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BIOLOGY
STEP BY STEP SOLUTIONS

2001 – 2016 PAPER 2

TOPIC BY TOPIC REVISION

New Syllabus & Past ECZ Exam Questions

EDITED BY:
DJ PRINCIPLE
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1
Life Processes, Cell Structure and Organisation – PAPER 2

1 2016.P2.QUESTION.1
Figure 1.1. shows an animal cell as seen under an electron microscope.

(a) Identify the labelled parts G and F. [2]

(b) Explain the functions of the parts labelled H and I. [4]
(c) Suggest two cell parts which would be present in Figure 1.1 if it was a plant cell. [2]
.
2 2015.P2.QUESTION.1 Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 show the structure of specialised cells in plants.

(a)(i) Identify the cells labelled A and B.

A .............................................
B ............................................. [2]
(ii) Identify the parts labelled C and D.
C ...............................
D ............................... [2]
(b)(i) Which figure shows a closed stoma? [1]
(ii) Explain how the opening of a stoma is brought about. [3]

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3 [ECZ-2014-P2-Q1(c)]
Figure 1.0 shows organisms in an ecosystem. State two differences between the cells found in organisms G
and H.

4 [2011-P2- Q1] Figure 1.1 shows a plant cell which has been put in a concentrated salt solution.

(a) Identify the parts labelled A and B.

(b) (i) What happened for the cell to reach this state?
(ii) State the term given to the cell in this condition
(iii) How can this condition can be reversed?
(c) Give one reason why the structure labelled C remained in its natural state.
(d) Give two differences between a plant cell and an animal cell.

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5 (2010.P2.Q1) Figure 1. 1 shows the structure of four specialised cells.

(a)(i) Using the letters of the cells, identify animal cells and name them.
(ii) For each named animal cell in (a) (i), state one of the characteristic features.
(b) For cells A and D in figure 1.1, name the substance found in the cell which enables it to perform its
specialised function.

6 2008.P2.QUESTION.1
(a) Fig. 1.1 shows some epidermal cells from a leaf and from the epithelium of the respiratory tract.

Identify the structures labelled J, K and M.

(b) Describe the functions of structures J, K and M.
(c) Name one structure not in Fig. 1.1, responsible for:
(i) Protein synthesis
(ii) Release of energy from glucose
(d) What is the use of the cilia in Fig. 1 B?

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7 2006.P6.QUESTION.1
(a) Fig. 1.1 is a typical animal cell showing structures as seen under an electron microscope.

Identify the structures labelled A B and C.

(b) (i) What metabolic reaction takes place in structure D?
(ii) Name a tissue in the human body in which a cell such as the one shown in figure 1.1, with a lot
of structure labelled A, would be found.
(c) What would happen to a fresh water amoeba if it is placed in salty water?

8 2003.P2.Q1 Fig 1.1 shows a plant cell.

(a) Identify and state the functions of the structures labelled A and B
(i) Structure A:
Functions: 1 ...................................
2 .....................................
(ii) Structure B:
Functions: 1 ...................................
2 .....................................
(b) List two differences between the plant cell shown in Fig 1 and an animal cell
(i) ...................................................................
(ii) ...................................................................

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9 2002.P2.Q1 Figure 1.1 shows tissues from organisms.

(a) (i) Name tissue A.

................................................................................. [1]
(ii) What is tissue D?
................................................................................ [1]
(iii) Where do you find tissues C and D?
Tissue C .................................................................. [1]
Tissue D ...................................................................[1]
(b) Describe how the tissues C and D are adapted to their functions.
Tissue C ...................................................................... [2]
Tissue D ..................................................................... [2]

10 2001.P2.Q4 Figure 4 shows some of the plant and animal tissues. They are not drawn to scale.

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(a) (i) For each of the tissues A and D state whether it is an animal or a plant tissue.
Tissue A ..............................................................................
Tissue D ..............................................................................
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a)(i) above.
Plant ................................................................................
Animal ................................................................................
(iii) Give the names of tissues B and C.
Tissue B ..............................................................................
Tissue C .............................................................................
(b) In which part of an animal or plant would you expect to find tissues A and D?
Tissue A ...................................................................................
Tissue D ...................................................................................

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1
Life Processes, Cell Structure and Organisation – PAPER 2

1 (a) G – Nucleus. F – Rough endoplasmic reticulum

(b) H (Mitochondrion) – produce the energy through respiration.
I (Cell membrane) – controls substances entering or leaving the cell.
(c) 1. Cell wall. 2. Chloroplasts. 3. Large sap vacuole.
.
2 (a)(i) A – Epidermal cell. B – Guard cell..
(ii) C – Chloroplast. D – Cytoplasm.
(b)(i) Figure 1.1
(ii) Conditions which affect the opening or closure of the stomata are mainly connected to light intensity
and, in other cases, loss of water. When there is light, photosynthesis takes place and sugars are produced. The
increase in the concentration of sugars in the cell sap in the vacuoles of guard cells. This increases the osmotic
potential of the cell sap and the guard cells withdraw water from their neighbours. As more water enters the guard
cells, turgor pressure increases, the cell swells, the outer walls stretch and cause the guard cells to curve away from
each other, This opens the stoma. The open stoma allows more carbon dioxide to enter the leave for more
photosynthesis to take place. At night and when there is loss of water, the stoma closes.

3 G is an animal and H is a plant. 1. Plant cells have cell walls but animal cells do not. 2. Plant cells have
chloroplasts, but animal cells do not. 3. Plant cells have large sap vacuole but animal cells do not.

4 (a) A – Cell membrane B – Chloroplast.

(b) (i) The cell lost water to the surrounding concentrated salt solution
(ii) Plasmolysis
(iii) Placing the cell in distilled water.
(c) C (cell wall) is rigid because it is made of cellulose.
(d) 1. Plant cells have cell walls but animal cells do not.
2. Plant cells have chloroplasts, but animal cells do not.
3. Plant cells have large sap vacuole but animal cells do not.
4. Plants cells have regular shape while animal cells have irregular shape.

5 (a)(i) B – red blood cell. C – nerve cell (neurone)

(ii) B (red blood cell) contains haemoglobin that carried oxygen. It has a biconcave shape that increases
the surface area oxygen to diffuse into the cell.
C ( nerve cell (neurone) is long and myelinated. It conducts nerve impulses to the brain.
(b) A (phloem cell or sieve tube) – food conducting cell in a plant. Long cells joined end to end with
perforations (sieves) that allow foods dissolved in cytoplasm to pass from cell to cell along the stem.
D has chloroplasts with chlorophyll that enable the cell to carry out photosynthesis.

6 (a) J – nucleus. K – vacuole. M – membrane.

(b) J (nucleus) – controls all activities in the cell

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K (vacuole) – stoles cell sap.

M (membrane) – controls substances entering and leaving the cell .
(c) (i) Ribosome
(ii) Mitochondrion
(d) Cilia removes dust particles and bacteria from the air entering the lungs. Ciliated cells form the
lining of the nose and windpipe. The tiny cytoplasmic hairs called cilia are in continual flicking
movement keeping up a stream of fluid (mucus) that carries dust and germs away from the lungs.

7 (a) A – Mitochondrion. B – nucleus C – Smooth endoplasmic reticulum.

(b) (i) Protein synthesis
(ii) Muscle tissue. (A releases energy during cellular respiration.)
(c) It would lose water to the salty water through osmosis and become crenated.

8 (a) A (vacuole) – stoles cell sap, plays a role in osmoregulation, helps in maintaining the shape of the cell.
B (nucleus) – controls all activities in the cell, Involved in cell division.
(b) 1. Plant cells have cell walls but animal cells do not.
2. Plant cells have chloroplasts, but animal cells do not.
3. Plant cells have large sap vacuole but animal cells do not.
4. Plants cells have regular shape while animal cells have irregular shape.

9 (a) (i) Palisade tissue.

(ii) epithelial tissue or ciliated tissue
(iii) Tissue C – in the leaf. Tissue D – respiratory tract (nose, trachea).
(b) Tissue C – it has vertically arranged palisade cells on the upper part of a leaf so as to expose a number
of them to sunlight as they are a major site for photosynthesis, it also has spongy tissue with a lot of air
spaces for rapid diffusion of gases.
Tissue D – it is ciliated so as to remove dust and bacteria that enter a respiratory tract together with air.
Ciliated epithelium contains goblet cells, which secrete mucus.

10 (a) (i) Tissue A – animal tissue

Tissue D – plant tissue
(ii) Plant tissue has cells with chloroplasts, cells have regular shape due to cellulose cell wall
Animal cells have no chloroplasts, no cell wall and have irregular shape.
(iii) Tissue B – spongy mesophyll tissue
Tissue C – blood tissue (red blood cells, platelet and white blood cell)
(b) Tissue A (multipolar neurones) – brain or spinal cord.
Tissue D (palisade tissue) – Leaf

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Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport – Paper 2

1 (2010= P2- Q1c) Figure 1. 2 shows an experiment on osmosis.

(c) (i) From which solution in figure 1.2 will there be flow of water molecules by osmosis?
(ii) When will the flow of water molecules across the membrane stop by osmosis?
(iii) Suggest one reason why only water molecules can move across this membrane

2 2004.P6.QUESTION.1(c) Fig. 1.1 is a typical animal cell showing structures as seen under an electron
microscope.

(c) What would happen to a fresh water amoeba if it is placed in salty water?

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3 2003.P2.QUESTION.3(a) Fig 3.1.1 and Fig 3.1.2 show the experimental set up to demonstrate a biological
process at the start of the experiment.

Fig 3.2.1 and Fig 3.2.2 show the same experimental set up to demonstrate a biological process after
30 minutes.
Two of the liquids used in the experiment were water and the other two were sucrose solutions.
(a) (i) From the experimental results shown in Fig 3. 2.1. and Fig 3.2.2, name liquids J and L.
J ..............................................................
L ..............................................................
(ii) Explain why liquid M has risen to a greater height than liquid K.
(b) (i) Name the biological process being demonstrated in the experimental set up.
(ii) How does the process you have named affect an animal cell when placed in water?

4 2002.P2.QUESTION.6 In a biology experiment, a student used two tissues, liver (tissue A) and unripe
pawpaw (tissue B). These were immersed in a concentrated salt solution.
(a) Explain what happened to tissue A and tissue B when they were immersed in the concentrated salt
solution. .
(b) Describe how the changes in tissue A and tissue B were brought about.
(c) Define the process involved in (b) above.
(d) How is this process important to plants and animals.
.

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Diffusion, Osmosis and Active Transport – Paper 2

1 (c) (i) Water will move from less concentrated (more dilute) solution E to a more concentrated (less
dilute) solution F across a selectively permeable membrane by osmosis. The water level rises
on one side.
(ii) The flow of water molecules across the membrane will stop (reach equilibrium) when the
concentrations of solutions E and F are the same.
(iii) The selectively permeable membrane will not allow sugar molecules to cross because of their
size. Water molecules are smaller.
2 (c) In a hypertonic solution, concentration of solutes is higher than inside the amoeba. Water flows
out of the cell to the salty solution, amoeba becomes flaccid or crinkled (crenated).
3 (a) (i) J – Water.
L – Water.
(ii) Liquid M was more concentrated (sweeter) than liquid K. Therefore, more water was needed to
dilute it.
(b) (i) Osmosis
(ii) When an animal cell is placed In water, concentration of solutes is lower than inside the cell.
Water flows into the cell, cell swells and become haemolysed (bursts).

4 (a) Tissue A – becomes crinkled or crenated. Tissue B – becomes flaccid or plasmolysed (shrink) in size.
(b) In a hypertonic solution, concentration of solutes is higher than inside the cell. Water flows out of
the cell, cell becomes flaccid or plasmolysed (Tissue B) or crinkled, crenated (Tissue A).
(c) Osmosis is the passage of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region
of their lower concentration, through a partially permeable membrane.
(d) Osmosis and plants
- It helps the root system of the plants to absorb water from the soil
- It plays a key role in the movement of water and other substances from one cell to another
- It provides turgidity to the softer tissues and is, therefore, essential for their mechanical support.
Leaves and shoots can be supported by the turgor pressure created by osmosis. This is useful
because plants do not have a skeleton.
- It controls opening and closing of stomata during transpiration through its regulation of the
turgidity of guard cells.
Osmosis and animals
- Re-absorption of water in the kidney tubules of mammals.
- The movement of water into the cytoplasm in unicellular organism such as Amoeba.
- Movement of water from one living cell to another. .

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Enzymes – Paper 2
1 2016.P2.QUESTION.2 Figure 2.1. shows the effect of pH on the rate of enzyme catalysed reactions
K and M.

(a) What term is given to pH at J and L? [1]

(b) Explain why the rate of reactions K and M goes down after point J and L respectively. [2]
(c) Name the regions of the alimentary canal where reactions K and M take place? [2]
(d) (i) .Suggest one enzyme which can catalyse reaction M. [1]
(ii) State one food nutrient which can be catalysed in reaction K. [1]
(e) State two factors other than pH which affect enzyme activity. [2]
.
2 Explain how enzyme activity is affected by the pH and concentration of the substrate. [4]
.

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Enzymes – Paper 2
1 (a) Optimum pH.
(b) The pH level is not optimum after point J and L. Changes in pH alter an enzyme’s shape.
(d) (i) Lipase, trypsin, pancreatic amylase. They act in alkaline pH.
(ii) Proteins in the stomach. Reaction K takes place in acidic conditions..
(e) Temperature, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration.
.
2 Different enzymes have different Optimum pH values. At this pH value, the reaction rate is the fastest. At
optimum pH, the shape of the enzymes’ Active Site is the most Complementary to the shape of their
Substrate. Any change in pH above or below the Optimum will quickly cause a decrease in the rate of
reaction, since more of the enzyme molecules will have Active Sites whose shapes are not (or at least are
less) Complementary to the shape of their Substrate. A pH scale ranges from 1 to 14. It is a measure of
acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a solution. Solutions with pH values below 7 are acid solutions, with 1 being
the most acidic. Solutions with pH values above 7 are alkali solutions, with 14 being the most alkaline (basic).
Enzymes function within a limited pH range. Small changes in pH above or below the Optimum do not cause
a permanent change to the enzyme, since the bonds can be reformed. However, extreme changes in pH can
cause enzymes to Denature and permanently lose their function.

Increasing Substrate Concentration increases the rate of reaction. This is because more substrate molecules
will be colliding with enzyme molecules, so more product will be formed. However, after a certain
concentration, any increase will have no effect on the rate of reaction, since Substrate Concentration will no
longer be the limiting factor. The enzymes will effectively become saturated, and will be working at their
maximum possible rate.

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Nutrition In Plants – Paper 2

1 2015 P2 QUESTION 3 Figure 3.1 shows a cassava plant with root tubers.

(a) (i) Which common food nutrient is stored in the root tuber? [1]
(ii) State where this food in the root tubers was manufactured? [1]
(iii) Explain how this food manufactured in (a) (ii) above found itself in storage form in the root
tubers. [3]
(b) (i) State the nutrient in the soil which is necessary for photosynthesis. [1]
(ii) Suggest how this nutrient is taken up from the soil to the leaves in the plant in Figure 3.1. [3]
.
2 [ECZ-2014-P2-Q1(b)] Figure 1.0 shows organisms in an ecosystem.

What type of nutrition is carried out by organisms E and H?

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3 2007.P2.QUESTION.1(a)(i) Fig 1.1 shows a palisade cell and a xylem vessel.

(a) (i) From Fig 1.1, identify

Organelle Z: ..............................
Substance P: .............................
Substance Q: .............................
(ii) State the process by which substances P and Q enter the palisade cell in Fig 1.1.
P (process) .....................
Q (Process) .....................
(b) (i) Explain how glucose is formed from substances P and Q in organelle Z.
(ii) Suggest a reason why the glucose formed is immediately converted to starch.

