of the Definite Integral. As already noted,

the definite integral of f from a to b coincides with the area under the
graph of f for a continuous and positive f . Suppose f is continuous and
negative on [a, b]. Consider the function g(x) = −f (x). The integral of
g is the area A under the graph of g and, hence, A also coincides with
the area above the b graph of f and
 b below the x axis. By the linearity
of the integral, a f (x) dx = − a g(x) dx = −A. So, for a negative f ,
the integral of f coincides with the negative area of the region bounded
below by the graph of f and above by the x axis. Now let f be con-
tinuous on [a, b]. Let it be positive on [a, c] and negative on [c, b], that
is, f (c) = 0. Then it follows from the property (5.11) that
 b  c  b
f (x) dx = f (x) dx + f (x) dx = A1 − A2 ,
a a c
162 5. INTEGRATION

where A1 is the area under the graph of f on [a, c] and A2 is the area
above the graph of f on [c, b]. This property is illustrated in Figure 5.4.

I A2A1
A2

a
A1 b

Figure 5.4. Geometrical interpretation of the definite

integral. If an integrable function f is nonnegative on an
interval [c, b], then its integral over [c, b] is the area A2
under the graph of f above the interval [c, b]. If f is non-
positive on an interval [a, c], then its integral over [a, c] is
−A1 , where A1 is the area above the graph of f and below
the interval [a, c] on the x axis. By the additivity of the
integral, the integral of f over the interval [a, b] being the
union of intervals [a, c] and [c, b] is the difference A2 −A1 .
This shows that the value on the integral can be any real
number.

32.7. Comparison Properties of the Integral. The following additional

properties of the definite integral can be established:
 b
(5.12) f (x) dx ≥ 0, if f (x) ≥ 0 in [a, b] ,
a
 b  b
(5.13) f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx, if f (x) ≥ g(x) in [a, b] ,
a a
(5.14)
 b
m(b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ M (b − a), if m ≤ f (x) ≤ M in [a, b] .
a
The property (5.12) follows directly from the definition: 0 ≤ mk ≤
Mk for any partition if f (x) ≥ 0; that is, the upper and lower sums
are nonnegative and so must be the integral. If f is continuous, the
 32. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 163

a b
Figure 5.5. Geometrical interpretation of the property
(5.14). The graph of a function f lies between two hor-
izontal lines y = m and y = M because m ≤ f (x) ≤ M
for all x ∈ [a, b]. So the area A under the graph of f lies
between the areas of rectangles with the base b − a and
heights m and M , i.e., m(b − a) ≤ A ≤ M (b − a).

property (5.12) states the obvious that the area under the graph of f is
nonnegative. The property (5.13) follows from (5.12) for the function
f (x) − g(x) ≥ 0 and the linearity of the integral (5.8). The property
(5.14) is also a consequence of the definition. Indeed, for any partition,
m ≤ mk ≤ Mk ≤ M . Hence, m(b − a) ≤ ALn ≤ AUn ≤ M (b − a) for
any n. In the limit n → ∞, this inequality turns into (5.14).

32.8. Evaluation of the Integral by the Riemann Sum. If the integral ex-
ists (f is integrable), then it can be evaluated as the limit of the Rie-
mann sum (5.6). The limit is independent of the choice of sample
points. The following choices are often used in practice:
x∗k = xk−1 (the left-point rule),
x∗k = xk (the right-point rule),
x∗k = (xk−1 + xk )/2 (the midpoint rule),
in combination with the basic properties of the integral. The evaluation
of the Riemann sum is rather technical. Formulas like (5.1), (5.4), and
n n  2
n(n − 1) 3 n(n − 1)
(5.15) k= , k =
k=1
2 k=1
2
164 5. INTEGRATION

can be helpful. However, the Riemann sum is mostly used to calculate

the integral approximately with some designated accuracy by means of
computer simulations, similarly to approximate calculations of the area
discussed in the previous section.
Example 5.2. Find the definite integral of f (x) = e−2x − 2x2 + 4x3
from 0 to 1.
Solution:
(I) The function is continuous on [0, 1] and hence integrable; that
is, Equation (5.6) applies for any choice of x∗k . The left-point
rule will be used.
(II) By the linearity of the integral,
 1  1  1  1
−2x
f (x) dx = e dx − 2 2
x dx + 4 x3 dx.
0 0 0 0

The first integral is (1 − e−2 )/2 by Example 5.1 (where the

area under the graph of e−2x in [0, 1] was calculated). The
area under the graph x2 in [0, 1] can be found at the beginning
of the previous section and is equal to 1/3. The area under the
graph of x3 can be found with the help of the second relation
in (5.15). Let Δx = 1/n and xk = (k − 1)/n (the left-point
rule), then the Riemann sum (5.6) becomes
 1
1  3
n
3 1 n2 (n − 1)2 1
x dx = lim 4 k = lim 4 = .
0 n→∞ n k=1 n→∞ n 4 4

