The first quarter of the 20th century witnessed the emergence of diverse architectural movements

which pioneered the advent of modern architecture. Discuss.

To understand modern architecture, the first step is to evaluate the ideas of the
pioneers of that time and to speculate the different movements and what styles they were
suggesting. The term “modern” can simplistically be understood, to have associated with
the use of simple, geometric forms. It was a complete and opposite turning point from the
depiction of previous architectural styles; that being, the favour of classical or religious
notions. Architecture in modernism, had its origins based on the Industrial Age. It can only
be imagined, the difficulty that had stemmed, when it came to socially accepting the
implementation of steel and concrete. The Bauhaus was one of the movements that had
managed to stir the publics attention, in appreciating the qualities of simplicity and form.

It is to no surprise, that architects most of the time, consider the surroundings with which
they are working in, but it is not always the case. At the beginning of the early twentieth
century, there was a burst of diverse approaches in relation to architectural designs. This
was because of World War I. The United States looked at modernism in the light of their
growing sceptical, consumption. The adaptation of steel had started in Great Britain and
eventually made its way to America. In France during the same period, concrete was of a
much higher utilization. Until the year of 1914, Art Nouveau was expanding in Europe. In
stylistic terms, it was in opposition to the forces of modernism. Modernism is known for its
standardized, geometrical shapes, yet at times architects would combine both styles, as to
fold them over each other. The political status in many countries had changed because of
the happenings of World War I. This was a typical individualism that resulted in a social and
collective embodiment. In France a sub-part of the modernist movement, Purism was being
enforced. It was founded by none other than the Swiss French, modern architect, Le
Corbusier. In Germany there where implementations from the Bauhaus School. Their motto
being, to combine the practices of Fine Arts with that of the Applied Arts. Germany was fully
supportive of the Industrial age. 1

The incorporation of steel had begun with what is known as metal framework; used as an
armature. One of the first buildings to abide to this material was that of the first skyscraper
1
Ramkhelawan, D., 2021. Early Twentieth-Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and
Industry. Early Twentieth-Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and Industry, p.11.
of the Home Insurance Building in Chicago. It was built by William le Baron Jenney in the
years of 1883 – 1885. These said Chicago architects, were following, what was known as the
style of the Chicago School. A fire that had ruptured in 1871, had provided these architects
with the idea to re-create the city. The Chicago School was home to many architects. This
community provided solutions in creating newly built structures, such as that of the
infamous skyscraper. The construction is made entirely of this mentioned metal framework
and is in built into brick. Yet, to comprehend how these materials and structures became of
importance, it is essential to understand the goals of the pioneers of the early twentieth
century. There were architects such as Louis Sullivan, known as “the father of skyscrapers,”
who had philosophies revolving around form as to serve a purely functional inclination.
Another building that incorporated the steel framework is that of the Carson, Pirie, Scott,
and Company Building, which was constructed in 1899. Different from that of the in-built
masonry of the first skyscraper, this building is covered with terracotta tiles, in combination
with the framework. Additional decoration was put onto the building, using the material of
iron2.

Another important American architect was Frank Lloyd Wright. He was a big part of the
basis of the modern movement that was happening in the United States. Wright’s intentions
were from the beginning, to remove any unnecessary details in buildings and as well as
Sullivan, to make them purely functional. Indeed, Wright was going against the times before
him, and denoted a distaste for “fashion and consumption…” This having been said, Wright
was not against the machine age. An interesting perspective shows us that he was heavily
inspired by Japanese designs. Keeping this concept in mind, it caused the influence of a
distinctive culture and ploughed itself into the growth of “European Modernism.”
Concerned with houses and their surroundings, Wright imposed the adaptation of organic
structures. These structures were used for both interior and exterior means. Wright could
not bring much of the American society to like his visions and usually attracted the richer
side of society. However, his integrated approach had interested many designers
throughout the rest of the decades; that inclusive of the Scottish architect, Charles Rennie
Mackintosh, who was heavily associated with the style of Art Nouveau. Other artists who fit
into a similar category, when it came to the use of Art Nouveau, were architects such as that
2
Bett, J., 2021. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century,
p.96.
of Antonio Gaudi, who was creating a rather, idiosyncratic adaptation of this movement. He
was one to rely a great deal on his imagination. 3