4 2006.P2.QUESTION.2(a) Fig. 2.1 below shows part of Rhizopus.

(b) (i) Briefly explain how this organism obtains its food.
(ii) If the substrate in figure 2.1 is nshima, name the substance secreted by Rhizopus to digest it.
(c) In the ecosystem, what role do micro-organisms play?

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5 2005.P2.QUESTION.1(a) Fig. 1.1 shows a cross section of a leaf.

Cells labelled X, Y and Z are capable of making glucose when the leaf is exposed to sunlight.
(a) (i) Place the cells X, Y and Z in order of increasing amount of glucose in each cell, after a leaf has
been exposed to two hours of sunlight, starting with the cell with the least amount of glucose.
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a)(i) above.
(b) (i) Identify the part labelled B.
(ii) Identify the structure labelled A.
(iii) Explain the role of the part labelled A during photosynthesis.
(iv) State three differences between respiration and photosynthesis.

6 2003.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) (i) In what named process and under what environmental conditions would a mesophyll cell
of a flowering plant give out oxygen?
(ii) Describe an equation which is a summary of the process by which a mesophyll cell gives
out oxygen.
(b) Explain why plants need water.
(x) .
7 [2009.P2.6] (a) Explain how leaves are adapted to carry out photosynthesis.
(b) How does a plant get and use the following elements:
(i) Nitrogen
(ii) Magnesium
8 (2012- P2- Q8) (a) Compare and contrast nutrition in a guava plant and Rhizopus fungus.
(b) Discuss the importance of saprophytic nutrition to the environment.
9 2001.P2.QUESTION.6 (a) (i) Explain what is meant by the term photosynthesis.
(ii) Give an equation summarizing the process of photosynthesis..
10 2001.P2.QUESTION.6(b) How are the products of photosynthesis distributed to the rest of the plant?
.

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Nutrition In Plants – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) Starch
(ii) In green leaves
(iii) It was transported by phloem vessels.
(b) (i) Magnesium
(ii) Magnesium is taken up from the soil by root hairs in form of ions by the process called active
transport.
2 E (mushroom) – carries out saprophytic nutrition. H (plant) – carries out autotrophic nutrition.
3 (a) (i) Organelle Z: chloroplast
Substance P: carbon dioxide
Substance Q: water
(ii) P (process) .....................diffusion
Q (Process) .....................Osmosis and transpiration stream/pull.
[Water enters root hair cells by osmosis. The root hair cell is hypertonic to the surrounding
soil water. This means that it has a lower water molecule concentration.
Water then moves from cell to cell through the root cortex by osmosis along a concentration
gradient; this means that each cell is hypertonic to the one before it. In the centre of the root the
water enters the xylem vessels. Water may move by diffusion through the cell walls and
intercellular spaces.
Second Stage
Second stage of transpiration stream - water molecules leave the xylem vessels and move
from cell to cell. They move through the spongy mesophyll cells and out through the guard cell,
through the stomata into the surrounding air.
In the leaves, water molecules leave the xylem vessels and move from cell to cell. They
move through the spongy mesophyll layer by osmosis along a concentration gradient. Water then
evaporates into spaces behind the stomata and diffuses through the stomata into the surrounding
air. Water rises from the roots to the leaves through the xylem vessels because of two properties
of water molecules: Adhesion. Water rises in the narrow vessels partly because water molecules
are attracted to the walls of the vessels. Cohesion. Water molecules are attracted to each other,
and as water evaporates from the leaves columns of water are drawn up through the xylem vessels.

The loss of water from the leaves of a plant is called transpiration, and the resulting flow of water
through the plant is called the transpiration stream.
The transpiration stream is important because:
it carries water for photosynthesis to the palisade cells in the leaves
the water carries essential mineral salts in solution
evaporation from the leaves has a cooling effect]
(b) (i) Glucose and oxygen are produced in chloroplasts (organelle Z ) when substance P (carbon
dioxide) and substance Q (water) are combined by a series of chemical changes under
energy from sunlight absorbed by chlorophyll.
(ii) The glucose formed during photosynthesis is converted into starch for storage. The
advantages of using insoluble substances such as starch for storage, rather than soluble
substances such as glucose, include: (i) They do not affect the water concentration inside
cells. (2) They do not move away from the storage areas in the plant. When the plant needs
glucose for respiration or other processes it changes the starch back to soluble glucose for
transportation in solution through the phloem system.
4 (b) (i) This organism obtains its food by saprotrophic or saprophytic nutrition. It secretes enzymes

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onto decaying organic matter (substrate) and obtains the digested soluble nutrients by active
transport. This is called extra-cellular digestion. Rhizopus is a group of moulds that grow on
decaying organic matter like bread.
(ii) Enzyme amylase.
(c) They recycle nutrients in the environment by breaking down dead or decaying organic material.
They make soil more fertile.

5 (a) (i) Y, Z, X.
(ii) Cell X has the largest number of chloroplasts where photosynthesis that produces glucose takes
place. Cell Z has more chloroplasts than cell Y. The other reason is that cell X is exposed to more
sunlight that cell Z which receives more sunlight than cell Y.
(b) (i) Air space..
(ii) Chloroplast..
(iii) Chloroplasts have a green pigment called chlorophyll. They trap sunlight energy needed for
photosynthesis to take place.
(iv) – in respiration, glucose and oxygen are used as reactants while in photosynthesis glucose and
oxygen are products.
– in respiration, carbon dioxide and water are products while in photosynthesis carbon dioxide
and water are used as reactants.
– in respiration, energy is produced while in photosynthesis energy is used.
– respiration occurs day and night, photosynthesis occurs during the day.
– Respiration occurs in all living organisms, photosynthesis only occurs in plants and some
bacterial.

6 (a) (i) A mesophyll cell would give out oxygen during photosynthesis. The environmental
conditions necessary for this process to take place are: water, carbon dioxide, chlorophyll
and sunlight.
(ii) During photosynthesis, carbon dioxide and water are combined using sunlight energy
trapped by chlorophyll to produce glucose and oxygen.
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 > 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
(b) Plants need water for photosynthesis, to transport nutrients (mineral salts) from the soil in solution
form, to transport food from the leaves and roots, for mechanical support (turgor pressure in cells),
for germination, to form cytoplasm of all cells.
7 (a) The leaves of green plants are well adapted to the process of photosynthesis in the following ways:
– broad flat shape offers a large surface area for absorption of sunlight and carbon dioxide.
– thinness of the leaves offers a short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse from the stomata to the
mesophyll cells.
– the large intercellular spaces in the mesophyll provide an easy passage carbon dioxide diffusion.
– Numerous stomata on one or both sides allow exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen with the
atmosphere.
– the palisade cells with numerous chloroplasts are on the upper surface of the leaf where more sunlight
is received.
– the branching network of water supply provide a ready water supply to the photosynthesising cells.

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(b) (i) Nitrogen – plants get nitrogen from the soil in form of mineral salts called nitrates. These salts
are absorbed into the plants by roots. Nitrogen is needed to make proteins for growth and repair
of tissues.
(ii) Magnesium – plants get magnesium from the soil in form of mineral salts such as magnesium
sulphate. These salts are absorbed into the plants by roots. Magnesium is needed to make
the green pigment called chlorophyll.

8 (a) Guava plant makes its own food by photosynthesis. It is an autotroph. Rhizopus fungus does not make
its own food. This organism obtains its food by saprotrophic or saprophytic nutrition. It secretes enzymes
onto decaying organic matter (substrate) and obtains the digested soluble nutrients by active transport. This
is called extra-cellular digestion. Rhizopus is a group of moulds that grow on decaying organic matter like
bread.
(b) Saprophytic nutrition recycles nutrients in the environment by breaking down dead or decaying organic
material. It makes soil more fertile for the production of plants. Microorganisms produce just as much
oxygen as the rainforests.

9 (a) (i) Photosynthesis is the process in green plants where carbon dioxide and water are combined
using sunlight energy trapped by chlorophyll to produce glucose and oxygen.
𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
(ii) 𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑏𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 > 𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
10 Glucose and oxygen are the products of photosynthesis. Oxygen diffuses into the airspaces of the mesophyll
and out of the leaf via the stomata. Glucose is soluble and very reactive compared to other carbohydrates.
It is converted to sucrose and transported to all parts of the plant via the phloem tissue which is bound with
xylem vessels in vascular bundles. Sucrose is also soluble, but more stable and less reactive compared to
glucose. The transport of food by phloem tissue is called translocation.
Plants mainly store the glucose and sucrose, not in that form but as starch, which is insoluble and rather less
reactive in form.
.

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Nutrition In Animals – Paper 2

1 2015 P2 QUESTION 2. Figure 2.1 shows a section through a human tooth

(a) (i) State the names of the parts labelled F and G.

F ...............................
G ............................... [2]
(ii) Explain the functions of the parts labelled H and I in Figure 2.1.
H ....................................
I .................................... [2]
(b) (i) Explain how tooth decay is brought about. [3]
(ii) Suggest two ways of preventing tooth decay. [2]

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2 ECZ-2014-P2-Q2) Figure 2.0 shows the movement of dissolved substances in the digestive system and some
associated parts.

(a) Name the structures labelled I and J.

(b) (i) Name one product of digestion in the ileum which is not transported by blood.
(ii) Name the enzyme in the ileum whose activity produces glucose.
(c) Substance K when broken down produces a waste substance and glycogen.
(i) Identify substance K
(ii) Suggest two uses of substance K in the body.
(d) State under what conditions the product in structure J is produced.

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3 (2012- P2- Q5) Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2 show the cross section through two different portions of the
human alimentary canal.

(a) (i) From which part of the alimentary canal were these cross sections taken?
Figure 5.1........................................................
Figure 5.2.......................................................
(ii) Give reasons for your answers in (a) (i) above.
Reason :.................................................................
Reason 2:..............................................................................
(b) Explain the role played by B in the alimentary canal........................
(c) Name two juices passing through tube C.

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4 (2010- P2- Q2) Figure 2. 1 shows the human digestive system.

(a) From Figure 2.1, select the letter where

(i) egestion occurs...............................................................................
(ii) pancreatic juice is formed.............................................................
(iii) villi are present...........................................................................
(b) The stomach produces hydrochloric acid. State two functions of this acid in the stomach.
1. ............................................................................................................
2. ............................................................................................................
(c) Describe the roles of the liver in
(i) digestion...........................................................................................................
(ii) assimilation....................................................................................................
5 2003.P2.QUESTION.6
(a) Explain how the human body digests the following food substances contained in a boiled egg:
(i) Fats.
(ii) Proteins.
(b) What happens if the products of digestion of proteins in the egg are more than what the body needs?
.
6 2016.P2.QUESTION.6(c) Describe how gum disease is brought about.
.

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7 (2013- P2- Q6)

(a) Explain what is meant by the following terms:
(i) absorption
(ii) egestion
(b) Describe the process of lipid (fat) digestion in humans.
(c) Discuss two common ailments of the alimentary canal.
.
8 (2012- P2- Q8)(c) Describe the digestion of food in the mouth.
.
9 2008.P2.QUESTION.6(c) Explain how human beings benefit from photosynthesis.
10 2007.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) Explain how a meal rich in fats (Lipids) is digested in the body.
(b) (i) Explain how substances absorbed by the large intestines (colon) are used by the human body.
(ii) What are the similarities between the lining of the human intestines and the plant root for the
absorption of nutrients.
11 [2001.P2.QUESTION.8]
(a) Describe how mammals digest:
(i) starch
(ii) protein
(b) What is the fate of the products of (a) (i) and (ii)?
.

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Nutrition In Animals – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) F – Enamel G – Dentine H – Pulp cavity I – Cement
(ii) H – Pulp cavity: Soft tissue containing the blood vessels and nerve supply to the tooth. Blood
supplies nutrients and removes waste from the tooth. The blood supply is necessary to maintain
the vitality of the tooth. Nerve endings send pain signals to the brain.
I – Cement: covers most of the root of the tooth. It helps to anchor (attach) the tooth to the bones
in the jaw.
F – Enamel: protects the tooth from the wear and tear of chewing, biting and cutting. Enamel is
the hardest substance in the body.
G – Dentine: supports the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth and can be sensitive if the
protection of the enamel is lost because it carries some of the nerve fibres.

Periodontal ligament (membrane): it is an extension of the gum. Made up of thousands of collagen

fibres which fasten the cement to the bony socket. These fibres anchor the tooth to the jaw bone
and act as shock absorbers for the tooth which is subjected to heavy forces during chewing.
(b) (i) Food with sugar forms a sticky layer on the teeth. This layer traps more food particles and forms
a layer of plague on the teeth and gums which combines with the bacteria that live in the mouth.
The bacteria feed on the sugars and produce acids. The acids eat away the calcium and phosphate
from the enamel. The bacteria can then destroy the softer dentine below the enamel. Dentine
decays faster. The pulp cavity becomes infected and causes toothache. Three possible indications
that you have a cavity or tooth decay are toothache, tooth sensitivity to sweet, hot or cold foods or
drinks, or pain when chewing.

(ii) Avoid eating sticky sweets and foods with high sugar content, but eat foods with low sugar
content like fruits and vegetables. Brush one’s teeth at least twice a day with fluoride toothpaste.
Rinse your mouth with water or mouth water after a meal if you cannot brush. Eat foods rich in
calcium, phosphate and vitamin D like milk and milk products for strong teeth. Visit a dentist for
regular check ups and dental cleanings.
.
2 (a) I – Liver J - Muscle
(b) (i) Glycerol and fatty acids.
(ii) Enzyme sucrase works on sucrose to produce glucose and fructose.
Enzyme maltase works on maltose to produce glucose.
Enzyme lactase works on lactose to produce glucose and galactose.
(c) (i) Amino acids. (the waste substance is urea.)
(ii) Make proteins. Build and repair cells and tissues. Formation of enzymes for digestion.
(d) Lactic acid in muscles is produced when insufficient oxygen is supplied to the muscles, resulting in
the release of energy via anaerobic cellular respiration. Anaerobic Respiration (e.g. in muscles that
are being over-worked) occurs when the muscles are working very hard and requiring more oxygen
than the respiratory and cardiovascular systems can supply.
Glucose  Lactic Acid + (smaller amount of) Energy

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3 (a) (i) Figure 5.1.........Ileum

Figure 5.2.........Duodenum
(ii) Reason : Figure 5.1 has villi for absorption.
Reason 2: Figure 5.2 has the pancreatic duct from the pancreas.
(b) B is the longitudinal and circular muscles. The muscles, by contracting and relaxing alternatively,
move the food in a wave-like motion through the various regions of the alimentary canal.
(c) Bile and pancreatic juice.
4 (a) (i) X – anus
(ii) V – Pancreas
(iii) W – Ileum
(b) 1. Activates the enzymes pepsin and rennin and provides optimum pH for enzyme activity.
2. Kills many bacteria taken in with the food.
(c) (i) The liver produces bile which is used in the duodenum to neutralise the acidic chime from
the stomach so as to create optimum pH for enzyme activity. Bile also emulsifies fats by
reducing surface tension and causing the fats to form a suspension of tiny droplets. This
increases the surface area for rapid digestion.
(ii) Detoxication – poisonous substances produced in the intestines by the action of bacteria,
enter the blood, but on reaching the liver are converted to harmless substances. Food from
the intestines is carried by blood in the hepatic portal vein for detoxication before going
to the heart and the rest of the body.
Regulation of blood sugar – the liver converts excess glucose to an insoluble carbohydrate
called glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. When the concentration of
blood sugar falls, some stored glycogen is converted by enzyme action into glucose and
enters the circulation.
Deamination – excess amino acids are not stored in the body, but converted to glycogen
and urea by the liver.
Manufacture of plasma protein – The liver makes most of the proteins found in blood
plasma, including fibrinogen which plays an important part in the clotting action of blood.
Storage of vitamins – the fat-soluble vitamin A and D are stored in the liver.
5 (a) (i) Fats – Mechanical digestion of the fats in the egg yolk begins in the mouth with chewing. The
swallowed food reaches the small intestines (duodenum) where it mixes with the pancreatic juice
from the pancreas that contains the fat-digesting enzyme called lipase. Lipase breaks down fats to
form glycerol and fatty acids. Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, enters the
duodenum via the bile duct and neutralises the acidic chime from the stomach so as to create
optimum pH for enzyme activity. Bile also emulsifies fats by reducing surface tension and causing
the fats to form a suspension of tiny droplets. This increases the surface area for rapid digestion.