(III) Thus,
 1
1 − e−2 2 1 1 − 6e−2
f (x) dx = − + = . 2
0 2 3 4 12

32.9. Exercises.
(1) Let f (x) = sin(1/x) if x = 0 and f (0) = f0 . Given any number
δ > 0, find the supremum and infimum of f on [−δ, δ].
(2) Find the upper and lower sums for the function f (x) = 1 if
x ≥ 0 and f (x) = −2 if x < 0 on the interval [−1, 1]. Use
them to show that f is integrable.
(3) Find the upper and lower sums for the function f (x) = 1 if
x = 0 and f (x) = f0 = 1 if x = 0 on an interval [a, b]. Use
them to show that f is integrable on any [a, b].
 32. THE DEFINITE INTEGRAL 165

(4) Suppose that the length of the largest partition interval, Δn =

maxk Δxk , decreases as the number n of partition intervals
increases (i.e., Δn+1 < Δn ). Show that ALn ≤ ALn+1 and AUn ≥
AUn+1 . Deduce from this property that
 b
ALn ≤ f dx ≤ AUn
a

for any n and for any integrable f on [a, b].

(5) Use the inequality from the previous exercise to prove
Theorem 5.2.
(6) Let a < c < b. Put I1 = [a, c] and I2 = [c, b]. Let f be
integrable on [a, b]. If M1 = supI1 f , M2 = supI2 f , m1 =
inf I1 f , and m2 = inf I2 f , prove that
 b
m1 (c − a) + m2 (b − c) ≤ f dx ≤ M1 (c − a) + M2 (b − c).
a

(7) Use Equation (5.14) to estimate the definite integral of each

of the following functions from above and below:
(i) f (x) = x5 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 2
(ii) f (x) = | sin x| − sin x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π
(iii) f (x) = | cos x − 1/2| − cos x, −π ≤ x ≤ π
(8) Use the result of exercise 6 to improve the upper and lower
estimates in exercise 7 by a suitable choice of c.
(9) Use the geometrical properties of the definite integral to find
the exact values of
 1/√2 √ 
(i) √
1 − x 2 − |x| dx
−1/ 2
 a √  
(ii) a − x − 2 a − (2x − a) dx
2 2 1 2 2
0

(10) Use Riemann sums for equispaced partitions to evaluate each

of the following definite integrals correct up to three decimal
places:
2
(i) −1 x1/3 dx
2
(ii) 0 sin(x2 ) dx
1
(iii) −1 exp(sin x) dx
3
(iv) 1 x ln x dx
166 5. INTEGRATION

(11) Let f be continuous on [a, b]. Then g(x) = |f (x)| is integrable

on [a, b]. Why? Show that
 b   b
 
 f dx ≤ |f (x)| dx.
a a
(12) Let f have a bounded derivative on [a, b], that is, |f  (x)| ≤ M1
for all x ∈ [a, b]. Consider an equispaced partition of [a, b] with
Δx = (b − a)/n. For every partition interval Ik = [xk−1 , xk ],
xk = a + kx Δx, k = 0, 1, . . . , n, show that there is x̄k ∈ Ik
such that Ak = f (x̄k )Δx is the area under the graph of f on
Ik . Let x∗k ∈ Ik be sample points in the Riemann sum for f .
Use the mean value theorem to prove that
|f (x∗k ) Δx − Ak | ≤ M1 Δx2
for any k. Deduce from this inequality that
 b  M (b − a)2
  1
 f dx − Rn (f ) ≤ .
a n
(13) (The trapezoidal rule). Let f have a bounded second deriva-
tive on [a, b], that is, |f  (x)| ≤ M2 for all x ∈ [a, b]. By the
mean value theorem, there is c such f (b) − f (a) = f  (c)(b − a).
Define the function g(x) = f (a) + f  (c)(x − a). The graph
y = g(x) is the secant line through the points (a, f (a)) and
b
(b, f (b)). Then T = a g(x) dx = (f (a) + f (b))(b − a)/2 is the
area of the trapezoid bounded by the line y = g(x) on [a, b].
Use the mean value theorem for the derivative f  to prove that
|f (x) − g(x)| ≤ M2 (b − a)2 .
Use this inequality to show that
 b  b 
 
 f dx − g dx  ≤ M2 (b − a)3 .
a a
b
The trapezoidal rule to calculate a f dx uses the piecewise
linear approximation of f by g on each partition interval Ik =
[xk−1 , xk ] of length Δxk :
 b n  xk

f dx ≈ Tn (f ) = g dx
a k=1 xk−1


n
1
= 2
(f (xk−1 ) + f (xk )) Δxk .
k=1
 33. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 167

