Dept.

of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

EXPERIMENT NO. 1

 Title:
Study of safety precautions while working on electrical systems, handling of various
equipment’s such as multimeter, ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters, real life resistors,
inductors and capacitors.

 Objective:
To know the safety precautions while working on electrical systems and handling of
various meters, real life resistors, inductors and capacitors.
 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,
1. Be familiar with safety precautions, standard practices while working on electrical
installations.
2. Select and use of electrical measuring instruments.
3. Specify and select real life resistor, inductor and capacitor.

 Hardware Requirement:
Real life resistor, voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, multimeter, inductor, capacitor

Theory: [A] Safety Precautions

We know electricity is invisible, therefore, while working in electrical installations;

everyone should always first take care of personal safety. Casual approach or negligence
while working on Electrical installation may lead to fatal accident. Therefore, while
working on electrical installation it is necessary to observe and follow safety guidelines
and use of appropriate personnel protective equipment (PPE). Following “safety
guidelines” should always be observed while working on electrical installation.

1. Electrical accidents can be avoided by following safety guidelines while working on

Electrical installation.
2. Do not forget to put off the main switch in the case of a person is Electrocuted.
3. Do not attempt to disengage a person in contact with live apparatus, which you
cannot switch off immediately. Insulate yourself from the earth by standing on a
rubber mat or dry board of wood before attempting to get him clear. Evens then do
not touch his body, push him clear with a piece of dry wood.
4. Do not forget to put off main switch and take away the fuse carrier along while
working on Electrical installation. Put a caution notice( Tag) on or near the main
switch inscribing “danger, men at work”
5. Do not discontinue artificial respiration until recovery or death is certified by the
doctor.
6. Do not forget to put on your safety belt before starting working on a pole. If used, it
must a latter is used, it must be held by another man to avoid slipping.
7. Do not have any sharp tool protruding from the pocket when working on a high
voltage overhead line. Always keep one hand in the pocket.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

DO’s & DON’Ts WHILE WORKING ON ELECTRICAL SYSTEM/INSTALLATIONS

DO’s DON’Ts
Before replacing a lamp or handling a fan, Do not connect single pole switch or fuse
make sure that the supply is switched off in a neutral circuit, but always connect in
the live or phase wire.
Use correct size and quality fuse wire when Do not renew the blown fuse until you
connecting / renewing blown fuse are satisfied to the cause and have
rectified the irregularity.
When removing the fuse, Pull out the Do not use copper wire as substitute for
supply first and when replacing the supply, fuse wire.
and should be put in last.
Place sign “ Men Working ” or Work in Do not close any switch unless you are
progress board on main switch before familiar with the circuit which it controls
commencing work and know the reason for its being
opened.
Before working on any circuit or Do not touch or temper with any
apparatus, make sure that the controlling electrical gear or conductor, unless you
switches are opened and locked or the fuse have made sure that it is dead and
removed. earthed. High voltage apparatus may
give leakage shock or flashover without
touching.
Always treat electrical circuit as alive until Do not work on live circuits without the
you have proved them to be dead, The express orders of the person In- charge.
insulation of conductor may be defective.
Before working on motor or other rotating Make sure that all the safety precautions
machine, make sure that it cannot be set in are taken and you are accompanied by a
motion without your permission second person competent to render first
aid.
Cultivate the habit of turning your face Do not disconnect the earthing
away whenever an arc or a flashover may connections or render in – effectively
occur safety gadgets installed on mains and
equipment.
Guard against arcs as well as high voltage, Do not tamper with meter boards and
remember that burns from arcs may be cut-outs, unless you are authorised to do
very severe. so.
See that all splices and connections are Do not expose your eyes to an electric
securely made. arc. Painful injury may result even with
short exposure.
Use extreme care when breaking an Do not close or open a switch or fuse
inductive circuit as dangerously high slowly or hesitatingly, do it quickly and
voltage is likely to result. positively.
Thoroughly discharge to earth all cables Do not place any part of your body in
before working on cores. circuit either to ground or across the
terminal when making a connection or
operating.
Test rubber gloves periodically. Do not use wires with poor insulation.
Place rubber mats in front of electrical Do not touch an electric circuit when
switchboards. your hands are wet, or bleeding from a

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

cut or an abrasion.
Prevent accumulation of gases in Do not work on energized circuits
unventilated manholes. without taking any extra precautions,
such as the use of rubber gloves and
wooden handles.
Portable electrical equipment should be Do not use metal case flashlight around
inspected, tested and certified for apparatus which is energized. Do not
electrical safety every 6 months. After provide any joint in flexible wire.
every repairs /alterations it should be
rechecked.

WORKING ON STATIC CAPACITORS:

a) Please bear in mind that capacitors store energy and therefore are not necessary dead
isolated from the supply. Once charged a capacitor may retain charge for several
hours after it is disconnected.

b) First open the breaker and isolate capacitor. Then wait for 10 minutes for internal
resister / reactor to reduce voltage. Next with the help of hot stick ground and short
all terminal of the capacitor. Short should be left on while working.

c) For taking capacitor bank back into services, jumpers should be removed with hot
stick and then close isolators and breaker.

d) Capacitor body acts as one terminal, hence should not be touched unless properly
grounded.

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 Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Personnel Protective Equipment Matrix

Name of the Department: Maintenance

Year:

Name of the PPE given for the protection of

Sr.
Work Face Remark
No.
Head Eyes Ear Nose Hand Feet Body

Personnel Protective Equipment Matrix For working in High Voltage Area

High
Operation Helme Voltage Electric
1 - - - - - -
Of Isolator t Hand al Shoes
Gloves

Discharge High
Of Helme Voltage Electric Discharge
2 - - - - -
Electrical t Hand al Shoes Rod
Charge Gloves

Working High
On Helme Voltage Electric Safety Discharge
3 - - - -
Transform t Hand al Shoes Belt Rod
er Gloves

High
Attending
Helme Voltage Electric Safety Discharge
4 Break - - - -
t Hand al Shoes Belt Rod
down
Gloves

High
Helme Voltage Electric Safety Discharge
5 Doing PM - - - -
t Hand al Shoes Belt Rod
Gloves

Personnel Protective Equipment Matrix For Working with Chemicals

Handling
Nose Acid Safety
6 of - - Goggle - - -
mask Gloves shoes
chemical

Lab Nose Acid Safety

7 - - Goggle - - -
Operation mask Gloves shoes

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Personnel Protective Equipment Matrix For Working in compressor/DG Area

Workin
g in
Ear Safety
8 Compre - - - - - - -
Muff shoes
ssor/D
G Area

Personnel Protective Equipment Matrix For Working in Fuels

Workin Spark
Hand
9 g on - Goggle - - - - - proof
gloves
Gases tools

[B] Measuring Instruments:

1. Ammeter: Ammeter is used to measure current in electrical circuit and is required to

be connected always in series. As ammeter resistance is low hence voltage drop across
ammeter is low. The current coil of ammeter has low current carrying capacity using
shunt (Constant low resistance connected in parallel with coil of ammeter)in case of DC
and current transformer in case of AC ammeter can be used to measure high magnitude
currents.

Classification or Types of Ammeter-

1. Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) ammeter.

2. Moving Iron (MI) Ammeter.
3. Electrodynamometer type Ammeter.
4. Induction Type Ammeter.
5. Digital Ammeter (DAM).

Depending on type of supply i.e.AC or DC , ammeter is selected. DC Ammeter are

mainly PMMC instruments, MI can measure both AC and DC currents, also
Electrodynamometer type thermal instrument can measure DC and AC, induction
meters are not generally used for ammeter construction due to their higher cost,
inaccuracy in measurement.

Symbol:

0-10A 0-10A

A A
A) DC Ammeter B) AC Ammeter

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

2. Voltmeter: Voltmeter is employed to measure the potential difference( Voltage)

across any two points of a circuit. It is connected in the parallel across any element in
the circuit. The resistance of voltmeter is kept very high by connecting a high resistance
in series of the voltmeter with the coil of the instrument. The actual voltage drop across
the coil of the voltmeter is only a fraction of the total voltage applied across the
voltmeter which is to be measured.

Classification or Types of Voltmeter

1. Permanent Magnet Moving coil (PMMC) Voltmeter.

2. Moving Iron (MI) Voltmeter.
3. Electro Dynamometer Type Voltmeter.
4. Induction Type Voltmeter.
5. Electrostatic Type Voltmeter.
6. Digital Voltmeter (DVM).

Depending upon type of electric supply voltmeter is selected for voltage measurements.
For DC voltmeters PMMC instruments are used, MI instrument can measure both AC
and DC voltages, electrodynamometer type, thermal instrument can measure DC and AC
voltages as well. Induction meters are not used because of their high cost, inaccuracy in
measurement. Rectifier type voltmeter, electrostatic type and also digital voltmeter
(DVM) can measure both AC and DC voltages.

Symbol:

0-300V 0-100V

V V
A) DC Voltmeter B) AC Voltmeter

3. Wattmeter: The measurement of real power (Active power) in AC circuits is done by

using Wattmeter. The wattmeter is an instrument for measuring the electric power (or
the supply rate of electrical energy) in watts of any given circuit. Electromagnetic
wattmeters are used for measurement of Active power at fundamental frequency .It
consists of two coils i.e. pressure coil (parallel) and current coil (series). As the current
coil is connected in series with load, it measures the load current and whereas the
pressures coil which is connected across the load is used to measure the voltage across
the load. Mainly electro-dynamic type of wattmeter is used its construction is as follows.
The real power in AC circuits is given by expression.