(ii) Proteins – Mechanical digestion of proteins in the egg white begins in the mouth with chewing.
The swallowed food reaches the stomach by peristalsis. The lining of the stomach produces gastric
juice which contains an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides which are
more soluble. The hydrochloric acid in the stomach activates pepsin and provides optimum pH for
pepsin to work in. When food moves from the stomach to the small intestines (duodenum), the
pancreatic juice is secreted from the pancreas. This juice contains trypsin, an enzyme that continues
to break down proteins to peptides and peptides to amino acids. Digestion of peptides by
peptidases continues in the ileum where the final product of protein digestion, the amino acids, are
absorbed by the villi.
(b) Excess amino acids are not stored in the body, but converted to glycogen and urea by the liver. This
process is called deamination. .
6 Food with sugar forms a sticky layer on the teeth. This layer traps more food particles and forms a layer of

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plague on the teeth and gums which combines with the bacteria that live in the mouth. The bacteria feed
on the sugars and produce acids. The acids eat away the gums. The gums become inflamed and the bone
that holds the teeth in place starts to disappear.
7 (a) (i) absorption – the diffusion of digested food (glucose and amino acids), vitamins and minerals
from the intestines (ileum) across the epithelium and capillary walls into the blood stream.
(ii) egestion – the expelling of undigested matter, largely cellulose and vegetable fibres, and waste
products from the alimentary canal through the anus.
(b) Mechanical digestion of the fats begins in the mouth with chewing. The swallowed food moves to the
stomach where churning process continues mixing the food. It then reaches the small intestines (duodenum)
where it mixes with the pancreatic juice from the pancreas that contains the fat-digesting enzyme called
lipase. Lipase breaks down fats to form glycerol and fatty acids. Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder, enters the duodenum via the bile duct and neutralises the acidic chime from the stomach so as
to create optimum pH for enzyme activity. Bile also emulsifies fats by reducing surface tension and causing
the fats to form a suspension of tiny droplets. This increases the surface area for rapid digestion.

(c) Diarrhoea – Viruses or bacteria can enter the alimentary canal through food. This can cause diarrhea. To
protect the body, food is hurried through the large intestines and colon. It is excreted through the anus
before much water can be absorbed from the food. This causes the feaces to be like liquid. Diarrhoea causes
dehydration because the body loses water and mineral salts. There is also inflammation of the alimentary.
Dysentery – a disease of the lower intestine caused by infection with bacteria, protozoans or parasites. is
often spread through contaminated food or water. It marked by severe diarrhea, inflammation, and the
passage of blood and mucus.
Cholera – it is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhoea, inflammation of the intestines and
vomiting which can lead to dehydration and even death if untreated. It is caused by eating food or drinking
water contaminated with bacteria.
8 Mechanical digestion starts in the mouth where the food is ingested. The food is chewed and mixed with
saliva from the salivary glands. Chewing breaks down the food into small pieces for easy swallowing and
increases the surface area for enzymes to act on. Saliva contains an enzyme called amylase which begins
the chemical digestion of starch to maltose, a soluble sugar. The longer food is retained in the mouth, the
further this starch digestion proceeds and the more finely divided the food become.
9 Photosynthesis produces food such as glucose and starch for human consumption. Oxygen is produced by
photosynthesis and human beings use it for respiration to produce energy.
10 (a) Mechanical digestion of the fats begins in the mouth with chewing. Churning in the stomach
continues to physically mix the food. The swallowed food reaches the small intestines (duodenum) where it
mixes with the pancreatic juice from the pancreas that contains the fat-digesting enzyme called lipase.
Lipase breaks down fats to form glycerol and fatty acids. Bile, produced in the liver and stored in the
gallbladder, enters the duodenum via the bile duct and neutralises the acidic chime from the stomach so as
to create optimum pH for enzyme activity. Bile also emulsifies fats by reducing surface tension and causing
the fats to form a suspension of tiny droplets. This increases the surface area for rapid digestion.

(b) (i) Substances absorbed by the large intestines (colon) are water and bile salts. Water is returned
to the cells where it is used as a medium for metabolic reactions in the cells. Bile salts are returned
to the liver and used in the emulsification of fats in the duodenum and the neutralisation of acidic
chime from the stomach .
(ii) The lining of the human intestines has villi while the roots have root hairs which provide a large
surface area for absorption of nutrients.

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11 [2001.P2.QUESTION.8]
(a) (i) starch – Mechanical digestion of starch starts in the mouth where the food is ingested. The food
is chewed and mixed with saliva from the salivary glands. Chewing breaks down the starch into
small pieces for easy swallowing and increases the surface area for enzymes to act on. Saliva
contains an enzyme called amylase which begins the chemical digestion of starch to maltose, a
soluble sugar. The longer food is retained in the mouth, the further this starch digestion proceeds
and the more finely divided the food become. After swallowing, the food moves to the stomach
where the hydrochloric acid hinders the activity of amylase on starch. When the food moves to the
small intestines (duodenum), the pancreatic juice from the pancreas also enters the duodenum.
This juice contains an enzyme called pancreatic amylase which continues with the chemical
digestion of starch to produce maltose. In the ileum, maltase breaks down maltose to form
glucose..
(ii) protein – Mechanical digestion of proteins begins in the mouth with chewing. The swallowed
food reaches the stomach by peristalsis. The lining of the stomach produces gastric juice which
contains an enzyme called pepsin. Pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides which are more
soluble. The hydrochloric acid in the stomach activates pepsin and provides optimum pH for pepsin
to work in. When food moves from the stomach to the small intestines (duodenum), the pancreatic
juice is secreted from the pancreas. This juice contains trypsin, an enzyme that continues to break
down proteins to peptides and peptides to amino acids. Digestion of peptides by peptidases
continues in the ileum.

(b) (a) (i) Glucose, the product of starch digestion, is absorbed by the villi in the ileum into the blood
stream and carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver, then the heart and the rest of the
body. When glucose reaches the body cells, it is used in respiration to produce energy for all
cellular activities and processes. The glucose which is not immediately required by the body
is converted in the liver and in the muscles to glycogen. Excess glucose not stored as glycogen
is converted to fats.
(ii) Amino acids, the product of protein digestion, are absorbed by the villi in the ileum into
the blood stream and carried by the hepatic portal vein to the liver, then the heart and the
rest of the body. When amino acids reach the body cells, they are used to Make proteins, build
and repair cells and tissues and in formation of enzymes for digestion. Excess amino acids are
not stored in the body, but deaminated (converted to glycogen and urea) by the liver.
.

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Respiration – Paper 2
1 (2012- P2- Q1) Figure 1.0 is a graph showing changes in volume of air during breathing in the lungs of a
person.

(a) (i) Which letter shows the process of inspiration taking place?....................................
(ii) Suggest activities taking place at stages P, Q and R.
P...................................................................................
Q..................................................................................
R...................................................................................
(b) Explain why there is an increase in air volume during stage Q
(c) Describe the changes which will take place in the thorax during inspiration in order to facilitate the
increase in volume during stage Q....................................................................................................
.
2 (2011-P2-Q3) Figure 3. 1 shows parts of the respiratory system of an insect.

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(a) Identify the parts labelled D and E.

Part D.......................................................................
Part E.......................................................................
(b) Explain how oxygen from the atmosphere is able to reach the tissue labelled E
(c) Explain how the energy released from respiration in an insect is used.
(d) State two ways in which the respiratory system shown differs from that of a fish.

3 (2010- P2- Q6) (a) Compare and contrast gaseous exchange in a fish and an insect.
4 2009.P2.QUESTION.2
Figure 2.1 shows the amount of lactic acid in the blood before, during and after a heavy exercise.

(a) (i) What was the level of lactic acid in the blood before the exercise? [1]
(ii) How much lactic acid was produced at 20 minutes after the exercise? [1]
(iii) How long did it take for the lactic acid to reach its highest level after the exercise had began? [1]
(b) (i) What is the reason for the build up of lactic acid in the blood? [1]
(ii) What are the effects of the build up of this lactic acid on the person? [1]
(iii) Compare the products of the process taking place during the heavy exercise to that which takes place
in yeast cells?
(c) Suggest two uses of the process identified in b(i). [2]
.

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5 2008.P2.QUESTION.2 Fig. 2.1 shows part of the respiratory system of an insect.

(a)(i) Which labelled parts G, H and l of the respiratory system of an insect is the:
(a) Trachea?
(b) Air space?
(ii) An insect undergoing strenuous activities needs oxygen at a faster rate for respiration. Explain how
such an insect is able to increase its gaseous exchange.

6 2003.P2.QUESTION.2 Fig 2 shows stages in the process of making yoghurt using fresh milk.

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(a) Using the stages shown in Fig 2 and your own knowledge on the topic, answer the following
questions:
Suggest any two ways in which other bacteria, other than that in the starter in stage3, is prevented
from growing in the milk being used in making yoghurt.
(i) ............................................................
(ii) ............................................................
(b) Why is the milk cooled before adding the bacterial starter?
(c) What happens to the bacteria in the starter after the starter has been added to the lukewarm milk
in stage 3?
(d) What happens to the milk after the bacterial starter has been added and the mixture left to
incubate in stage 5?
(e) Why is it necessary to rinse containers in boiling water in stage 4?
.

7 2016.P2.QUESTION.6
(a) (i) Explain gaseous exchange in green plants during: day time.
(ii) Explain gaseous exchange in green plants during: night time.
(b) Using named organisms, explain the industrial application of respiration.
.
8 2015.P2.Q6
(a) Describe anaerobic respiration in yeast. [4]
(b) Explain the use of yeast in brewing and baking. [5]
(c) Compare and contrast anaerobic respiration in man and yeast. [3] .

9 ECZ-2014-P2-Q6
(a) Explain what is meant by the term aerobic respiration.
(b) Describe the adverse effects of named air pollutants on the health of human Beings.
(c) Explain how some parts of the respiratory system are adapted to minimise the entry of air
pollutants into the lungs.

10 (2013- P2- Q7)

(a) Explain what is meant by the term respiration.
(b) Describe the importance of respiration to living organisms.
(c) Describe the adverse effects of cigarette smoking on the health of human beings. .

11 2004.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) Describe the role played by fungi in the balance of nature.
(b) Describe two industrial processes in which fungi is used.

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Respiration – Paper 2
1 (a) (i) S
(ii) P – Rest. Q – Exercise. R – Rest
(b) More oxygen is need for respiration to supply energy to the muscles.
(c) During inspiration the intercostal muscles (between ribs) contract, ribs move upwards and
outwards, the diaphragm contracts and is straightened and flattened (moves downwards), the
volume of the chest increases, the air pressure in the chest decreases and air is drawn in.]
.
2 (a) D – Spiracle E – Muscle fibre (tissue).
(b) Oxygen enters through the spiracle and moves through the trachea and down to the tracheoles
where it diffuses into the muscle tissue.
(c) It is used in flying and jumping, in metabolic reactions, feeding and transportation of materials in
its body.
(d) Respiratory system in fish extracts dissolved oxygen from the water in the gills while insects get
their oxygen from the air through the spiracles.
In insects, the oxygen supply to living tissues is direct via the tracheae and tracheoles, but in fish,
the extracted oxygen has to enter the circulatory system for it to reach the living tissues.

3 (a) Respiratory system in fish extracts dissolved oxygen from the water in the gills while insects get their
oxygen from the air through the spiracles.
In insects, the oxygen supply to living tissues is direct via the tracheae and tracheoles, but in fish, the
extracted oxygen has to enter the circulatory system for it to reach the living tissues.
4 (a) (i) 18 mg/100 cm3
(ii) 80 mg/100 cm3
(iii) 27 minutes
(b) (i) Anaerobic respiration is the release of energy and lactic acid from the breakdown of food material in
the absence of oxygen. During vigorous activity, the oxygen supply to the muscles may not be
sufficient to meet their energy demands. Consequently, lactic acid, produced by anaerobic
respiration, accumulates. Even after the exercise, the uptake of oxygen continues to be high
because it is needed to convert the lactic acid to energy and carbon dioxide. The person is said to
have incurred an “oxygen debt” that must be paid after the exercise.
(ii) Muscle cramps. Fainting. Even after the exercise, the uptake of oxygen continues to be high because
it is needed to convert the lactic acid to energy and carbon dioxide.

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(iii) In muscles, the products of anaerobic respiration are lactic acid and little energy.
Anaerobic respiration In animal cells: Glucose  Lactic acid + little energy
In yeast, the products of anaerobic respiration are alcohol (ethanol), carbon dioxide and little
energy.
Anaerobic respiration In yeast: Glucose  Alcohol + carbon dioxide + little energy
(c) Anaerobic respiration is used to produce energy in some organisms
Used in brewing beer and production of wines
Used in baking bread. Used in sour milk and yogurt production .
5 (a)(i) Which labelled parts G, H and l of the respiratory system of an insect is the:
(a) Trachea – G
(b) Air space – H
(ii) The pumping movements of the abdomen due to contraction and relaxation of muscles squeeze air
into and out of the tracheal system.

6 (a) (i) By heating the milk slowly to boiling point.