Prove that for an equispaced partition

 b  M (b − a)3
  2
 f dx − Tn (f ) ≤ .
a n2
By comparing this result with that in exercise 11, one can see
that the error of the trapezoidal rule decreases faster than that
in the Riemann sum approximation as the number of partition
intervals increases. So it is a better way to approximate the
integral. One should keep in mind, however, that the integrand
has to have
 2a bounded second derivative for such a superiority.
2
(14) Evaluate 0 sin(x ) dx correct up to three decimal places using
the Riemann sum and trapezoidal approximations. How many
partition intervals are required to achieve this accuracy in each
of the approximations?

33. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

In this section, the relation between the definite integral of a func-
tion and its antiderivative will be established. This relation provides
a powerful method for calculating the definite integral that avoids the
use of Riemann sums.

33.1. Integration and Differentiation. Consider the definite integral of

f (t) = t from 0 to x for some x > 0. This integral represents the area
under the graph of f (t) = t in the interval [0, x], which is the area of a
right triangle:  x
x2
A(x) = t dt = .
0 2
The area A(x) can be viewed as a function of the variable x, which
is the length of the triangle catheti. This function has an interesting
property:
A (x) = x = f (x) .
In other words, the derivative of the definite integral with respect to its
upper limit equals the value of the integrand at the upper limit. Recall
that if v(t) ≥ 0 is the speed of a moving object, then the distance
traveled by the object in time T is given by the area under the graph
of v(t):
 T
D(T ) = v(t) dt .
0
On the other hand, the speed is the rate of change of D(T ), and there-
fore there should be D (T ) = v(T ); that is, the derivative of the integral
with respect to its upper limit is again the value of the integrand at
168 5. INTEGRATION

the upper limit. How general is this property? Does it hold for all
integrable functions? The following theorem answers these questions.
Theorem 5.4. If f is continuous on [a, b], then the function defined
by
 x
g(x) = f (t) dt , a ≤ x ≤ b,
a

is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), and g  (x) = f (x).

Proof. By the definition of the derivative, one has to prove that
g(x + h) − g(x)
(5.16) lim = f (x)
h→0 h
for a < x < b. The ratio in the limit can be transformed as follows:
 x+h  x 
g(x + h) − g(x) 1
= f (t) dt − f (t) dt
h h a a
  x  x+h
 x 
1
= f (t) dt + f (t) dt − f (t) dt
h a x a

1 x+h
= f (t) dt ,
h x
where the property (5.11) has been used. Note that since a < x < b
(i.e., x = a and x = b), for a sufficiently small h = 0, both x and x + h
(h can be positive or negative) always lie in the interval (a, b) so that
the interval [x, x + h] is contained in (a, b). By the continuity of f (t)
on the interval [x, x + h], the function f attains its absolute maximum
and minimum values in [x, x + h]. Let M = f (v) and m = f (u) be
the absolute maximum and minimum values, respectively, where v and
u are in [x, x + h]. Suppose that h > 0. Then m ≤ f (t) ≤ M for
x ≤ t ≤ x + h and, by the property (5.14),
 x+h
(5.17) mh = f (u)h ≤ f (t) dt ≤ f (v)h = M h .
x

Since h > 0, by dividing this inequality by h, one can infer that


1 x+h
(5.18) f (u) ≤ f (t) dt ≤ f (v)
h x
for some u and v in [x, x + h]. Inequality (5.18) can be established
for h < 0 in a similar manner. Indeed, inequality (5.17) holds for the
x
integral x+h f (t) dt. After dividing it by −h > 0, inequality (5.18)
 33. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 169

is obtained but with the minus sign at the integral. By the property
(5.9), the sign is reversed, yielding (5.18). Thus,
g(x + h) − g(x)
f (u) ≤ ≤ f (v) .
h
Since u and v lie in the interval [x, x + h],
lim f (u) = f (x) , lim f (v) = f (x) .
h→0 h→0