P = VI cosø. In case of single phase circuit

P =1.732 VL IL cosø. In case of three phase AC circuit.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Symbol:
0-5A
0-300V
M L

C V

Images of analog meters:

4. Digital Multimeters: A digital multimeter is a test tool used to measure two or more
electrical values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is
a standard diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries. Digital
multimeters long ago replaced pointer-based analog meters due to their ability to
measure with greater accuracy, reliability and increased impedance. Digital multimeters
combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters—the voltmeter (for measuring
volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms). Often, they include several additional
specialized features or advanced options. Technicians with specific needs, therefore, can
seek out a model targeted to meet their needs.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Digital multimeter typically includes four components:

 Display: Where measurement readouts can be viewed.

 Buttons: For selecting various functions; the options vary by model.
 Dial (or rotary switch): For selecting primary measurement values (volt, amp, ohm).
 Input jacks: Where test leads are inserted.

[C] Electrical Parameters

1. Resistance: Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of

electric current. It is represented by the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of
resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a word, and sometimes symbolized by
the uppercase Greek letter omega.
Rheostats are made up of high resistivity material, like, nickel-chromium iron alloy
closely wound over a circular tube. These are available both in single tube and double
tube. Inter-turn insulation is provided to avoid short circuiting of turns. The tube of
rheostat is made of insulating material, like asbestos. These are employed at places
where resistance of a circuit is to be varied without breaking the circuit.

Symbol:

Fixed Resistance Variable Resistance

2. Inductance: An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal

electrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, capacitor
stores energy in an electric field and a resistor does not store energy but rather
dissipates energy as heat. An inductor is usually made from a coil of conducting
material, like copper wire, that is then wrapped around a core made from either air or a
magnetic metal. Capacitor opposes rate of change in voltage while inductor opposes
rate of change in current .Inductor is a device which can store energy in the form of
magnetic field. The function of an inductor is to provide opposition to a changing or
varying current.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Formula:

E=L di /dt

Where, E=E.M.F. induced, di /dt =rate of change of current through coil, L = self-
inductance.

Symbol:

Fixed Inductor

3. Capacitance: A capacitor is a passive electrical component consisting of a pair of

conductors separated by a di-electric. If the dielectric breaks down and becomes a
conductor, the capacitor can no longer hold a charge and is useless. The ability of a
dielectric to hold a chare without breaking down is known as the dielectric strength.
The measure of the ability of the dielectric material to store energy is called dielectric
constant. It stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field. The dielectric can be
anything from air to paper to plastic materials. In other words, a large value capacitor
will have large plates separated by a very thin dielectric layer. Charging and discharging
are the two main effects of capacitor.

Capacitance is measure of the ability to store the charge. Capacitance also depends
on the dielectric constant of the dielectric material separating the plates. The unit of
capacitance is Farad represented as F and named after Michael Faraday. The Farad is
actually quite hue unit so it is more common to find capacitors value quoted as micro-
farads, nano-farads and Pico-farads. When two metal conductors are separated by
dielectric constitute capacitance. An electric field is formed between two charged plates
with in the space between plates. Energy is stored in capacitor in this electric field.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

EXPERIMENT NO. 2

 Title: Charging and Discharging of capacitor

 Objective: To calculate and measure of charging and discharging voltage of

capacitor and observe the response on storage oscilloscope.

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

4. Derive charging and discharging voltage, current in RC circuit connected to DC
supply.
5. Justify initial and final value of capacitor voltage and current. Also define time
constant.

 Hardware Requirement:
Resistor, capacitor, DC supply, voltmeter, Digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)

Theory:

(A) Charging of Capacitor:

Consider a capacitor C is in series with the resistance R. The capacitor has initially no
charge and no voltage across it. When switch S is closed at t=0, the R-C series circuit will
get connect to supply voltage V.

S
t=0 R i

C Vc
V

At t=0-: when switch ‘S’ is in OFF condition

Current through capacitor i=0

Voltage across capacitor vc =0

At t=0-: when switch ‘S’ is in ON condition

V
Current through capacitor i=imax= R

Voltage across capacitor vc =0

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

At t=∞:

Current through capacitor i=0

Voltage across capacitor vc =V

Mathematical Analysis:

Let vc =voltage across capacitor at instant

q=charge on capacitor at any instant

i=current through capacitor at any instant.

By Kirchhoff’s law

V  iR  vc (1)

But current through capacitor is

dvc
iC
dt (2)

From equation (1) and (2)

dvc
V  CR  vc
dt
dv
V  v c  CR c
dt
V  v c CR

dvc dt
dvc dt

V  v c CR

Taking integration on both side

dt dvc
 CR   V  v c

t
  ln(V  vc )  K
CR (3)

Where K is constant of integration

At t=0, vc =0 substituting in above equation

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

0
  ln(V  0)  K
CR
0   ln(V )  K
K  ln(V )

Substituting in equation (3)

t
  ln(V  vc )  ln(V )
CR
t  V 
 ln 
CR  V  vc 

Taking antilog of both side

t
V
e CR 
V  vc

V
V  vc  t
CR
e

V
vc  V  t
CR
e

 
 1 
v c  V 1  t 

 e CR 
 t

vc (t )  V 1  e CR 
  (4)

At steady state V=Q/C

Similarly at any instant vc =q/C

Substituting in above equations

q Q  
t

 1  e CR 
C C 

 t

 CR 
q(t )  Q1  e 
  (5)

From KVL it is known that

V  vc  iR

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

V  vc
i
R

From equation (5)

 t

V  V 1  e 
CR

i  
R
t

V  V  Ve CR
i
R

t
V
i (t )  e CR
R (6)

Substitute above situation

Case1: When Switch S is closed at t=0

Substituting in equation (4), (5) and (6)

 0

vc (t )  V 1  e   0
CR

  as e0=1

 0

 CR 
q(t )  Q1  e   0
 
0
V CR V
i (t )  e
R =R

Case2: When Switch S is closed at t=∞

Substituting in equation (4), (5) and (6)

 

 CR 
vc (t )  V 1  e   V 1
0
  as e-∞= e

 

q(t )  Q1  e CR   Q
 

V
i (t )  e CR
R =0

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Time constant:

The term CR in above in equation is called as time constant of the R-C charging circuit
and denoted by τ measured in sec.

When t=CR= τ

Substituting in equation (76) and (78)


 
vc ( )  V 1  e   
  V 1  e 1  0.632V

  (7)

V V V
i (t )  e   e 1  0.368  0.368imax
R R R

Time constant in R-C circuit can be defined as time required by the capacitor voltage to
rise from zero to 0.632 of its final steady state value during charging.

OR

Time constant is the time required for the charging current of capacitor to fall to 0.368
of its initial value, starting from its maximum value.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

(B) Discharging of Capacitor:

Now consider the capacitor C is being discharged through resistance R by closing switch
S at t=0. Let capacitor is fully charged with supply voltage V volts.

C R
Vc=V

At t=0-: when switch ‘S’ is in OFF condition

Current through capacitor i=0

Voltage across capacitor vc =V

At t=0-: when switch ‘S’ is in ON condition

V
Current through capacitor i=imax=- R as current is opposite to charging current

Voltage across capacitor vc =V

At t=∞:

Current through capacitor i=0

Voltage across capacitor vc =0

Mathematical Analysis:

Let vc =voltage across capacitor at instant

q=charge on capacitor at any instant

i=current through capacitor at any instant.

By Kirchhoff’s law

vc  iR (8)

But current through capacitor is

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

dvc
iC
dt (9)

From equation (8) and (9)

dvc
v c  CR
dt
v CR
 c 
dvc dt
dvc dt
 
vc CR

Taking integration on both side

dt dvc
 CR    vc

t
  ln(vc )  K
CR (10)

Where K is constant of integration

At t=0, vc =V substituting in above equation

0
  ln(V )  K
CR
K  ln(V )

Substituting in equation (10)

t
  ln(v c )  ln(V )
CR
t V 
 ln 
CR  vc 

Taking antilog of both side

t
V
e CR 
vc

V
vc  t
CR
e

t

vc (t )  Ve CR
(11)

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

At steady state V=Q/C

Similarly at any instant vc =q/C

Substituting in above equations

t
q Q CR
 e
C C

t

q (t )  Qe CR
(12)

From KVL it is known that

vc  iR

 vc
i
R

From equation (12)

t

Ve CR
i
R

t
V CR
i (t )   e
R (13)

Substitute above situation

Case1: When Switch S is closed at t=0

Substituting in equation (11), (12) and (13)

0

vc (t )  Ve CR  V as e0=1
0

q (t )  Qe CR
Q

0
V CR V
i (t )   e 
R = R

Case2: When Switch S is closed at t=∞

Substituting in equation (11), (12) and (13)

 1
0
vc (t )  Ve CR
0 as e-∞= e

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab



q (t )  Qe CR  0


V
i (t )   e CR
R =0

Time constant:

The term CR in above in equation is called as time constant of the R-C charging circuit
and denoted by τ measured in sec.