(ii) By cleaning and rinsing of containers to be used with boiling water.
(b) To make the temperature suitable for the action of bacterial starter.
(c) The bacteria act on the milk sugar, lactose, and convert it to lactic add which in turn coagulates the
milk protein, casein.
(d) The milk forms yoghurt
(e) To ensure that there are no other bacteria introduced to the milk apart from the starter bacteria.
.
7 (a) (i) Carbon dioxide enters the leaves through the stomata openings and diffuses into the
airspaces in the spongy mesophyll layer and into the palisade cells. It is combined with water by
the energy from sunlight trapped by chlorophyll to produce sugar and oxygen. This process is called
photosynthesis. Some of the oxygen produced is used in the cell to burn sugar in respiration to
produce energy and carbon dioxide and water. The rest of the oxygen released diffuses out of the
cytoplasm , through the cell wall into the air spaces and out of the stomata into the atmosphere.
(ii) During night time there is no sunlight for photosynthesis to take place. Respiration takes
place in plants all the time, night and day. Oxygen diffuses into the stomata to the cells where it is
combined with sugar to produce carbon dioxide and water and energy. The carbon dioxide leaves
the cells and diffuses out of the stomata into the air.
There is a time at dawn and dusk when the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration
such that all the oxygen produced by photosynthesis is used in respiration and all the carbon dioxide
produced by respiration is used in photosynthesis. It is called compensation point and the is no net
exchange of gases with the atmosphere.
(b) Used in brewing beer and production of wines
Used in baking bread. Used in sour milk and yogurt production
.
8 (a) Yeasts belong to the fungi family. They live in environments where sugar is likely to be available like on
the surface of fruits and flowers with nectar. Yeast cells contain enzymes called zymase. Using these
enzymes, yeast breaks down sugar into alcohol, carbon dioxide and little energy. This takes place in the
absence of oxygen and is called anaerobic respiration.
(b) Yeast cells contain enzymes called zymase. Using these enzymes, yeast breaks down sugar into alcohol,
carbon dioxide and little energy. This takes place in the absence of oxygen and is called anaerobic

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respiration. This process is also referred to as fermentation. Fermentation is used to make alcoholic drinks,
such as beer and wine.
glucose (sugar) → ethanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide + little energy
Different alcoholic drinks are made by fermentation, depending on the source of the sugars:
- beer and lager are made from malted cereal grain (cereal seeds that have begun to grow)
- wine is made from grapes
In baking, yeast is added to uncooked dough to make the dough rise, as a result of the carbon dioxide bubbles
given off, before the bread is baked. The high temperature kills the yeast and stops fermentation.
(c) Anaerobic respiration take place in man and yeast in the absence of oxygen. In man the products are
lactic acid and energy. In yeast the products are alcohol (ethanol), carbon dioxide and energy.
Anaerobic respiration In yeast cells: Glucose  Alcohol + carbon dioxide + little energy
Anaerobic respiration In animal cells: Glucose  Lactic acid + little energy

9 (a) Aerobic respiration is burning of sugar by oxygen in living cells to produce carbon dioxide and water
and energy. It takes place in the presence of oxygen.
Aerobic respiration In animal and plant cells: Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
(b) Cigarette smoke contains substances that are harmful to health.
Carbon monoxide
Toxic effects of CO are mainly due to its high affinity for Hb which is 240 times greater than oxygen
affinity. Uptake of oxygen in the cells is interfered. It also increases blood clotting. CO level to about
5 per cent may cause heart attack. It causes low birth weight.
Nicotine
Leads to increase in fatty deposits in blood vessels. Low birth weight.
Tar
Causes lung cancer.
Production of excess mucus.
Beating of the cilia stops leading to bronchitis.
Breakdown of alveoli due to prolonged forceful coughing. This causes emphysema.
(c) Cilia removes dust particles and bacteria from the air entering the nose and the lungs.
Ciliated cells form the lining of the nose and windpipe. The tiny cytoplasmic hairs called cilia are in
continual flicking movement keeping up a stream of fluid (mucus) that carries dust and germs away
from the lungs.

10 (a) Respiration is the breakdown of carbohydrates/sugar/glucose to release energy in a living cell. Aerobic
respiration happens in the presence of oxygen to produce energy and carbon dioxide and water. Anaerobic
respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen to produce lactic acid (in animals) or alcohol and carbon dioxide
in plants and fungi.
Aerobic respiration In animal and plant cells: Glucose + oxygen  carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic respiration In yeast cells: Glucose  Alcohol + carbon dioxide + little energy
Anaerobic respiration In animal cells: Glucose  Lactic acid + little energy
(b) Provision of energy for growth, cell division, protein synthesis, muscle contraction and movement,
transmission of nerve impulses to and from the brain and spine.
Production of carbon dioxide used in photosynthesis in plants.
Produces water used in photosynthesis and cytoplasm
(c) Describe the adverse effects of cigarette smoking on the health of human beings.

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Cigarette smoke contains substances that are harmful to health.

Carbon monoxide
Toxic effects of CO are mainly due to its high affinity for Hb which is 240 times greater than oxygen affinity.
Uptake of oxygen in the cells is interfered. It also increases blood clotting. CO level to about 5 per cent may
cause heart attack. It causes low birth weight.
Nicotine
Leads to increase in fatty deposits in blood vessels. Low birth weight.
Tar
Causes lung cancer.
Production of excess mucus.
Beating of the cilia stops leading to bronchitis.
Breakdown of alveoli due to prolonged forceful coughing. This causes emphysema. .

11 (a) Saprophytic nutrition by fungi recycles nutrients in the environment by breaking down dead or
decaying organic material. It makes soil more fertile for the production of plants. Microorganisms
produce just as much oxygen as the rainforests.
(b) Alcohol production
Yeast cells contain enzymes called zymase. Using these enzymes, yeast breaks down sugar into
alcohol, carbon dioxide and little energy. This takes place in the absence of oxygen and is called
anaerobic respiration. This process is also referred to as fermentation. Fermentation is used to
make alcoholic drinks, such as beer and wine.
glucose (sugar) → ethanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide + little energy
Different alcoholic drinks are made by fermentation, depending on the source of the sugars:
- beer and lager are made from malted cereal grain (cereal seeds that have begun to grow)
- wine is made from grapes
Baking
In baking, yeast is added to uncooked dough to make the dough rise, as a result of the carbon
dioxide bubbles given off, before the bread is baked. The high temperature kills the yeast and stops
fermentation.
Other industrial uses are citric acid production, production of antibiotics (medicines).

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Health – Paper 2
1 2002.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) Explain the following terms.
(i) Pathogen
(ii)Vector
(b) Describe ways in which pathogens of the following diseases can enter the body:
(i) Malaria
(ii) Gonorrhoea .
2 2002.P2.QUESTION.9(a)
Explain the following terms using specific examples of drugs.
(i) A stimulant ...........................
(ii) A depressant .........................
(x) .
(b)(i) Why is it noteasy to give up smoking?
(ii) Explain how cigarette smoke can cause coronary heart disease.

3 2003.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) Explain the harmful effects caused by:
(i) intake of heroin.
(ii) excessive intake of alcohol.
(b) Describe the withdrawal symptoms of heroin.
.
4 2004.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) Discuss the causative agent, signs and symptoms of cholera.
(b) Explain why incidences of cholera are more common during the rainy season than in the dry season.

5 2006.P2.QUESTION.6
(a) Explain the term immunity with reference to diseases.
(b) Explain the following types of immunity:
(i) active
(ii) passive
(iii) natural
(c) How does HIV infection affect immunity.

6 2007.P2.QUESTION.7(b) Explain how cholera is caused and describe how it is transmitted and can be
prevented.
.
7 (2010- P2- Q7)
(a) (i) Explain the factors which reduce immunity to pathogens.
(ii) Explain why immunisation against diseases such as measlesand tuberculosis (TB) is most
important in children under the ageof five.
(b) Describe the methods of transmission of schistomiasis (bilharzia). How can it be prevented and
controlled?

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8 (2011- P2- Q6)(b ) Outline the life cycle of a housefly.

9 (2011- P2- Q9)
(a) Explain the term immunity to disease.
(b) Distinguish between active immunity and passive immunity, giving one example in each case.
(c) Discuss how immunity to disease is reduced.
10 ECZ-2014-P2-Q10
(a) Describe the life cycle of a mosquito.
(b) With reference to the disease bilharzis, discuss its ...................
(i) signs and symptoms.
(ii) method of transmission.
11 2016.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) Explain how HIV can be transmitted from one person to another.
(b) (i) Explain the causes of stigma to people living with HIV and AIDS.
(ii) Describe ways of reducing stigma.
.
12 2005.P2.QUESTION.2
The life cycle of the organism in Fig. 2.1 is shown in Fig. 2.2.

The organism in Fig. 2.1 is responsible for spreading a micro-organism called Plasmodium.
(b) At what stage in the life cycle of the organism would:
(i) the use of chemical control method be most effective?
(ii) the use of biological control method be most effective?
(c) What advantages does the biological control method have over the chemical control method for
the elimination of the organism shown in Fig. 2.1?
(d) In what part of the blood does the Plasmodium live?

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Health – Paper 2
1 (a) (i) A pathogen is a disease causing organism like bacterium, virus, fungi, protozoa etc. A pathogen
is usually a parasite that lives off the host and causes the host to become ill.
(ii) A vector is an organism such as a mosquito or tick that transmits disease-causing
microorganisms (pathogens) from an infected person or animal to another.
(b) (i) Malaria is caused by a protozoan called plasmodium. The plasmodium is transmitted from one
person to another by female anopheles mosquitoes. When these mosquitoes bite a malaria patient,
they pierce the skin with their sharp, tubular mouth parts and feed on the blood with malarial
parasites (plasmodia) which they suck from the superficial skin capillaries. The plasmodia undergo
extensive reproduction and accumulate in large numbers in the salivary glands of the mosquito.
When this mosquito bites a healthy person, saliva containing hundreds of plasmodia is injected into
his or her blood stream and may develop malaria. The malarial parasites enter the red blood cells
and feed on their cytoplasm. They divide repeatedly inside the cells which eventually burst,
liberating more parasites into the circulation. When thousands of red cells all burst simultaneously,
releasing parasites and their accumulated waste products, the host suffers from a fever.

(ii) Gonorrhoea is venereal (sexually transmitted) disease. It is caused by bacteria called Neisseria
gonorrhoeae or gonococcus. The bacteria are mainly found in discharge from the penis and in
vaginal fluid. Gonorrhoea is easily passed between people through unprotected sex. The infection
can also be passed from a pregnant woman to her baby.
For Your Information.
Typical symptoms of gonorrhoea include a thick green or yellow discharge from the vagina or penis,
pain when urinating Gonorrhoea is usually treated with a single antibiotic injection and a single
antibiotic tablet. .
2 Drugs are classified according to their common effects and actions on the mind and body.
(i) A stimulant is a drug that speeds up the central nervous system. It makes people feel more alert and
increases the user’s physical energy. Stimulants are taken to make people feel happy and to decrease
appetite. Examples of stimulants are: Tobacco, Cocaine/Crack, Amphetamines, Methamphetamine
(ii) A depressant is a drug that slows down the central nervous system. It makes people feel relaxed, less
tense, and less aware of events around them. Examples of depressants are: Alcohol, Heroin, Inhalants,
Sleeping Pills, Ketamine, Prescription Pain Killers like Opioids.
For Your Information.

Hallucinogens: These drugs are sometimes called “mind-altering” or “mind-expanding” drugs. They can
increase a person’s awareness of sight, touch, taste, feeling and hearing. Objects may take on different
shapes and sizes, sounds may be heard louder or softer. They affect regions of the brain that are responsible
for coordination, thought processes, hearing, and sight. They can cause people to hear voices, see things,
and feel sensations that do not exist. Hallucinogens can also alter a person’s mood. Examples of
hallucinogens are: Marijuana (Cannabis or Weed), Ecstasy, LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide)
Other Drugs: Steroids.

(b)(i) Cigarette tobacco contains only a small amount of nicotine. Nicotine serves as a nerve stimulant

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and stimulates pleasure centers in the brain and is highly addictive. It causes a feeling of temporary
relaxation and stress relief, elevates one’s mood and heart rate. But this feeling is only temporary.
After your body rids itself of the drug, you start to crave another cigarette. When smoking is
discontinued, the smoker will experience physical withdrawal symptoms, making the person want
to start smoking again to stop the withdrawal symptoms.
Typical nicotine withdrawal symptoms include: flu-like aches and discomfort, cravings for a smoke,
irritability, sleep problems, fatigue, headache, cough, chest tightness, sore throat etc.
(ii) Coronary heart disease is the narrowing of blood vessels that supply oxygen and nutrients to the
heart.
- Smoking damages the lining of your arteries, leading to a build up of fatty material (atheroma) which
narrows the artery. This can cause angina, a heart attack or a stroke.
- Chemicals in cigarette smoke cause the blood to thicken and form clots inside veins and arteries.
Blockage from a clot can lead to a heart attack and sudden death.
- The carbon monoxide in tobacco smoke reduces the amount of oxygen in your blood. This means your
heart has to pump harder to supply the body with the oxygen it needs.
- The nicotine in cigarettes stimulates your body to produce adrenaline, which makes your heart beat
faster and raises your blood pressure, making your heart work harder.

3 (a) (i) Heroin is a depressant drug. It is an opioid drug made from morphine. People inject,
sniff, snort, or smoke heroin. People who use heroin report feeling a "rush" (a surge of pleasure, or
euphoria). However, there are harmful effects of taking heroin. Insomnia, constipation and
stomach cramping, nausea and vomiting, clouded mental functioning, mental disorders such as
depression and antisocial personality disorder.

(ii) - Alcohol is toxic to liver cells, and many heavy drinkers develop cirrhosis, a sometimes-lethal
condition in which the liver is so heavily scarred that it is unable to function.
- High blood pressure - Alcohol can disrupt the sympathetic nervous system, which, among
other things, controls the constriction and dilation of blood vessels in response to stress,
temperature, exertion, etc. Heavy drinking -- and bingeing, in particular -- can cause blood pressure
to rise. Over time, this effect can become chronic. High blood pressure can lead to many other
health problems, including kidney disease, heart disease, and stroke.
- Cardiovascular disease - Heavy drinking, especially bingeing, makes platelets more likely to
clump together into blood clots, which can lead to heart attack or stroke.
- Infertility.
- Low birth weight for babies of pregnant alcoholics.
(b) Heroin withdrawal symptoms may only last a week or so, but the symptoms can be severe and
include: nausea, abdominal pain, sweating, shaking, nervousness, agitation, depression, muscle
spasms, cravings for drugs. 


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4 (a) Cholera is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to dehydration
and even death if untreated. It is caused by eating food or drinking water contaminated with a
bacterium called Vibrio cholerae. Signs and symptoms of cholera can begin as soon as a few hours
or as long as five days after infection. Severe watery diarrhea accompanied by vomiting, which can
quickly lead to dehydration. If not treated, dehydration can lead to shock and death in a matter of
hours. It is treated with ORS (oral rehydration salts) and anti-biotics.
(b) Poor sanitary conditions lead to more cases of cholera every rainy season. Many households in
Zambia do not have toilets. Public toilets are often filthy and latrines consisting of shallow holes in
the ground are often dug near wells. When the annual rains come, pools of water accumulate in
the streets, in parking lots and backyards. The water mixes with waste that spills out of latrines and
aged sewer lines and the noxious stew seeps into the drinking water and spread the disease.
5 (a) Immunity is the ability of the body to resist or fight a disease. When the white blood cells produce
specific antibodies which destroy pathogens such as bacteria and viruses and the body does not
suffer from a disease caused by those pathogens, it is said to be immune to that disease.
(b) Explain the following types of immunity:
(i) active immunity – when the body produces its own antibodies to fight a disease.
(ii) passive immunity – introducing antibodies from another source outside the body. Passive
immunity is often short term because the number of antibodies passed on is less and they are short
- lived.
(iii) natural immunity – when antibodies are naturally produced after an actual infection by
pathogens. If produced by the body itself, it is natural active immunity. If produced outside the body
(by the mother) and transferred to the baby, it is natural passive immunity.

For Your Information.

Immunity is the ability of the body, using antibodies, to recognise and fight antigens produced by pathogens
such as viruses, bacteria, fungi etc.
Natural active immunity – when a pathogen invades the body, the lymphocytes are activated by antigens
to produce antibodies. Antibodies fight against a specific antigen and remain in the blood even after the
disease is gone to fight any future attach by the same pathogen.
Artificial active immunity – when a vaccine (weakened pathogen produced in a lab) is administered to a
person, the lymphocytes are activated to produce antibodies against the disease. Vaccination prevents
future attach of the disease. Some vaccinations are done many times to build up more antibodies in the
body. Take your children to the Under 5 Clinic.
Natural passive immunity – Immunity is passive when a person is given antibodies. A pregnant woman’s
antibodies pass across the placenta to the foetus. A mother’s antibodies in breast milk are given to her
newborn child. The baby becomes temporarily immune to the pathogens as the mother. This is important
because the immune system of a baby is not fully developed.
Artificial passive immunity – when antibodies are made in a medical lab and given to a person infected by
a given disease. This is a temporary protection, as they are foreign and will be removed by the body,
hopefully after they have destroyed the infection.