With the happenings of World War I, Modernism as previously mentioned, was marked by
Purism in France. In Holland there was the movement of De Stijl. The three main figures
who stimulated their inventiveness of modern architecture were Le Corbusier in France,
Mies van der Rohe and Walter Gropius in Germany. It becomes simpler to understand what
Le Corbusier was after in France because of his first seminal book, Towards a New
Architecture. For the French architect, modern buildings had to rely on five, major points.
The building had to be made up of a; free plan, a flexibly composed façade, a ribbon
window, and a roof garden with the buildings to be built with free standing supports. 4 The
characterizations of the industrialization were welcomed with open arms into the designs of
Le Corbusier, due to his inflated use of mass production techniques. Examples of his designs
consist of The Domino House of 1914 and Villa Savoye, Poissy in 1928. The architect had a
purpose to satisfy the economic and social needs of the French society but like with Wright,
Le Corbusier attracted mainly the wealthy. The regulations of Purism were also adopted into
the designs of furniture. According to Le Corbusier, the necessity to create these designs,
had to rely on standardization and the utilization of interchangeable parts. 5

As previously stated, designers in Holland were under the influence of the De Stijl
movement. The style consisted of a mixture of horizontal and vertical planes and simple
geometric forms to create a rather abstracted and reduced aesthetic. The inspiration of De
Stijl was based on the philosophy of Neoplasticism; in other words, their designs were made
with a limited colour palette and deployed “non-objective forms.” An example of this style
can be seen in Van Doesburg’s Cinema Dance Hall of the Café l’Aubette. A work that can be
described as a “classic” of the modern movement is that of Van Doesburg’s Red Blue chair
of 1918. 6

3
Ramkhelawan, D., 2021. Early Twentieth-Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and
Industry. Early Twentieth-Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and Industry, p.11.
4
Bett, J., 2021. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century,
p.96.
5
Bett, J., 2021. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century,
p.96.
6
Ramkhelawan, D., 2021. Early Twentieth-Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and Industry. Early Twentieth-
Century Design Movements: Archives of Art and Industry, p.11.
And so, there where also other institutions apart from that of the Chicago School that had
brought forward the Modern Movement. Two others, where those of The Werkbund; a
German organization that provided agreements between product manufacturers and
designers, and The Bauhaus School; founded by the architect Walter Gropius. Attendees
were comprised of artists and architects alike, who were interested in the teachings of
diverse skills and who had already skills, to succeed in creating forms. The School, where in
the cities of Weimar, Dessau and Berlin. The architects Hannes Meyer and Ludwig Mies van
Rohe had become architect directors. The Bauhaus Design School had to be the most
influential institution in the early 20th century. Their aim was to break the barricade between
Fine arts and crafts which proved to be successful. The brilliant style was later adopted
Internationally. The influences of the Bauhaus movement involved several styles such as the
designs of William Morris, The British Arts and Crafts Movement, De Stijl in Holland,
Futurism in Italy as well as Constructivism in Russia. 7 Like many of the other countries in
Europe where doing, inclusive of America, Bauhaus had inclined towards the industrialized
world for inspiration. Unfortunately, the Bauhaus was eventually banned because of the
Nazi regime. One of the directors of the School, Miles Van der Rohe, had eventually moved
to America because of the ban and continued to teach others the ways of the Bauhaus style.
Some building designs of his that succeeded, are works scattered in Europe and America,
such as the Barcelona Pavilion, the Villa Tugendhat and the Federal Center situated in
Chicago.

Many of these architects, had influences on each other with some architects either
migrating and sharing their ideas directly or indirectly, or others having found out about
their brilliant styles in other ways. Therefore, if we had to mention a few modernist
buildings with diverse styles they would be; The Schroder House, 1923 that represents the
style of De Stijl, The Glass House of 1949, designed by Philip Johnson (which was in fact a
Bauhaus project), Brasilia that was built in 1957, consisting of purely geometric twin towers
and an endless modernism spectrum that exploded all over the world thanks to the
pioneers of the early 20th century. 8

7
Bett, J., 2021. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century, p.96.
8
Bett, J., 2021. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century. Modern Architecture in the 20 th Century,
p.96.
The totalitarian regime in Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy sought to appropriate architecture
and urbanism for their own political and ideological cause. Discuss.

