mathematics

Review
Chaos-Based Image Encryption: Review, Application,
and Challenges
Bowen Zhang and Lingfeng Liu *

School of Software, Nanchang University, Nanchang 330031, China; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Chaos has been one of the most effective cryptographic sources since it was first used in
image-encryption algorithms. This paper closely examines the development process of chaos-based
image-encryption algorithms from various angles, including symmetric and asymmetric algorithms,
block ciphers and stream ciphers, and integration with other technologies. The unique attributes of chaos,
such as sensitivity to initial conditions, topological transitivity, and pseudo-randomness, are conducive
to cross-referencing with other disciplines and improving image-encryption methods. Additionally, this
paper covers practical application scenarios and current challenges of chaotic image encryption, thereby
encouraging researchers to continue developing and complementing existing situations, and may also
serve as a basis of future development prospects for chaos-based image encryption.

Keywords: chaos; image encryption; chaotic system; chaos-based image encryption; chaotic map;
cryptography

MSC: 94A08; 94A60

1. Introduction
1.1. A Brief Introduction to Chaos-Based Cryptography
Chaos is a pseudo-random and unpredictable motion exhibited in a deterministic
dynamical system due to its sensitivity to initial values and parameters. The study of
Citation: Zhang, B.; Liu, L.
chaos theory originated from the three-body problem studied by H. Poincare in 1913.
Chaos-Based Image Encryption:
After various studies, E. N. Lorenz [1] proposed the Lorenz equation in 1963, which
Review, Application, and Challenges.
was the first example of a chaotic solution derived from a deterministic equation in a
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585. https://
dissipative system. The term “chaos” was first used by Tienyien Li and James A. Yorke [2]
doi.org/10.3390/math11112585
in their 1975 paper “Period Three Implies Chaos” to describe this phenomenon. In 1976,
Academic Editor: Jonathan Robert M. May [3] proposed the Logistic map in an article, which was studied in depth by
Blackledge M.J. Feigenbaum, who proposed the universality of this map in 1978. Since then, the study
Received: 8 May 2023
of chaos has developed vigorously.
Revised: 1 June 2023
A chaotic system is a complex and highly dynamic system, which is characterized by
Accepted: 4 June 2023 sensitivity to initial conditions, nonlinearity, aperiodicity, etc. The study of chaotic systems
Published: 5 June 2023 has become an important topic in the field of nonlinear dynamics because of their complex
behavior, which is difficult to predict and control. Chaotic systems have a wide range of
applications in many fields. In finance, chaotic systems are used to model the behavior of
financial markets and to develop trading strategies. In biology, chaotic systems are used to
Copyright: © 2023 by the authors. study population dynamics and the behavior of biological systems. In neural networks,
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. chaotic systems are used to model the behavior of neurons and to develop new algorithms
This article is an open access article for machine learning and artificial intelligence. In addition, chaotic systems are frequently
distributed under the terms and employed in cryptography to develop secure communication systems, owing to their
conditions of the Creative Commons
innate structural resemblances [4,5]. Robert Matthews [6] explicitly proposed the “chaotic
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
encryption” algorithm in 1989. Since then, researchers have studied how systems change
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
from ordered to chaotic states and the properties of chaotic systems. In the following years,
4.0/).

Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585. https://doi.org/10.3390/math11112585 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/mathematics

Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 2 of 39

there has been extensive research on chaos-based cryptography, which has also entered the
practical application stage.

1.2. A Brief Introduction to Image Encryption

The network processing and dissemination of a large number of pictures can easily
cause the disclosure of personal privacy information in the current era of rapid development
of the Internet. Therefore, it is necessary to take some measures to encrypt and protect
images. The data of an image has special characteristics, such as a large capacity, high
redundancy, and high correlation between pixels; therefore, image encryption has special
structural requirements. Image encryption is a technique that transforms image data
into a cryptic form to safeguard image privacy and security. Encryption algorithms are
commonly employed to obscure an image, making it arduous for unauthorized individuals
to comprehend. Image encryption is mandatory to ensure the security of confidential
images, including but not limited to personal, trade, and government secrets. Specifically,
in digital image processing, image encryption functions by obstructing access to images,
deterring theft or tampering by unauthorized entities. Image encryption can also be applied
to digital watermarks and copyright information to preserve them. Moreover, it is essential
to acknowledge that while image encryption mitigates security threats, it does not entirely
prevent breaching or tampering. As a result, the security and reliability of image-encryption
algorithms are critical for realizing comprehensive image encryption. In order to achieve
this goal, more and more encryption algorithms based on different technologies have
been proposed for image encryption, such as chaos-based encryption [7,8], S-Box-based
encryption [9,10], optical encryption [11], compression encryption [12], frequency-domain-
based encryption, and DNA-based encryption. This paper mainly introduces the chaos-
based image-encryption scheme.

1.3. A Brief Introduction to Chaos-Based Image Encryption

Image data usually require more storage space than text data, and are characterized
by high redundancy and high correlation between adjacent pixels. Therefore, traditional
encryption methods cannot fulfill the demands for image encryption. However, utilizing
chaos theory in image encryption provides a new approach. Chaotic systems are highly
sensitive to initial conditions, and even small errors in the initial conditions can lead to
vastly different motion trajectories. Although the chaotic trajectory is controlled when the
initial conditions are determined, it is impossible to predict the trajectory over a long period
without knowing the initial conditions. Additionally, chaotic systems have other features,
including high ergodicity, determination, and pseudo-randomness, which are crucial for
image encryption.
In recent years, scholars have applied different chaotic systems, including discrete
chaotic maps and continuous chaotic systems, in image encryption to ensure the security
of image transmission. In the next section, we cover these approaches in more detail.
The rest of this article is organized as shown in Figure 1. Section 2 provides an intro-
duction to chaotic systems and their characteristics. Section 3 discusses the development
of chaos-based image-encryption algorithms over the years, including symmetric and
asymmetric chaotic algorithms, and chaotic algorithms combined with other technologies.
A timeline of chaotic encryption algorithms with outstanding contributions is reviewed in
this section. In Section 4, the security evaluation methods used for image-encryption algo-
rithms are presented. Section 5 focuses on the application of chaos-based image-encryption
algorithms in the medical, Internet of Things, and satellite fields. Section 6 addresses the
current challenges and future research directions for chaos-based image encryption. Finally,
Section 7 provides a summary of this article.
Mathematics 2023,11,
Mathematics2023, 11,2585
x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 3ofof40
39

Figure 1. Content of the remaining sections.

Figure 1. Content of the remaining sections.
2. Chaotic Systems
In this section, we first provide an introduction to chaotic systems, their characteristics,
and some indicators to help readers better understand the following content.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 4 of 39

2.1. A Brief Introduction to Chaotic Systems

Chaotic systems can be classified into two types based on the way they evolve over
time: continuous chaotic systems and discrete chaotic maps [13]. A continuous chaotic
system is one in which the state of the system evolves continuously with time, and its
dynamical equations are typically a set of differential equations. Alternatively, a discrete
chaotic map is a system whose state evolves discretely with time, and its dynamical
equation is usually an iterative equation.
Discrete chaotic map: A discrete chaotic map is a dynamic system with discrete state
variables that evolve over time. The discrete chaotic map is characterized by nonlinearity,
sensitive dependence on initial conditions and parameters, and period multiplication,
among other properties [14]. Several examples of discrete chaotic maps and their mathe-
matical definitions are described below to provide a better understanding:
Logistic map [15]:
Xt+1 = fl (Xn ) = p Xt (1 − Xt ), (1)
where Xt ∈ (0, 1) is the state variable at time step t, p ∈ [0, 4] is a control parameter, and
(1 − Xt ) is the factor that limits the growth of the system. The Logistic map exhibits complex
dynamical behavior when the parameter p is in the interval (3.57, 4].
Tent map [16]:
(
pXt , Xt < 21
X t +1 = f t ( X n ) = , (2)
p(1 − Xt , ), 12 ≤ Xt

where Xt ∈ (0, 1) is the state variable at time step t, p ∈ [0, 2] is a control parameter, and the
map is piecewise linear with a tent-shaped form.
Henon map [17]:
Xt+1 = 1 − aXt2 + Yt

, (3)
Yt+1 = bXt
where Xt and Yt are the state variables at time step t, and a and b are control parameters. The
Henon map is a nonlinear and dissipative system that exhibits complex dynamical behavior.
Arnold Cat map [18]:
(
Xt+1 = (2Xt + Yt ) mod 1
, (4)
Yt+1 = ( Xt + Yt ) mod 1
where Xt and Yt are the state variables at time step t. The Arnold Cat map is a chaotic
system that exhibits complex dynamical behavior, including periodic, quasi-periodic, and
chaotic regimes.
Discrete chaotic maps are suitable for applications such as digital signal processing
and modulators in communication systems, and for image encryption and compression.
The advantage of a discrete chaos map is that the mathematical model is relatively simple
and easy to implement and compute; however, the disadvantage is that the parameter
range is usually not large enough and the wrong selection of parameters can lead to rapid
degradation of the dynamic characteristics of the system.
Continuous chaotic systems: Continuous chaotic systems are dynamic systems that
exhibit complex and unpredictable behavior over time. These systems are usually described
by a set of ordinary or partial differential equations that govern the evolution of state
variables over time. The state variables represent physical quantities that are characteristic
of the system under study, such as pressure, temperature, position, or velocity. Below we
provide some examples of continuous chaotic systems and their mathematical definitions:
Lorenz equation [3]:
dx

 dt = σ (y − x )


dy
dt = ρx − y − xz
, (5)

 dz

dt = xy − βz
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 5 of 39

where x, y, and z are state variables, and σ, ρ, and β are control parameters named the
Prandtl number, Rayleigh number, and direction ratio, respectively. The Lorenz equation
is a nonlinear chaotic system that exhibits complex dynamic behavior. Its simple mathe-
matical structure and rich dynamical behavior make it a popular model for studying the
emergence of chaos in nonlinear systems. The Lorenz equation is characterized by having
a chaotic attractor with a shape that resembles a butterfly, and it is particularly known for
its sensitivity to initial conditions.
Chen system [19]:
 dx

= a(y − x )
 dt

dy
dt = ( c − a ) x − xz + cy
, (6)

 dz

dt = xy − bz
where x, y, and z are state variables, and a, b, and c are control parameters. Moreover, the
Chen system has a chaotic attractor and two unstable equilibrium points.
Rössler system [20]:
dx

 dt = −(y + z)


dy
dt = x + ay
, (7)

 dz

dt = b + z ( x − c )
where x, y, and z are state variables, and a, b, and c are control parameters. The Rössler system
typically shows spiral-like structures known as Rössler attractors in their state trajectories.
Continuous chaotic systems have the advantage of providing richer dynamical behavior
and greater flexibility, but have the disadvantage of requiring higher computational power
and more complex mathematical models, as well as the need for discretization to suit practi-
cal applications.

2.2. Typical Characteristics and Indicators of the Chaotic System

2.2.1. Characteristics
• Overall stability and local instability
Overall stability: The trajectory of a chaotic system will eventually be confined to a
bounded region.
Local instability: The trajectories of the chaotic system separate at an exponential rate
in some direction.
Overall stability and local instability are the most fundamental features of chaotic systems.
• Sensitivity to initial conditions
Chaotic systems are extremely sensitive to their initial conditions, which means that
small changes in the initial state can lead to vastly different results. It shows the change in
the overall performance of the system. This is the most distinctive feature of chaotic systems.
• Parameter Sensitivity
Small changes in the system to critical parameters can cause the system to exhibit com-
pletely different dynamical states. It shows the variation of the system’s neighboring orbits.
• Fractal and self-similarity
The overall stability and the local instability make the chaotic system eventually form
a self-similar hierarchy, i.e., a strange attractor. Strange attractors typically have a fractal
structure, which means that they exhibit a consistent morphology at different scales. A
strange attractor corresponds to a single trajectory. It is the long-term behavior of the
system, assuming it is simulated for enough time. The strange attractors of chaotic systems
usually exhibit fractal characteristics, i.e., they have similar structure and morphology at
different scales.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 6 of 39

2.2.2. Indicators
The chaotic dynamic characteristics of different chaotic systems are not identical, so
some measures are needed to evaluate each chaotic system. Here, we introduce some
relevant indicators to help readers understand this aspect.
• Lyapunov exponent (LE)
When two initial values with minimal error are applied to the same chaotic system,
the trajectories they generate will be separated exponentially over time. LE is a tool used to
visualize this phenomenon [21]. If we assume that Xn+1 = F (Xn ) is a one-dimensional map,
LE can be described as:
1 n −1 
LE = lim ∑i=0 ln F 0 ( Xi ).