(c) The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS), attacks the human immune system. As a result, the body’s ability to resist opportunistic
viral, bacterial, fungal, protozoal, and other infection is greatly weakened. Neurological
complications and dramatic weight loss, or “wasting,” are characteristic of endstage HIV disease
(AIDS). HIV can be transmitted sexually; through contact with contaminated blood, tissue, or
needles; and from mother to child during birth or breastfeeding. Full-blown symptoms of AIDS may
not develop for more than 10 years after infection.
6 Cholera is an infectious disease that causes severe watery diarrhea, which can lead to dehydration and even

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death if untreated. It is caused by eating food or drinking water contaminated with a bacterium called Vibrio
cholerae. Signs and symptoms of cholera can begin as soon as a few hours or as long as five days after
infection. Severe watery diarrhea accompanied by vomiting, which can quickly lead to dehydration. If not
treated, dehydration can lead to shock and death in a matter of hours. It is treated with ORS (oral
rehydration salts) and anti-biotics. Cholera can be prevented by drinking boiled water, boiling vegetables,
washing fruits and vegetables with boiled water, fixing leaking sewer types that contaminate water supply.
.
7 (2010- P2- Q7)
(a) (i) There are a number of factors that reduce immunity to pathogens.
- Age affects the immune system. Old people fall ill more often and more easily than young people. Young
children often get sick very quickly because they do not have many antibodies.
- Lack of vitamins and minerals in a diet reduces the effectiveness of the immune system.
- Repeated invasions and infections by pathogens weakens the person’s immunity.
- Some pathogens develop resistance to medicine (drugs). New and stronger drugs have to be developed.
- Excess drinking of alcohol.
(ii) Immunisation protects children against some of the most dangerous diseases of childhood. All
children need to be vaccinated. A child is immunised by vaccines, which are injected or given by
mouth. The vaccines work by building up the child's defences (antibodies) against diseases.
Immunisation only works if given before the disease strikes.
A child who is not immunized is very likely to get diseases that can kill. Children who survive these
diseases are weakened and may not grow well. They may be permanently disabled. They may die
later from malnutrition and other illnesses.
All children need to be immunised with BCG (Bacille Calmette-Guérin) vaccine, which offers partial
protection against some forms of tuberculosis and leprosy.

(b) SCHISTOMIASIS (BILHARZIA).

Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a disease caused by parasitic worms. Infection occurs
when your skin comes in contact with contaminated freshwater in which certain types of snails that
carry schistosomes are living.
Freshwater becomes contaminated by Schistosoma eggs when infected people urinate or defecate
in the water. The eggs hatch, and if certain types of freshwater snails are present in the water, the
parasites develop and multiply inside the snails. The parasite leaves the snail and enters the water
where it can survive for about 48 hours. Schistosoma parasites can penetrate the skin of persons
who are wading, swimming, bathing, or washing in contaminated water. Within several weeks,
parasite mature into adult worms, residing in the blood vessels of the body where the females
produce eggs. Some of the eggs travel to the bladder or intestine and are passed into the urine or
stool.
Within days after becoming infected, you may develop a rash or itchy skin. Fever, chills, cough, and
muscle aches can begin within 1-2 months of infection. Safe and effective drugs are available for
the treatment of schistosomiasis.
How can I prevent schistosomiasis?

Schistosomiasis can be prevented by:

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- Avoid swimming or wading in freshwater when you are in countries in which schistosomiasis occurs.
Swimming in the ocean and in chlorinated swimming pools is safe.
- Drink safe water. Although schistosomiasis is not transmitted by swallowing contaminated water,
if your mouth or lips come in contact with water containing the parasites, you could become
infected. Because water coming directly from canals, lakes, rivers, streams, or springs may be
contaminated with a variety of infectious organisms, you should either boil water for 1 minute or
filter water before drinking it. Boiling water for at least 1 minute will kill any harmful parasites,
bacteria, or viruses present. Iodine treatment alone WILL NOT GUARANTEE that water is safe and
free of all parasites.
- Bath water should be boiled for at least 1 minute.
- Avoid urinating in fresh water.
- Remove water-dwelling snails (intermediate hosts).
8 (b )

The housefly is called musca domestica and is one of the most common insects. It is a health hazard where
sanitary conditions are poor.
After a male housefly chases down and fertilizes a female counterpart, she's ready to lay her eggs. Females
simply leave the eggs where they will be safe from predators and have plenty to eat upon hatching.
The female housefly deposits her eggs in the crevices and corners of the same kinds of decaying organic
matter adults feed on.
Within a day, the first larvae begin to emerge from the eggs. Also known as maggots, these worm-like
creatures are little more than fleshy, sectionless tubes with hooked mouth parts used for feeding. The
maggots grow rapidly. In less than two days they've doubled in size and therefore must moult. Moulting is
a process common to many invertebrates through which a growing insect sheds its former exoskeleton and
grows a new one. A maggot will moult twice more, emerging larger and more developed each time.
Following its third molt, larvae will burrow deep into the substance they've been feeding on. Their skins will
darken and harden as they enter the pupa stage. Inside this protective shell, the larva will fully develop the
body segments and appendages of an adult housefly.

The only visible addition to the emerging housefly is a swollen bump on the fly's head, used to break through
the shell. A new adult housefly has, at most, three months to reproduce before it dies. With so many
predators, a housefly's average lifespan is even shorter: 21 days. Luckily for the housefly, the phrase
"breeding like flies" isn't just a figure of speech. Each female can lay up to 900 eggs during her brief life.

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9 (a) Immunity is the ability of the body, using antibodies, to recognise and fight antigens produced by
pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi etc. The antibodies are produced by the body when attacked by a
pathogen or when a vaccine is administered. Specific antibodies fight against specific antigens.

(b) Distinguish between active immunity and passive immunity, giving one example in each case.

Active Immunity Passive Immunity

1 Antibodies produced by the host Antibodies produced by another host
2 May be induced by vaccines May be obtained from hosts with immunity
3 Slow buildup of antibodies Immediate buildup of antibodies
4 Immunity is long lasting Immunity is not long lasting
5 Example: polio vaccine, measles Examples: breast milk, mother to foetus via
vaccine, TB vaccine (BCG) placenta, anti-tetanus vaccine.

(c) There are a number of factors that reduce immunity to disease.

- HIV infection.
- Lack of vitamins and minerals in a diet reduces the effectiveness of the immune system.
- Repeated invasions and infections by pathogens weakens the person’s immunity.
- Some pathogens develop resistance to medicine (drugs). New and stronger drugs have to be developed.
- Age affects the immune system. Old people fall ill more often and more easily than young people. Young
children often get sick very quickly because they do not have many antibodies.
- Excess drinking of alcohol.
- Insufficient exercise
- Non completion and irregular intake of prescribed medication
.
10 ECZ-2014-P2-Q10
(a) The mosquito goes through four separate and distinct stages of its life cycle: Egg, Larva, Pupa, and
Adult. Each of these stages can be easily recognized by its special appearance.
- Adult mosquitoes lay eggs on the surface of water. The eggs stick together to form a raft of eggs.
- Eggs hatch into larvae (wrigglers) after 48 hours. The larvae live in water and shed their skin
(moult) four times. They feed on microorganisms in water.
- On the fourth moulting, a larva changes into a pupa.
- Finally, the pupa turns into an adult.

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(b) BILHARZIA (SCHISTOMIASIS)

(i) signs and symptoms.
Bilharzia, also known as Schistosomiasis, is a disease caused by parasitic worms.
Within days after becoming infected, you may develop a rash or itchy skin. Fever, chills, cough, and
muscle aches can begin within 1-2 months of infection. Safe and effective drugs are available for
the treatment of bilharzia.

(ii) method of transmission.

Infection occurs when your skin comes in contact with contaminated freshwater in which certain
types of snails that carry schistosomes are living. Freshwater becomes contaminated by
Schistosoma eggs when infected people urinate or defecate in the water. The eggs hatch, and if
certain types of freshwater snails are present in the water, the parasites develop and multiply inside
the snails. The parasite leaves the snail and enters the water where it can survive for about 48
hours. Schistosoma parasites can penetrate the skin of persons who are wading, swimming,
bathing, or washing in contaminated water. Within several weeks, parasite mature into adult
worms, residing in the blood vessels of the body where the females produce eggs. Some of the eggs
travel to the bladder or intestine and are passed into the urine or stool.

For Your Information

Bilharzia can be prevented by:
- Avoid swimming or wading in freshwater when you are in countries in which bilharzia occurs.
Swimming in the ocean and in chlorinated swimming pools is safe.
- Drink safe water. Although bilharzia is not transmitted by swallowing contaminated water, if your
mouth or lips come in contact with water containing the parasites, you could become infected.
Because water coming directly from canals, lakes, rivers, streams, or springs may be contaminated
with a variety of infectious organisms, you should either boil water for 1 minute or filter water
before drinking it. Boiling water for at least 1 minute will kill any harmful parasites, bacteria, or

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viruses present. Iodine treatment alone WILL NOT GUARANTEE that water is safe and free of all
parasites.
- Bath water should be boiled for at least 1 minute.
- Avoid urinating in fresh water.
- Remove water-dwelling snails (intermediate hosts).

11 (a) HIV stands for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The HIV virus is found in the body fluids of an
infected person. These fluids include blood, semen, pre-seminal fluid, vaginal fluid, or breast milk.
HIV transmission can occur when these fluids from an infected person enters the body of an
uninfected person.
The most common ways that HIV is transmitted from one person to another:
- having unprotected sex with an HIV-infected person.
- Sharing drug-injecting needles or syringes, circumcision razors or knives, tattooing implements,
rinse water, or other equipment (works) used to prepare drugs for injection with someone who has
HIV.
- From HIV positive mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding.
- Receiving blood transfusions, blood products, or organ/tissue transplants that are contaminated
with HIV. There must be rigorous testing of donated blood, organs and tissues.

For Your Information

HIV prevention.
- Abstinence is the only 100% effective way to prevent HIV.
- Be faithful to one sexual partner.
- Using condoms the right way every time you have sex.
- Avoid sharing drug-injecting needles or syringes, circumcision razors or knives, tattooing
implements etc
- Pregnant mothers must take antiretroviral therapy or ART drugs to reduce the risk of infecting the
foetus.
- HIV positive mothers must avoid breastfeeding, since breast milk contains HIV.

(b) (i) AIDS-related stigma and discrimination means prejudice, negative attitudes, abuse and
maltreatment directed at people living with HIV and AIDS. Many people with HIV and Aids
are shunned by family, friends and community.
- HIV/AIDS is a life-threatening disease, and therefore people fear to relate to it.
- Many believe that HIV positive people are Immoral/promiscuous and irresponsible.
- People think that they can be infected by HIV/AIDS through casual contact, sharing food,
toilet seats. This makes them fear being near people that HIV/AIDS.
- Fear of rejection and concerns about confidentiality prevent many from testing.
- Discrimination against HIV/AIDS patients at work and at home.

(ii) Describe ways of reducing stigma.

- Education through advocacy campaigns against stigma.
- Show love and care to people with HIV/AIDS.
- Avoid using language that overtly stigmatises others.

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- Treat people with HIV as you would treat anyone else: with respect, empathy, and
compassion.

12 (b) (i) adult stage

(ii) Larva stage
(c) Biological controls (e.g. bacterial larvicides and larvivorous fish) target and kill vector larvae
without generating the ecological impacts of chemical use. Chemical control methods kill or
negatively affect other animals in the ecosystem.
Mosquitoes can become resistant to chemicals but cannot become resistant mosquito fish, lizards,
dragonflies, lizards and geckos that eat them.
(d) Red blood cells.

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9.2 Transport and Storage in Plants – Paper 2

1 2016.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) (i) Figure 3.1. shows a cross-section through a stem of a plant which had been previously
dipped in a red dye for 6 hours.

Identify the parts labelled N, P and Q. [3]

(ii) Which labelled part in Figure 3.1 would be stained red?
(iii) Give a reason for your answer in (a)(ii) above.
(b) (i) Suggest three factors that would increase the rate of movement of the dye in the stem
when it is dipped in the red dye.
(ii) Name the process that will cause the movement of the red dye in the stem.
.

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2 (2011-P2-Q2) Figure 2,1 shows an experiment to investigate the movement of coloured solution in a plant.

(a) Name the process by which

(i) water in the solution was absorbed by the plant..................................................................
(ii) coloured solute in the solution was absorbed by the plant............................................................
(b) Why was oil put on top of the coloured solution?.............................................................................
(c) Figure 2.2 shows the cross section of the stem obtained from Figure 2.1 at the end of the
experiment.

(i) Using the letter X, label the part on the figure which was stained by the dye.

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(ii) Identify the part you have labelled X on figure 2.2 ...................................................
(iii) Name two substances transported by part X and give one function for each.
Name:.................................................................................
Function:...................................................................
Name:.....................................................................
Function:.................................................................

3 2009.P2.QUESTION.1
Figure. 1.1 shows some cells taken from a vascular tissue of a plant.

(a) Identify the cells X and Y and structure labelled Z. [3]

(b) What are the functions of the cells labelled
(i) X ................ [1]
(ii) Y ................ [1]
(iii) What structure, in the human body, performs a similar function as structure Y? [1]
(c) What two conditions are necessary for osmosis to take place? [2]
.
4 2008.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) Fig. 3.1 shows a cross-section of a stem of a plant.

(i) State the functions of the parts labelled N and O.

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(ii) Which tissue N, O, or P would be highly stained if the stem was initially immersed in a coloured
solution?
(iii) Give a reason for your answer in (a) (ii) above.
(iv) Which tissue N, O or P brings about secondary growth in plants?

5 2006.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) Fig. 3.1 shows the lower surface of a leaf.

(i) Identify and state the functions of the parts labelled A and B.
(ii) What happens to part A in windy conditions?
(b) (i) What would be the effect of excessive loss of water on B?
(ii) By What process do gases leave the leaf?
(c) How is the cactus plant adapted to restrict water loss by evaporation?

6 2004.P2.QUESTION.2
(a) Fig. 2.1 shows an experimental set up using a potometer. In the above experiment, the distance
moved by the meniscus along the capillary tube in 30 minutes was measured and recorded. The meniscus
was brought back to zero. Two leaves were removed and the distance moved by the meniscus in 30 minutes
was again measured and recorded. The process of removing two leaves at a time was repeated until all the
leaves were removed.
The readings were as given in the table below:

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NOTE: Other factors remained unchanged.

(i) What does the movement of the meniscus measure?

(ii) How would you return the meniscus to zero?
(b) (i) Why is a capillary tube used instead of an ordinary glass tube?
(ii) What was the effect of decreasing the number of leaves present on the twig?
(iii) Explain why removing leaves has the effect you have given in (b) (ii) above.
(iv) Explain why the meniscus still moves when there are no leaves on the shoot.

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7 2002.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) Figure 3.1 shows two cross sections from different parts of a dicotyledonous plant.

Which diagram shows the cross section of (i) root, (ii) stem? Explain your answer.
(i) Root ...................................
Explanation
(i) Stem ...................................
Explanation
(iii) What are the shaded regions in the diagrams? Give the reasons for their different distributions.
Shaded regions ............................................
Reasons ....................................................
(b) Herbaceous stems and woody stems were clamped in water (Fig. 3.3) and concentrated salt
solution (Fig. 3.4) as shown below.

Describe what will happen in Fig. 3.3 and Fig. 3.4. Explain your answers.
Fig. 3.3 ................................................
Explanation: ..........................................
Fig. 3.4 ................................................
Explanation: ..........................................

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8 2004.P2.QUESTION.9(a) Describe the process of water uptake by a plant.

9 2006.P2.QUESTION.8(a) The following processes Active transport, Transpiration pull and Osmosis are
involved in the movement of substances in a plant.
For each process listed above:
(i) Explain the term.
(ii) Describe how it is important to the plant.