Then the relation (5.16) follows from the squeeze principle:

g(x + h) − g(x)
f (x) = lim f (u) ≤ lim ≤ lim f (v) = f (x) .
h→0 h→0 h h→0
2
This theorem basically states that if a continuous function is first
integrated and then differentiated, then it remains unchanged:
 x
d
(5.19) f (t) dt = f (x) , a < x < b.
dx a
x
In other words, F (x) = a f (t) dt is an antiderivative of f (x) in an open
interval (a, b). The continuity of f on [a, b] is essential for this relation
to hold. Take, for example, f (t) = 0 if t < 1 and f (t) = 1 if t ≥ 1.
Let a = 0. Then f has a jump discontinuity at t = 1; it is integrable
on any interval, but not continuous at t = 1. By the property (5.7),
x
g(x) = 0 f (t) dt = 0 if x < 1. For x ≥ 1, one has
 x  1  x
g(x) = f (t) dt = f (t) dt + f (t) dt = 0 + (x − 1) = x − 1 ,
0 0 1
x ≥ 1.
Therefore, g  (x) = 0 if x < 1 and g  (x) = 1 if x > 1. But g  (1) does
not exist.
b 2
Example 5.3. Let g(x) = x e−t dt. Find g  (x).
2
Solution: The function e−t is a continuous function everywhere as a
composition of two continuous functions, the exponential
x 2 and power
functions. By the property (5.9), g(x) = − b e−t dt. Therefore,
2
g  (x) = −e−x by (5.19). 2

This example illustrates the general property:

 b  x
d d
f (t) dt = − f (t) dt = −f (x)
dx x dx b
for a continuous f .
170 5. INTEGRATION

33.2. The Definite Integral and Antiderivative. The following theorem

establishes the relation between the definite integral of a function and
its antiderivative.
Theorem 5.5. (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). If f is
continuous on [a, b], then
 b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) ,
a

where F is any antiderivative of f , that is, a function such that F  = f .

x
Proof. Let g(x) = a f (t) dt. By (5.19), the function g(x) is an
antiderivative of f (x) in an open interval (a, b). If F is any other
antiderivative of f , then F and g may differ only by a constant,
F (x) = g(x) + C , a < x < b.
b
Also, by the definition of g(x), g(a) = 0 and g(b) = a f (t) dt. The
function g(x) is continuous on [a, b] because limx→a+ g(x) = g(a) = 0
and limx→b− g(x) = g(b). Therefore, F (x) is also continuous on [a, b]
(as the sum of two continuous functions). Hence,
     b
F (b) − F (a) = g(b) + C − g(a) + C = g(b) = f (t) dt .
a

The proof is complete. 2

The fundamental theorem of calculus provides a powerful analytic

tool to evaluate definite integrals.
1
Example 5.4. Evaluate 0 (1 + x2 )−1 dx.
Solution: An antiderivative of (1+x2 )−1 is F (x) = tan−1 x. Therefore,
 1
1 π π
2
dx = tan−1 (1) − tan−1 (0) = − 0 = .
0 1+x 4 4
2

4 √
Example 5.5. Evaluate 1
(1 + x)/ x dx.
Solution: By the linearity of the integral,
 4  4  4  4
1+x −1/2 −1/2
√ dx = (x 1/2
+ x ) dx = x dx + x1/2 dx .
1 x 1 1 1
 33. THE FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM OF CALCULUS 171

An antiderivative of xn is xn+1 /(n + 1) for any real n = 1. By taking

n = −1/2 and n = 1/2, an antiderivative is obtained: F (x) = 2x1/2 +
2x3/2 /3. Hence,
 1 
1+x 16   2  20
√ dx = F (4) − F (1) = 4 + − 2+ = .
0 x 3 3 3
2

If an object moves along a straight line, its position relative to a

fixed point on the line (the origin) may be defined by a single coordinate
x which is a function of time. The velocity v(t) = x (t) is positive if
the particle moves in the direction in which x increases and is negative
if it moves in the opposite direction. The acceleration is a(t) = v  (t) =
x (t). A law according to which the acceleration changes with time is
usually established by the laws of physics. Then a practical question
is to find the position x(t). Since x(t) is a second antiderivative of
the acceleration, it is not unique and two (initial) conditions must be
imposed to get a unique solution.
Example 5.6. A particle moves along the x axis with the acceler-
ation a(t) = 2 − 6t. Find the position of the particle at the time t = 3
if its position and velocity at t = 1 were x(1) = 1 and v(1) = 2.
Solution: Since v  (t) = a(t), the velocity is the antiderivative of the
acceleration subject to the condition v(1) = 2. Hence, by the property
(5.10),
 t t

v(t) = v(1) + a(s) ds = 2 + (2s − 3s2 ) = t − 3t2 + 3
1 1

Since x (t) = v(t), the position x(t) is the antiderivative of the ve-
locity subject to the condition x(1) = 1. By property (5.10) such an
antiderivative reads
 t t

x(t) = x(1) + v(s) ds = 1 + (s − s + 3s) = t2 − t3 + 3t − 2
2 3
1 1

Therefore x(3) = −11. 2

33.3. Exercises.
(1) Find the derivative
x of each of the following functions:
6 −1
(i) f (x) = 1 (1 + t ) dt
 x2
(ii) f (x) = 0 sin(t2 ) dt
172 5. INTEGRATION