(8)
n→∞ n

When LE < 0, adjacent points tend to be stable, which means stable fixed points or
periodic motion. When LE > 0, the orbital iterations with two different inputs diverge
exponentially. LE can tell if the motion system is chaotic because the chaotic system has
at least one positive LE, which is different from other stochastic systems. In addition, the
larger the LE value, the more obvious the chaos characteristics. In addition, x-dimensional
systems have x Lyapunov exponents. If a system has two or more positive Lyapunov
exponents, it is called a hyperchaotic system.
• Fractal dimension
The main characteristic of the fractal is self-similarity, that is, there is some similarity
between the part and the whole. The fractal dimension [+252] is an index used to describe the
complexity of the system structure. Among the approaches used, the Box-counting method is
the most widely used, and can be calculated by the following mathematical formula:
ln N (S, r )
d = lim , (9)
r →0 ln (1/r )

where S is any nonempty bounded subset of an n-dimensional space, N (S,r) is the smallest
number of closed spheres of radius r used to cover S. The strange attractors of almost all
chaotic systems have fractional dimensions.
• Trajectory
The trajectory diagram can directly show the ergodic property of a chaotic system and
whether there is a cycle. For the one-dimensional discrete chaotic map, an ideal system
should have a trajectory that exhibits no recognizable structure or periodic cycles, although
trajectories of continuous chaotic systems often have some identifiable shape.
• Bifurcation
The bifurcation [22] diagram reflects the relationship between chaotic characteristics
and control parameters. It enables the analysis of the variation in the system performance
with parameters, and especially the sudden change in the system performance at the critical
parameters. Figure 2 shows the Logistic map as an example of its period-doubling bifurcation.
• Approximate entropy (ApEn)
ApEn [23] is one of the metrics used to measure the complexity of time series. For time
series, the larger the value of ApEn, the higher the orbital complexity generated by chaos.
• NIST Statistical Tests
The NIST Statistical Suite [24] uses 16 separate statistical verification tests when
verifying the randomness of binary sequences. In the NIST statistical tests, the significance
level is set at 0.01. When the p-value of the sequence to be tested is ≥0.01, the sequence is
considered to pass the statistical test. Currently NIST statistical tests are considered the
current criteria for random testing.
 Mathematics 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7

Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 7 of 39

The bifurcation [22] diagram reflects the relationship between chaotic characteri
and control parameters. It enables the analysis of the variation in the system perform
• with parameters, and especially the sudden change in the system performance at the
Autocorrelation
ical parameters. Figure 2 shows the Logistic map as an example of its period-doub
Autocorrelation describes the degree of correlation between the states of a random
bifurcation.
process itself at any two different times. The autocorrelation of an ideal chaotic sequence
should decay rapidly with the interval of states.

Figure 2. Period-doubling bifurcation of the

Figure 2. Period-doubling Logistic of
bifurcation map.
the Logistic map.

3. A Review of Chaos-Based Image Encryption

• Approximate entropy (ApEn)
Chaos-based image-encryption technology can be categorized into different types
ApEn [23] is one of the metrics used to measure the complexity of time series. Fo
based on various classification methods. One approach is to classify it according to how the
time series, the larger the value of ApEn, the higher the orbital complexity generated
original image is processed, which can be divided into chaotic image encryption based on
chaos.
a block cipher and chaotic image encryption based on a stream cipher. Additionally, it can
be categorized• based
NISTonStatistical Tests of the key, which can be divided into symmetric
the characteristics
key chaotic image The
encryption and asymmetric
NIST Statistical keyuses
Suite [24] chaotic image encryption.
16 separate In this section,
statistical verification tests when
we introduceifying
chaos-based image encryption
the randomness of binarybased on these
sequences. Intwo
the classifications.
NIST statistical tests, the signific
It is worth noting
level is setthat the schemes
at 0.01. When the introduced
p-value ofinthe
thesequence
followingtosections areisdiscussed
be tested ≥0.01, the sequen
by default inconsidered
the order oftotheir
pass the statistical test. Currently NIST statisticalthat
publication year. Additionally, it is assumed testsreaders
are considered
have some basic understanding
current of chaotic
criteria for random systems.
testing.
• Image
3.1. Chaos-Based Autocorrelation
Encryption Based on Symmetric Encryption
Autocorrelation describesand
In symmetric encryption, encryption thedecryption
degree of correlation between
require a single key the states
known as of a ran
process itself at any two different times. The autocorrelation of an ideal
the private key or secret key. The encryptor and decryptor both use this same key, and a chaotic sequ
should decay rapidly with the interval of states.
secure channel is needed to transmit the key. When applied to image encryption, symmetric
encryption can be divided into spatial-domain chaotic image encryption and frequency-
domain chaotic3. Aimage
Review of Chaos-Based
encryption based onImage Encryption
the transform domain used for encryption.
Chaos-based image-encryption technology can be categorized into different t
3.1.1. Chaoticbased
ImageonEncryption Based on themethods.
various classification Spatial Domain
One approach is to classify it according to
In imagethe original image
encryption, is processed,
the term which can
spatial domain beto
refers divided into itself.
the image chaoticSince
image encryption b
digital
on a blockofcipher
images are composed a largeand chaotic
number of image
pixels, encryption based on a image
spatial-domain-based streamencryption
cipher. Additional
means directly operating on these pixels. This can include shuffling image pixels or blocks,
changing the value or position of pixels in the original image, and other similar operations.
 cryption.

3.1.1. Chaotic Image Encryption Based on the Spatial Domain

In image encryption, the term spatial domain refers to the image itself. Since digital
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 images are composed of a large number of pixels, spatial-domain-based image encryption 8 of 39
means directly operating on these pixels. This can include shuffling image pixels or
blocks, changing the value or position of pixels in the original image, and other similar
operations.
At At present,
present, most chaoticmost chaotic image-encryption
image-encryption algorithms
algorithms employ employ spatial-domain
spatial-domain encryption,
encryption,
while others while others use frequency-domain
use frequency-domain encryption, as encryption,
discussed as discussed
in Section in Section 3.1.2.
3.1.2.
The main
The main structure
structureof ofaaspatial-domain-based
spatial-domain-basedchaoticchaoticimage-encryption
image-encryptionalgorithm
algorithm is is
based on a permutation–diffusion architecture, which consists of two phases
based on a permutation–diffusion architecture, which consists of two phases of iteration. of iteration.
In the
In the permutation
permutation phase,
phase, the
the position
position ofof the
the image
image pixel
pixel isis changed
changed while
while retaining
retaining the
the
original value. In the diffusion phase, the pixel values are sequentially modified,
original value. In the diffusion phase, the pixel values are sequentially modified, so that so that
evenaasmall
even smallchange
changeininthethe pixel
pixel will
will influence
influence almost
almost all the
all the pixels
pixels in entire
in the the entire
image.image.
The
The process is illustrated in Figure
process is illustrated in Figure 3. 3.

Figure3.
Figure 3. The
The architecture
architectureof
ofpermutation–diffusion
permutation–diffusionchaotic
chaoticimage
imageencryption.
encryption.

Symmetric spatial-domain image-encryption algorithms can be divided into two types

based on the way the original image is processed: block cipher and stream cipher. In
block-cipher-based image-encryption algorithms, the image is encrypted or processed
in fixed-length groups of bits called blocks. In stream-cipher-based image-encryption
algorithms, the digital image is converted into streams of bits for processing [11].

Chaotic Image Encryption Based on the Block Cipher

A block cipher is a type of symmetric key algorithm that divides the plaintext into
multiple blocks of equal length, and then encrypts each block separately using a specific
algorithm and key. There are five modes of block cipher: ECB, CBC, CFB, OFB, and CTR.
The idea of chaotic image encryption based on a block cipher is to use a chaotic map to
generate secret keys or chaotic sequences to substitute and diffuse the pixels or bits of the
image to achieve a higher level of security.
F. Pichler and J. Scharinger [25] first proposed an encryption scheme based on a
two-dimensional Baker map. After that, in 1996, Jiri Fridrich [25,26] introduced a five-step
process for building block ciphers: designing the basic map, generalizing the map, discretiz-
ing, extension to three dimensions, and composing with a diffusion mechanism. In addition,
an encryption algorithm that adapted certain invertible chaotic two-dimensional maps to
create new symmetric block encryption schemes was proposed, in which the chaotic map
could be further extended to three dimensions. This scheme is effective in encrypting a
large amount of data, such as that of a digital image.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 9 of 39

Instead of the usual operation on small data blocks, a scheme involving parametrizable
permutations on large data blocks (whole images) induced by Kolmogorov flows was
presented by Josef Scharinger [27]. He emphasized the importance of confusion and
diffusion, took the whole image as a single block, and applied a pseudo-random number
generator (PRNG) based on Kolmogorov flows to confuse data. PRNG was widely used
in subsequent chaotic image-encryption algorithms. Kolmogorov flows are a stochastic
model of flow in which the velocity field is highly irregular and complex, manifesting
itself in phenomena such as vortices and turbulence. Furthermore, the velocity field of
Kolmogorov flows also has the characteristic of being the same in any direction. Here, we
briefly describe the discrete model of Kolmogorov flow as follows:
Tn,δ (x, y) = (qs (x − Fs ) + (y mod qs ), Fs + (y div qs )) (10)
where δ = (n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ), ns is a positive integer, ∑s ns = N and ns divides N for all s,
ps = 1/ns , and Fs is still the left bound of the vertical strip s.
The above schemes have inspired a large amount of subsequent research on chaotic
image encryption. We classify block-cipher-based chaotic image encryption in terms of
various perspectives, as follows:
• Algorithms when chaotic systems are employed as the PRNG
The PRNG is the most common application of chaotic systems when applied in
encryption algorithms [28,29]. A PRNG is used to generate chaotic sequences for operations
such as XOR, confusion, and diffusion. Many characteristics of chaotic systems coincide
with those of traditional cryptography. For example, the orbital instability and initial value
sensitivity correspond to the diffusion characteristics of traditional cryptography systems,
while the ergodic and long-term unpredictability of chaotic systems, and sensitivity to
system parameters, correspond to the chaotic characteristics of traditional cryptography. It
can be seen that using chaotic systems as a PRNG to generate pseudo-random sequences
has certain advantages.
Masaki Miyamoto and Kiyoshi Tanaka [30] proposed a new truncated Baker trans-
formation with finite precision. In this scheme, a random local rotation operator is in-
corporated between two neighbor elements in the mapping domain in order to keep the
same precision.
J. Yen and J. Guo [31] presented a chaotic image-encryption algorithm that substitutes
all blocks of the original image and then shuffles its pixels with a chaotic sequence generated
by a Logistic map based on the permutation principle. Its VLSI architecture is also presented
in their paper.
In contrast to previous chaos-based image-encryption algorithms [31,32], which re-
quired the image to be encrypted as a square, in 2003 Mazleena Salleh [33] proposed an
alternative chaotic image-encryption method based on a Baker map. The enhanced sym-
metric algorithm can support the encryption of images with a variable size. In addition,
this scheme adds some other features such as password binding, ECB, and CBC modes to
make the cipher image more secure.
Shiguo Lian and Jinsheng Sun [34] proposed a chaos-based image-encryption method
that utilizes a 2D Standard map for confusion, a Logistic map for diffusion, and a Tent map
to generate keys for sub-key generation and distribution because of its multiple processes.
Then, a certain diffusion effect in the substitution stage caused by simple sequential add-
and-shift operations was added to the scheme in [35] to save a considerable amount of
overall encryption time.
Zhihong Guan [36] suggested a 3D Chen’s chaotic-system-based image-encryption
method. The three discrete variables sequences obtained by Chen’s system after iteration
and preprocessing were XOR with different sub-blocks of the original image to obtain the
encrypted image. Di Xiao and Xiaofeng Liao [37] analyzed the flaws of the image encryption
proposed in [36] and improved it in terms of three aspects: the phase of encryption or
decryption needs M rounds of operations; the keystream depends on both the initial
conditions and the plain-image gray value; the keystream is generated by chained mode,
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 10 of 39