When t=CR= τ

Substituting in equation (12) and (13)

  
vc ( )  V  e  
  V e 1  0.368V

  (14)

V V V
i (t )   e    e 1  0.368  0.368imax
R R R

Time constant in R-C circuit can be defined as time required by the capacitor voltage to
fall to 0.368 of its initial maximum value during discharging.

OR

Time constant is the time required for the charging current of capacitor to fall to 0.368
of its initial value, starting from its initial value.

Voltage Current

V t
vc (t )  Ve  0
CR i(t )  e CR
R
vC i
(volts) (Amp)  t (sec)
V
-0.368V

0.368V V

R
 t (sec)
0
V 0 V
t=0 vc (t )  Ve CR  V i(t )   e CR  
R R

V 
t= vc (t )  Ve  0
CR i(t )   e CR  0
R

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

 Procedure:

(A) Charging capacitor:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.

2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Set the required input voltage
4. Switch on RC series circuit
5. Note down the voltmeter reading which indicate voltage across the capacitance
with respect to time.
6. Note down reading till voltage is constant across capacitor.
7. Switch off the supply

(B) Discharging capacitor:

1. Take the charged capacitor of previous case

2. Switch on capacitor across resistance for discharging.
3. Note down the voltmeter reading which indicate voltage across the capacitance
with respect to time.
4. Note down reading till voltage is zero across capacitor.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

 Circuit Diagram:

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

 Observation Table:

(A) Charging of capacitor

Resistance R=_________ Ω,

Capacitance C=_________F,

Initial voltage=___________V

Time constant

Sr. Time Voltage across C Calculated

No. (sec) ( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

(B) Discharging of capacitor

Resistance R=_________ Ω,

Capacitance C=_________F,

Initial voltage=___________V

Time constant

Sr. Time Voltage across C Calculated

No. (sec) ( )
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

 Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

 Questions:

1. The final value of capacitor voltage in charging of capacitor is equal _________ and
final value of capacitor voltage in discharging of capacitor is equal _________.
2. The initial value of capacitor voltage in charging of capacitor is equal _________ and
final value of capacitor voltage in discharging of capacitor is equal _________.
3. Explain the significance of time constant in RC Circuits.

4. Write the equations of voltage and current for charging and discharging of
capacitor.

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

EXPERIMENT NO. 3

 Title: RL and RC Series Circuit

 Objective: To measure the steady-state response of series RL and RC circuits

on AC supply and observe voltage and current waveforms on a storage oscilloscope.

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

1. Derive impedance, power factor, active, reactive and apparent power in RL and RC
2. Justify the phase relationship between voltage and current in RL and RC circuits
3. Draw waveform and phasor diagram justifying the relation between voltage and
current

 Hardware Requirement:
Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, function generator, voltmeter, Cathode Ray oscilloscope
(CRO)

Theory:

(A) Series RL Circuit:

Let a single-phase AC supply is applied across a series circuit of

resistance , inductance as shown in the following figure:

If the frequency is then inductive reactance is given by

If the current flowing through the series circuit is the voltage across the resistance
is given by

The voltage across inductance is given by

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Applying KVL, the total applied voltage is given by̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅

From the above equations ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Where, is known as impedance i.e. opposition offered to ac current.

√ ( )

It indicates in RL series circuit that current lags behind voltage by i.e. voltage leads
current by

Instantaneous voltage and current are given by

Instantaneous active power is given by

[ ]

Here is fluctuating power whose average is zero over a full cycle.

Similarly is constant power whose average is non-zero over a full cycle.

Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by

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√ √
Active/real Power (P) [Watt]: It is the power consumed by the circuit. It is the
multiplication of RMS values of voltage, current and power factor.

Reactive/imaginary Power (Q) [VAr]: It is the multiplication of RMS values of voltage,

current, and sine of the angle of between voltage and current.

Apparent Power (S) [VA]: It is the multiplication of RMS values of voltage, current.

(B) Series RC circuits:

Let a single-phase AC supply is applied across a series circuit of resistance

, capacitance as shown in the following figure:

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

If the frequency is then capacitive reactance is given by

If the current flowing through the series circuit is the voltage across the resistance
is given by

The voltage across the capacitance is given by

Applying KVL, the total applied voltage is given by̅ ̅̅̅ ̅̅̅

From the above equations ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅ ̅

Where is known as impedance i.e. opposition offered to ac current.

√ ( )

It indicates in RC series circuit, current leads voltage by i.e. voltage lags current by

Instantaneous voltage and current are given by

Instantaneous active power is given by

[ ]

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Here is fluctuating power whose average is zero over a full cycle.

Similarly is constant power whose average is non-zero over a full cycle.

Hence average active power over a full cycle is given by

√ √
Active/real Power (P) [Watt]: It is the power consumed by the circuit. It is the
multiplication of RMS values of voltage, current and power factor.

Reactive/imaginary Power (Q) [VAr]: It is the multiplication of RMS values of voltage,

current, and sine of the angle of between voltage and current.

Apparent Power (S) [VA]: It is the multiplication of RMS values of voltage, current.

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 Connection Diagram:

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 Procedure:
5. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
6. Switch ON the power supply.
7. Apply required input to the circuit and see the waveform of input and voltage
across resistance on a storage oscilloscope.
8. Note down the voltmeter reading which indicates voltage across the resistance and
inductive/capacitive reactance
9. Measure the angle between the voltage across resistance and supply voltage. It is
the phase angle
10. Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.

 Observation Table:
(A) For RL series circuit: Resistance R=_________ Ω, Inductance L=_________H

Observed Values

Sr. No. Applied Voltage Current Phase angle Phase angle

Voltage across R difference difference in deg
(V)

1
2

Calculated Values

Sr. No. Applied Impedance Current Phase angle

Voltage difference in deg
(V)

1
2

Result Table

Sr. From observed values

No. Active Reactive Apparent Active Reactive Apparent
Power Power Power Power Power Power

1
2

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(B) For RC Circuit

Resistance R=_________ Ω, Capacitance C=_________F

Observed Values

Sr. No. Applied Voltage Current Phase angle Phase angle difference
Voltage across R difference in deg
(V)
1
2

Calculated Values

Sr. No. Applied Impedance Current Phase angle difference in

Voltage deg
(V)

Result Table

Sr. From observed values

No. Active Reactive Apparent Active Reactive Apparent

Power Power Power Power Power Power

 Conclusion:
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 Questions:

1. Define Active power, reactive power and apparent power with their unit.
2. The power factor angle of RL circuit is _____________________
3. The power factor angle of RC circuit is _____________________
4. A resistor is connected in series with a variable inductor. When the circuit is
connected to 200V, 50Hz supply it carries current of 2A with a power factor of
0.707 lagging. If the voltage drop across the resistance is 100V.Find the value of
circuit elements.
5. A series R-L-C circuit has the value: R= 10-ohm, L=0.01H, C=100microfarad. If the
applied voltage is 200V, 50Hz. Calculate the voltage drop across each and net
reactive power in a circuit.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4

 Title: Resonance in Series RLC circuits

 Objective: To derive resonance frequency and analyze resonance in series

RLC circuit.

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

6. Justify effect of frequency on resistance, inductive and capacitive reactance.
7. Calculate impedance of series RLC with variable frequency AC supply
8. Derive the formula for resonance frequency.

 Hardware Requirement:
Resistor, inductor, capacitor, voltmeter, function generator.

Theory:

(A) Series RLC circuits:

Let a single-phase AC supply with constant and variable frequency

is applied across a series circuit of resistance , inductance and
capacitance as shown in the following figure

(B) Effect of variable frequency:

 Resistance is independent of frequency

 Inductive reactance is given by i.e. . It indicates that as frequency
increases inductive reactance increases.
 Capacitive reactance is given by i.e. . It indicates that as frequency
increases capacitive reactance decreases.
 Impedance i.e.

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 The magnitude of the impedance is √ i.e. Z varies from RC to

RL with frequency.
 Power factor or angle it varies with frequency.
 Hence Power factor cos varies from leading to unity to lagging with frequency
 As a result, current also varies from low to maximum and then again to low

I cos 
I max
1

I m ax
2
leading

lagging

f1 f0 f2 f ( Hz ) f0 f ( Hz )

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(C) Resonance in series RLC:

It is observed that at a certain frequency, inductive reactance becomes equal to

capacitive reactance i.e. , this frequency in series RLC is called resonant
frequency.

Hence at the resonance frequency,

 Impedance will be . The circuit is purely resistive

 The magnitude of the current in the circuit is hence it is maximum than all
other frequencies
 The power factor angle
 Power factor i.e. unity

To derive resonance frequency we have,

√ rad /sec
√

Resonance frequency is

√
√

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 Circuit Diagram:

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 Observation Table:

Resistance R=_________ Ω, Inductance L=________H, Capacitance C=_________F

Sr. f VR
I = VR/R
No (Hz) (Ω) (volt)
(Ω) (amp)
In polar (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

 Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.
2. Switch ON the power supply.
3. Vary the frequency step by step in small steps by adjusting frequency variation knob.
4. Note down the voltmeter reading which indicates voltage across the resistance.
5. Switch OFF the power supply and disconnect the circuit.

 Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
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 Questions:

1. As the frequency decreases inductive reactance _______________ and capacitive

reactance __________________.
2. Which is the true condition for series resonance?
 