10 2008.P2.QUESTION.8(a)
(i) State the processes involved in the movement of water molecules from the soil to the leaf.
(ii) Give two uses of water in the leaf.

11 2009.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) (i) Explain the importance of transpiration. [3]
(ii) Explain how two named environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration. [4]
.
12 (2010- P2- Q9)
(a) Explain the following terms:
(i) transpiration pull
(ii) translocation
(iii) gutation
(b) Describe how a simple potometer can be set up and used to show transpiration.

13 (2012- P2- Q6)

(a) Explain the process of transpiration.
(b) Describe three environmental factors which affect transpiration.
(c) Relate the significance of transpiration to plants and the environment.
.
14 2001.P2.QUESTION.6(b) How are the products of photosynthesis distributed to the rest of the plant?
.

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9.2 Transport and Storage in Plants – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) N – Cambium
P – Phloem
Q – Xylem
O – Pith
R – Cortex
(ii) Q – Xylem
(iii) Q – Xylem transports water (and dye in this case) and mineral salts from roots to leaves

(b) (i) Factors that would increase the rate of movement of the dye in the stem are factors that
affect rate of transpiration.
Light intensity – as it increases, the stomata open and allow more rapid evaporation.
Temperature – as it increases, the capacity of the air for water vapour increases. As a
result transpiration increases.
Wind – windy conditions increase transpiration
Humidity – low humidity increases transpiration.
(ii) Transpiration pull
.
2 (a) (i) Osmosis
(ii) Active transport.
(b) Prevent evaporation.
(c) (i) Xylem

(ii) Xylem
(iii) Water – for photosynthesis, turgidity and firmness of the plant.
Nitrate salts – protein synthesis for plant growth
Magnesium salts – for chlorophyll formation

3 (a) X – Companion cell Y – Sieve element Z – Sieve plate

(b) (i) X – provides energy needed for the transport of food substances.
(ii) Y – conducts dissolved food from the leaves to all parts of the plant.
(iii) Blood vessels (arteries)
(c) - presence of two regions with different water potential
- selectively permeable membrane
4 (a) (i) N – phloem, is the vascular tissue that transports nutrients (sucrose, amino acids) from

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the leaves to all parts of the plant.

O – Xylem transports water and mineral salts from roots to leaves.
(ii) O – Xylem
(iii) Xylem transports water (and coloured solution in this case) and mineral salts from roots.
(iv) P – Cambium. The vascular cambium produces the secondary vascular tissues: secondary
xylem and secondary phloem. These tissues are composed of the same cell types as the
primary vascular tissues.
(b) (i) Q – Tuber R – Bud
(ii) - To store food
- To develop new plants

5 (a) (i) A – Stoma. It allows gases to diffuse in and out of a leaf.

B – Guard cells. Controls the opening and closing of the stomata.
(ii) What happens to part A in windy conditions?
(b) (i) What would be the effect of excessive loss of water on B?
(ii) By What process do gases leave the leaf?
(c) Most cacti were designed for life in the hot and dry deserts.
- leaves on most cacti are absent or extremely tiny.
- The wax in the thick cuticle helps the stem to hold in its water vapour, reducing water loss.
- The cactus stem serves as the plant's main photosynthetic organ and is used for water storage.
- Few stomata in the stem reduces transpiration.
- Cactus thorns are actually its modified leaves and help to reduce water loss by restricting air flow
near the cactus and providing some shade.

6 (a) (i) Transpiration

(ii) By opening the reservoir
(b) (i) The capillary tube is very narrow and easy to observe the movement of the meniscus.
(ii) The rate of transpiration is reduced.
(iii) Water is lost through the stomata on the leaves. Removing the leaves reduces the number
of stomata and, consequently, the rate of transpiration.
(iv) Water vapour is lost from the stumps were the leaves were plucked from.
7 (a) (i) Root – Plant part W (dicotyledonous root)
Explanation: In a dicot root, the xylem is arranged in a star shape with phloem arranged between
the arms of the star. In a monocot root, the xylem and phloem vessels are found in the central part
of the root and are in a circular arrangement.
(i) Stem – Plant part V (dicotyledonous stem)
Explanation: Dicot stems have a circular (ring) arrangement of vascular tissues, whereas the
stems of monocots have vascular-tissue bundles scattered throughout.
(iii) Shaded regions – xylem vessels.
Reasons: xylem vessels are arranged on the inside of the bundle and the phloem on the outside.
(b) Fig. 3.3 – Both stems will NOT bend.
Explanation: The herbaceous stem does not bend because of the turgidity offered by osmosis of
water into the stem cells. The woody stem does not bend because of the lignified cell walls.
Fig. 3.4 – The herbaceous stem bends (curves downwards), but the woody stem does not bend.
Explanation: The herbaceous stem bends because it’s become flaccid due to osmosis of water from
the stem cells into the salt solution with lower osmotic potential. A herbaceous plant is a plant that
does not have much wood and its stems are green and soft. The woody stem does not bend because
of the lignified cell walls.

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8 Root hairs play an important part in the process of water uptake by a plant. They are thin and long.
This enables them to penetrate the tiny spaces between the soil particles and reach the film of water that
surrounds the soil particles.
Although the soil water has mineral salts dissolved in it, they make only a very dilute solution and
the cell sap of the root hair is more concentrated than this. Root hairs absorb water from the soil by osmosis.
Root hair cells are adapted for this by having a large surface area to speed up osmosis. Water passes from
the soil through the cell wall and its thin cytoplasmic lining into the vacuole of the root hair.
Water then moves from the root hairs to the cells across the cortex of the root by osmosis until it reaches
the xylem vessel in the centre of the root.
Water moves from the root hairs to xylem using three routes.
(1) The bulk of water travels inwards along or between the cell walls, from cell to cell, without entering the
cytoplasm or vacuole of each cell. (apoplast route)
(2) Water travelling through the cytoplasm of the cells. (symplast route)
(3) Water moves through the vacuoles of the cells. (vacuolar route).
When water reaches the xylem vessels, it is drawn up the root to the stem and up the stem to the
leaves by the “suction” effect of the transpiration stream ( or pull). In leaves, water is used in photosynthesis
and some of it is lost to the atmosphere via the stomata by transpiration.

9 Active transport – it is movement of particles (molecules and ions) through a membrane from region of low
concentration to region of high concentration. It requires energy.
Active transport is important to the plant because it is responsible absorption of potassium,
phosphate, nitrates, and other mineral ions from the soil.
The concentration of mineral salts in the soil is lower than their concentration in the root hairs. Therefore,
active transport, using energy from the cells, moves the mineral salts against concentration gradient from
the soil into the root hairs and to the xylem vessels.

Transpiration pull – or Transpiration stream. It is the suction force which aids in drawing the water upward
from roots to leaves. Loss of water from the leaves by evaporation causes their turgor to fall and the
concentration of their cell sap to rise and consequently produces a decrease in osmotic potential. Cells in
this condition will absorb water from their neighbours and eventually from the xylem vessels in the leaf.
Withdrawal of water by osmosis from the xylem vessels produces a tension or “pull”, i.e. the water is
submitted to pressures below atmospheric. This tension or suction force draws water up the xylem vessels
of the stem from the roots. Water molecules are cohesive so water is pulled up through the plant. As the
xylem cells make a continuous tube from the leaf, down the stem to the roots, this acts like a drinking straw,
producing a flow of water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves. This flow of water is called the
transpiration stream. It is dependent on the rate of evaporation from the leaves.
Transpiration pull is important to the plant in the following ways.
- providing water to leaf cells for photosynthesis
- transporting mineral ions from the roots to the leaves
- providing water to keep cells turgid in order to support the plant
- keeping the leaves cool by evaporation

Osmosis – is the passage of water molecules from a region of their higher concentration to a region of their
lower concentration, through a partially or selectively permeable membrane.
Osmosis is important to the plant in the following ways:
- Absorption of water by root hairs from the soil
- Transport of water from root hairs to the xylem vessels in the roots and xylem vessels in the leaves to the
leaf cells.
- Opening of the stomata during day time
- providing water to keep cells turgid in order to support the plant

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10 (i) Osmosis, transpiration and transpiration pull.

(ii) - It is a reactant used in photosynthesis
- It supports leaves and shoots by keeping the cells rigid
- It cools the leaves by evaporation
- It transports dissolved minerals around the plant

11 (a) (i) - Transport of water by transpiration pull from the roots up xylem vessels to the leaves.
- Transport of mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.
- Recycling of water into the atmosphere for the water cycle..
- Cooling of the plant in hot weather.

(ii) Explain how two named environmental factors affect the rate of transpiration. [4]

Factor Description Explanation

The stomata (openings in the leaf) open
In bright light transpiration
Light wider to allow more carbon dioxide into
increases
the leaf for photosynthesis
Transpiration is faster in higher Evaporation and diffusion are faster at
Temperature
temperatures higher temperatures
Water vapour is removed quickly by air
Transpiration is faster in windy
Wind movement, speeding up diffusion of more
conditions
water vapour out of the leaf
Diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf
Transpiration is slower in humid
Humidity slows down if the leaf is already
conditions
surrounded by moist air

.
12 (a) (i) Transpiration pull – or Transpiration stream. It is the suction force which aids in
drawing the water upward from roots to leaves. Loss of water from the leaves by evaporation
causes their turgor to fall and the concentration of their cell sap to rise and consequently produces
a decrease in osmotic potential. Cells in this condition will absorb water from their neighbours and
eventually from the xylem vessels in the leaf. Withdrawal of water by osmosis from the xylem
vessels produces a tension or “pull”, i.e. the water is submitted to pressures below atmospheric.
This tension or suction force draws water up the xylem vessels of the stem from the roots. Water
molecules are cohesive so water is pulled up through the plant. As the xylem cells make a
continuous tube from the leaf, down the stem to the roots, this acts like a drinking straw, producing
a flow of water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves. This flow of water is called the
transpiration stream. It is dependent on the rate of evaporation from the leaves.

(ii) Translocation – movement of dissolved food substances like sucrose and amino acids from the
leaves to all parts of the plant. This is done in the phloem tubes.
(iii) Guttation – is the exudation of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves of some
vascular plants, such as grasses. At night, transpiration usually does not occur because most plants
have their stomata closed. When there is a high soil moisture level, water will enter plant roots,
because the water potential of the roots is lower than in the soil solution. The water will accumulate
in the plant, creating root pressure. The root pressure forces some water to exude through special
leaf tip or edge structures, water glands, forming drops. Root pressure provides the impetus for this

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flow, rather than transpirational pull. Guttation is most noticeable when transpiration is
suppressed and the relative humidity is high, such as during the night.

(b) Describe how a simple potometer can be set up and used to show transpiration.
A potometer is a piece of apparatus used to measure the rate of water loss from a plant
(transpiration).
Materials
- A length of capillary tube: A bubble is introduced to the cis taken up by the plant, the bubble
moves. By marking regular gradations on the tube, it is possible to measure water uptake.
- A reservoir. Typically a funnel with a tap; turning the tap on the reservoir resets the bubble. Some
designs use a syringe instead.
- A tube for holding the shoot. The shoot must be held in contact with the water; additionally, the
surface of the water should not be exposed to the air. Otherwise, evaporation will interfere with
measurements. A rubber bung greased with petroleum jelly suffices.
Preparation
- Cut a leafy shoot for a plant and plunge its base into water. This allows the xylem from taking up any
air. Wetting the leaves themselves will alter the rate of transpiration.
- Immerse the whole of the potometer into the sink. Move it about until all the air bubbles come out.
- Recut the shoot's stem underwater. Put it into the bung; grease the bung with plenty of petroleum jelly
(Vaseline) if it doesn't stay and then put the bung into the potometer.
- Make sure the tap is closed, then lift the whole assembly out of the water.
- Leave the end of the capillary tube out of the water until an air bubble forms then put the end into a
beaker of water.
Use
- Set up the conditions of the experiment. Alterations to lighting (placing the plant in bright light or
shadow), wind (directing a fan at the plant), and humidity (placing the plant in a humid chamber) are
typical.
- Let the bubble reach a "zero" point in the tube.
- Measure the movement of water at fixed time intervals.

13 (a) Transpiration is the process by which plants lose water as water vapour into the atmosphere. Most
of this loss takes place through the leaves but evaporation also occurs from the stem and flowers.
Turgor pressure in the mesophyll cells forces water outwards through the cell walls. From the outer
surface of the cell walls, the water evaporates into the intercellular spaces and diffuses out of the
stomata into the atmosphere.
(b)
Factor Description Explanation
The stomata (openings in the leaf) open
In bright light transpiration
Light wider to allow more carbon dioxide into
increases
the leaf for photosynthesis
Transpiration is faster in higher Evaporation and diffusion are faster at
Temperature
temperatures higher temperatures
Water vapour is removed quickly by air
Transpiration is faster in windy
Wind movement, speeding up diffusion of more
conditions
water vapour out of the leaf

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Diffusion of water vapour out of the leaf

Transpiration is slower in humid
Humidity slows down if the leaf is already
conditions
surrounded by moist air

(c) - Transport of water by transpiration pull from the roots up xylem vessels to the leaves.
- Transport of mineral salts from the roots to the leaves.
- Recycling of water into the atmosphere for the water cycle..
- Cooling of the plant in hot weather.
.
14 Sugars, which are formed by the plant during photosynthesis, are an essential component of plant nutrition.
Like water, sugar (usually in the form of sucrose, though glucose is the original photosynthetic product) is
carried throughout the parts of the plant by the vascular system. Phloem, the vascular tissue responsible for
transporting organic nutrients around the plant body, carries dissolved sugars from the leaves (their site of
production) or storage sites to other parts of the plant that require nutrients. Within the phloem, sugars
travel from areas of high osmotic concentration and high water pressure, called sources, to regions of low
osmotic concentration and low water pressure, called sinks. (Osmotic concentration refers the concentration
of solutes, or sugars in this case; where the concentration of solutes is highest, so is the osmotic
concentration).
Sources
The nutrient-rich regions that supply sugars for the rest of the plant are called the sources. Sources include
the leaves, where sugar is generated through photosynthesis. When they are high in supplies, the nutrient
storage areas, such as the roots and stems, can also function as sources. In the sources, sugar is moved into
the phloem by active transport, in which the movement of substances across cell membranes requires
energy expenditure on the part of the cell.
Sinks
Sinks are areas in need of nutrients, such as growing tissues. When they are low in supply, storage areas
such as the roots and stems can function as sinks. The contents of the phloem tubes flow from the sources
to these sinks, where the sugar molecules are taken out of the phloem by active transport.
.

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10.2 Transport in Humans – Paper 2

1 ECZ-2014-P2-Q3
(a) Figures 3.1 and 3.2 show part of the circulatory system in humans.

Identify the two types of circulation illustrated in figures 3.1 and 3.2.
Figure 3.1 ................
Figure 3.2 ................
(b) (i) Suggest the names of blood vessels labelled M and O in figure 3.1 and 3.2.
(i) State two differences between blood vessels M and O.
(c) State the name of the heart chamber labelled P in figure 3.1.
(d) State two blood disorders found in humans.

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2 (2013- P2- Q2)

Figure 1.0 shows a longitudinal section through the human heart.

(a) (i) Identify the parts labelled X and Y on the figure.........................................................................

(ii) Suggest two structural differences between blood vessels V and X.
1. ...........................................................................................
2. ..........................................................................................
(b) Explain why the part labelled Z is thicker than W......................................................................
(c) (i) Explain how the tissues of the heart are supplied with nutrients and oxygen.......................................
(ii) Why is diet and exercise important to the functioning of the heart?.........................................

3 (2012- P2- Q2) (a) The table below shows the blood groups in human beings.

(i) Which two blood groups exist in two different forms?