with any two adjacent pixels being linked to each other. This makes the chaining relation
between pixel elements more complex after M rounds of iteration.
A Logistic-map-based image encryption was introduced by Tao Xiang and Xiaofeng
Liao [29] on the basis of [38], in which the plaintext block is permuted by a key-dependent
shift approach and then encrypted by the permutation–diffusion-based technique.
N. K. Pareek and V. Patidar [39] proposed an approach for image encryption based
on Logistic maps. They used two Logistic maps in the algorithm. The first one is used
to generate numbers ranging from 1 to 24 as the initial condition of the second Logistic
map. Furthermore, an external 80-bit secret key and eight different types of operations are
used to encrypt the pixels of an image, and which of these is used for a particular pixel is
decided by the outcome of the Logistic map.
An image-encryption method based on primitive operations, nonlinear transforma-
tion functions, and a chaotic Tent map was presented by Mohamed Amin and Osama S.
Faragallah [16]. The cryptographic operation of this algorithm is based on bit blocks rather
than pixel blocks. It uses 256-bit session keys to encrypt a 256-bit input plain image into
the cipher image with the same number of bits.
Y. Wang and K. Wong [40] introduced the nearest-neighbor coupled-map lattices
(NCMLs), in which a pseudo-random sequence is generated with an NCML and an S-Box
of AES. In addition, a 128-bit external key is used to reset the pixel values of the image
blocks with the pseudo-random sequence. Meanwhile, the lattice values of the NCML are
utilized to relocate image blocks.
J. S. Armand Eyebe Fouda and J. Yves Effa [41] proposed a PWLCM-based chaotic
image-encryption method that uses the Linear Diophantine Equation (LDE). The LDE is an
equation with integral coefficients of one or more variables, for which the solutions must
be integers.
A new 1D chaotic system based on a Logistic map was introduced by Erivelton G.
Nepomuceno and Lucas G. Nardo [42], which was then employed in image encryption
to reduce the digital degradation of chaotic systems with key space. The pseudo-random
sequence was generated by the difference between two pseudo-orbits for image encryption.
• Chaotic image-encryption algorithms with improved performance or chaotification
However, classical chaotic systems have some inherent limitations, such as periodicity,
small key space, easy destruction of phase space, and low LE. To address these issues, many
researchers have focused on improving classical chaotic systems to enhance their chaotic
dynamic characteristics through a process called chaotification. The goal of chaotification
is to make up for these limitations and improve the performance of chaotic systems in
applications such as encryption algorithms.
Guanrong Chen and Yaobin Mao [18] introduced a real-time secure symmetric encryp-
tion model by extending a two-dimensional chaotic Cat map to three dimensions to quickly
eliminate the correlation between pixels. Before confusion and diffusion, the original image
was expanded from 2D to 3D by the following representation. The original image, which is
L pixels wide and H pixels high, is divided into several cubes with side lengths of Ni , and
satisfies the following conditions:
L × H = Σ Ni 3 + R, (11)
where Ni ∈ {2, 3, . . . , M}, M is the maximum side length of the cube, and R ∈ {0, 1, . . . , 7} is
the remainder. On this basis, each cube was shuffled and XOR diffused using a discrete 3D
Cat map and Logistic mapping, respectively. Finally, all the cubes were properly arranged
and returned to two dimensions to obtain the encrypted image. The specific process is
shown in Figure 4.
 L × H = Σ Ni3 + R,

where Ni ∈ {2, 3, ..., M}, M is the maximum side length of the cube, and R ∈ {0, 1
the remainder. On this basis, each cube was shuffled and XOR diffused using a
3D Cat map and Logistic mapping, respectively. Finally, all the cubes were pro
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 11 of 39 The spe
ranged and returned to two dimensions to obtain the encrypted image.
cess is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. The process of the4.image-encryption

Figure The process of thealgorithm algorithm in Ref. [18].
in Ref. [18].
image-encryption

Yaobin Mao and Guangrong

Yaobin MaoChen [38], basedChen
and Guangrong on the achievement
[38], based on the of F. Pichler andof F. Pich
achievement
J. Scharingers [43], further extended a two-dimensional Baker map to three dimensions
Scharingers [43], further extended a two-dimensional Baker map to three dimens
with better chaotic characteristics in LE for fast image encryption while retaining its high
better chaotic characteristics in LE for fast image encryption while retaining its h
security. In contrast to Ref. [18], the original image was preprocessed into a whole cube
rity. In contrast to Ref. [18], the original image was preprocessed into a whole cu
of size M × N × L before being encrypted. This algorithm has a significant advantage in
M × N × L before being encrypted. This algorithm has a significant advantage in
terms of speed.
speed.
An image-encryption scheme based on a chaos-based map with variable control
An image-encryption scheme based on a chaos-based map with variable co
parameters was presented by Yong Wang and Kowk-Wo Wong [44]. The 2D Standard map,
rameters was presented by Yong Wang and Kowk-Wo Wong [44]. The 2D Stand
the Cat map, and the Baker map were employed in the permutation stage, but which of
the Cat map, and the Baker map were employed in the permutation stage, but
these is used is decided by the Logistic map. The outstanding contribution is that control
these is used is decided by the Logistic map. The outstanding contribution is tha
parameters and the keystream are related to both the key and the plain image.
parameters and the keystream are related to both the key and the plain image.
Xiaojun Tong and Minggen Cui [45] proposed a compound two-dimensional chaotic
map to generate a chaoticXiaojun Tong
sequence forand Minggen
dividing Cui [45]
an image proposed atwo
by employing compound two-dimensiona
one-dimensional
chaotic maps that switch randomly. Then, the image is encrypted by a 3D Baker map. two on
map to generate a chaotic sequence for dividing an image by employing
sional chaotic
They solved the problem maps that switch
of computer-limited randomly.
precision owingThen,
to thethe image is encrypted
low-digitalized one- by a 3
map. They solved the problem of computer-limited precision
dimensional chaotic function using dynamical compound chaos and perturbation technology. owing to the low-di
Xiaoling Huang [46] added parameters to a two-dimensional cross-chaotic Chebyshevand pert
one-dimensional chaotic function using dynamical compound chaos
system. Then, the technology.
new function, which has a large key space and is sensitive enough
Xiaoling
to initial conditions, was Huang
employed to [46] addeda parameters
generate pseudo-random to a two-dimensional
chaotic sequence cross-chaoti
for
shev
confusion and diffusion. system. Then, the new function, which has a large key space and is sensitiv
Guodong Ye and Kwok-Wo Wong [47] proposed an image-encryption algorithm with
a generalized Arnold Cat map. They utilized a total circular function to take the place of
the traditional periodic position permutation to reduce the correlation between adjacent
pixels in the permutation stage. Two pseudo-random sequences generated by a Cat map
with different initial conditions were utilized in forward and reverse diffusion.
The traditional permutation process is periodic, which enables an attacker to obtain the
original image by iterating over the encrypted image. Furthermore, it is also weak against
chosen-plaintext attacks. Xingyuan Wang and Lintao Liu [48] introduced a dynamic random
growth technique in their Cat-map-based image-encryption method to fill those two gaps.
Jun-xin Chen and Zhi-liang Zhu [49] proposed a dynamic state variables selection
mechanism (DSVSM)-based image-encryption algorithm. They used a Chen map to illustrate
DSVSM and innovated the algorithm in four ways to fix its flaws.
Lingfeng Liu and Suoxia Miao [50] presented a Logistic-map-based image-encryption
method with varying parameters. Their approach can make the parameters change in a
random way to improve robustness to the phase space reconstruction attack.
In Chanil Pak and Lilian Huang’s article [51], two of the three 1D chaotic maps (Logistic
map, Sine map, and Chebyshev map) were used to construct a new chaotic system, which
has both high information entropy and a Lyapunov exponent, for encryption. The linear
(permutation)–nonlinear (diffusion) structure-based chaotic image encryption is improved
to a linear–nonlinear–linear conversion structure-based algorithm.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 12 of 39

The limited accuracy of computers results in the degradation of the chaotic character-
istics of a chaotic system. Lucas G. Nardoa and Erivelton G [52] took finite accuracy error
as the source of randomness and proposed a new image-encryption scheme to solve this
problem. The Chua system and a factor based on the plain image were used together to
generate the keystream, which was then used in conjunction with the XOR operation to
encrypt the image.
It is well-known that a chaotic system with a useful large LE implies the properties of
excellent chaos. However, an image-encryption scheme based on chaotic systems with a
small LE was proposed in [53]. The authors utilized a chaotic system with a low numerical
solution error to reduce the decryption error and proved its positive effect by conducting
experiments on an XOR encryption scheme. This strategy is suitable for the Lyapunov
exponent control method of an arbitrary chaotic interval map.
Hua and Z. Zhu [54] constructed a 2D Logistic-Tent modular map called 2D-LTMM
to overcome shortcomings. Then, a color image-encryption algorithm, which utilized
cross-plane permutation and non-sequential diffusion to concurrently encrypt the three
color planes of images, was presented based on 2D-LTMM.
• Block-cipher-based image encryption with a coupling chaotic system
A coupled system can be regarded as a high-dimensional dynamical system formed
by the interaction of two or more chaotic maps. Thus, coupling chaotic systems are also
often constructed by researchers for image encryption because of their special advantages:
high complexity of the output cipher image and effective byte confusion and diffusion, in
addition to a conventional chaotic map. All these features are useful for high security of
the image-encryption algorithm.
S. Behnia and A. Akhshani [55] were the first to mix the Logistic map with a coupled
map based on [56,57] for image encryption. This mixture scheme has large key space and
high-level security, although its speed is only acceptable.
Seyed Mohammad Seyedzadeh and Sattar Mirzakuchaki [58] also introduced an image
cryptosystem based on their Two-Dimensional Piecewise Nonlinear Chaotic Map (CTONCM).
Yicong Zhou and Long Bao [59] designed a new chaotic system by coupling two of the
Logistic map, Tent map, and Sine map as a new chaotic map for image encryption. Their
scheme has some useful properties; in particular, it will generate a brand-new encrypted
image each time it is used with the same set of security keys for an original image.
In Moatsum Alawida and Azman Samsudin’s image-encryption algorithm [60], three
1D chaotic maps (Tent map, Logistic map, and Sine map) are employed as a seed map
to couple into new chaotic systems, the Tent–Logistic–Tent system (TLTS) and Tent–Sine–
Tent system (TSTS). Both of these two new chaotic systems are used for permutation and
diffusion processes.
• Block-cipher-based image encryption with a hyperchaos system
Due to the finite accuracy of computers, the period of chaotic systems with low
dimensions may be shorter in practical use, and their key space may be relatively small.
Therefore, some researchers suggest using hyperchaotic systems with more than one
positive LE for image encryption to generate higher complexity and randomness.
Tiegang Gao and Zengqiang Chen [61,62] were the first to employ hyperchaos systems
as a PRNG for diffusion of image encryption. A total matrix generated by a Logistic map
was utilized to shuffle the position of image pixels. After that, a hyperchaotic system
or a combination of the Lorenz equation and Chen map was presented to confuse the
relationship between the plain image and cipher image. However, their algorithm is
not safe enough because the keystream in the diffusion phase only depends on the state
variables of the hyperchaotic system.
Congxu Zhu [63] presented an improved hyperchaos-based image-encryption method,
in which the keys are correlated with the plain image. In addition, it only takes two rounds
of diffusion operation to modify values of the pixel and break the correlation between
adjacent pixels of the image.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 13 of 39

Hegui Zhu and Cheng Zhao [64] proposed a compression-based image-encryption

method with a combination of a hyperchaos system and the Chinese remainder theorem.
Two chaotic sequences are generated by a 2D hyperchaos discrete nonlinear system to
shuffle the pixels of the plain image, and the Chinese remainder theorem is used for
encryption and compression.
Wenhao Liu and Kehui Sun [65] drew on the characteristics of [61] to introduce a
hyperchaos-based image-encryption method with a two-dimensional Sine iterative chaotic
map with infinite collapse (ICMIC) modulation map (2D-SIMM) based on a close-loop
modulation coupling (CMC) model. They noted that chaotic shift transform (CST) is
efficient for permutation.
Fei Yu and Si Xu [66] introduced an image-encryption scheme based on a 5D mem-
ristive exponential hyperchaotic system (MEHS). To construct this system, they utilized
flux-controlled memristors and added a nonlinear exponential term, resulting in a new mem-
ory hyperchaotic system. Additionally, a hardware circuit for this system was designed using
Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) technology. The algorithm was thoroughly tested for
security, and the results indicated that it is sufficiently robust.
• Algorithms when chaotic systems are combined with S-Boxes
Combining chaotic systems with traditional cryptographic methods, such as substi-
tution boxes (S-Boxes), can effectively defend against attacks and enhance the security
of cryptographic systems. This combination can take advantage of the strengths of both
chaotic and traditional cryptographic techniques, creating a more robust encryption al-
gorithm that is resistant to attacks and can ensure the confidentiality and integrity of the
encrypted image.
In Linhua Zhang and Xiaofeng Liao’s AES-based algorithm [67], the S-Box is designed
with a discrete exponential chaotic map (DECM) and the chaotic sequence is generated
by a 1D Piecewise Linear Chaotic Map (PWLCM) to perform permutation and XOR diffu-
sion operations.
Alireza Jolfaei and Abdolrasoul Mirghadri [68] constructed an image-encryption
scheme with a Baker map and a Simplified AES (S-AES) algorithm. The Baker map is used
to generate dynamic S-Boxes to take the place of the S-Box of S-AES.
Afterward, a parallel chaos-based image-encryption method, called MASK, was pro-
posed by Qing Zhou and Kwok-wo Wong [69] based on discretized Kolmogorov flow
and traditional CBC-like mode. The S-Box generated by a Chebyshev map is used for
S-transformation and the Kolmogorov flow is used for K-transformation.
• Chaotic image-encryption algorithms based on bitplane operation
Most of the proposed image-encryption algorithms typically move each pixel sep-
arately from one position to another without modifying its value, which may limit the
effectiveness of the encryption. However, some encryption methods decompose the im-
age into bitplanes and operate on each bitplane separately, which can make up for these
deficiencies. By operating on each bitplane independently, the encryption algorithm can
achieve a higher level of security and improve the efficiency of the encryption process.
Guosheng Gu and Guoqiang Han [70] added a cross-sampling method to 1D chaotic
image encryption to eliminate the recursive relations between the binary chaotic pseudo-
random sequences. A discrete chaotic map was used to generate an ergodic matrix to
arrange the positions of bits. Then two binary chaotic random sequences are generated to
replace the corresponding values.
Zhiliang Zhu and Wei Zhang [71] presented an image-encryption method whose oper-
ations of permutation and diffusion are at the bit level. The 2D Arnold Cat map controlled
by the Logistic map was employed to construct a permutation matrix for confusion, and
the value of each pixel was modified by the output of the Logistic map.
In Xinsheng Li and Zhilong Xie’s 7D hyperchaotic-system-based image-encryption
approach [72], the 2D image at the pixel level was converted into a 3D cuboid in a bit-
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 14 of 39