 

3. Write the features of series resonance.

4. A series R-L-C circuit has the values: R= 10-ohm, L=0.01H, C=100microfarad.
Calculate resonant frequency, quality factor, and bandwidth.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5

 Title: Star delta connection of load

 Objective: To Verify the relation between phase and line quantities in three-
phase balance star delta connection of load

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

9. Derive the relation of phase and line quantities in the three-phase system with star
and delta connection of load
10. Calculate power in balanced three-phase star and delta connected load.

 Hardware Requirement:
Voltmeter, ammeter, load bank, 3 phase variac

Theory:

Three-phase electric power is a common method of alternating current electric

power generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of poly-phase system and
is the most common method used by electrical grids worldwide to transfer power. It is
also used to power large motors and other heavy loads.

A three-wire three-phase circuit is usually more economical than an equivalent two-

wire phase circuit at the same line to ground voltage because it uses less conductor
material to transmit a given amount of electrical power. Poly phase power systems were
independently invented by Galileo Ferraris, Mikhail Dolivo-Dobrovolsky, Jonas
Wenström, John Hopkinson and Nikola Tesla in the late 1880s.

(A) Line Voltages and Phase Voltages: The conductors between a voltage source and
a load are called lines, and the voltage between any two lines is called line voltage.
The voltage measured between any line and neutral (two-terminal of a load of a
single phase) is called phase voltage. For example, for a 440Y/230 volt service, the
line voltage is 440 Volts, and the phase voltage is 230 Volts.
(B) Three Phase Supply System: In a symmetric three-phase power supply system,
three conductors each carry an alternating current of
the same frequency and voltage amplitude relative to
a common reference but with a phase difference of
one third of a cycle between each. The common
reference is usually connected to ground and often to
a current-carrying conductor called the neutral. Due
to the phase difference, the voltage on any conductor
reaches its peak at one third of a cycle after one of the
other conductors and one third of a cycle before the

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remaining conductor. This phase delay gives constant power transfer to a balanced
linear load. It also makes it possible to produce a rotating magnetic field in
an electric motor and generate other phase arrangements using transformers. The
amplitude of the voltage difference between two phases is √ (1.732...) times the
amplitude of the voltage of the individual phases.

(C) Star connected load: If the three start terminals or end points of the three loads are
connected together, the result is known as star connection as shown in following
figure. The common connecting point N, as shown in fig is known as star point or
neutral point.
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced line voltages (equal in magnitude and phase difference
of .
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced line
currents (equal in
magnitude and phase
difference of .
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced
phase voltages (equal in
magnitude| | and phase
difference of .
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced
phase currents (equal in
magnitude| | and phase
difference of .

From above diagram it is clear that phasevalues of currents are equal to line values of
currents i.e. and | |.

| | i.e. .

From above diagram it is also clear that phase values of voltages are not equal to line
values of voltages i.e. and | |.

To determine this relation, let balanced

supply is applied to three phase
balanced star connected resistive load.
I.e. phase voltages and respective phase
currents are in phase. The same can be
represented in phasor diagram as
below.

It shows that

̅ ̅ ̅

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The magnitude of ̅ can be calculated as

| | | | | || |

| |

| |

√ | |

(D) Delta connected load: If the start terminals are connected to end terminals of
another phase load, the result is known as delta connection as shown in the
following the figure.

̅ ̅ ̅
Balanced line
voltages (equal in magnitude
and phase difference of .

̅ ̅ ̅
Balanced line currents
(equal in magnitude and phase
difference of .
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced phase
voltages (equal in magnitude | |
and phase difference of .
̅ ̅ ̅ Balanced phase
currents (equal in magnitude | | and phase difference of .
From above diagram it is clear that phase values of voltages are equal to line values of
voltages i.e. and| | | | | |.
| | i. e. .
From above diagram it is also clear that phase values of currents are not equal to line
values of currents i.e. and | |.
To determine this relation, let balanced supply is applied to three phase balanced star
connected resistive load. I.e. phase voltages and respective phase currents are in phase.
The same can be represented in phasor diagram as given.

It shows that
̅ ̅ ̅

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The magnitude of ̅ can be calculated as,

| | | | | || |
| |
| |
√ | |
√

(E) Power in star and delta connected load

The active power in single-phase load is given by watts.

In star network:

Active Power in R phase

Active Power in the Y phase

Active Power in the B phase

Total of three active phase power

For a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by

In star-connected load, | | and √ | |

Hence for a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by

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In delta network

Active Power in R phase

Active Power in the Y phase

Active Power in the B phase

Total of three active phase power

For a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by

In star-connected load, √ | | and | |

Hence for a balanced three-phase load, total active power is given by

Same can be derived for reactive and apparent power.

Summary:

Star Connected Load/ Delta Connected Load

Power
Line Quantities Phase Quantities
Active Power √ Watts Watts
Reactive Power √ VAr VAr
Apparent Power √ VA VA

e-Resources:
(1) NPTEL Lecture Notes:
https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105053/pdf/L-18(NKD)(ET)%20((EE)NPTEL).pdf

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 Circuit Diagram: (For star connected load)

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 Circuit Diagram: (For Delta connected load)

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 Procedure:

A. Star Connected Three-Phase System:-

1. Make connections as shown in fig. Connect ammeter and voltmeter of the

appropriate range. Observe voltmeter readings and record them in the
tabular form.

2. Verify the relation between phase voltages and line voltages.

3. Record ammeter readings.

4. Verify the relation between phase currents and line currents.

5. Take voltmeter and ammeter readings for different loads and verify the
relations between them.

B. Delta Connected Three-Phase System:-

1. Make connections as shown in fig. Connect ammeter and voltmeter of the

appropriate range. Observe voltmeter readings and record them in the
tabular form.

2. Verify the relation between phase voltages and line voltages.

3. Record ammeter readings.

4. Verify the relation between phase currents and line currents.

5. Take voltmeter and ammeter readings for different loads and verify the
relations between them.

 Observation table:

(A) Star connected balanced load:

Sr. Line Voltages Phase Voltages Line Currents

No. VRY VYB VBR VRN VYN VBN IR IY IB
(V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (V) (A) (A) (A)
1

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Result table:

Sr. No. Observed √ From Phasor Remark

Diagram
1

Power Calculations

(B) Delta connected balanced load:

Sr. Line Current Phase Current Line Voltages

No IR (A) IY (A) IB (A) IRY (A) IYB (A) IBR (A) VRY (V) VYB (V) VBR (V)
1

Result table:

Sr. No. Observed √ From the Remark

Phasor Diagram
1

Power Calculations

 Conclusion:
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 Questions:
1. State the advantages of poly phase system over single phase system.
2. Write the equations for real power, apparent power and reactive for the three phase
balanced load.
3. Define: Balanced load, symmetrical system, line current, phase current, line voltage,
and phase current.
4. Prove that, the vector addition of the three phase voltages at any instant is zero.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6

 Title: Single Phase Transformer

 Objective:
To determine efficiency and regulation of transformer by direct loading test of single
phase transformer.

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

11. Calculate the efficiency of single phase transformer at various load condition.
12. Determine the maximum efficiency point and the load at which it occurs.
13. Calculate the voltage regulation of the single phase transformer at different load
conditions.

 Hardware Requirement:
Single phase transformer, voltmeter, ammeter, wattmeter, load bank

Theory: [A] Transformer: Regulation and Efficiency

The transformer is a static device which transforms electric power from one ac circuit
to another ac circuit individually. It works on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction. Direct loading method is used for testing a transformer. In this method, the
transformer is loaded to its full and the efficiency i.e. output power/input power and the
voltage regulation are known.

Voltage Regulation is defined as the change in the voltage across the load from no load
to full load condition in terms of Full load voltage. At no-load condition full secondary
rated voltage is available across the load but as the load goes on increasing the voltage
drop goes on increasing which reduces the voltage across the load. The graph of
regulation Vs load is a straight line.

Efficiency: The efficiency of the transformer is defined as the ratio output powerat
secondary to input power at primary terminals.

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Direct loading method: Now basically we're talking about knowing the performance of
the transformer, i.e., we're trying to find its efficiency. Finding efficiency is done by two
methods, (i) Direct (ii) Indirect

In direct loading method, the transformer is directly connected to the load to find input
and output by metering equipment.

Advantages:

 Simple process,

 no much calculations needed,

 Simple setup

Disadvantages:

 It's not economical to do this test on large rating machines as; just for the sake of
the test, you can't waste a large amount of energy.

 You can't get information about the share of different types of losses

 It's a difficult task arrange different kinds for the load (R,L,C) from no load to full
load to study performance at different situations.

 Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Switch ON the supply and apply the rated voltage to the primary side of the
transformer and keep this voltage constant throughout the experiment.
3. Takedown the readings of ammeter, voltmeter, and wattmeter connected in the
primary and secondary circuit at no-load conditions.
4. Increase the load gradually and take down the reading of all the meter.
5. Take 5 to 6 readings up to full load condition of the transformer.
6. Adjust primary voltage to 230V at each reading.