Blood group................................and blood group........................
(ii) Which blood group can be donated to any person? ....................................................
(iii) Which blood group can receive from any other group of blood?.....................................................
(b) Outline the five steps involved in blood clotting.
1....................................................................................
2.................................................................................
3.................................................................................
4..............................................................................
5................................................................................
.
4 2007.P2.QUESTION.10(a) Explain how oxygen in the alveolus finally reaches a liver cell.

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5 2008.P2.QUESTION.8(b) Outline the movement of glucose from the ileum to the heart muscle.
6 2009.P2.QUESTION.10(b) Describe the role of blood in transporting materials in the body. [5]
7 2009.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) What is the importance of the following in relation to blood?
(i) Leukemia
(ii) Sickle cell anaemia [2]
(b) Explain the role of house flies in disease transmission. [2]
.
8 (2010- P2- Q6)(b) Describe the composition and functions of lymph.
9 2002.P2.QUESTION.2
(a)(i) Figure 2.1 shows sections of blood vessels R and S.

Name the type of blood vessels shown in Fig. 2.1.

Blood Vessel R .................................
Blood Vessel S .................................
(ii) Describe structural differences between the blood vessels R and S.
(b) (i) Two patients went to the hospital on suspicion that they had malaria infection. Their blood samples
revealed the following.
Patient x - had no malarial parasites and was anaemic.
Patient y - had malarial parasites and was anaemic.
Explain how malaria can cause anaemia.
(ii) State other possible causes of anaemia in patient x.
(iii) Patient x with blood group A needed blood transfusion. Name a possible donor.
.

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10 2008.P2.QUESTION.2
(b) Fig. 2.2 shows an area of the skin undergoing the healing process after a person had a cut.

(i) Identify structure O and the type of blood vessel P shown in Fig. 2.2
(ii) Explain how the scab was formed on the person's skin.
(iii) State one essential nutrient needed in the person's diet that helps clotting.

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10.2 Transport in Humans – Paper 2

1 ECZ-2014-P2-Q3
(a) Figure 3.1 – Pulmonary Circulation
Figure 3.2 – Systemic Circulation
(b) (i) M – Aorta O – Pulmonary artery
(ii) - The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs from the heart, but the aorta
carries oxygenated blood from the heart to other parts of the body.
- The walls of aorta are thicker because it has to bear high pressure of blood inside it to the
rest of the body. The Pulmonary artery less thicker because of the short distance between the
heart and the lungs.
(c) P – Right atrium
(d) Leukaemia – a cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow where blood cells are made. It leads
to the over-production of abnormal white blood cells, the part of the immune system which defends
the body against infection.
Sickle-cell anaemia – an inherited disorder of red blood cells in which the cells are shaped like a
crescent or sickle. The sickle cells don't last long and get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow.
Haemophilia – an inherited bleeding disorder where the blood doesn't clot properly. It is caused
when blood does not have enough clotting factor. A clotting factor is a protein in blood that controls
bleeding.

2 (a) (i) X – Pulmonary artery. Y – Bicuspid valve V – Superior Vena cava

(ii)
Structure X (Artery) Structure V (Vein)
1 Walls are thick Walls are thin
2 More muscles with Less muscles
3 More elastic fibres and fibrous tissue Less elastic tissue
4 Narrow lumen Wide lumen
5 Valves are absent Valves are present

(b) Z (left ventricle wall) is thicker than W (right ventricle wall) because it pumps blood at high pressure
over a long distance to all parts of the body whereas W pumps blood over a short distance from
the heart to the lungs.
(c) (i) The coronary artery branches off from the Aorta and supplies oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
of the heart. Oxygen and nutrients diffuse from the capillaries to the tissue cells.

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(ii) Healthy diet and exercise prevent coronary heart disease, the narrowing of blood vessels that
supply oxygen and nutrients to the heart. A diet high in animal fat and low in fibre can lead to
accumulation of cholesterol and fatty deposits (plaque) in the walls of the coronary arteries.
Exercising regularly burns out the cholesterol and plaque. .

3 (i) Blood group A (AA and AO) and blood group B (BB and BO).
(ii) Blood group O.
(iii) Blood group AB.

Notes

Blood Types
Although all blood is made of the same basic elements, not all blood is alike. In fact, there are eight different
common blood types, which are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens – substances
that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body. Since some antigens can trigger a
patient's immune system to attack the transfused blood, safe blood transfusions depend on careful blood
typing and cross-matching.

The ABO Blood Group System

There are four major blood groups determined by the presence or absence of two antigens – A and B – on
the surface of red blood cells:

Group A – has only the A antigen on red cells (and B antibody in the plasma)
Group B – has only the B antigen on red cells (and A antibody in the plasma)
Group AB – has both A and B antigens on red cells (but neither A nor B antibody in the plasma)
Group O – has neither A nor B antigens on red cells (but both A and B antibody are in the plasma)

Note. The antibodies in the plasma of the recipient determine what type of blood can be received. This
explains why the blood group AB that has neither A nor B antibody in the plasma can receive blood from all
blood types. The antigen on the red blood cells of the donor determines whether the blood can be received
depending on the antibodies in the recipient’s blood.

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(b) Five steps involved in blood clotting.

1. Platelets in the blood gather at the wound and release thromboplastins (complex enzyme).
2. Thromboplastins convert prothrombin into thrombin, an enzyme.
3. Thrombin then changes blood protein called fibrinogen to fibrin, which resembles tiny threads.
4. Fibrin forms a network of fibres that traps red blood cells to form a clot.
5. The clot develops into a scab, which protects the wound as it heals.

4 (a) The lining of the alveolus is covered with a film of moisture in which the oxygen dissolves. The
oxygen concentration in the blood is lower than in the alveolus, hence it diffuses through the epithelium,
capillary wall, blood plasma and into a red blood cell where it combines with the haemoglobin. The
capillaries join to form venules which eventually form the pulmonary veins which return the oxygenated
blood to the left atrium of the heart. The blood is then pumped to the left ventricle, then to the artery called
Aorta. The hepatic artery branches off from the Aorta and takes the blood to the liver. Oxygen diffuses out
of the capillaries in the liver into tissue fluid that surrounds the liver cells and finally diffuses into the liver
cells..

5 Glucose in the ileum pass through the epithelial cells and capillary walls of the villi and enter the blood
plasma by diffusion and active transport depending on the concentration levels in the blood. The capillaries
to unite to form veins which unite to form one large vein, the hepatic portal vein, which transports the blood
with glucose to the liver. The hepatic vein then carries the blood into the vena cava, which empties the blood
into the right atrium of the heart. Blood with glucose then enters the right ventricle which pumps it to the
lungs via the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary vein then brings the blood back to the heart, first into the
left atrium, later into the left ventricle which pumps the blood into the Aorta. Some blood from the Aorta
branches off into the coronary artery which supplies blood with glucose and oxygen to the heart muscles.

6 The circulation of blood in vessels around the body constantly supplies nutrients to the living cells and
removes poisonous end-products from them.
- blood transports oxygen from lungs to tissues.
- blood transports carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs.
- blood transports nitrogenous waste (urea) from the liver to the kidneys.
- blood transports digested food from the intestines (ileum) to the tissues.
- blood transports hormones from the glands to the target organs
- blood transports (distributes) heat from hotter high temperature regions to other regions.

7 (a) (i) Leukaemia – a cancer that affects the blood and bone marrow where blood cells are made. It leads
to the over-production of abnormal white blood cells, the part of the immune system which defends
the body against infection.
(ii) Sickle-cell anaemia – an inherited disorder of red blood cells in which the cells are shaped like a
crescent or sickle. The sickle cells don't last long and get stuck in blood vessels, blocking blood flow.

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8 Lymph & The Lymphatic System.

At the arterial end of the capillary bed, high blood pressure forces plasma out through the thin capillary
walls. This exuded fluid is called tissue fluid and permeates the interstitial spaces between the cells of all
living tissues. It bathes every cell in the body. It has similar composition as plasma, containing dissolved
oxygen, glucose, amino acids, salts and vitamins, but it contains less amount of protein molecules and no
red blood cells. Cells extract nutrients from tissue fluid and into it they excrete their carbon dioxide and
nitrogenous waste.

Some of this fluid returns into the capillaries at the venous end of the capillary bed. Some tissue fluid drain
into the blindly-ending , thin-walled vessels found between the cells. These vessels are called lymph vessels
and form part of the lymphatic system which return tissue fluid to the heart.

Fluid in the blood is called plasma, surrounding the cells is called tissue fluid, in the lymphatic system is
called lymph. Flow of liquid through the lymph system is very slow. It depends on movement of our muscles,
the valves in the vessels and the negative pressure in chest when we breath in. Flow is in one direction only,
from tissues towards the heart. Most of the lymph re-enters the blood stream at the subclavian veins under
the collar bones.

Digested fat is absorbed into the lymph through the lacteals in the villi of the small intestine. This lymph is a
milky looking fluid.

At intervals along the lymph vessels are structures called lymph nodes. These are part of the immune system.
Lymphocytes are produced in the lymph nodes. Lymphocytes are white blood cells that produce antibodies.
The lymph nodes swell up at times of infection.

Functions of Lymph
1. Lymph returns proteins and excess tissue fluid to the bloodstream.
2. It absorbs and transports fatty acids and fats as chyle from the digestive system via the lacteals in the villi
of the small intestine.
3. It initiates and coordinates an immune response to fight bacteria, toxins, fungi, parasites, and viruses that
accumulate in our bodies.

9 (a)(i) Blood Vessel R – Artery

Blood Vessel S – Capillary
(ii)
Artery Capillary
1 Thick muscular walls Tiny one-cell thick walls
2 Narrow lumen Extremely narrow lumen
.
(b) (i) Malaria is caused by a protozoan called plasmodium. The plasmodium is transmitted from one
person to another by female anopheles mosquitoes. The malarial parasites enter the red blood cells
and feed on their cytoplasm. They divide repeatedly inside the cells which eventually burst,
liberating more parasites into the circulation. When thousands of red cells all burst simultaneously,

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releasing parasites and their accumulated waste products, the host suffers from a fever. The
destruction of red blood cells causes anaemia.
(ii) Lack of iron in the diet. Iron is needed in the formation of haemoglobin.
(iii) Blood group A can only receive blood from A or O.

.
10 (b) (i) O – White blood cell. P – Blood capillary
(ii) Five steps involved in blood clotting.
1. Platelets in the blood gather at the wound and release thromboplastins (complex enzyme).
2. Thromboplastins convert prothrombin into thrombin, an enzyme.
3. Thrombin then changes blood protein called fibrinogen to fibrin, which resembles tiny threads.
4. Fibrin forms a network of fibres that traps red blood cells to form a clot.
5. The clot develops into a scab, which protects the wound as it heals.

(iii) Calcium. Vitamin K.

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11.2 Excretion – Paper 2

1 ECZ-2014-P2-Q4
(a) Figure 4.0 shows the longitudinal section through a human kidney.

(i) Identify the blood vessels labelled Q and R

(ii) State two waste substances that are likely to be present in the liquid which pass through the
structure labelled S.
(b) State two processes that occur in the kidney during urine formation.
(c) (i) Suggest two methods of how a person with kidney failure may live a normal life.
(ii) State the hormone that affects osmoregulation in the kidney.

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2 (2013- P2- Q3) Table 1.0 shows results of tests on urine samples taken from four different people
identified as L, M, N and O. Each sample was tested for the presence of alcohol, glucose and amino acids.

(a) (i) From the table above, identify which person is likely to suffer from diabetes.....................................
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a) (i) above............................................................................
(iii) Suggest a remedy for diabetes............................................................
(b) (i) From the table, identify which person has kidney failure.......................................................................
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (b) (i) above.........................................................................................
(iii) Suggest two remedies for kidney failure.............................................................................................
.
3 (2011-P2-Q4) Figure 4.1 shows the urinary system and its blood supply.

(a) On Figure 4.1 label structures F, G and H.

(b) State two processes that are involved in urine formation.
(c) Table 4.1 shows the relative quantities of several substances in the blood in the renal artery and renal
vein.

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Explain what happens in the kidney to bring about the changes in the relative quantities of
glucose:....................................................................
oxygen:....................................................................
sodium salts:..........................................................
urea:....................................................................

4 2005.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2 show percentages of substances found in the renal vein and the ureter.

(i) Using the information in Fig. 3.1 and Figfe3.2, explain the functions of the kidneys.
(ii) What other substance is regulated by the kidney, that is not shown in Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2?

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5 2004.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Fig 4.1 shows the circulation through a kidney machine of the blood of a person suffering from
kidney failure.

(i) Place an X on the diagram where the blood enters the kidney machine.
(ii) What structures in a normal kidney is represented by the thin-walled plastic tubes?
(b) Explain why glucose must be present in the fluid surrounding the thin walled plastic tubes in the
kidney machine.
(c) Name another substance other than water which is removed from the blood as it flows through the
kidney machine.
(d) Suggest a suitable temperature for the fluid entering the kidney machine.
Give reasons for your answer.
(e) Explain why people using kidney machines are told to limit the amount of protein in their diet,
whereas they can have a normal intake of carbohydrates.

6 2015.P2.Q10
(a) What is meant by excretion? [2]
(b) Explain how the following substances are excreted from the body.
(i) Carbon dioxide
(ii) Urea [10]
.
7 2009.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) (i) Explain the role of the kidneyin excretion. [3]
(ii) Explain the role of the kidneys in homeostasis. [3]
(b) Describe the disadvantages of a kidney transplant. [3]
(c) Explain why there is limited excretion of nitrogenous wastes and salts in plants. [3]
.

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8 2006.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) (i) Explain the meaning of the term Homeostasis.
(ii) Explain how plants excrete wastes.
(b) Name two substances found in the blood plasma and explain how the structure of the kidney
ensures that they are not lost in the urine.
9 2005.P2.QUESTION.8
(b) Name three metabolic wastes produced by the human body.
For each named metabolic waste:
(i) State which part of human body removes it from the blood.
(ii) Describe its effect on the health of an organism if the waste material is left in the blood circulation.

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11.2 Excretion – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) Q – Renal artery R – Renal vein
(ii) Urea. Sodium chloride (salts). Uric acid.
(b) 1. Glomerular Filtration 2. Tubular Reabsorption. 3. Tubular Secretion
(c) (i) 1. Renal (kidney) dialysis machine 2. Kidney transplant
(ii) ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)

2 (a) (i) Person M.

(ii) Glucose in urine is a sign of diabetes. Diabetes is a disease where the concentration of glucose in
the blood is not controlled properly by the body. In type 1 diabetes, the pancreas does not produce
enough insulin. This can lead to high levels of glucose in the blood, which can be fatal.
(iii) 1. Injecting insulin into the blood or taking insulin tablets before meals. The extra insulin causes
glucose to be taken up by the liver and other tissues. Cells get the glucose they need for
respiration, and the blood glucose concentration stays normal.
2. Careful monitoring of food intake, with particular care taken over carbohydrates - which are
digested into glucose.
(b) (i) Person 0
(ii) Absence of urea in the urine.
(iii) 1. Renal (kidney) dialysis machine 2. Kidney transport
.
3 (a) F – Vena cava G – Ureter H – Urethra .
(b) 1. Ultrafiltration 2. Selective re-absorption
(c) glucose: Some glucose is used by the kidney cells for respiration.
oxygen: Some oxygen is used by the kidney cells for respiration.
sodium salts: excess salts are removed by the kidneys
urea: urea is excreted by the kidneys.