x
(iii) f (x) = −x cos(et ) dt
x 2
(iv) f (x) = sin x et dt
(2) Let f (x) be a piecewise constant function: f (x) = 0 if x < 0,
f (x) = 1 if x ∈ [0, 2), f (x) = 2 if x ∈ [2, 4), f (x) = −3
if x ∈ [4, 6], and f (x) = 0 if x > 6. Use the geometrical
interpretation
x of the definite integral to draw the graphs of
x
g(x) = 1 f (t) dt and h(x) = 4 f (t) dt.
(3) For a particle
√ moving down a rough inclined plane, the velocity
is v(t) = t. Where is the particle at the end of 2 seconds?
(4) Find the location of a particle moving along a line at the end of
2 seconds if the acceleration of the particle is a(t) = 6t − 12t2
and if its position and velocity at the end of 1 second were
s(1) = 5 and v(1) = 10.
(5) A spacecraft had a constant velocity of v0 . Then its engines
were fired for a time T1 , then stopped for a time T , and then
fired again for a time T2 . If in the first and second times, the
engines created constant accelerations a1 and a2 , what is the
final velocity of the spacecraft?
(6) Find the area of the planar region bounded above by the
parabola y = 3 − x2 and below by the parabola y = 1 + x2 .
(7) Find the area of the planar region bounded above by the
parabola y = 2 − x2 and below by the line y = x.
(8) Evaluate
2 the integrals:
(i) 1 (x + 1/x) dx
2
(ii) −1 e−2x dx
π
(iii) 0 sin x dx
2 √ √
(iv) 0 ( x + 3 x) dx
3
(v) 1 x2 /(4 + x2 ) dx
1
(vi) 0 (1 + x + x2 + x3 + · · · + xn ) dx
 2π
(vii) 0 (1 + cos x + cos(2x) + · · · + cos(nx)) dx

34. Indefinite Integrals and the Net Change

As has been shown in the previous section, the derivative of the
definite integral of a continuous function f with respect to the upper
limit equals the value of f at the upper limit. So integration and differ-
entiation appear as operations inverse to one another. To further stress
this relation between the integration and differentiation, the notion of
an indefinite integral is introduced.
 34. INDEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THE NET CHANGE 173

Definition 5.5 (Indefinite Integral). The function F is called an

indefinite integral of f and is denoted by

F (x) = f (x) dx if F  (x) = f (x) .

It follows from this definition that an indefinite integral is noth-

ing but the general antiderivative of f . The reason for introducing
the integral symbol into the antiderivative notation is the fundamental
theorem of calculus:
 b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) ,
a
where F is any antiderivative of f . Since all antiderivatives differ only
by a constant, which is always cancelled out in the difference F (b) −
F (a), the definite integral is the difference in values of the indefinite
integral at the upper and lower limits of the definite integral. The
indefinite integral has the same properties as the antiderivative. It is
linear:    

(5.20) c1 f (x) + c2 g(x) dx = c1 f (x) dx + c2 g(x) dx

for any constants c1 and c2 and any functions f and g.

Using the table of antiderivatives of basic functions, one can make
a table of indefinite integrals of basic functions. Let C be an arbitrary
constant. Then it is easy to verify the following relationships:
 
xn+1 1
n
x dx = + C , n = 1 , dx = ln x + C ,
n+1 x
 
cos(ax) sin(ax)
sin(ax) dx = − +C, cos(ax) dx = +C,
a a
 
ax
ex dx = ex + C , ax dx = + C, a > 0 ,
ln a
 
1 −1 1
dx = tan x + C , √ dx = sin−1 x + C ,
1+x 2
1−x 2
 
tan(ax) cot(ax)
sec2 (ax) dx = +C, csc2 (ax) dx = − +C,
a a

sec x tan x dx = sec x + C ,

csc x cot x dx = − csc x + C .

Recall that the general antiderivative on a given interval is obtained

from a particular antiderivative by adding an arbitrary constant. This
174 5. INTEGRATION

does not hold for a domain being a disjoint union of two or more in-
tervals (review the properties of antiderivatives). So, in the preceding
table, the convention is used that the given expressions for indefinite
integrals are valid only in an interval.
Example 5.7. Find a general indefinite integral for x−3 .
Solution: The function x−3 is not defined at x = 0. So its domain
is the union of two disjoint intervals (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). By the first
equality in the preceding table (n = −3),
 
−3 x−2 x−2
x dx = − + C1 , x > 0; x−3 dx = − + C2 , x < 0,
2 2
where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants. 2