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Circuit Diagram:

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Observation Table:

Sr. Primary Primary Wattmete Secondar Secondar Output power

No. voltage current r reading y voltage y current W2 = V2 I2
V1 (volt) I1 (amp) W1 V2 (volt) I2 (amp) (watt)
(watt)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Sample Calculation:

Sr. Voltage Current % Regulation % Efficiency

No. Ratio Ratio

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

 Conclusion:
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 Questions:

1. Transformation ratio (K) of transformer is _________

 N2/N1  V1/V2
 E1/E2  I2/I1
2. EMF equation for single phase transformer is
 E = 1.11 m f N  E = 4.44 Bm A f N
 E = 1.11 Bm A f N  E = 4.44 m f N

3. The transformer efficiency will be maximum at

 Pcu=Pi  Pcu=2Pi
 Pcu=0.5Pi  Pcu=0.9Pi

4. Explain different losses taking place in the transformer

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EXPERIMENT NO. 7

 Title: KVL and Super-position Theorem

 Objective:
To verify Kirchhoff’s current law, Kirchhoff’s voltage law and Superposition Theorem
for the given circuit

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

14. State KVL, KCL and superposition theorem.
15. Apply KVL, KCL and superposition theorem in given circuits.

 Hardware Requirement:
Practical kit of KCL-KVL, Superposition theorem, connecting wires, DC supply (0-20V)

Theory:

Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws allow us to solve complex circuit problems by defining a set of
basic network laws and theorems for the voltages and currents around a circuit. In
1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws
which deal with the conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These
two rules are commonly known as: Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoff’s laws
dealing with the current flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL)
while the other law deals with the voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s
Voltage Law, (KVL).

[A] Kirchhoff’s Law:

(1) Kirchhoff’s current Law (KCL):

The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero, ∑ I = 0.

Here, the three currents entering the node, I1, I2, and I3 are all positive in value and the
two currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then this means we can
also rewrite the equation as;

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The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or junction of two
or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables and components. Also for
current to flow either in or out of a node a closed circuit path must exist. We can use
Kirchhoff’s current law when analyzing parallel circuits.

(2) Kirchhoff’s voltage Law (KVL):

The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit equals zero, ∑ U
= 0. That means “in any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal
to the sum of all the voltage drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero.
This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of
all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting
point. It is important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise
or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law
when analyzing series circuits.

[B] Superposition Theorem:

For every electrical circuit, there are two or additional independent supplies like
current, voltage or both the sources. For examining these electrical
circuits, superposition theorem is widely utilized.

Superposition theorem states that in a linear bilateral network containing more than
one source, the current flowing through the branch is the algebraic sum of the current
flowing through that branch when sources are considered one at a time and replacing
other sources by their respective internal resistances.

To ascertain the contribution of each individual source, all of the other sources first
must be "turned off" (set to zero).

 Replacing all other independent voltage sources with a short circuit (thereby
eliminating difference of potential. i.e. V=0, internal impedance of ideal voltage
source is ZERO (short circuit)).
 Replacing all other independent current sources with an open circuit (thereby
eliminating current. i.e. I=0, internal impedance of ideal current source is infinite
(open circuit).

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 This procedure is followed for each source in turn, and then the resultant responses
are added to determine the true operation of the circuit. The resultant circuit
operation is the superposition of the various voltage and current sources.

 Theoretical solution: (KVL and SPT)

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Connection Diagram:

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 Procedure:

Procedure for KCL:

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set a particular value of voltage sources 1 and 2
3. Note down the corresponding ammeter reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages

Procedure for KVL:

1. Give the connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Set a particular value of voltage sources 1 and 2.
3. Note all the voltage reading
4. Repeat the same for different voltages

Procedure for Superposition theorem:

1. Give the connections as per the diagram. (RPS: Variable knob to change voltage)
2. Set a particular voltage value using RPS1 and RPS2 & note down the ammeter reading
3. Set the same voltage in circuit I using RPS1 alone and short circuit the terminals and
note the ammeter reading.
4. Set the same voltage in RPS2 alone as in circuit I and note down the ammeter reading.
5. Verify superposition

 Observation Table:

(1) KCL Theoretical values

Sr. No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I1 in I2 in I3 in I4 in I1=I2+I3+I4

mA mA mA mA
1
2

Practical values

Sr. No. Voltage V1 Voltage V2 I1 in I2 in I3 in I4 in I1=I2+I3+I4

mA mA mA mA
1
2

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(2) KVL Theoretical values

Sr. No. Voltage Vs V1 in V2 in V3 in V4 in Vs=V1+V2+V3+V4

Volts Volts Volts Volts
1
2

Practical values

Sr. No. Voltage Vs V1 in V2 in V3 in V4 in Vs=V1+V2+V3+V4

Volts Volts Volts Volts
1
2

(3) Super position Theorem

Theoretical values

Sr. No. When V1 is acting When V2 is acting When V1 and V2 are

alone alone acting
1
2
3

Practical values

Sr. No. When V1 is acting When V2 is acting When V1 and V2 are

alone alone acting
1
2
3

 Conclusion:
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 Questions:

1. What is the significance of a negative ( - ) sign from a calculation when solving

circuit problems?

 It means you did something wrong on your calculation

 You probably used a smaller scaling factor
 Real resulting current or Voltage is in the opposite direction to one assumed.
 None of these

2. In Superposition theorem, while considering a source, all other voltage sources are?
 Open circuited
 Short circuited
 Change its position
 Removed from circuit.

3. Classify electrical networks

4. State and explain KCL and KVL
5. State and explain Super position Theorem with diagram.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8

 Title: Thevenin’s Theorem

 Objective:
To verify Thevenin’s Theorem for the given circuit

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

16. State Thevenin’s theorem
17. Apply and analyse the circuit using Thevenin’s theorem.

 Hardware Requirement:
Practical kit of thevenin’s theorem, connecting wires, DC supply (0-20V)

Theory:

In-circuit theory, Thevenin's theorem for linear electrical networks states that any
combination of voltage sources, current sources, and resistors with two terminals is
electrically equivalent to a single voltage source Eth and a single series resistor R. The
thevenin’s voltage Eth used in Thevenin's theorem is an ideal voltage source equal to
the open-circuit voltage at the terminals whereas the thevenin’s resistance r used in
Thevenin's Theorem is the resistance measured at terminals AB with all voltage sources
replaced by short circuits and all current sources replaced by open circuits.

OR

Any linear bilateral, active two-terminal network can be replaced by an equivalent

voltage source (VTH) i.e. thevenin’s voltage or VOC in series with looking pack
resistance RTH.

Explanation:

Consider a network or a circuit as shown. Let E be the emf of the cell having its internal
resistance r = 0 RL → load resistance across AB.

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To find Vth :

The load resistance RL is removed. The current I in the circuit is =

The voltage across AB = Thevenin’s voltage Vth.

Vth=I R2 ⇒

To find Rth :

The load resistance RL is removed. The cell is disconnected and the wires are short as
shown. The effective resistance across AB = Thevenin’s resistance Rth.

Rth= [R1 is parallel to R2 and this combination in series with R3]

The thevenin’s equivalent circuit is given by:

Current flowing through the load resistance RL is IL =

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 Circuit Diagram:

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 Procedure:

1. Measure the voltage across AB (i.e. p. d. across load resistor).

2. Remove load resistor–
3. Measure the open-circuit voltage across AB with the help of multimeter (Placing
positive terminal of multimeter at A and negative at B) - Measure the Thevenin’s
resistance with the help of multimeter (with short-circuiting voltage sources and
open circuiting current sources (if any) (Alternatively you can measure the short
circuit current through load).
4. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 2; replacing ETH and RTH are open-circuit
voltage and thevenin’s resistance respectively, as measured in the third step.
5. Connect the load and measure the voltage across the load with the help of a
voltmeter.

 Observation table:

E ( V) Vth (V) Rth(Ohm) IL (mA)

Theoretical
Practical

 Calculation & Theoretical Solution:

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 Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Questions:

1. State and explain Thevenin’s theorem.

2. What are the conditions for neglecting voltage source (ideal and practical)?
3. What are the conditions for neglecting current source (ideal and practical)?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9

 Title: Measurement of insulation resistance

 Objective: To measure insulation resistance of electrical equipment/cable

using Megger

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

1. Derive formula of resistance of insulating material.
2. Explain the construction of the cable.
3. Measure the insulation resistance of a cable with the help of Megger.
4. Justify effect of physical parameters on insulation resistance of a cable.

 Hardware Requirement:
Cable, Megger

Theory:

Every electric wire in your plant – whether it’s in a motor, generator, cable, switch,
transformer, etc. – is carefully covered with some form of electrical insulation. The wire
itself is usually copper or aluminum, which is known to be a good conductor of the
electric current that powers your equipment. The insulation must be just the opposite
from a conductor: it should resist current and keep the current in its path along the
conductor.

To understand insulation testing you really don’t need to go into the mathematics of
electricity, but one simple equation – Ohm’s law – can be very helpful in appreciating
many aspects. Even if you’ve been exposed to this law before, it may be a good idea to
review it in the light of insulation testing. Essentially, “good insulation” means relatively
high resistance to current. Used to describe an insulation material, “good” would also
mean “the ability to keep a high resistance.” So, a suitable way of measuring resistance
can tell you how “good” the insulation is. Also, if you take measurements at regular
periods, you can check trends toward its deterioration

When your plant electrical system and equipment are new, the electrical insulation
should be in top-notch shape. Furthermore, manufacturers of wire, cable, motors, and
soon have continually improved their insulations for services in the industry.
Nevertheless, even today, insulation is subject to many effects which can cause it to fail
– mechanical damage, vibration, excessive heat or cold, dirt, oil, corrosive vapors,
moisture from processes, or just the humidity on a muggy day.