Fascist Italy and the Nazi regime had a great amount in common. Mostly it was their
building development purposes. It was a time before World War II had caused a lot of
demolition, were large construction buildings, where at their peak. The term “Fascism” was
exerted to its full potential in both countries. Its meaning is a political one as to have its
foundations based on nationalism and extreme totalitarian principles. In Italy, there was the
Italian leader, that of Benito Mussolini and in Germany, there was Hitler. Italy’s government
had lasted until the end of World War II and the regime of the Nazi’s had resulted in the
unfortunate events of the Holocaust. The architecture during this period was used as
propaganda; to promote the states and to expose these individuals and their ultimate
power.

Mussolini had undertaken Italy at around the time of the 1920s and Hitler became legal
state officer in 1933. In Italy, the architecture has resemblance to that of the architecture of
Ancient Rome. The huge buildings that were being built also had relations to the simple,
geometric style of that of the rising, modernist architecture of the early 20 th century. A
variety of public places in Italy including that of places in ruins, had been used for
demonstrations, rituals, and public speaking to enhance the Fascist politics. A few architects
who were involved with these designs were those such as Giuseppe Terragni, Adalberto
Libera, Giuseppe Pagano, Marcello Piacentini and Giovanni Michelucci. 9

Previous monuments where restored, exhibitions were carried out, in order to affiliate their
political status and new colonies were formed. Every aspect of life was underway for this
“new Roman Empire.” The way in which Mussolini had created the start-up of these
buildings was through the development of a building campaign. Examples of new necessities
that had arrived in Italy where the Florence Santa Maria Novella train station, 1923 and the
Palace of Postal and Telegraphic Services in Rome. Eventually an important building known
as the Casa del Fascio, had sprouted in different areas across the country, to serve as
headquarters. An example of one of these buildings was one that was built in Como. It was
designed by Giuseppe Terragni who created it in such a way that it mimicked ideas of
modernism. It is a building known for its abstract form and one of its prominent features,
that of the material of glass. This structure has strong connotation to that of the
International Style. A building that is simple, with a lack of ornamentation, made entirely of
concrete and glass. As the typical modernistic buildings go, architecture under Fascist
politics, focused on the use of symmetry, an indication of the lack of decoration and the
9
Dearborn, F., 2021. FASCIST ARCHITECTURE. [online] Architecture-history.org. Available at:
<http://architecture-history.org/schools/FASCIST%20ARCHITECTURE.html> [Accessed 12 June
2021].
appliance of its plainness. Unlike some other countries in Europe who used concrete or
metal framework for the armature of their modernist structures, Italy at the time had a
liking towards limestone because of its durable elements. Concrete in the case of Como for
example, was also a material sometimes used. Another building that deserves appraisal for
its Fascist aesthetic, is that of the Palazzo Della Civilta Italiana in Rome, built in 1943.
Commissioned by Mussolini himself, he planned to hold a World Fair, although the war had
put a halt on this proposition. Well known architects of this time where responsible for the
design of this construction, specifically those of Ernesto Bruno La Padula, Mario Romano
and Giovanni Guerrini. This structure is fascinatingly influenced by Ancient Roman
architectural elements, especially because of its arches situated in the frontal plan. A
combination of both the arched façade and the inner most layer, reveals its interior areas.
The building is created from the material of limestone, with marble, lacing its interior.
Marble was a typical material used during this time for interior architecture.