The following notation is used in the fundamental theorem of

calculus:
 b b

(5.21) f (x) dx = F (x) = F (b) − F (a) ,
a a

where F (x) = f (x) dx.
1
Example 5.8. Evaluate 0
[3x2 − x + 4(1 + x2 )−1 ] dx.
Solution: By the linearity of the indefinite integral (5.20), an indefinite
integral of the integrand is x3 −x2 /2 + 4 tan−1 x. An arbitrary constant
in the indefinite integral may be omitted here because, as already noted,
it is always cancelled out in the definite integral. Therefore,
 1 1 1
4  x2 −1 
3x2 − x + dx = x 3
− + 4 tan x  = − π,
0 1 + x2 2 0 2
where tan−1 (1) = π/4 has been used. 2

34.1. The Net Change Theorem. Put f (x) = F  (x) in the fundamental
theorem of calculus (5.21). The result obtained is known as the net
change theorem.
Theorem 5.6. The integral of a continuous rate of change is the
net change:
 b
F  (x) dx = F (b) − F (a) .
a
 34. INDEFINITE INTEGRALS AND THE NET CHANGE 175

Note that F  (x) may be positive and negative in the interval [a, b] so
that the quantity y = F (x) may increase and decrease. The difference
F (b) − F (a) represents the net change of y when x changes from a to
b. The net change vanishes if F (b) − F (a) = 0. This does not mean
that the quantity y does not change at all, but rather this might mean,
for example, that the quantity y increases from the value F (a), then,
at some c in [a, b], it begins to decrease, returning to its initial value
when x = b so that its net change vanishes.
An analogy with an object moving along a straight line can be
made to illustrate the net change. Let x(t) be a position function of
the object relative to some point on the line. Then x (t) = v(t) is its
velocity (note that the velocity can be negative so that the object can
move back and forth). The net change of the position over the time
interval [t1 , t2 ] is
 t2
v(t) dt = x(t2 ) − x(t1 ).
t1

Example 5.9. Suppose an object travels along a straight line with

a velocity of v(t) = 1 − 2t. Find the net change of its position over the
time interval [0, 1] and the total distance traveled by the object over the
same time interval.
Solution:
(I) The indefinite integral of v(t) is x(t) = t − t2 + C. So the net
change of the object position is
 1  1
v(t) dt = x (t) dt = x(1) − x(0) = 0 .
0 0

(II) Note that the velocity changes its sign at t = 1/2. So, in the
interval [0, 1/2], it is positive (i.e., the object moves to the right
from its initial position), then the velocity becomes negative in
[1/2, 1] (i.e., the object goes back to the initial point). To find
the distance traveled by the object, the absolute value |v(t)|
must be integrated over the interval [0, 1]. Think of |v(t)| as
the speed shown on the speedometer of your car; it is always
non negative regardless of the direction in which the car is
moving.
 1  1/2  1
|1 − 2t| dt = (1 − 2t) − (1 − 2t) dt
0 0 1/2
= [x(1/2) − x(0)] − [x(1) − x(1/2)] = 1/2,
176 5. INTEGRATION

where the definition |v| = v if v > 0 and |v| = −v if v < 0 has

been used. 2

Other examples of the net change includes the volume V (t) of water
in a reservoir between two moments of time
 t2
V  (t) dt = V (t2 ) − V (t1 ),
t1

where V (t) is the rate of change of the volume; the net change of the
population growth
 t2
n (t) dt = n(t2 ) − n(t1 ),
t1

where n (t) is the growth rate; the relation between the cost and mar-
ginal cost functions:
 t2
C  (t) dt = C(t2 ) − C(t1 );
t1

and similarly for many other quantities.

34.2. Exercises.
(1) Find the5 indefinite integrals:
(i)  6x dx
(ii)  x−3 dx
(iii)  (x2/3 − x−2/3 ) dx
(iv)  (x2 − 2
√4) 3 dx
(v) (1√+ x) dx√
(vi) ( x√+ a)2 / x dx
(vii)  x/ x2 + 1 dx
(viii) √x sin(x2 ) dx
(ix)  1 − x dx
(x) (x + cos(2x))√ dx
(xi) (1 + 2x)/ 1 − x2 dx
(xii) (1 − x + x3 )/x2 dx
(xiii) x2 /(a2 + x2 ) dx
(2) A particle travels with velocity v(t) = sin(t/2). Find the net
displacement of the particle over the time interval [0, 2π] and
the distance traveled by the particle.
(3) A bacteria population grows at an exponential rate n (t) =
n0 γeγt , where n0 is the initial population and γ is a constant. If
in the time T the population has doubled, find the constant γ.
 35. THE SUBSTITUTION RULE 177

What is the population at t = 10T as compared to the initial

population?