plane for some operations such as rearranging, symmetry, rotation, zigzag, and global bit
permutation, with the pseudo-random sequence generated by the new chaotic system.
A bitplane matrix rotation-based image-encryption algorithm with two hyperchaotic
systems was proposed by Cong Xu and Jingru Sun [73]. The original image is first decom-
posed into 8-bit planes, which are further formed as a 3D bitplane matrix of size M × N × 8.
Then, a PRNG generated by a hyperchaotic system is used to control the rotation of the
submatrix of the 3D bitplane matrix in different directions. Finally, the pixel value of the
intermediate image is modified using another keystream.
In order to reduce the shortcomings of high complexity and the many operation
processes of many encryption algorithms, Jiangjian Xu and Bing Zhao [74] introduced a
color image-encryption algorithm based on bitplane information. They converted each
pixel value to two hexadecimal numbers for low complexity. The initial parameters of the
chaotic system used in the encryption process of each channel in the color image are related
to the plaintext information of the current channel and the other two channels, which made
the key space larger.
Wei Song and Chong Fu [75] proposed a parallel image-encryption algorithm based
on intra-bitplane scrambling. Their contribution was to use four threads for bit-level
image encryption, where each thread scrambled two bitplanes during the permutation
process and built multiple threads to generate the keystream to reduce encryption time
during diffusion.
• Color chaotic image-encryption algorithms based on the block cipher
Many encryption algorithms have been proposed for grayscale images, but the en-
cryption of color images, which are divided into red (R), green (G), and blue (B) channels,
needs improvement in some aspects due to the high correlation between the R, G, and
B components. It is also worth investigating how to handle these three channels during
the encryption process to ensure the confidentiality and integrity of the encrypted data.
Further research is needed to develop effective encryption algorithms for color images that
can address the limitations of current approaches and provide a higher level of security.
Vinod Patidar and N. K. Pareek [76] presented a lossless symmetric image-encryption
algorithm based on the same architecture, which is helpful for encrypting the colored
image, whose data stream is a 3D matrix, with a 2D Standard map and a 1D Logistic map.
In this scheme, the red, green, and blue channels of the original image are extracted for
the XOR confusion and diffusion operation with the chaotic sequence generated by the
Standard map.
C. Huang and H. Nien [77] used these four chaotic maps for color image encryption:
the Henon map, Lorenz equation, and Chua and Rössler systems. In their algorithm,
the distribution characteristics of RGB were effectively disrupted and the robustness to
exhaustive attacks was improved at the same time.
A color image-encryption algorithm based on a three-dimensional Arnold Cat map
was proposed by A. Kanso and M. Ghebleh [78]. The algorithm can be valid for color
images of any size. The encryption process contains three steps: shuffling the image pixels
according to a search rule based on the 3D Cat map in step 1; and using 3D Cat maps to
shuffle pixels through mixing and masking rules in steps 2 and 3, respectively. These rules
make the relationship between the plain image and the encrypted image more diffusing
and confusing.
Wang Ying [79] applied a high-dimensional Lorenz equation to digital image encryption,
whose 3D outputs can realize the parallel encryption of three or more images. Therefore, it is
suitable for layered encryption of three-dimensional data such as color images.
Zhihua Gan and Xiuli Chai [80] proposed a 3D bitplane permutation-based image-
encryption method. A new method for generating a secret key matrix was presented. The
Chen system was used to generate random sequences to perform confusion and diffusion
operations multiple times on small 24-bit blocks consisting of three 8-bit blocks from
the R, G, and B channels of the original image. Their approach is effective against the
known-plaintext attack and chosen-plaintext attack.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 15 of 39

Chaos-Based Image Encryption Based on Stream Cipher

Stream ciphers are widely used in cryptographic fields due to their fast operation
speed and high security performance. The keystream generator plays a critical role in
the stream cipher, as its performance directly determines the security performance of the
algorithm. Therefore, the combination of chaotic systems and stream ciphers relies heavily
on the integration of chaotic maps and keystream generators. Currently, the primary
method of applying chaos to a stream cipher is by constructing keystream generators using
chaotic systems [48].
• Stream-cipher-based image encryption with the classic chaotic system
Haojiang Gao and Yisheng Zhang [81] improved the original Logistic mapping by
transforming it into a nonlinear chaos algorithm (NCA) by introducing a power function
and a tangent function. Then they applied it to a one-time-one-password system for
image encryption.
A Chaotic Key-Based Algorithm (CKBA) and its Very Large Scale Integrated Circuit
(VLSI) architecture based on any 1D chaotic system were recommended by Jui-Cheng Yen
and Jiun-In Guo [82] in their article. They produced a sequence as the key with a chaotic
map, then the pixels of the image were rearranged and XOR or XNOR operated with the
selected key. However, Shujun Li and Xuan Zheng [83] estimated its security and pointed
out that this algorithm is weak for the known-plaintext attack, which implies that the
security of the algorithm needs to be improved.
In 2007, H. S. Kwok and Wallace K. S. Tang [84] suggested a fast chaos-based image-
encryption system with a stream-cipher structure, where the PRNG is formed by a 1D Tent
map and a H-D Cat map, serving the purpose of stream generation and random mixing.
Unlike the other existing chaos-based pseudo-random number generators, this type of
keystream generator has very fast throughput under finite precision representation and
fixed-point arithmetic.
Liu Hongjun and Wang Xingyuan [85] designed a one-time key encryption system
based on two robust chaotic maps to solve some problems of previous chaos-based image-
encryption systems. The true random number generator (TRNG) was utilized to generate
the keys by the Message-Digest algorithm 5 of the mouse positions.
• Stream-cipher-based image encryption with the coupled chaotic system
As mentioned above, a large number of classic chaotic systems have been applied
to stream-cipher-based image encryption. Although they have high efficiency and fast
speed, these chaotic maps have some disadvantages, such as weak security and small key
space. Therefore, the coupling of low-dimensional chaotic maps may show a new way for
stream-cipher-based image encryption.
A symmetric streaming chaos-based image-encryption algorithm which was designed
for encrypting color images was proposed by Sahar Mazloom and Amir Masud Eftekhari-
Moghadam [86] based on their coupled nonlinear chaotic map (CNCM). Shubo Liu and
Jing Sun [87] introduced a coupled Logistic map as a keystream generator. Their stream-
cipher-based image-encryption scheme with this key generator illustrates that it can be a
good substitute for the block cipher.
Inspired by TRNG, an idea for a chaos-based true random bits generator (TRBG) with
the interaction between two mutually coupled identical chaotic circuits was introduced
by Ch. K. Volos and I. M. Kyprianidis [88]. Then, a new chaos-based image-encryption
approach was presented.
• Stream-cipher-based image encryption with the spatiotemporal chaotic system
The spatiotemporal chaotic system, which is confirmed to have a longer periodicity
and has nonlinear dynamics in both space and time, is very suitable for cryptography and
image encryption. The spatiotemporal chaotic system not only has chaotic behavior in time,
but also in space after a long time iteration. The most classic approach is the coupled-map
lattice (CML), which is described as follows:
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 16 of 39

ε
xn+1 (i ) = (1 − ε) f [ xn (i )] + { f [ xn (i + 1)] + f [ xn (i − 1)]}, (12)
2
where xn (i) represents the state variable of the ith site (i = 1, 2, . . . , S ∈ N, S is the number
of the sites in the CML) at time n (n = 1, 2, . . . ), ε is the coupling parameter, f (x) is the
Logistic map.
Because of the intrinsic nonlinear dynamics of each local map and the diffusion due to
the spatial coupling among the local maps, a CML exhibits spatiotemporal chaos [89]. It
consists of nonlinear maps called local maps on the lattice sites. Each local map is coupled
with other local maps governed by certain coupling rules.
A. N. Pisarchik [90] was the first to apply CML to an image-encryption algorithm,
whose basic idea is to convert the image color under initial conditions into the Logical map
pixel by pixel.
The one-way coupled-map lattice (OCML), as an example of a spatiotemporal chaotic
system, was often applied to symmetric stream-cipher-based image encryption [91,92].
Rhouma Rhouma and Soumaya Meherzi [87] selected a 192-bit external key to generate the
parameters and the initial conditions of the OCML.
Fuyan Sun and Shutang Liu [93] proposed 2D CML-based chaotic image encryption,
which takes only one operation cycle and renders the image indistinguishable.
Different from the above schemes, an image-encryption method based on mixed
linear–nonlinear coupled map lattices was proposed by Zhang Ying-Qian and Wang Xing-
Yuan [94]. The algorithm with this kind of spatiotemporal system has less periodic windows
and a larger range of parameters.
In Zhang Ying-Qian and Wang Xing-Yuan’s algorithm [95], the non-adjacent coupled
map lattice (NACML),which has a wider range of parameters and fewer periodic windows
in the bifurcation diagram than 1D chaotic systems, is selected in the diffusion process.
Furthermore, a new bit-level permutation method is used to effectively reduce the intrinsic
features and spatial complexity of the algorithm.

Chaos-Based Image Encryption Based on Both Block and Stream Ciphers

In addition to applying the block cipher or stream cipher to image-encryption al-
gorithms, some researchers have attempted to combine these two strategies in image
encryption, which aims to enhance the robustness of the algorithm and increase its imple-
mentation efficiency.
Fethi Belkhouche and Uvais Qidwai [96] presented an algorithm for binary images
using chaotic mapping based on a modified version of a sine function. The algorithm can
quickly encrypt binary images in real time.
An image-encryption method using two chaotic maps and combining the spatial-
domain encryption and stream ciphers was introduced by Huangpei Xiao and Guoji
Zhang [97]. They used chaotic maps to generate the chaotic sequence for modifying the
pixel values of the plain image and to construct a permutation matrix for encrypting the
modified image.
Xingyuan Wang and Xiaojuan Wang [98] proposed a scheme that uses a block cipher
and a stream cipher alternately for image encryption. They utilized PWLCM and two
other 1D chaotic maps to generate pseudo-random sequences to decide the encryption
mode. In Hongjun Liu and Xingyuan Wang’s approach [99], PWLCM, as the substitution
of a Cat map, is first used to rearrange the image at the bit level. After that, the three
discrete variables of the Chen map are used to encrypt the image again for confusion and
diffusion. A new bit-level image-encryption method with PWLCM and binary bitplane
decomposition (BBD) was proposed by Lu Xu and Zhi Li [100]. The BBD is used before
permutation and diffusion to switch the plain image to two binary sequences while the
PWLCM is employed in the diffusion phase to control the swapping of the binary elements
of these two sequences.
Different from the conventional permutation–diffusion-structure-based scheme, Yuling
Luo and Minghui Du [101] suggested an image-encryption algorithm with the reverse
 Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 17 of 39

process, which first diffuses with a nonlinear spatiotemporal chaotic map and integer
wavelet transform (IWT), and is later rearranged with a Logistic map.

3.1.2. Chaos-Based Image Encryption Based on the Frequency Domain

The advantages of spatial domain algorithms are their fast computation speed and
the fact that the encryption process does not cause additional image distortion. However,
the robustness of the spatial-domain encryption may not be satisfactory. In contrast,
frequency-domain encryption algorithms offer high efficiency, and the complexity of their
mathematical expressions makes it more difficult to illegally decode the encrypted image.
Therefore, many researchers choose to combine frequency-domain encryption with chaotic
encryption to construct new image-encryption algorithms. It should be noted that the
Mathematics 2023, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 o
original image needs to be preprocessed, as shown in Figure 5, before using such methods
to encrypt it.