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(A) Insulation Resistance of a Cable:

Insulation resistance is defined as the resistance offered by an insulating material to the

flow of leakage current.

Fig 1 shows the section of a single core cable which is insulated with the help of the
layer of insulating material. In such cables, the leakage current flows radially from the
center towards the surface as shown in the Fig.1 (a). Hence the cross-section of the path
of such current is not constant but changes with its length. The resistance offered by
cable to the path of the leakage current is called an insulation resistance consider an
elementary section of the cylindrical cable of radius r and the thickness dr as shown in
the Fig. 1(b). Let us find the resistance of this elementary ring.

(a) (b)

Figure 1: Single Core Cable

Let d = Diameter of core and r1 = d/2 = Radius of core

D = Diameter with sheath and r2 = D/2 = Radius of cable with sheath

= Resistivity of insulation material in

As the leakage current flows radially outwards, the length along which the current flows
in an elementary ring is meter. While the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the
flow of current depends on the length of meter of the cable.

Cross-section area = Surface area for length of cable =

Length of leakage current path in the cable = .

Hence insulation resistance for the elementary ring is meter is

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

The total insulation resistance of the cable can be obtained by integrating the resistance
of an elementary ring from inner radius up to the outer radius i.e. to meters.

∫ ∫ ∫ [ ]

Hence insulation resistance is given by

( )

(B) Factors affecting insulation resistance of a cable:

(1) It is inversely proportional to the length of cable

(2) It is directly proportional to cross section area i.e. thickness of insulating material
(3) It depends on the type of insulating material
(4) It decreases with increase in temperature
(5) It decreases with increase in moisture content.

(C) Measurement of Insulation Resistance:

You have seen that good insulation has high resistance, and poor insulation has
relatively low resistance. The actual resistance values can be higher or lower, depending
on factors such as temperature or moisture content of the insulation (resistance
decreases in temperature or moisture). With a little record-keeping and common sense,
however, you can get a good picture of the insulation condition from values that are
only relative.
The Megger insulation tester is a small, portable instrument that gives you a direct
reading of insulation resistance in ohms or mega ohms. For good insulation, the
resistance usually reads in the mega ohm range. The Megger insulation tester is
essentially a high-range resistance meter (ohmmeter) with a built-in direct-current
generator. This meter is of special construction with current and voltage coils, enabling
true ohms to be read directly, independent of the actual voltage applied. This method is
non-destructive; that is, it does not cause deterioration of the insulation.

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 e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Video: https://youtu.be/eBZdhX9iiSg
(2) Youtube Video: https://youtu.be/v0TsCtGh3nA
(3) Youtube Video: https://youtu.be/MktLS0bmyQ8

 Connection Diagram:

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 Procedure: Safety Precaution: For testing of the insulation, it is necessary to

ensure that there is no leakage current through the insulation used i.e. keep the
main switch in off state and load in off position where cable under test is connected.

Measurement of Insulation Resistance between Earth and Conductor:

1) Keep all fuse-links, switches, and lamps in position.

2) The main supply should be off.
3) Connect the one main leads of Megger either to phase or neutral conductor and
other to the earth continuity conductor of the system
4) Rotate the hand-driven Megger with constant speed to ensure required rated
voltage injection and note down the readings of insulation resistance.

Measurement of Insulation Resistance between Conductors:

1) Keep all fuse-links, switches, and lamps in position.

2) The main supply should be off.
3) Connect the one main leads of Megger either to any conductor of a cable and other
to another phase of the cable
4) Rotate the hand-driven Megger with constant speed to ensure required rated
voltage injection and note down the readings of insulation resistance.

 Observation table:

Measurement of Insulation Resistance between Earth and Conductor

Sr.
Connection Value of Insulation Resistance Remarks
No.
1
2
3
Measurement of Insulation Resistance between Conductors
Sr.
Connection Value of Insulation Resistance Remarks
No.
1
2
3

 Conclusion:
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

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 Questions:

1. Define Insulation resistance and write its formula.

2. Discuss the effect of temperature on resistance of insulation material with graph.
3. If the insulation resistance of a 100m single core cable with conductor diameter 1cm
and thickness of insulation 1cm is 1000M . Calculate the value of insulation
resistance if (a) length of cable is doubled and (b) thickness of insulation is halved.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10

 Title: Electrical Protection Equipment

 Objective: To demonstrate different types of electrical protection equipment

such as fuses, MCB, MCCB, and ELCB.

 Outcome: At end of this experiment, student will be able to,

18. Elaborate need of protection equipment in electrical systems.
19. Explain the structure and operation of fuse, MCB, MCCB, and ELCB.
20. Choose a protective device for a different electrical system with justification

 Hardware Requirement:
Open model of different types of fuses, model of MCB, ELCB and MCB

Theory: The need for Protection:

Electrical power system operates at various voltage levels from a 230V single phase,
415 V to 765 kV three-phase or even more. Electrical apparatus used may be enclosed
(e.g., motors) or placed in open (e.g., transmission lines). All such equipment undergoes
abnormalities in their lifetime due to various reasons. It is necessary to avoid these
abnormal operating regions for the safety of the equipment.

Even more important is the safety of the human person which may be endangered due
to exposure to live parts under fault or abnormal operating conditions. A small current
of the order of 50 mA is sufficient to be fatal! Whenever human security is sacrificed or
there exists the possibility of equipment damage, it is necessary to isolate and de-
energize the equipment. Designing electrical equipment from a safety perspective is
also a crucial design issue which will not be addressed here. To conclude, every
electrical equipment has to be monitored to protect it and provide human safety under
abnormal operating conditions. This job is assigned to electrical protection systems. It
encompasses apparatus protection and system protection. This is generally carried out
by using switchgear and protection.

Switchgear is a generic term which includes all the switching devices associated with
power system protection. It also includes all devices associated with control, metering
and regulating of electrical power systems. Assembly of such devices in a logical manner
forms switchgear. In other words, systems used for switching, controlling and
protecting the electrical power circuits and different types of electrical equipment are
known as switchgear. The switchgear has to perform the function of carrying, making
and breaking the normal load current like a switch and it has to perform the function of
clearing the fault in the power system. In addition to that, it also has the provision of
metering and regulating the various parameters of electrical power systems. Thus the
switchgear includes circuit breakers, current transformers, voltage transformers,
protection relays, measuring instruments, electrical switches, electrical fuses, miniature

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circuit breaker, lightning arresters or surge arresters, electrical isolators and other
associated piece of equipment.

Following are the major protective equipment used in household electrical appliances:

(1) Fuse
(2) Miniature Circuit Breaker (MCB)
(3) Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB)
(4) Molded Case Circuit Breaker (MCCB)

FUSE:

A) Types of Fuses and Applications

In the field of electronics or electrical, a fuse is an essential device used in various

electrical circuits which gives the protection from the overcurrent. It comprises a strip
or a metal wire that dissolves when the heavy flow of current supplies through it. Once
this device has functioned in an open circuit, it ought to rewire or changed based on the
type of fuse. A fuse is an automatic disconnection of supply which is frequently
shortened to ADS. The alternative of the fuse is a stabilizer or circuit breaker, but they
have many different characteristics.

B) Why do we require Fuse?

These are used to prevent the home appliances from the high current or overload
damage. If we use a fuse in the homes, the electrical faults cannot happen in the wiring
and it doesn’t damage the appliances from the fire of wire burning. When the fuse gets
break or damage, then an abrupt sparkle happens which may direct to damage your
home appliances. That is the reason we require different types of fuses to guard our
home-appliances against damage.

C) Working Principle of Fuse

The working principle of the fuse is “heating consequence of the current”. It is

fabricated with a lean strip or thread of metallic wire. The connection of the Fuse in an
electrical circuit is always in series. When the too
much current is produced due to the heavy flow of
current in the electrical circuit, the fuse gets soften
and it opens the circuit. The extreme flow of
current may direct to the collapse of the wire and
prevents the supply. The fuse can be changed by
the new fuse with an appropriate rating. It can be
designed with the elements like Cu (copper), Zn
(zinc), Al (aluminum) and Ag (silver). They also perform like a circuit breaker for
breaking the circuit while the abrupt fault happens in the circuit. This works like a
safety measure or protector for humans from risks. Like this, the fuse works.

The selection of a fuse can be done by calculating fuse rating by using above formula.
 Write down the voltage (volts) and power (watts) of the appliance.

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 Calculate the fuse rating.

 After the result, use the maximum fuse rating. For instance, if the calculated fuse
rating is 7.689 amps, you can use an 8 amp fuse.

D) Different Types of Fuses:

The fuses are classified into several types based on the application namely AC type
fuse and DC type fuse. Again these fuses are classified into several types. The following
diagram illustrates the electrical fuse types chart based on the AC fuse and DC fuse.

DC Fuse:
DC fuses are available superior in size, and DC supply
has a stable value over 0 volts. So it is tough to remove
and deactivate the circuit. There will be a chance of
generation of an electric Arc between dissolved wires.
To conquer this, electrodes located at better distances.
For this reason, the size of the DC fuse gets amplified.