35. The Substitution Rule

An indefinite integral of the derivative F  (x) is the function F (x)
itself. Let u = F (x), where u is a new variable defined as a differen-
tiable function of x. Consider the differential du = F  (x) dx. Then the
following equalities hold:
 

F (x) dx = F (x) + C = u + C = du ,

where C is an arbitrary constant and the last equality follows from the
fact that
  an indefinite
 integral of f (u) = 1 is u. So we can conclude
that F (x) dx = du, provided the variables u and x are related as
u = F (x). This also shows that it is permissible to operate with dx
and du after the integral sign as if they were differentials. This obser-
vation leads to a neat technical trick to calculate indefinite integrals.
For example,
   
1 √ √
√ dx = d 2 x + 1 = 2 x + 1 + C ,
x+1
√
where the substitution u = 2 x + 1 has been used. This trick can be
generalized.
Let F (u) be an indefinite integral of a continuous function f (u) on
an interval I. Let u = g(x), where g is differentiable and its range is
the interval I. By the chain rule,
 
F (g(x)) = F  (g(x))g  (x) = f (g(x))g  (x) .

 (x). On
In other words, F (g(x))+C is an indefinite integral of f (g(x))g
an interval, the most general indefinite
 integral of f (u) is f (u) du =
F (u) + C. Therefore, F (g(x)) and f (u) du can differ at most by an
additive constant. This proves the following theorem.
Theorem 5.7. (The Substitution Rule). If u = g(x) is a dif-
ferentiable function whose range is an interval I and f is continuous
on I, then
  

(5.22) f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (g(x)) dg(x) = f (u) du.

The substitution rule is often referred to as a change of the integra-

tion variable. It is a powerful method to calculate indefinite integrals.

Example 5.10. Find x sin(x2 + 1) dx.
178 5. INTEGRATION

Solution:
  
2 2 1 2 1
x sin(x + 1) dx = sin(x + 1) d(x + 1) = sin u du
2 2
1 1
= − cos u + C = − cos(x2 + 1) + C,
2 2
2
where the substitution u = x + 1 has been used. 2

Example 5.11. Find tan x dx.
Solution:
   
sin x d(cos x) du
tan x dx = dx = − =−
cos x cos x u
= − ln |u| + C = − ln | cos x| + C = ln | sec x| + C ,
where the substitution u = cos x and the logarithm property ln(1/a) =
− ln a have been used. 2

The substitution rule can be used to evaluate definite integrals by

means of the fundamental theorem of calculus.
2 2
Example 5.12. Evaluate 0 xex dx.
Solution: First, find an indefinite integral:
  
x2 1 x2 2 1 1 1 2
F (x) = xe dx = e dx = eu du = eu + C = ex + C .
2 2 2 2
2
where u = x . By the fundamental theorem of calculus,
 1
2 1
xex dx = F (2) − F (0) = (e4 − 1). 2
0 2
Note that, when evaluating the integral, the original variable x has
been restored in the indefinite integral in order to apply the fundamen-
tal theorem of calculus. The fundamental theorem of calculus can also
be applied directly in the new variable u, provided the range of u is
properly changed. Indeed, in the previous example, the answer could
have been recovered from the indefinite integral 12 eu + C if u = x2
ranges from 0 = 02 to 4 = 22 as x ranges from 0 to 2. This is especially
useful when a calculation of a definite integral requires several changes
of the integration variable.
Theorem 5.8. (The Substitution Rule for Definite Integrals). If

g is continuous on [a, b] and f is continuous on the range of u = g(x),
then
 35. THE SUBSTITUTION RULE 179

 b  g(b)

(5.23) f (g(x))g (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)

Proof. Let F be an antiderivative of f . Then F (g(x)) is an an-

tiderivative of (F (g(x))) = F  (g(x))g  (x) = f (g(x))g  (x). By the fun-
damental theorem of calculus,
 b b

f (g(x))g  (x) dx = F (g(x)) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)) .
a a

On the other hand, since F (u) is an antiderivative of f (u), the funda-

mental theorem of calculus yields
 g(b) g(b)

f (u) du = F (u) = F (g(b)) − F (g(a)) .
g(a) g(a)

Since the right-hand sides of these equalities coincide, so must their

left-hand sides, which implies (5.23). 2
e
Example 5.13. Evaluate 1 ln x/x dx.
Solution: The integrand can be transformed as
ln x
dx = ln x d ln x.
x
So the substitution u = ln x can be made. The range of the new
integration variable u is determined by the range of the old one: u = 0
when x = 1 and u = 1 when x = e. Thus,
 e  1
ln x u2 1 1
dx = u du =  = .
1 x 0 2 0 2 2

35.1. Symmetry. The calculation of a definite integral over a symmet-

ric interval can be simplified if the integrand possesses symmetry prop-
erties.
Theorem 5.9. Suppose f is continuous on a symmetric interval
[−a, a]. Then
 a  a
(5.24) f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx if f (−x) = f (x) (f is even),
−a
 a 0

(5.25) f (x) dx = 0 if f (−x) = −f (x) (f is odd).