5. The
Figure 5.
Figure Theprocess
processof of
frequency-domain-based image image
frequency-domain-based encryption.
encryption.

• Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)-based algorithms

DWT can divide signals with both frequency and time information into different s
bands, which can result in a higher compression ratio and better rendering of the im
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 18 of 39

• Discrete Wavelet Transform (DWT)-based algorithms

DWT can divide signals with both frequency and time information into different
sub-bands, which can result in a higher compression ratio and better rendering of the image
by eliminating blocky artifacts. DWT is a powerful tool for image processing and has been
widely used in image compression, denoising, and feature extraction. By decomposing the
image into different frequency sub-bands, DWT-based encryption algorithms can achieve a
higher level of security and provide better protection against attacks.
Chun-jiang Pang [102] first presented a DWT-based image encryption with a 2D Cat
map in 2009. An exclusive corresponding relationship between the Cat map chaos sequence
and the DWT coefficient matrix is established according to the value sequence generated
by the Cat map. Afterwards, the DWT matrix is encrypted, and then scrambled by a
chaotic sequence.
Somaya Al-Maadeed and Afnan Al-Ali [103] introduced a technique with the com-
bination of encryption and compression. They used DWT to decompose the image and
decorrelate its pixels into the main (low-frequency) part and the detail (high-frequency)
part. The main part contains the overall shape and contour of the image, while the detail
part only contains fine details. The approximation component is encrypted by a 1D discrete
chaotic map, and the detail components are compressed by DWT.
Xiangjun Wu and Dawei Wang [104] combined the frequency-domain cryptosystem
and the spatial-domain cryptosystem and proposed a lossless image-encryption algorithm,
which makes full use of the advantages of image encryption in the spatial domain and the
transform domain, based on 2D DWT and a 6D hyperchaos-based system.
• Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT)-based algorithms
A 2D Cat-map-based image-encryption scheme with DCT was proposed by Zhengjun
Liu and Lie Xu [105]. The Cat map is employed to scramble the pixel sequence of sub-
images of the plain color image, and the DCT is utilized to change the value of the image in
all distributions.
Recently, a triple-image-encryption and hiding scheme with chaos, compressive sens-
ing (CS), and 3D DCT was presented by Xingyuan Wang and Cheng Liu [106]. They utilized
2D DWT to represent three grayscale plain images to obtain sparse matrices for scrambling.
Then, a 2D infinite collapse map (ICM) was introduced to compress the scrambled matrices.
Finally, 3D DCT was used to embed compressed matrices into a color carrier image to obtain
the cipher image. Their scheme can simultaneously encrypt and embed three grayscale
images into a color carrier image.

3.2. Chaos-Based Image Encryption Based on Asymmetric Encryption (Public Key Algorithm)
Symmetric cryptosystems, also known as single key cryptosystems, are known for
their high efficiency. However, it is worth noting that the encryption and decryption parties
must use the same key, which must be transmitted through a secure channel to prevent it
from being leaked. Otherwise, the ciphertext may be breached. In contrast, asymmetric
encryption structures do not have this concern. Unlike symmetric cryptosystems, asym-
metric cryptosystems, also known as public key algorithms, have two keys: a public key
and a private key. The public key and the private key are different keys, and a piece of
information can be encrypted with the public key and then decrypted with the private
key, or vice versa. The former is widely used for the sender to send secret information to
the receiver, while the latter is widely utilized for the authentication of the sender during
broadcast. Well-known public key cryptography algorithms include RSA, ElGamal, and el-
liptic curve cryptography algorithms. Figure 6 shows the general flow of image-encryption
transmission based on a public key.
This section covers several approaches to asymmetric chaotic image encryption, in-
cluding asymmetric algorithms based on chaos synchronization, chaotic image-encryption
algorithms based on RSA, chaotic image-encryption algorithms based on elliptic curve, and
 asymmetric cryptosystems, also known as public key algorithms, have two keys: a pu
key and a private key. The public key and the private key are different keys, and a p
of information can be encrypted with the public key and then decrypted with the pri
key, or vice versa. The former is widely used for the sender to send secret informatio
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 the receiver, while the latter is widely utilized for the authentication of the 19 ofsender
39 du
broadcast. Well-known public key cryptography algorithms include RSA, ElGamal,
elliptic curve cryptography algorithms. Figure 6 shows the general flow of image-enc
tionother asymmetric image-encryption algorithms. These methods are discussed and researched
transmission based on a public key.
to explore their potential for improving the security and efficiency of image encryption.

Figure
Figure 6. Thegeneral
6. The general flow
flowofofimage-encryption
image-encryptiontransmission based onbased
transmission a public
onkey.
a public key.
3.2.1. Chaotic-Synchronization-Based Asymmetric Image Encryption
This section
In 2013, coversCheng
Chao-Jung several
andapproaches
Chi-Bin Cheng to [107]
asymmetric chaotic
first introduced an image encryption
asymmetric
cluding asymmetric
cryptosystem algorithms
to chaos-based imagebased on chaos
encryption synchronization,
with the chaoticofimage-enc
adaptive synchronization an
uncertain unified chaotic system and a cellular neural network. An adaptive
tion algorithms based on RSA, chaotic image-encryption algorithms based on ell controller with
a parameter
curve, update
and other law was constructed
asymmetric by them to asymptotically
image-encryption algorithms. synchronize two chaotic
These methods are discu
systems. This synchronous controller was used in the image-encryption process to produce
a pair of asymmetric keys for image encryption and decryption.
Zhengze Wu and Xiaohong Zhang [108] proposed an 8D generalized chaos synchro-
nization (GCS) system which has complexity and irreversibility for asymmetric image
encryption. It is implemented in MultisimTM 14.0 circuit software. The GCS system was
utilized for the secure communication of digital images. Given the intricate functional rela-
tionship between the drive and response systems, asymmetric encryption, which utilizes
distinct keys and sequences held by the two parties involved in the communication, can be
implemented. Additionally, data authentication can also be implemented.

3.2.2. RSA-Based Asymmetric Chaotic Image Encryption

The Rivest–Shamir–Adleman (RSA) algorithm, as the most famous and widely used
asymmetric cryptosystem, has been gradually applied to chaotic image-encryption algo-
rithms by a large number of researchers in recent years.
Ünal. C and Akif. A [109] designed a hybrid RSA (CRSA) encryption algorithm with
a chaotic RNG. They also designed the circuit realization of chaotic system. This algorithm
has the advantages of both RSA and chaotic systems.
In [110,111], although the specific methods are different, the RSA algorithm and
Cat map are both used to construct the asymmetric image-encryption algorithm; these
algorithms have high effectiveness, safety, and robustness.
Yujia Liu and Zhaoguo Jiang [112] combined RSA with a four-wing and Chen 4D
hyperchaotic system to achieve optical image encryption. At the last step of the algorithm,
the RSA is employed to asymmetrically encode the key to obtain the corresponding public
key and private key.
Some scholars have tried to combine a hash function with the RSA algorithm to improve
the security of image encryption. In Guodong Ye and Kaixin Jiao’s article [113], the quantized
Logistic map is employed to generate the keystreams. The RSA algorithm is used to confuse
the plain image, then SHA-3 is utilized to compute the preprocessed image.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 20 of 39

Recently, Guo-Dong Ye and Hui-Shan Wu [114] introduced a 3D ILM chaotic system,

which has large key space and high complexity. Furthermore, a mathematical model of key
acquisition (MKA) was also created. Then, the new system was combined with RSA for the
asymmetric image encryption.

3.2.3. Elliptic-Curve-Based Asymmetric Chaotic Image Encryption

According to the needs of high security, short keys, and fast encryption speed, the
elliptic curve (EC) public key cryptosystem is also a common public key encryption tech-
nique. Therefore, some image-encryption algorithms based on the EC and the chaotic
system have been constructed by scholars.
Jiahui Wu and Xiaofeng [115] were the first, in 2017, to introduce an asymmetric image-
encryption method based on the combination of an EC and chaotic system. The combination
system of a 4D Cat map and the 3D Lorenz equation is employed for permutation and
diffusion. Furthermore, it achieves the transmission of confidential information among
multiple people with only small key groups and key numbers. Then it was improved by
combining it with ElGamal and DNA technology, as the EC-ElGamal algorithm, in [116].
On the basic of the Diffie–Hellman key exchange technique, Dolendro and Man-
glem [117] presented a chaos-based image-encryption method whose keys are generated
after sharing a random point on an elliptic curve.

3.2.4. Some Other Chaos-Based Asymmetric Chaotic Image-Encryption Methods

In Hongjun Liu and Abdurahman Kadir’s asymmetric image-encryption algorithm [17],
different receivers are distributed with different keys through a key-changing mechanism
using a 2D discrete-time Henon map.
Hongjun Liu and Abdurahman Kadir [118] utilized Hash-512 in the plain image to
generate the initial value and combined a four-wing complex chaotic system into their
asymmetric image-encryption method. The components in red, yellow, and blue are
sequentially preprocessed by a chaotic sequence for image encryption.
In Liansheng Sui and Kuaikuai Duan’s articles [119,120], the asymmetric double
(multiple) image encryptions based on fractional transform and a chaotic Logistic map are
proposed. One is combined with Fourier transform while the other is bound to discrete
fractional random transform.
Ali Shakiba [121] introduced a Chebyshev polynomial-based image-encryption algo-
rithm with a chaotic PRNG to replicate a one-time pad. The key space of this algorithm was
greatly expanded. Furthermore, it is secure enough to resist chosen-plaintext attack (CPA).
Jun Wang and Qinghua Wang [122] presented an asymmetric image-encryption algo-
rithm with cylindrical diffraction random-phase encoding (DCRE) and reservation and
truncation (PRT). In this scheme, DCRE is utilized to encrypt the plain image, then PRT is
employed to separate the diffraction distribution of the complex amplitude into phase and
amplitude parts, which are saved as asymmetric keys.
Yabin Zhang and Li Zhang [123] tried to blend several techniques into asymmetric
image encryption, such as a hyperchaotic system, DNA level operation, Cat map, and
phase-truncated fractional Fourier transform (ptFrFT). Furthermore, their method has
strong resistance to the two-step iterative amplitude-phase retrieval algorithm.

3.3. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with Other Technology

In addition to the direct application of chaos to image encryption, chaotic systems
can also be combined with other fields to encrypt images and take advantage of mul-
tiple technologies simultaneously. However, effective integration of these technologies
requires further study. The different directions for combining chaotic systems with other
technologies discussed in this section are shown in Figure 7.
Mathematics 2023,
Mathematics 11,11,
2023, 2585
x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 40 21 of 39

Figure 7.
Figure 7. Directions
Directionsfor
forchaos
chaosto to
combine with
combine other
with technologies.
other technologies.