AC Fuses:
The AC fuse is slighter in size and oscillated 50 to 60 times in each and every sec from
least to highest. As a result, there is no scope for Arc generation between the dissolved
wires. For this reason, they can be crammed in a small size. Further, AC fuses are
classified into two parts namely HV fuses and LV fuses. Here LV& HV indicates the low
voltage and high voltage.LV Fuses: The low voltage fuses are divided into five types
such as a rewirable, cartridge, drop out, striker and switch fuses.

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Rewirable Fuses: Rewirable fuses are LV fuses, which

are almost used in small applications like wiring in the
house, small-scale industries, and other tiny current
applications. These types of fuses include two essential
parts such as a fuse base, which has two terminals like
in and out. In general, this element is fabricated with
Porcelain. Another part of this fuse is a fuse carrier,
which grips the fuse element. This element is fabricated
with aluminum, tinned copper and lead. The main
advantage of a fuse carrier is, we can simply plug and
remove from the base of the fuse without the risk of
shock. As the fuse is damaged due to heavy current,
then we can simply eliminate the Fuse Carrier as well as
put back the fuse wire.
Cartridge type Fuses: The cartridge type of fuses has
entirely closed containers and the metal contact as well.
The applications of this fuse mainly include low voltage
(LV), high voltage (HV), and small fuses. Again, these
types of fuses are classified into two types, they are D-
type and Link-type fuses.
D-type Cartridge Fuse
This type of fuse is composed with the cartridge, base of
the fuse, adapter ring, and cap. The base of the fuse
includes a fuse cap, which is packed with the fuse
ingredient by cartridge using an adapter ring. It is
composed of the cartridge, fuse base, cap & adapter
ring. The fuse base has the fuse cap, which is fitted with
the fuse element with a cartridge through the adapter
ring. The connection of the circuit is finished when the
tilt of the cartridge builds contact through conductor.
High Rupturing Capacity or Link Type Fuse:
The link type fuse is also known as high rupturing
capacity (HRC) or BS type fuse. In this sort of fuse, the
current flow with fuse element is specified under
standard condition.In this BS type fuse, the flow of
current by fuse element is given under normal
condition. The arc which is generated by the fuse blown
is controlled is fabricated with porcelain, ceramic, and
silver. The container of the fuse element is packed with
silica sand. This type of fuse is again categorized into
two parts includes a blade type and bolted type.
Blade and Bolted Type Fuses
The knife type fuse or plug-in type of fuses is designed
with plastic. This type of fuse can be simply changeable
in the electric circuit exclusive of any load. In bolted
type fuse, plates of this fuse are conducting are set to
the base of the fuse.

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Striker type Fuse

The striker type of fuse is employed for tripping and

closing the electrical circuit. These fuses are having
plenty of force as well as displacement.

Switch type Fuse

Basically, the switch type fuse is enclosed with a metal

switch and also a fuse. These fuses are mainly used in
low and intermediate voltage levels.

HV (High Voltage) Fuses

Generally, HV fuses are used to protect the

transformers like instrument transformers, small power
transformer and also used in power systems. These
fuses are normally charged for voltages over 1500V to
138000V.
The fuse part in HV fuses are fabricated with either
copper, silver or in some cases Tin is used, in order to
offer consistent and steady performance. These fuses
are classified into three types which include the
following.

Cartridge Type HRC Fuse

The fuse component of the HRC is cut in the helix form

which evades the effect of the corona at the upper
voltages. It includes two fused elements namely low
resistance and high resistance, and that are located
parallel by each other. The low-resistance wires take
the usual current which is blown-out as well as
decreases short-circuit current throughout fault state.

Liquid Type HRC Fuse

This type of fuse is packed with carbon tetrachloride

also preserved at both the tops of the caps. Once the
error occurs when the flowing current surpasses away
from the allowable limit, and the element of the fuse is
blown-out. The fluid of the fuse performs as an arc
extinguishing standard for the HRC fuse types. They
may be used to protect the transformer as well as the
support protection to the breaker circuit.

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Expulsion Type HV Fuse

These types of fuses are extensively used to protect the
feeders as well as transformer due to they’re low-
priced. It is designed for 11kV; also their cracking
capability is up to 250 MVA. This type of fuse includes
an unfilled open-finished cylinder designed with
synthetic resin-bonded paper. The elements of the fuse
are positioned in the cylinder, and the tops of the tubes
are linked to appropriate equipment at every finish. The
arc generating is blown off in the inside covering of the
cylinder, and the gases thus shaped destroys the arc.

E) Applications of Fuse:

The different types of fuses and their uses have discussed are essential components
in all the electrical circuits. Some of the main applications of fuses in the Electrical and
Electronics field include the following.
 Power Transformers, Electrical Appliances, like ACs (Air Conditioners), TV,
Washing Machines, Music Systems, and many more, Electrical Cabling in Home,
Mobile Phones, Motor starters, Laptops, Power Chargers, Cameras, Scanners,
Printers, and Photocopiers, Automobiles, electronic devices and Gaming’s

F) Advantages of an Electrical Fuse

1) It is the cheapest form of protection, and it does need any maintenance.

2) Its operation is completely automatic and requires less time as compared to

circuit breakers.

3) The smaller sizes of fuse element impose a current limiting effect under short-
circuit conditions.

4) Its inverse time-current characteristic enables its use for overload protection.

G) Disadvantages of an Electrical Fuse

1) Considerable time is required in replacing a fuse after the operation.

2) The current-time characteristic of a fuse cannot always be correlated with that of

the protective device.

Miniature Circuit Breaker:

Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB) are electromechanical devices which are used to
protect electrical equipment from an overcurrent. MCB is a mechanical switching device
which is capable of making, carrying and breaking currents under normal circuit
conditions and also making, carrying for a specified time and automatically breaking
currents under specified abnormal circuit conditions such as those of short circuit. In
short, MCB is a device for overload and short circuit protection.

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A) Construction: The construction

of Miniature Circuit Breakers(MCB) is
very simple, robust and maintenance-
free. MCB is replaced by a new one
when it is failing because MCB is not
repaired or maintained.there are three
parts of Miniature Circuit
Breakers(MCB) in construction,
1) Frame: the frame is a rigid,
strong, insulated housing in which the other components are mounted. it is a molded
case.
2) Trip Unit: For the proper working of the miniature circuit breaker trip unit is
responsible. Two main types of trip mechanism are provided in Miniature Circuit
Breakers (MCB). A bimetallic strip provides protection against overload current and
an electromagnet provides protection against short-circuit current. Trip unit is the
main part of the MCB.
3) Operating Mechanism: The operating mechanism of MCB provides with the manual
operation for closing and opening operation of the miniature circuit breaker. It has
three-positions “ON,” “OFF,” and “TRIPPED”. By observing the positions of the
switching latch one can determine the condition of MCB whether it is closed, tripped
or manually switched off. If the MCB is tripped due to over-current or overheating,
the external switching latch in the “TRIPPED” position. When manually switch off
the miniature circuit breaker, the switching latch will be in “OFF” position. the
switch is positioned at “ON”, In a closed condition of the miniature circuit breaker.
B) Working: The principal of operation is simple. Function of Miniature Circuit
Breakers (MCB) is interrupting the continuity of electrical flow through the circuit once
a fault is detected. In simple terms of MCB is a switch, which automatically turns off
when the overcurrent flowing through it. Generally, MCB is designed to protect against
overcurrent and over-temperature faults. There are two contacts one is fixed and the
other movable. When the current exceeds the predefined limit a solenoid forces the
movable contact to open (i.e., disconnect from the fixed contact) and the MCB getting off
thereby stopping the current to flow in the circuit. The MCB is manually turned on to
restart the flow of current. This mechanism is used to protect from the faults arising due
to over current. To protect against fault arising due to overheating or increase in
temperature a bi-metallic strip is used. MCBs are generally designed to trip within 2.5
milliseconds when an overcurrent fault arises. In case of temperature rise or
overheating it may take 2 seconds to 2 minutes for the MCB to trip. If the circuit is
overloaded for a long time, the bimetallic strip becomes overheated and deformed. This
deformation of bimetallic strip causes displacement of latch point. The moving contact
of the MCB is so arranged by means of spring pressure, with this latch point, that a little
displacement of latch causes, release of spring and makes the moving contact to move
for opening the MCB. The current coil or trip coil is placed such a manner that during
short circuit fault the MMF of that coil causes its plunger to hit the same latch point and

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make the latch to be displaced. Hence the MCB will open in the same manner. And it
protects the circuit from the overcurrent or overloading.

C) Advantages:

1. With a miniature circuit breaker, it is very simple to resume to the supply. You just
need to push the knob of MCB back to on position. But in case of fuse, the entire fuse
wire needs to be replaced.

2. A miniature circuit breaker is more sensitive to current than a fuse. It detects any
abnormality in the current flow and automatically switches off the electrical circuit.
3. A miniature circuit breaker is reusable and hence has less maintenance and
replacement cost. Whereas a fuse needs to be replaced whenever it goes faulty.
4. In the case of a miniature circuit breaker, the faulty zone of an electrical circuit can
be easily identified.