−a
180 5. INTEGRATION

I0 A
a
a
A

Figure 5.6. Illustration of the property (5.25). A func-

tion is skew symmetric if f (−x) = −f (x). Its integral
over a symmetric interval [−a, a] vanishes. The area A
under the graph of f and above the interval [0, a] is the
same as the area above the graph of f and below the in-
terval [−a, 0] because of the skew symmetry of the func-
tion and the symmetry of the interval [−a, a] relative to
the reflection x → −x. By the property depicted in Fig-
ure 5.4, the integral of f over [−a, a] is A + (−A) = 0.

Proof. The integral can be split into two integrals:

 a  0  a
 −a  a
f (x) dx = + f (x) dx = − f (x) dx + f (x) dx.
−a −a 0 0 0
In the first integral on the very right-hand side, the substitution u = −x
is made so that u = 0 when x = 0 and u = a when x = −a and
dx = −du. Hence,
−a a
− f (x) dx = f (−u) du
0 0

and  a  a  a
f (x) dx = f (−u) du + f (x) dx.
−a 0 0
Now, if f is even, then f (−u) = f (u) and (5.24) follows. If f is odd,
then f (−u) = −f (u) and (5.25) follows. 2
The geometrical interpretation of this theorem is transparent
a (see
Fig 5.6). Suppose f (x) ≥ 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a. The integral 0 f (x) dx =
 35. THE SUBSTITUTION RULE 181

A is the area under the graph of f on [0, a]. If f is even, then, by

symmetry, the graph of f on [−a, 0] is obtained from  0 that on [0, a]
by a reflection about the y axis. Therefore, the area −a f (x) dx must
coincide with A. If f is odd, then its graph on [−a, 0] is obtained by the
mirror reflection about
 0 the origin so that the area A appears beneath
the x axis. Hence, −a f (x) dx = −A.
π
Example 5.14. Evaluate −π sin(x3 ) dx.

Solution: Unfortunately, an antiderivative of sin(x3 ) cannot be ex-

pressed in elementary functions, and the fundamental theorem of cal-
culus cannot be used. One can always evaluate the integral by taking
the limit of the sequence of Riemann sums. An alternative solution
is due to a simple symmetry argument. Note that sin(x3 ) is an odd
function, sin((−x)3 ) = sin(−x3 ) = − sin(x3 ). The integration interval
is also symmetric, [−π, π]. Thus, by property (5.25),
 π
sin(x3 ) dx = 0 .
−π 2

Remark. In the previous example, take a partition of [−π, π] by

points xk = k Δx, k = −N, −N + 1, . . . , −1, 0, 1, . . . , N − 1, N , where
Δx = π/N . Consider the Riemann sum with sample points being the
midpoints. It is then straightforward to show that the Riemann sum
vanishes because sin(x∗3 ∗3
−k ) = − sin(xk ) for k = 1, 2, . . . , N .

35.2. Exercises.
(1) Use the suggested substitution to find the indefinite integrals:
(i)  x3 (x√4 1/3
+ 1)√ dx, u = x 4
√ +1
(ii)  sin( x)/ x dx, u = x
(iii)  sin√xecos x dx, u = cos x
(iv)  x2 1 − x2 dx, u = sin x
(v) (ln x)3 /x dx, u = ln x
(2) Use a substitution
√ to find the indefinite integrals:
(i)  x 1√+ 2x dx
(ii)  x2√/ 2 − 3x dx
(iii)  x 3√1 + x dx
√
(iv)  e− x / x dx
(v) x/(x4 + 2x2 + 2) dx Hint: Complete the squares in the
denominator
182 5. INTEGRATION

(3) Use a change of variables and/or symmetry to evaluate the

definite
 1 √integrals:
(i) 0 x 2 + x2 dx
1
(ii) 0 √tan−1 x/(1 + x2 ) dx
 π
(iii) 0 x cos(x2 ) dx
1 4
(iv) −1 x3 ex dx
2 2 2
(v) −2 x(ex − e−x ) dx
 2 x2 2
(vi) −2 (e + e−x ) dx
a x
(vii) −a g(x) dx, g(x) = 0 cos(t2 ) dt
2 √
(viii) 1 (2x + 1) x2 + x + 3 dx
 π/2 √
(ix) 0 sin(2x) 3 1 + cos2 x dx
 π/4
(x) 0 (tan x)p sec2 x dx, p > 0
 π/6
(xi) −π/6 tan3 (3x) sin5 (2x) dx