3.3.1. Chaos-Based
3.3.1. Chaos-BasedImage
ImageEncryption
Encryptionwith Neural
with Networks
Neural Networks
A neural
neuralnetwork
networkis isa mathematical
a mathematical model of distributed
model of distributedparallel information
parallel pro- pro-
information
cessing that
cessing thatimitates
imitatesthe thebehavior
behavior characteristics
characteristicsof animal neural
of animal networks.
neural This structure
networks. This structure
relies on
relies on the
thecomplexity
complexityofof the system
the system andandachieves the purpose
achieves of processing
the purpose information
of processing information
by adjusting the interconnection between a large number of internal
by adjusting the interconnection between a large number of internal nodes. Chaotic neu- nodes. Chaotic neural
networks
ral networks (CNNs),
(CNNs),as theascombination
the combination of chaosofandchaosneural
andnetworks, provide a new
neural networks, and a new
provide
promising direction for image encryption. By introducing chaotic systems into the learn-
and promising direction for image encryption. By introducing chaotic systems into the
ing and training processes of neural networks, CNNs can enhance the randomness and
learning and training processes of neural networks, CNNs can enhance the randomness
unpredictability of the network, making it more resistant to attacks and providing a
and unpredictability of the network, making it more resistant to attacks and providing a
higher degree of security. CNNs have been applied to a variety of image-encryption tasks,
higher
includingdegree
image ofscrambling
security. CNNs have been applied
and watermarking, and have to ashown
varietypromising
of image-encryption
results. The tasks,
including image scrambling and watermarking, and have
combination of chaos and neural networks offers a promising avenue for further research shown promising results. The
combination
and development of chaos
in image andencryption.
neural networks offers a promising avenue for further research
and development
Shiguo Lian [124] in image
was theencryption.
first to propose a block-cipher-based encryption algorithm
with Shiguo
a CNN. Lian [124] was
The diffusion the is
phase first to propose
processed by a achaotic
block-cipher-based
neuron layer and encryption
the confusionalgorithm
with
phasea isCNN. The diffusion
implemented phaseneuron
by a linear is processed by astructure
layer. This chaotic neuron
has greatlayer and in
security thecom-
confusion
phase
putingisbutimplemented by a linear
it may be vulnerable neuron
to attack layer.ofThis
because structure
its constant has great
weight security
and bias in comput-
matrices.
ing butBased on [124],
it may Nooshin Bigdeli
be vulnerable to attackandbecause
Yousef Farid
of its [125] presented
constant weight image
and encryption
bias matrices.
basedBased
on a chaotic
on [124],neuron layer (CNL)
Nooshin Bigdeliand and a permutation
Yousef Farid neuron
[125] layer (PNL),image
presented which encryption
con-
based on a chaotic neuron layer (CNL) and a permutation neuron layer (PNL), cha-
sists of a three-input (the value of RGB), three-output (encoded streams) CNN. Three which con-
otic systems
sists are employed
of a three-input to generate
(the value of RGB), thethree-output
weights and(encoded
biases matrices
streams) of the
CNN. CNL. Thechaotic
Three
output of the CNL is the input of the PNL. Finally, rounds of
systems are employed to generate the weights and biases matrices of the CNL. The output permutation of data with
linear permutation are combined with 2D nonlinear shuffling to achieve 3D permutation.
of the CNL is the input of the PNL. Finally, rounds of permutation of data with linear
A Hopfield-CNN-based image-encryption approach was proposed by Xing-Yuan
permutation are combined with 2D nonlinear shuffling to achieve 3D permutation.
Wang and Zhi-Ming Li [126]. In a Hopfield CNN, every neuron’s output signal is fed back
A Hopfield-CNN-based image-encryption approach was proposed by Xing-Yuan
to itself by other neurons. In the image-encryption phase, several chaotic maps, such as
Wang and Zhi-Ming Li [126]. In a Hopfield CNN, every neuron’s output signal is fed back
the Cat map and phased composite chaotic map, are employed for confusion. After con-
to
fusion, aby
itself other neurons.
Hopfield In the image-encryption
CNN is utilized in the diffusion step. phase, several chaotic maps, such as the
Cat map andCNN,
Besides phased some composite
researchers chaotic map, to
are trying arefind
employed for confusion.
neural networks After fea-
with chaotic confusion,
atures
Hopfield CNN
for image is utilized in the diffusion step.
encryption.
Besides
A constructCNN, some
called a researchers
fuzzy cellular areneural
tryingnetwork
to find neural
(FCNN) networks with chaotic
was introduced by K.features
for image encryption.
Ratnavelu and M. Kalpana [127]. The value of FCNN parameters is identified to generate
A construct
chaotic sequences for calledimagea fuzzy cellular neural network (FCNN) was introduced by K.
encryption.
Ratnavelu and M. Kalpana [127]. The value of FCNN parameters is identified to generate
chaotic sequences for image encryption.
Liping Chen and Hao Yin [128,129] constructed a 3D fractional-order (FO) discrete
Hopfield neural network (FODHNN), which has chaotic dynamics features, in the left Caputo
discrete delta’s sense. Then, the FODHNN was employed as a PRNG in image encryption.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 22 of 39

Zhenlong Man and Jinqing Li [130] first tried to combine a convolutional neural
network (CONN) and plaintext correlation scrambling mechanism and proposed double
image encryption with a CONN and dynamic adaptive diffusion. They innovated in
three main parts: Firstly, a bit-level split-fusion scheme was constructed. Then, a dual-
channel encryption scheme for image was presented. Finally, a method of generating a
plaintext-dependent chaotic scrambled pointer based on a CONN was designed.
The interspike interval (ISI) is the time between consecutive action potential peaks
of a neuron, which is a crucial indicator for characterizing neural bursting. Ref. [131]
constructed a discrete mHR model to produce four sets of hidden chaotic burst sequences,
which are subsequently encoded using their ISIs. The encoded sequences exhibit higher
complexity and better biological interpretability than the original burst sequences. The
resulting encoded sequence is then used as an image-encryption scheme, providing greater
resistance to a variety of attacks.
The original FHN neuron model is effective in theoretical analysis and numerical
simulations but it has a high implementation cost. As a solution to this problem, ref. [132]
proposed a multiplier-free implementation of a nonlinear function with N-shaped curves.
Experimental results confirm that their approach can produce electrical activity with
periodic spiking, chaotic, and quasi-periodic behavior, which suggests that it is suitable for
implementing analog circuits for neuromorphic intelligence based on FHN neurons.
Junwei Suna and Chuangchuang Li [133] proposed a novel locally active hyperbolic
memristor that can exhibit bistable phenomena. Using this memristor, they developed
a Hindmarsh–Rose (HR)–FitzHugh–Nagumo (FN) HR neural network coupled by a hy-
perbolic memristor and examined the chaotic dynamics of the network under varying
parameters and initial conditions. The HR-FN-HR model is comprised of a 2D FN neuron
and two 2D HR neurons coupled by memory resistors. Experimental results show that
this network has a more complex dynamic behavior compared to other neural networks.
Furthermore, they proposed an image-encryption scheme based on this model. The study
has significant theoretical implications for modeling the dynamic properties of biological
neural systems.

3.3.2. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with Genetic Technology

Genetic technology is an optimization method that searches for the final solution
among a group of potential solutions based on the principles of natural evolution. This
process is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obtained. By combining genetic algorithms
with chaotic systems, researchers have developed new and more efficient image-encryption
algorithms that offer a high degree of security and can withstand attacks from potential
adversaries. The combination of genetic technology and chaotic systems offers a promising
approach to image encryption and optimization in general.
Abdul Hanan Abdullaha and Rasul Enayatifar [134] proposed a new image-encryption
scheme based on both a chaotic Logistic map and genetic technology. They used genetic
techniques to improve the chaos-based encryption algorithm, which was the first image-
encryption method to use this genetic algorithm.
After that, many researchers have attempted to apply the combination of DNA meth-
ods and chaotic systems to image encryption. The basic idea of DNA-based image encryp-
tion consists of two parts. First, the plain image pixels are encoded into DNA sequences
using DNA theory, and a key image is generated using DNA rules. In the second part, the
key image is generated by the encoded plain image pixels based on DNA operation rules to
obtain the cipher image. By combining DNA theory and chaotic systems, researchers have
developed new and more effective image-encryption algorithms that offer a high degree of
security and can withstand attacks from potential adversaries. The combination of DNA
and chaotic systems offers a promising approach to image encryption and opens up new
avenues for further research in this field.
Lili Liu and Qiang Zhang [135] were the first to use a combination of DNA encoding
and a chaotic map in RGB image encryption. The DNA is utilized to encode the pixel values
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 23 of 39

of image R, G, and B components and the Logistic map is used for n disturb image pixels.
Then, an enhanced image-encryption algorithm based on a DNA sequence operation, image
fusion, and a hyperchaos Chen system was proposed by Qiang Zhang and Ling Guo [136]
based on [135].
Because of their extraordinary information density, DNA methods are an effective way
to resolve the problem of the storage of one-time pads. Xing-Yuan Wang and Ying-Qian
Zhang [137] combined a DNA method and a CML system to present an image-encryption
method. Pseudo-random sequences generated by CML are used for XOR operation on
pixels of the plain image. After that, they encoded the confused image with a DNA
encoding rule and obtained a DNA matrix. Then, the rows and columns of the matrix were
rearranged and confused. Finally, the DNA matrix was decoded by the DNA decoding rule
to obtain the ciphered image.
Xiuli Chai [138] presented an image-encryption algorithm based on the chaotic system
and DNA sequence operations. First, they used a DNA matrix to encode the plain image
with a new wave-based permutation scheme, and then employed a chaotic sequence
produced by a 2D Logistic chaotic map for row circular permutation (RCP) and column
circular permutation (CCP).
Xiuli Chai and Xianglong Fu [139] presented a four-wing hyperchaos system and a
DNA-encoding-based image-encryption scheme. They introduced a simultaneous intra-inter-
component permutation mechanism dependent on the plaintext (SCPMDP) for shuffling, and
a diffusion mechanism based on random numbers related to plaintext for diffusion.
Shijie Zhang and Lingfeng Liu [140] proposed a compound Sine-Piecewise Linear
Chaotic Map (SPWLCM) to improve the dynamical complexity. Then, the SPWLCM and
a DNA rule were used in their image-encryption algorithm. However, the rules of DNA
encoding and decoding are determined by the SPWLCM, which is different from the
previous studies.
Xinyu Gao and Bo Sun [141] proposed a color image-encryption algorithm based
on cross-plane permutation, DNA mutation, and a hyperchaotic system. DNA mutation
refers to the transformation of a short DNA sequence into another short sequence at an
unknown site. It involves combining a simplified DNA mutation process with hyperchaotic
sequences to enhance randomness, and permuting color images across planes to strengthen
the security of the algorithm.

3.3.3. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with Cellular Automata

Cellular automata (CA) form a highly parallel and distributed system that is based on
the idea that complex structures and processes in nature can be generated by the simple
interaction of a large number of basic building blocks. CA can evolve through simple logical
calculations and thus exhibit pseudo-random and complex behavior. The basic idea of CA
is to divide a space into a grid of cells, with each cell being in one of a finite number of states.
The state of each cell is determined by its neighboring cells according to a set of simple rules.
These rules can be applied in a parallel and distributed manner, allowing for the efficient
processing of large amounts of data. Thus, CA can be used in cryptosystems [142,143] or to
generate random sequences [144]. Researchers have been inspired to combine CA with a
chaotic system to construct new image-encryption algorithms.
Xingyuan Wang and Dapeng Luan [145] introduced firstly an image-encryption
method based on the combination of reversible CA and a chaotic system. The Logis-
tic map is used to generate pseudo-random sequences to shuffle and change the values of
bits of each pixel in the permutation stage and reversible CA is employed in the diffusion
stage to substitute pixels.
A hybrid model of DNA, CA, and chaotic-system-based image encryption was pro-
posed by Rasul Enayatifar and Hossein Javedani Sadaei [146]. They converted pixels of
the plain image into DNA nucleic acid using DNA standard rules. Then, the pixels were
encoded with sequences generated by CA and standard rules, where the choice of the rules
to be utilized was decided by a 2D Tinkerbell map.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 24 of 39

In Abolfazl Yaghouti Niyat and Mohammad Hossein Moattar’s article [147], a non-
uniform CA framework with chaotic systems is proposed to solve the shortcomings of CA
in cryptography. The Logistic map is used to initialize CA to create the key image, the Cat
map is employed to generate chaotic sequences, and the Chen map is utilized to select keys
from the key image.

3.3.4. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with Blockchain Technology

Due to the success of Bitcoin in recent years, blockchain technology has gained
widespread attention from both industry and academia. As the core mechanism of Bit-
coin, blockchain has many desirable attributes, including decentralization, anonymity,
persistence, and auditability. In particular, blockchain can operate in a decentralized envi-
ronment, enabling transactions to be decentralized, which helps to save costs and improve
efficiency. Therefore, blockchain has great potential in the construction of future Internet
systems [148]. The combination of blockchain and chaos for image encryption has also
recently been studied by scholars.
To resist the CPA, Ruiping Li [149] presented a fingerprint-related image-encryption
algorithm based on a chaotic system and the blockchain framework. The keystreams used
do not rely on the original image, but on the fingerprint of the sender. This algorithm
provides authentication and tracking capabilities in addition to CPA resistance.
In [150,151], the authors chose to introduce cloud storage or cloud computing into
encryption algorithms. Ref. [150] proposed a blockchain-based Chaotic Deep Generative
Adversarial Network Encryption (BCDGE) scheme with a cloud storage system for securing
medical images. A Blockchain Chaotic and Paillier Map-Based Authentication (BC-PMA)
scheme in a cloud computing environment was presented in [151] for security image data
sharing. This scheme not only improves the accuracy of authentication but also reduces the
false positive rate and calculation cost.

3.3.5. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with an Elliptic Curve

In addition to the applications for asymmetric image encryption discussed in
Section 3.2.3, the elliptic curve has also been used by some scholars with symmetric chaotic
image-encryption schemes.
In [152,153], Ahmed and Xiamu Niu hybridize a cyclic elliptic curve and a chaotic
system to design faster and more secure image encryptions. Their research also inspired
later scholars to pay attention to elliptic curves in chaotic image encryption.
Roayat. I. A [154] proposed a two-step image transmission method with a block-based
elliptic curve (BBEC). The BBEC is employed in the first step in order to solve the problem
of key distribution and management of symmetric key encryption. Then, a novel PRNG is
used to generate a pseudo-random sequence for image encryption in step 2.