The most interesting aspect is that in the terms of these buildings, Mussolini might have
caused several benefits to Italian heritage. This was because of his main plan in unearthing
Imperial Rome. One of Mussolini’s projects was to connect the Colosseum and its rubble to
that of the Piazza Venezia. This way, the Fascist propaganda could use the connected
avenue for “military parades.” Architectural planning was most often than not, passed on
information to the public regarding their schemes by using exhibitions. Influences to
combine modern architecture with fascism were spoken about to the public, through the
voices of Pietro Maria Bardi, Alberto Sartoris and Edoardo Persico. Propaganda was
dispersed also through journals and newspapers, especially because Mussolini was
previously a journalist. He was grandiosely, aware of the impact that text and image had on
people. 10

In another state, that of Germany, Adolf Hitler was also using construction as a form of
propaganda. The surroundings of people tend to formulate their ideologies, and this was
the intentions of both Mussolini and Hitler. It was a perfect way to get their people to

10
Dearborn, F., 2021. FASCIST ARCHITECTURE. [online] Architecture-history.org. Available at:
<http://architecture-history.org/schools/FASCIST%20ARCHITECTURE.html> [Accessed 12 June
2021].
conform. One of Hitler’s main aspirations for Germany was to build a massive monument,
one that could not be comparable in size to anything else or anything, anywhere else.
Hitler’s intent was for this proposal to be insinuated on the People’s Hall which was a
planning of the construction of a dome in Berlin. At the time, the Soviet Union were creating
an even larger monument which had Hitler roared up. Soon afterwards, he proposed attacks
on their Moscow monument for it to be demolished. Working on his side was the famous
architect, Albert Speer. Speer had published his biography, Inside the Third Reich, which
gave insights to several parts of Hitler’s architectural plans. Hitler was aware of the “awe”
that massive, monumental buildings would have on his citizens and these ideas fed his
megalomania intensively. Speer typically mentions a construction in his memoirs, that we
can familiarize ourselves with in the world of capitalism to be compared with Hitler’s
ideologies; that being the skyscraper. 11

Hitler as an artist himself, had primarily drawn sketches of the capital of Germany, Berlin.
Architects like that of Eyal Weizman and Leopold Lambert provided the curious minds of
those interested in the meaning of his architectural plans, with the message that spatial
dimensions and the inclusion of the partition of walls, where ultimately used to control the
way individuals moved around buildings. This might be especially true of spatial components
when it came to the confinement of the Jews. Nevertheless, Hitler’s focus was still on
massive monumentality. The buildings, he had aimed to compete with other European
monuments; especially those of the Nuremberg stadium, the skyscraper in Hamburg and the
railway station in the capital. Hitler wanted the Boulevard in the capital to extend to lengths,
larger than that of the boulevards in Paris.

In Nuremberg, the grounds were used for parades of the Nazi Party Congress. Speer had
designed it through a classic architectural lens which connected itself to the Fuhrer. Speer
had plans to imitate the ruins of the Roman Empire for the capital, with materials to be
made in stone and brick. Hitler had no interest in providing architectural spaces for his
people. Berlin would have three main buildings that would overwhelm: The Arch of
Triumph, its Boulevard and The People’s Hall. The aim in creating his visionaries would
involve the demolition of many homes of the citizens. “Granite-clad” structures would be

11
Chatzi Chousein, B., 2014. Nazi Architecture as affective weapon. [online] World Architecture Community. Available at:
<https://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-news/pvncp/nazi-architecture-as-affective-weapon.html> [Accessed 12 June
2021].
inhabited by Reich’s ministries and those held in power. In The Great Square there were
schemes to position Hitler’s Palace, the Armed Forces, The New State Official, and the Old
Reichstag.

The Berlin project that Hitler was so in favour of was not carried out because of the war. The
strategies that were designed by Steer were instead used for the city of Nuremberg in 1936.
In the Nuremberg city, there were meetings with the Hitler Youth movement and many
arrangements of party rallies by the Germans. 12

In both Fascist Italy and the Nazi Regime of Germany, it is evident, that the main
driving force for these powerful dictators, was to utilize their power and enforce it, even if it
meant through an “aesthetic” of buildings. The trust they had towards the architects they
hired, made the dictators’ ideas and plans, (most of the time) happen.

12
Chatzi Chousein, B., 2014. Nazi Architecture as affective weapon. [online] World Architecture Community. Available at:
<https://worldarchitecture.org/architecture-news/pvncp/nazi-architecture-as-affective-weapon.html> [Accessed 12 June
2021].