D) Types of MCB

There are three standard characteristics are available for domestic as well as
commercial MCBs and are given by B, C and D. Each type has its own function. The
settings or characteristics of an MCB are fixed in the factory itself by the manufacturer
and they are not adjustable at the user end or at the site. Tripping currents for
operation at 0.1 Sec or less of different MCBs are given below.

e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/6lpH6HFhDik
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/9Xgn40eGcqY

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Dept. of Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering Basic Electrical Lab

Type B
MCBs are mainly used where switching surges are small or non-
exist and are generally suitable for domestic applications and light
commercial applications. There are no devices with long high
starting current in domestic applications and hence the best
suited MCB is type B.
These are designed to trip at fault currents in the range of 3 to 5
times the rated current. Suppose if the rated current is 10 A, then
the MCB trips at 30-50 A.

Type C
MCBs are designed for high inductive circuits where surge
currents are expected. These are generally used for commercial
and industrial applications where a number of fluorescent lamps
being turned ON or starting of small motors may give high surge
currents.
These are less sensitive than type B MCBs and causes reduced
nuisance trips. Type C MCBs are designed to operate or trip at the
fault currents of 5-10 times that of rated current. For 10 A type C
MCB, the operating current range is 50-100 A.

Type D
MCBs are designed for heavy industrial applications where
normal surge currents are very high. These are ideal for electric
welders and site transformers where frequent high surge currents
are expected.
The most common applications of type D MCBs include motors,
UPS systems, X-ray machines, transformers and battery charging
systems. These are designed to trip at 10-20 times rated current.
For 10 A type D MCB, the operating current range is 100-200 A.

Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB):

An ECLB is one kind of safety device used for installing an electrical device with high
earth impedance to avoid shock. These devices identify small stray voltages of
the electrical device on the metal enclosures and intrude the circuit if a dangerous
voltage is identified. The main purpose of Earth leakage circuit breaker (ECLB) is to stop
damage to humans & animals due to electric shock. Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
(ELCB) is a device used to directly detect currents leaking to earth from an installation
and cut the power and mainly used in TT earthing systems.

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There are two types of ELCBs:

1. Voltage Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (voltage-ELCB)
2. Current Earth Leakage Current Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (Current-ELCB).
Voltage-ELCBs have first introduced about sixty years ago and Current ELCB
was first introduced about forty years ago. For many years, the voltage-operated ELCB
and the differential current operated ELCB were both referred to as ELCBs because it
was a simpler name to remember. But the use of a common name for two different
devices gave rise to considerable confusion in the electrical industry. If the wrong type
was used on an installation, the level of protection given could be substantially less than
that intended. To ignore this confusion, IEC decided to apply the term Residual Current
Device (RCD) to differential current operated ELCBs. Residual current refers to any
current over and above the load current.
(A) Working Principle of Voltage ELCB:

Voltage ELCB is a voltage operated device. It has a coil and if the voltage across the coil
exceeds a predetermined value such as 50 V, the current through the coil will be
sufficient enough to trip the circuit. Voltage ELCB is connected in between the metallic
part of equipment and the Earth. If we take an example of insulation failure, then the
voltage across the coil of Voltage ELCB will drive enough current to cut the power
supply till the manually reset. The way to identify an ELCB is by looking for green or
green and yellow earth wires entering the device. They rely on voltage returning to the
trip via the earth wire during a fault and afford only limited protection to the
installation & no personal protection at all. You should use plugin 30mA RCD’s for any
appliances and extension leads that may be used outside as a minimum.
Advantages of Voltage Operated ELCB
 ELCBs are less sensitive to fault conditions and have few nuisance trips.

 While current and voltage on the ground line generally fault current from a live
wire, this is not continuously the case, therefore there are conditions in which an
ELCB can annoyance trip.

 When installation of the electrical instrument has two contacts to earth, a near
high current lightning attack will root a voltage gradient in the earth, offering the
ELCB sense coil with sufficient voltage to source it to a trip.

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 If either of the soil wires become detached from the ELCB, it will no longer install
will frequently no longer be correctly earthed.

 These ELCBs are the necessity for a second connection and the opportunity that
any extra connection to ground on the threatened system can inactivate the
detector.

Disadvantages of Voltage Operated ELCB

 They do not sense errors that don’t permit current through the CPC to the ground
rod.

 They do not permit an only building system to be simply divided into many
sections with independent error protection because earthing systems are typically
used mutual earth, Rod.

 They may be skipped by outside voltages from something associated with the
earthing system like as metal pipes, a TN-C-S or a TN-S earth mutual neutral and
earth.

 As electrical leaky utilizations like washing machines, some water heaters and
cookers might source the ELCB to trip.

 ELCBs present an extra resistance & an extra point of failure in the earthing
system.

(B) Working Principle of Current ELCB:

The working of Current ELCB is
quite interesting but easy. Current
operated ELCB is also known as
Residual Current Device, RCD. A
Residual Current Device (RCD) has
a toroidal iron core over which
phase and neutral windings are
wound. A search coil is also wound
on the same iron core which in
turn is connected to the trip coil.
Figure below shows the constructional detail of RCD or Current ELCB. Under normal
operating condition, the current through the phase winding and neutral winding are
same but both the windings are wound in such a manner to oppose the mmfs of each
other, therefore net mmf in the toroidal iron core will be zero. Let us consider a
condition where earth leakage current exists in the load side. In this case the current
through the phase and neutral will no longer be equal rather phase current will be more
than the neutral current. Thus mmf produced by phase winding will be more than the
mmf produced by neutral winding because of which a net mmf will exist in the toroidal
iron core.

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This net mmf in the core will link with the Search Coil and as the mmf is changing in
nature (current is AC), an emf will be induced across the terminals of the Search Coil.
This emf will in turn drive a current through the Trip Coil which will pull (because of
current flow through the Trip Coil, it will behave as an electromagnet and hence will
pull the lever to open contact) the supply contacts to isolate the power supply. Notice
that Current ELCB works on Residual Current that is the reason it is also called Residual
Current Device. A RCD / Current ELCB is also provided with test button to check the
healthiness of the safety device. If you carefully observe the figure, you will notice that,
when we press the Test Button, Load and phase winding are bypassed due to which
only mmf because of neutral winding will exist in the core (as there is no opposing mmf
as was the case with both the windings in service) which will cause RCD to trip to
isolate the supply.

e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/zH3gsVOtw2c
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/G6edCysCxeA

Molded Case Circuit Breaker:

Molded Case Circuit Breakers are electromechanical devices which protect a circuit
from Overcurrent and Short Circuit. They provide Overcurrent and Short Circuit. They
provide Overcurrent and Short Circuit Protection for circuits ranging from 63 Amps up
to 3000 Amps. Their primary functions are to provide a means to manually open a
circuit and automatically open a circuit under overload or short circuit conditions. The
overcurrent, in an electrical circuit, may result from short circuit, overload or faulty
design. Unlike fuse, an MCCB can be easily reset after a fault and offers improved
operational safety and convenience without incurring operating cost. Molded case
circuit breakers generally have a Thermal element for overcurrent and Magnetic
element for short circuit release which has to operate faster. MCCBs are
manufactured such that end user will not have access to internal workings of the over-
current protection device. Generally constructed of two pieces of heavy-duty electrically
insulated plastic, these two halves are riveted together to form the whole. Inside the

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plastic shell is a series of thermal elements and a Spring-loaded trigger. When the
thermal element gets too warm, from an overcurrent situation, the spring trips, which in
turn will shut off the electrical circuit.

1. Sizing the MCCB: MCCBs in an electrical circuit should be sized according to the
circuit’s expected operating current and possible fault currents. The three main
criteria while selecting MCCBs are:
 The rated working voltage (Ue) of the MCCB should be similar to the system voltage.
 The trip value of the MCCB should be adjusted according to current drawn by load.
 The breaking capacity of the MCCB must be higher than the theoretical possible
fault currents.

2. Types of MCCB:
Type Operating Operatin Application Suitability Surge Installation
of Current g Time Current Location
MCCB

Type B Trips between 0.04-13 Domestic Resistive load Low Sub feeder of
3 and 5 times seconds applications application Distribution board
rated current (lighting and
(In) resistive
elements)

Type C Trips between 0.04-5 Commercial or Inductive load Moderat At

5 and 10 times seconds industrial applications e incoming/outgoin
rated current applications g of Distribution
(In) Board

Type D Trips between 0.04-3 Commercial or Inductive High At incoming of

10 and 20 seconds industrial capacitive load Distribution
times rated applications applications Board/Panels
current (In) (Pumps, motor,
large winding
motors etc.)

Type K Trips between8 0.04-5 Industrial Inductive and High At incoming of

and 12 times seconds applications motor loads Distribution
rated current with high inrush Board/Panels
(In) currents.

Type Z Trips between 0.04-5 Highly sensitive to Medical Very low At sub feeder of
2 and 3 times seconds short circuit & are instruments Distribution board
rated current used for for IT equipment.
(In) protection of
highly sensitive
devices such as
semiconductor
devices

e-Resources:
(1) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/xU99YrzClN4
(2) Youtube Videos: https://youtu.be/8BJm62AVaHY

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 Conclusion:
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 Questions:

1. Fault in the power system can cause

 Mal operation of the equipment  Damage to equipment
 Harmful to human being  All of the above

2. What are the differences between ELCB and MCB?

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