3.3.6. Chaos-Based Image Encryption with Some Other Technology

A scheme for image encryption using a digital signature was suggested by Aloka
Sinha and Kehar Singh [155] in 2003. In this scheme, the digital signature of the original
image is added to the encrypted version of the original image. They used Bose–Chaudhuri–
Hocquenghem (BCH) code to encrypt the image, after which the digital signature was used
to verify the validity of the image.
Zhengjun Liu and Qing Guo [156] proposed double image encryption based on a
chaotic map and optical technology with gyrator transform. In this algorithm, the Lo-
gistic map is employed to generate the key, and the complex function is used to encode
two plain images.

3.4. Review of the Chaos-Based Image-Encryption Algorithms with Outstanding Contributions

We review some outstanding contributions of chaotic image-encryption algorithms in
Table 1.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 25 of 39

Table 1. Review of the chaos-based image-encryption algorithms with outstanding contributions.

Year Authors and Reference Contribution Label

A chaos-based image-encryption algorithm was proposed
1998 Jiri Fridrich [26] Symmetric Encryption
for the first time.
1998 Josef Scharinger [27] They highlighted the PRNG role in image encryption. Symmetric Encryption
Guanrong Chen They first extended Cat maps and images to 3D encryption
2004 Symmetric Encryption
and Yaobin Mao [18] at the same time.
Linhua Zhang
2005 They combined PLM with S-Box to apply image encryption. Symmetric Encryption; S-Box
and Xiaofeng Liao [67]
Symmetric Encryption;
2006 K. Pareek Vinod [39] They first proposed a chaotic color image-encryption algorithm.
Color image
A spatiotemporal chaotic system was first Symmetric Encryption;
2006 A. N. Pisarchik [90]
applied to image encryption. Spatiotemporal
S. Kwok and Chaotic image encryption based on a stream cipher was proposed
2007 Symmetric Encryption
Wallace K. S. Tang [84] for the first time.
Tiegang Gao and They first applied hyperchaotic systems to Symmetric Encryption;
2008
Zengqiang Chen [61] image-encryption algorithms Hyperchaotic
Lucas G. Nardo and The limited precision error was used as a source of randomness
2019 Symmetric Encryption
Erivelton G [52] in a chaotic image-encryption algorithm.
Zhi-liang A chaotic system was applied to image encryption
2011 Symmetric Encryption; Bitplane
ZhuWei Zhang [71] at the bitplane level.
2016 Lu Xu and Zhi Li [100] They combined PWLCM and BBD for image encryption. Symmetric Encryption; Bitplane
S. Behnia and They used chaotic maps for image encryption after coupling Symmetric Encryption;
2008
A. Akhshani [55] for the first time. Chaotification
Xingyuan Wang The dynamic growth technique was introduced into a Symmetric Encryption;
2015
and Lintao Liu [48] chaos-based image-encryption algorithm. Chaotification
Moatsum Alawida and TLTS and TSTS, formed using 1D chaotic systems as a seed map, Symmetric Encryption;
2019
Azman Samsudin [60] were employed in image encryption. Chaotification
Zhongyun Hua They proposed LTMM-CIEA and used cross-planar arrangement Symmetric Encryption;
2020
and Zhihua Zhu [54] and non-sequential diffusion. Chaotification
Chao-Jung Cheng and They first applied asymmetric cryptography to
2013 Asymmetric Encryption
Chi-Bin Cheng [107] chaotic image encryption.
Jiahui Wu and They first introduced an elliptic curve to a chaotic
2017 Asymmetric Encryption
Xiaofeng Liao [115] image-encryption algorithm.
They first introduced RSA into a chaotic
2017 Ünal. C and Akif. A [109] Asymmetric Encryption
image-encryption algorithm.
An asymmetric image-encryption algorithm based on
2019 Ali Shakiba [121] Asymmetric Encryption
Chebyshev polynomial.
DWT-based frequency-domain chaotic image encryption was
2009 Chun-jiang pang [102] Frequency Domain
proposed for the first time.
Zhengjun Liu
2011 Chaotic color image encryption based on DCT. Frequency Domain
and Lie Xu [105]
Abdul Hanan It was the first time to combine chaotic system and gene
2012 Genetic technology
Abdullah [134] technology for image encryption.
Lili Liu and A combination of DNA and chaotic systems
2012 Genetic technology
Qiang Zhang [135] for color image encryption.
They utilized a DNA matrix for image encryption while the
2017 Xiuli Chai [138] Genetic technology
chaotic system is for RCP and CCP.
Image encryption was carried out by combining neural networks
2009 Shiguo Lian [124] Neural networks
with a chaotic system.
Xingyuan Wang and Cellular automata were applied to a chaotic image-encryption
2013 Cellular automata
Dapeng Luan [145] scheme for the first time.
2021 Ruiping Li [149] The blockchain framework was used in chaotic image encryption. Blockchain

While chaos-based image-encryption algorithms have been significantly improved

and extended, there are still some shortcomings that need to be addressed in order to
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 26 of 39

optimize their performance in certain aspects, such as resistance to attacks and processing
of encrypted images. In Section 6 we discuss these challenges in more detail and explore
potential solutions.

4. Security Evaluation of Image-Encryption Algorithms

A variety of image-encryption algorithms based on chaos have been proposed, and
evaluation methods for their encryption performance, efficiency, security, and other aspects
are also needed. Here we introduce some concepts of performance-testing methods [157]
for chaotic image-encryption algorithms for readers to understand the relevant content.
• Key space
A good image-encryption algorithm should have strong key sensitivity, and its key
space should be large enough to make brute force attacks impossible [18]. Generally
speaking, a key space larger than 2128 is sufficient to prevent brute force cracking.
• Key sensitivity
Before being used for image encryption, a chaotic system needs to be tested for
properties that are extremely sensitive to initial conditions. Key sensitivity means that even
a small change in the key can lead to a considerable deviation from the correct result.
• Histogram
The histogram describes the distribution of image pixel values. In an ideal algorithm,
the histogram should be smooth and the pixel values evenly distributed to prevent the
leakage of image information.
• Correlation analysis
In general, there is a high correlation between adjacent pixels of a normal image.
Therefore, in order to hide the original image information, it is necessary to encrypt the
image and reduce the correlation of its adjacent pixels. We can judge whether the algorithm
is complex enough by checking whether the adjacent pixels of the encrypted image are
randomly distributed in the whole region.
• Information entropy (Shannon entropy)
Information entropy is used to measure the unpredictability and uncertainty of an in-
formation source. The higher the information entropy, the more uncertainty the information
source has. The formula of information entropy can be written as:

I ( T ) = −ΣiN=1 r (ti ) log2 r (ti ), (13)

where r(ti ) denotes the probability of symbol ti in the information source T, and N is the
cardinal number of symbols of information source T.
• Local information entropy
The local information entropy reflects the random distribution of the image in each
local area. Its core idea is to divide the image into non-overlapping image blocks and
calculate the average value of the information entropy.
• Unified average changing intensity (UACI)
UACI is a metric used to assess the quality of an image and is often used to compare
the difference between the original image and the processed image. UACI is intended to
measure the degree of change in the average brightness of an image and has the follow-
ing equation:
|C1 (i, j) − C2 (i, j)|
 
1
P ∑i,j
UACI = × 100%, (14)
M
where P is the number of pixels, M is the largest allowed pixel value in the images, and C1
and C2 are the input and encrypted image, respectively.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 27 of 39

• Number of pixels change rate (NPCR)

NPCR is an index used to assess image-encryption algorithms and is usually used to
compare the differences between images before and after encryption. NPCR is designed to
measure the sensitivity of an encryption algorithm to an image and is formulated as follows:
d(i, j)
NPCR = ∑i,j S
× 100%, (15)

where S is the total number pixels in the original image, and d is a binary array which is
defined as: 
1 i f C1 (i, j) 6= C2 (i, j)
d= , (16)
0 i f C1 (i, j) = C2 (i, j)
where C1 and C2 are the input and encrypted images, respectively.
• Resistance to different attacks
In addition, the ability to withstand various attack methods is one of the important
factors needed to evaluate the security of image-encryption algorithms. An excellent encryp-
tion program should be robust to all kinds of attacks, for example, known-plaintext attack,
brute-force attack, statistical attack, ciphertext-only attack, and differential attack [157].

5. The Application Areas of Chaos-Based Image Encryption

The simulation implementation of chaotic systems is of great importance for engi-
neering applications [158]. Various methods can be used to control the chaotic behavior of
engineering systems, such as delayed feedback control, open-loop control, and bifurcation
control, which involve manipulating the inputs or parameters of a system to stabilize its
behavior. The developed principles and techniques in this regard have wide-ranging appli-
cations in aerospace, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, robotics, cryptography,
etc. The investigation shows that chaos-based image-encryption technology is mainly
applied in the following three fields: medicine, the Internet of Things, and satellites.

5.1. Application of Chaos-Based Image Encryption in the Medical Field

Nowadays, with the progress of Internet technology, digital images are widely used in
the medical field, and medical image communication is used in many applications such
as remote surgery and remote diagnosis. Medical images generally contain confidential
information, including private information, so the security of medical images is essential to
protect users from all kinds of malicious attacks, avoid information loss, and ensure integrity.
The method of applying chaos-based image encryption to medical images provides an
effective way to achieve privacy protection and safe transmission of medical images.
In [159], a chaotic system and Hill cipher are utilized in mammography image en-
cryption. The proposed approach uses a symmetric algorithm that can be employed in
designing a FPGA-based encryption processor. A Logistic-map-based method was intro-
duced in [160] for online secure medical image transmission on public networks. Akram
Belazi and Muhammad Talha [161] combined DNA technology, a hash function, and chaotic
systems to devise a medical image-encryption scheme. In [162], the authors presented a
medical image-encryption framework with dynamic substitution boxes and chaotic maps
for protecting patient privacy and medical records. Recently, Behrouz and Saleh [163] intro-
duced an adaptive terminal sliding mode tracking approach for synchronization between
sender and receiver. Subsequently, the synchronized chaotic systems are used in medical
image encryption to improve security of transmission or storage.
Image-encryption algorithms for medical applications have specific requirements,
such as high security, data integrity (image quality), and encryption/decryption speed.
Traditional encryption schemes require high computational power and a long computation
time, which may lead to considerable latency, and also have drawbacks such as low key
space and vulnerability to attacks. The above scheme of applying chaos theory to medical
image encryption has been tested during key space analysis, histogram analysis, correlation
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 28 of 39

analysis, key sensitivity analysis, and testing of the ability to resist attack using UACI
and NPCR to prove that it is secure enough to effectively solve the problems in secure
medical communication.

5.2. Application of Chaos-Based Image Encryption in the Internet of Things (IoT) and
Microcontroller Field
The Internet of Things is an extension and expansion of the network based on the
Internet. It combines various information-sensing devices with the network to form a
huge network, which can realize the interconnection of people, machines, and things at
any time and in any place. Although the development of the IoT has gradually become
routine in recent years, there are still many problems to be overcome in the aspects of
technology, management, security, etc. Therefore, some researchers have tried to apply
chaotic encryption algorithms to IoT to improve its security.
In [164,165], different chaotic systems such as the Cat map and Logistic map are
applied to multimedia data encryption to improve its security. Jaishree and Arpit [166] are
more interested in the future sixth generation of mobile cellular network (6G) technology.
A hybrid image-encryption algorithm based on Hybridized Robust Zero-Watermarking
and a hyperchaotic system along with RSA was presented by them to secure multimedia
data communication over 6G networks in IoT.
Embedded systems have been applied in the military, electronic commerce, and
many other fields. An embedded system is a kind of computer system used for specific
applications, and the microcontroller is the mainstream component of the embedded system
industry. The embedded microcontroller integrates the whole computer system into one
chip, which has the characteristics of being monolithic, and having a small size, low power
consumption, and high reliability.
Mihai Stanciu and Octaviana Datcu [167] first proposed a chaotic encryption algorithm
implemented by an Atmel AVR microcontroller in 2012. However, it lacked an analysis of
the safety performance.
M. A. Murilo-Escobar and C. Cruz-Hernandez [168] presented an improved chaotic
encryption algorithm with high performance and low implementation-required resources
and implemented it in an embedded 32-bit microcontroller. However, low chip memory, low
frequency and speed, and no parallelism structure are the disadvantages of their scheme.
A lossless image-encryption algorithm using reversible lightweight operations was
proposed by Siva Janakiraman and K Thenmozhi [169], in which the chaotic key was
generated by a single-precision floating-point microcontroller. This approach solved the
shortage of on-chip memory available for microcontrollers.
In [170], a secure algorithm with an application to encrypt digital images as confiden-
tial information for secure wireless communications on M2M systems was introduced to
enhance the dynamics of five chaotic maps on microcontrollers. The article proved that
according to the current computer capacity, using a chaotic map was sufficient to achieve
security performance without affecting information security.
There are many reasons why chaotic image encryption can be suggested for micro-
controller and IoT applications. First, the data transmitted by devices in the IoT and
stored in microcontrollers may involve important information such as personal privacy
information and trade secrets. These proposed solutions have been proven to be highly
secure and confidential through the tests discussed in Section 4. Second, the chaotic image-
encryption algorithm can be implemented in a simple circuit, which is ideal for use in
embedded systems such as microcontrollers. In addition, the encryption/decryption speed
of chaotic image-processing algorithms is extremely fast, and can thus meet the real-time
requirements for data encryption and decryption in IoT.

5.3. Application of Chaos-Based Image Encryption in the Satellite Field

With the progress of science and technology and the development of the Internet, the
application of satellite images and maps has become common. Artificial Earth satellites
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 29 of 39

provide a higher working platform from the ground for a variety of sensors, so that
the sensors have a broader field of vision. Now, satellite-based communications and
remote sensing technologies can provide weather forecasting, geological surveys, resource
management, and some other services. However, in the process of using satellite and
remote sensing technology, the image will be threatened and lead to the loss of data privacy.
Therefore, more and more attention is being paid to image security, and it is necessary to
enforce security measures to ensure the authorized access of sensitive data.
In 2010, a chaotic satellite imagery cryptosystem with multiple chaotic systems, such
as Tent, Logistic, Henon, and Chebyshev maps, was proposed by Muhammad Usama [171]
to enhance the key space and security, and to overcome security, performance, privacy, and
reliability issues of satellite imagery. Youcef Bentoutou and El-Habib Bensikaddour [172]
combined a 2D Logistic-Adjusted-Sine (LAS) map with the classical counter mode of AES
and presented a satellite image-encryption method that can resist SEU and transmission
errors. Behrouz and Seyedeh [173] proposed a finite-time chaos synchronization satellite
image-encryption method that utilized chaotic oscillators in both the transmitter and
receiver ends. In their scheme, Lyapunov stability theory is combined with the finite-time
synchronization concept to achieve finite-time synchronization.
Satellite communications face interference from multiple sources, and the overall
stability of the chaotic system makes it resistant enough to deal with these interferences
effectively. For example, it can increase the security and privacy of satellite image transmis-
sion, reduce errors in satellite image transmission, and use the synchronization properties
of chaotic systems to synchronize multiple satellites, thus improving the stability and resis-
tance capability of satellite communications. Since the above methods passed most of the
assessments presented in Section 4, these approaches can make it secure enough to prevent
hacking during satellite communication. Furthermore, these chaotic image-encryption al-
gorithms applied to satellites also have a considerable advantage in encryption/decryption
speed compared with the traditional methods.

6. The Challenges of Chaos-Based Image Encryption

Studying the current challenges of chaos-based image encryption is important for
improving its various aspects and addressing potential vulnerabilities. By identifying these
challenges, researchers can gain new insights and inspiration for developing new and
more effective encryption techniques that can provide a high degree of security, efficiency,
and usability. These challenges can be seen as opportunities for further research and
development in the field of image encryption.

6.1. Resistance to Cryptanalysis or Attack

Chaos-based image-encryption technology has been developing rapidly, and its security,
robustness, encryption efficiency, key space, and other attributes have been improved in
different schemes with various methods. However, there is no absolutely secure encryption
scheme, which is why many scholars have studied how to attack and improve various chaos-
based image-encryption techniques. Therefore, protecting image-encryption algorithms from
attacks is an important task and challenge in the field of image encryption.
Ref. [174] notes that all chaos-based image-encryption schemes using constant keys
are vulnerable to attack. These systems can be made secure by having nonlinear functions
of the system parameters or keys with time and state variables. Then, in order to benefit
the subsequent chaotic cryptosystems, the common rules for security analysis of chaotic
encryption are proposed in [157,175].
Rhouma and Safya [176] analyzed an image-encryption algorithm in [61] and used
chosen-plaintext attack (CPA) and chosen-ciphertext attack (CCA) to attack it. The results
show that only three couples of plaintext/ciphertext were enough to break the encryption
in CPA and CCA.
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 30 of 39

The algorithm in [26], as one of the first chaos-based image-encryption algorithms,

also proved to be unsafe from CCA in [177] by revealing the secret permutation method.
The scheme was subsequently optimized in [178].
A CPA for S-Box-only chaotic image encryption was proposed by Yushu Zhang and
Di Xiao [179], who pointed out that the computational complexity is only O (128L). The L
here refers to the total number of pixels in the image.
An information-entropy-based chaotic image-encryption algorithm [180] was scrutinized
in [181]. The analysis result shows that it is very insecure against differential attack.
Lidong Liu and Zhaolun Zhang [182] pointed out two vulnerabilities of the plaintext-
related hyperchaotic encryption algorithm written by Zhen Li [183]; one is that there is no
change in the gray value of a specific pixel in the diffusion process, and the other is that its
arrangement is reversible.

6.2. Processing of an Encrypted Image

Processing encrypted images in schemes that use chaos-based image-encryption algo-
rithms is a challenging task that requires the development of new techniques and approaches.
In this regard, there are two main research directions that are currently being explored: image
compression and image retrieval.

6.2.1. Image Compression

Image compression technology can reduce the number of bits describing the image so
as to save the time required for image transmission and processing and reduce the occupied
memory capacity. The general scheme has good compression performance, but it cannot
guarantee the data confidentiality [184]. It is a challenging task to improve the security of
images while ensuring the compression efficiency.
DWT and DCT are used respectively in two different chaos-based image-compression
and encryption schemes in [103,184]. M. Brindha and N. Ammasai [185] utilized a hyper-
chaotic system to encrypt a plain image and compressed it with the Chinese remainder
theorem to improve the compression ratio and security.
Subsequently, an elementary CA and block compressive sensing (BCS)-based chaotic
image compression and encryption scheme was proposed by Xiuli Chai and Xianglong
Fu [186]. The scheme can transmit the image securely and simultaneously compress it on a
public network because of its excellent performance. However, it has a disadvantage that
the entropy of information is not ideal.
Recently, Jiaqi Wang and Miao Zhang [187] introduced fractal coding and adaptive-
thresholding sparsification into a chaotic image-encryption and compression algorithm.
Besides its fractal compression time being shorter and its encryption efficiency being faster
than those of some other algorithms, it can also process gray and color images of different
sizes. However, its image reconstruction function has yet to be perfected.
An ordinary image-encryption scheme will occupy a large bandwidth of the image
during transmission, but adopting a compression-based encryption scheme will increase
time complexity. In order to balance encryption speed and transmission bandwidth, there is
a need for compression while encrypting. In 2006, some scholars put forward the concept of
compressed sensing [188], and introduced many algorithms that apply compressed sensing
to image encryption.
In order to improve the security of encryption algorithms, several encryption algo-
rithms combining chaotic systems with compressed sensing are proposed in [189–191].
The measurement matrix of compressed sensing is generated by the chaotic mapping, and
then the original image is encrypted and compressed to obtain the final cipher image.
For example, Yang Chen and Pan Ping [191] designed a new chaotic measurement matrix
using Chebyshev mapping and Logistic mapping, and encrypted the measurement matrix
through nonrepetitive scrambling and bidirectional diffusion algorithms, further improving
the security of the encryption system. In reality, however, the quality of the decrypted
image restored by the existing compressed sensing algorithm is not ideal. Determining
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 31 of 39

how to construct better measurement matrices and image reconstruction algorithms is a

further research direction for scholars.

6.2.2. Image Retrieval

Image retrieval is a type of pattern recognition that involves preprocessing (enhance-
ment, restoration, compression, etc.), segmentation, and feature extraction of an image
in order to classify it. To protect the image from theft during transmission, encryption is
necessary during the feature extraction of private images. However, after the image is
encrypted by an encryption algorithm, the data is in a disordered state, which makes it
difficult to accurately perform feature extraction. Therefore, determining how to mine fea-
tures suitable for classification, retrieval, and prediction from disordered data and retrieve
images safely and efficiently in an encrypted domain are rather difficult and challenging
research directions [192].
Although some excellent image retrieval schemes have been proposed in [193,194],
they are all calculated for plaintext features, and their protection of image information is
limited. Recently, Qing Zhang and Yong Yan [192] combined chaos-based image encryption
with a deep learning model and realized the safe retrieval of images while effectively hiding
the content information of the original image using a fusion method of a feature vector and
ciphertext. However, a remaining deficiency is that the safety retrieval function of images
with a small sample size is not perfect.

6.2.3. Selective Encryption of Images

Presently, most image-encryption research work is concentrated on encrypting the
entire image to ensure the whole image is protected. However, in real-life scenarios,
image owners may only need to safeguard some portion of the image, such as portrait or
background information, when they want to share it. Thus, the selective encryption of
image content is a relatively new and promising research direction [195–197].
Song [195] employed the YOLOv4 target detection model to identify the regions of
interest and created a novel image-encryption algorithm using chaotic mapping. The
proposed algorithm aims to protect local images. Similarly, Wang [196] utilized two
different types of model, target detection and semantic segmentation, to obtain portrait
information. They also developed a chaotic image-encryption algorithm that works well
for images with non-uniform content sizes. Shan [197] used the PSPNet model to obtain
portrait information in images and introduced a new chaotic image-encryption algorithm
that used an upgraded perturbation–diffusion architecture. The experimental results
indicated that this algorithm demonstrated good security performance.

6.2.4. Thumbnail-Preserving Encryption

In recent years, the increase in cloud storage has generated interest among researchers
in image-encryption algorithms that offer a combination of confidentiality and usability.
As a result, various schemes, including image annotation [198], image retrieval or search-
able encryption [199], and thumbnail-holding encryption [200–202], have been proposed.
Notably, thumbnail-preserving encryption has gained significant attention. While the
first two schemes reduce the convenience of cloud storage, thumbnail-holding encryption
enables users to identify target images easily as the ciphertext and plaintext have similar or
identical thumbnails due to their a priori knowledge.
The combination of chaotic encryption and thumbnail-preserving encryption repre-
sents an optimal solution for balancing confidentiality and usability. Zhang [203] developed
a novel two-dimensional chaotic system by combining logistic and sine functions and em-
ployed it in the creation of a thumbnail-preserving encryption technique that produced
highly secure ciphertext images, even in the wake of known-plaintext attacks, data-loss
attacks, and noise attacks. Utilizing a modified Logistic mapping, Zhu and Liu [204] con-
structed a point selection table that generated more disordered selected points, resulting in
increased confidentiality of the ciphertext image in thumbnail-holdout encryption. Thus,
Mathematics 2023, 11, 2585 32 of 39

the integration of chaotic encryption with thumbnail-preserving encryption is a critical

area for future research in combining image confidentiality and usability.

7. Conclusions
Chaos-based image encryption is still one of the most effective methods for image
encryption. This paper provides a detailed review and discussion of chaos-based image
encryption, including symmetric and asymmetric encryption, to understand its develop-
ment. A summary timeline and performance evaluation of image-encryption algorithms
are also provided. Furthermore, the paper reviews the combination of chaotic systems with
other technologies in image encryption, including neural networks, genetic algorithms,
DNA technology, cellular automata, blockchain, elliptic curve, and other technologies.
The unique attributes of chaos-based encryption, such as sensitivity to initial conditions,
topological transitivity, and pseudo-randomness, enable cross-disciplinary collaborations
and further improvements in image-encryption methods. Moreover, chaos-based image
encryption plays a crucial role in practical applications. Examples of application scenarios,
including the medical field, the Internet of Things, the microcontroller field, and the satellite
field, are given in this paper. However, there are still some disadvantages and challenges in
chaos-based image encryption. This paper mainly discusses two challenges: resistance to
cryptanalysis or attack, and the processing of encrypted images. Nevertheless, these diffi-
culties are not only challenges but also opportunities, which can encourage further research
and development to supplement existing deficiencies and serve as future prospects for
chaotic image encryption. Overall, chaos-based image encryption is a promising technique
for image encryption, and ongoing research and development are necessary to improve its
security, efficiency, and usability. By addressing challenges and exploring new opportuni-
ties, we can ensure the safety and confidentiality of sensitive information in an increasingly
digital world.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.L.; methodology, B.Z.; writing—original draft prepa-

ration, B.Z.; writing—review and editing, L.L.; funding acquisition, L.L. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number
62262039, and Outstanding Youth Foundation of Jiangxi Province, grant number 20212ACB212006.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created. The images appeared in this article were
all completed by the authors.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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