4 (a) (i) Kidney function – Removal of urea and salts from the blood.
(ii) Water

5 (a) (i) Indicate where blood from the artery enters the kidney machine.
(ii) Glomeruli
(b) To prevent blood glucose from diffusing out of the blood into the fluid surrounding the thin walled
plastic tubes in the kidney machine.
(c) Urea. Salts.
(d) 37°C. It is normal body temperature.
(e) The urea being removed by the machine comes from the deamination of excess amino acids (which
come from proteins) by the liver. When protein intake is limited, urea produced is also limited. The
frequency of using the machine is reduced. Carbohydrates do not lead to the production of urea.
Excess carbohydrates are converted to glycogen which is stored in the liver and muscles...

6 (a) Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism from an organism.

(b)(i) Carbon dioxide is produced by cells when glucose react with oxygen during aerobic respiration. It
diffuses into the tissue fluid and blood in the capillaries. The capillaries unite to form veins which empty into

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the vena cava which carry the blood to heart. The heart pumps the blood to the lungs via the pulmonary
artery. In the lungs, as blood flows through the capillaries surrounding the alveoli, carbon dioxide diffuses
out of blood plasma through the capillary walls and epithelium into the air sacs. It is finally breathed out
during expiration. [During expiration the intercostal muscles (between ribs) relax, ribs move downwards
and inwards, the diaphragm relaxes and curves upwards, the volume of the chest decreases, the air pressure
in the chest cavity increases and air is pushed out.]

(ii) When excess amino acids from the intestines reach the liver via the hepatic portal vein,
they are not stored in the body, but deaminated (converted) to glycogen and urea by the liver. This urea
travels in the blood to the heart and from the heart to kidneys via the renal arteries. The renal artery in the
kidney divides up into a great many arterioles and capillaries, mostly in the cortex. Each arteriole leads to
a glomerulus, which is a capillary repeatedly divided and coiled, making a little knot of vessels. Blood
pressure forces fluid to filter out through the capillary walls and collect in the Bowman’s capsule, the cup-
shaped organ which almost entirely surrounds the glomerulus. The filtered fluid, glomerular filtrate,
contains a solution of glucose, salts, amino acids and urea, but fibrinogen and other proteins remain in the
blood. As this fluid travels down the coiled renal tubules, all the glucose and amino acids and some salts and
much of the water are re-absorbed back into the blood by the network of capillaries surrounding the tubules
by active transport.. This selective reabsorption prevents the loss of useful nutrients. The remaining liquid in
the tubules contains mostly urea, excess salts and water and is called urine. It passes down the collecting
tubule where more water is reabsorbed. Urine (with urea) then enters the pelvis where it collects and
continues down the ureter to the bladder by contractions of the ureter. Urea in urine is then expelled at
intervals from the bladder via the urethra.

7 (a) (i) Excretion is the removal of waste products of metabolism from an organism. Urea, a product of
metabolism in the liver, is filtered out in the kidneys with excess salts and water to form urine.

(b) Disadvantages of a kidney transplant.

- Difficult to find a donor.
- Major surgery has risks.
- There is a possibility of rejection of the donated organ.
- Drugs to suppress the immune system need to be taken for life.
- Some religious groups do not agree with organ donation

Advantages
- No need for hours of dialysis treatment
- No need to strictly control diet

(c) Most plants get their nitrates and other salts from the soil to produce proteins. These are the very
minerals that are needed by plants for their growth & hence they excrete little. Most of them are
utilized in the production of various essential and non essential amino acids. There is limited supply
of these nutrients in most soils. Therefore, plants cannot afford to excrete these nitrogenous wastes
and salts in large quantities.
.
8 (a)(ii) Other than gaseous wastes (oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour), metabolism in plants also
generates organic by-products. These wastes are stored in different forms in different parts. The

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gums, oils, latex, resins, etc. are some waste products stored in plant parts like barks, stems, leaves,
seeds, etc. Eventually, plants shed off these parts.

The oil produced from orange, eucalyptus, jasmine, latex from the rubber tree, papaya tree, and
gums from acacia, are different forms of stored waste products. Sometimes they even excrete into
the soil. Excretion in aquatic plants takes place through diffusion.

Excretion in plants can be summarized as follows:

Transpiration: Gaseous wastes and water are excreted through stomata, lenticels of the stem, and
the outer surface of stems, fruits, etc.
Storing: Some organic wastes are stored in plant parts like barks and leaves.
Diffusion: Aquatic plants excrete metabolic wastes through diffusion. Terrestrial plants excrete into
the soil.

(b) The fluid filtered by the kidneys, glomerular filtrate, contains a solution of glucose, salts, amino
acids and urea, but fibrinogen and other proteins remain in the blood. As this fluid travels down the
coiled renal tubules, all the glucose and amino acids and some salts and much of the water are re-
absorbed back into the blood by the network of capillaries surrounding the tubules by active
transport.. This selective reabsorption prevents the loss of glucose and amino acids and useful
nutrients.

9 2005.P2.QUESTION.8
(b) Name three metabolic wastes produced by the human body.
For each named metabolic waste:
(i) State which part of human body removes it from the blood.
(ii) Describe its effect on the health of an organism if the waste material is left in the blood circulation.
(i) Urea – is removed from the body by the kidneys.
If urea is not removed from the body, it forms uric acid which lowers the pH of tissue fluid
and blood. Some enzymes which work optimally at different pH become denatured and cannot
function. This can lead to death of cells and the person.
(ii) Carbon dioxide – is removed from the body the lungs.
If urea is not removed from the body, it forms uric acid which lowers the pH of the blood
(normally pH 7.2). Some enzymes which work optimally at different pH become denatured and
cannot function. This can lead to death of cells and the person.

(iii) Water – is removed by the kidney and skin.

If excess water is not removed from the body, it can affect the internal environment of body tissues
and organs. Fluids may accumulate in some body parts and lead to swelling.

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12.2 Homeostasis – Paper 2

1 2007.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) (i) Define the term homeostasis
(ii) Describe the importance of homeostasis in the human body.
(b) After playing football in the sun, a person may feel warm, but his skin is cool. Explain how this is
possible?
(c) After fasting (not eating) for 12 hours, a healthy adult and a diabetic adult were fed with glucose.
How would the blood sugar level in a healthy adult and a diabetic adult compare?

2 2005.P2.QUESTION.3(b)
Fig. 3.1 and Fig. 3.2 show percentages of substances found in the renal vein and the ureter.

Explain how the liver regulates the blood sugar levels after a meal rich in carbohydrates.
(c) Explain how amino acids reach the liver.

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3 2001.P2.QUESTION.3
(a)(i) What is meant by the term homeostasis?
(ii) Name two functions of the liver which contribute to homeostasis.
.
(b)(i) The graph in Figure 3 shows the effects of exercising and immersion in cold water on human body
temperature.

What was the body temperature after 10 minutes exercise and 10 minutes immersion in cold water?
After 10 minutes of exercise .............................
After 10 minutes of cold bath ............................
(ii) How long did the temperature take to return to normal after exercise, ai after the cold bath?
After exercise .........................
After the cold bath ...................
(iii) Explain what causes body temperature to rise during exercise.
(c) Describe the effects of overcooling on the skin.

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4 2003.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) What is meant by the term homeostasis?
(b) What role is played by the following structures of the skin in controlling the temperature of the
body during overcooling:
(i) Sensory Nerve?
(ii) Erector muscle?
(ii) Blood vessels?
(iii) Sweat gland?
(c) Explain the role of the lungs in homeostasis.
.
5 2007.P2.QUESTION.1 (b) How does the body respond to changes in concentration of the following in the
blood:
(i) Carbon-dioxide
(ii ) Glucose.
6 2006.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) (i) Explain the meaning of the term Homeostasis.
7 2009.P2.QUESTION.7(a)(ii) Explain the role of the kidneys in homeostasis. [3]

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12.2 Homeostasis – Paper 2

1 2007.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) (i) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant or stable internal environment of an organism.
(ii) Homeostasis is very important in the human body because body cells are sensitive to change.
Cells are surrounded by tissue fluid which must provide the cells and enzymes with optimum
conditions to function. Internal conditions that are controlled in the body include body temperature,
blood glucose and oxygen levels, water content, blood pH, ions (salts), carbon dioxide and urea.
- temperature must be constant because high temperature denatures the enzymes and low
temperatures make them inactive.
- the pH of blood plasma and tissue fluid needs to be maintained at about pH 7 so that enzymes
can function optimally. Changes in pH can denature enzymes.
- nutrients (glucose, amino acids, minerals, vitamins) are required for energy, growth, cell repair
and normal functioning of the cells
- oxygen is required for cellular respiration to release energy from food.
- water concentration needs to be optimal in order to regulate osmosis and diffusion and the
concentration of solutes in the tissue fluid.
- waste substances such as urea and carbon dioxide need to be removed before they reach toxic
levels. They can change the pH level of the blood.

(b) Vigorous activity of playing football in the sun brings about overheating in the body which makes
the person to feel warm. When warm blood reaches the brain, nerve impulses are sent to the skin
and produce vasodilation and sweating. Sweat production makes the skin to be wet. The latent
heat absorbed by the sweat as it evaporates is taken from the body, so reducing the body’s
temperature. This makes the skin to feel cool when the sweat is evaporating.
(c) After fasting (not eating) for 12 hours, both a healthy adult and a diabetic adult will have low levels
of glucose in the blood. After being fed with glucose, sugar levels in the healthy adult will return to
normal, be used by body cells in respiration and any excess glucose will be converted to glycogen
in the liver with the help of insulin hormone. In the diabetic adult, sugar levels will shoot above
normal because there is no sufficient insulin to help body cells take up glucose and help the liver to
convert the excess glucose to glycogen.

Note
The pancreas has endocrine cells which control the use of sugar in the body. The hormone is called
insulin. Insulin accelerates the rate at which blood sugar is converted to glycogen in the liver and
promotes the uptake of glucose from the blood by body cells for respiration. The failure of the
pancreas to produce sufficient insulin leads to diabetes. The diabetic cannot effectively regulate
blood sugar level. It may rise above 160 mg/ 100 cm3 and so be excreted in the urine or fall below
40 mg/100 cm3 leading eventually to convulsions and comma. The diabetic condition can be
corrected by regular injections of insulin or insulin tablets.

2 (b) Regulation of blood sugar by the liver. Carbohydrates are converted to glucose by digestion in the

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alimentary canal. Glucose is absorbed into the blood circulation. When blood sugar levels are too high, the
pancreas secretes more insulin and less glucagon. The liver cells convert the excess glucose to an insoluble
carbohydrate called glycogen, resulting in the drop in sugar levels in the blood to normal. Insulin accelerates
the rate at which blood sugar is converted to glycogen in the liver. Glycogen is stored in the liver and
muscles. When the concentration of blood sugar falls, the pancreas produces more glucagon and less
insulin. Stored glycogen is converted by enzyme action into glucose and enters the circulation to return
sugar levels in the blood to normal.

(c) Amino acids, the end product of protein digestion, are absorbed by the villi in the ileum. Amino
acids pass across the epithelium and capillary walls and enter the blood plasma by active transport.
They are then carried away in the capillaries which unite to form veins and eventually join up to
form one large vein, the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein carries all the blood from the
intestines to the liver.
3 2001.P2.QUESTION.3
(a)(i) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant or stable internal environment of an organism.
(ii) Regulation of blood sugar – the liver converts excess glucose to an insoluble carbohydrate called
glycogen. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. When the concentration of blood sugar falls,
some stored glycogen is converted by enzyme action into glucose and enters the circulation.
Deamination – excess amino acids are not stored in the body, but converted to glycogen and urea
by the liver.
.
(b)(i) After 10 minutes of exercise – 37.5°C
After 10 minutes of cold bath – 36.5°C
(ii) After exercise – 30 minutes
After the cold bath – 15 minutes
(iii) During exercise, respiration releases energy in the muscles. This brings about overheating in the
body which makes the person to feel warm.
(c) The temperature receptors in the skin detect cooling and a signal in the form of nerve impulse is
then transmitted to the hypothalamus in the brain. When the hypothalamus is stimulated, it then
transmits nerve impulses to the relevant body parts.
- The arterioles in the skin constrict (vasoconstriction). Less blood is transported to the blood capillaries
and hence less heat is lost via convection and radiation.
- Sweat glands become inactive and no sweating occurs. Therefore no heat is lost.
- The hair erector muscles in the skin contract causing the hair to stand erect. Therefore more heat is
trapped by the hair. (Remember: still air trapped in between the hairs acts as an insulator, therefore
less heat is removed).
- Metabolic rate increases and hence heat production increases.
- Shivering due to muscle contractions occurs if very cold to produce more heat.

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4 (a) Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant or stable internal environment of an organism.

(b) What role is played by the following structures of the skin in controlling the temperature of the
body during overcooling:
(i) Sensory Nerve – detects decrease in body temperature and transmits a signal in the form of
nerve impulse to the hypothalamus in the brain. When the hypothalamus is stimulated, it then
transmits nerve impulses to the relevant body parts.
(ii) Erector muscle – The hair erector muscles in the skin contract causing the hair to stand erect.
Therefore more heat is trapped by the hair. (Still air trapped in between the hairs acts as an
insulator, therefore less heat is lost).
(ii) Blood vessels – The arterioles in the skin constrict. Less blood is transported to the blood
capillaries and hence less heat is lost through convection and radiation..
(iii) Sweat gland – Sweat glands become inactive and no sweating occurs. Therefore no heat is
lost through evaporation of sweat.

(c) The lungs supply oxygen to the blood which circulates it to all living cells for respiration. The lungs
also remove carbon dioxide from the blood. The lungs keep the concentrations of these too gases
in the blood constant. If carbon dioxide levels in the blood are high, it can change the pH level of
the blood and inhibit enzyme action. Oxygen levels are maintained at high concentration because
energy supply in all cells depends on it.

Note
Oxygen in the alveoli in the lungs dissolves in the film of moisture covering the alveoli and diffuses
across the epithelium, the capillary wall, the plasma and into the red blood cells, where it combines
with the haemoglobin. Oxygen is then carried to all living cells by the arteries.

Carbon dioxide is produced by cells when glucose react with oxygen during aerobic respiration. It
diffuses into the tissue fluid and blood in the capillaries. The capillaries unite to form veins which
empty into the vena cava which carry the blood to heart. The heart pumps the blood to the lungs
via the pulmonary artery. In the lungs, as blood flows through the capillaries surrounding the
alveoli, carbon dioxide diffuses out of blood plasma through the capillary walls and epithelium into
the air sacs. It is finally breathed out during expiration.
.
5 (i) When the concentration of carbon-dioxide increase in the blood, the body responds by increasing the
breathing rate so that the carbon-dioxide can be expelled by the lungs at a fast rate.
(ii ) When blood sugar levels are too high, the pancreas secretes more insulin and less glucagon. The liver
cells convert the excess glucose to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen, resulting in the drop in sugar
levels in the blood to normal. Insulin accelerates the rate at which blood sugar is converted to glycogen in
the liver. Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. When the concentration of blood sugar falls, the
pancreas produces more glucagon and less insulin. Stored glycogen is converted by enzyme action into
glucose and enters the circulation to return sugar levels in the blood to normal.

6 Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant or stable internal environment of an organism.

7 - The kidneys maintain the concentration of water levels in the blood constant by making the kidney tubules
to re-absorb more or less water from the glomerular filtrate back into the blood.
- The kidneys maintain the concentrations of salts in the blood by getting rid of excess salts.
- The kidneys remove excess glucose from the blood of diabetic persons and pass it into the urine.

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13.2 The Endocrine System – Paper 2

1 2009.P2.QUESTION.3

(a) Complete the Table 3.1, by filling in the blank spaces.

(b) What happens to the hormones after completing their action in target organs?
(c) State two ways in which hormones and nerve impulses differ in controlling body processes? [2]
(x) .
2 2001.P2.QUESTION.7(b) Compare and contrast plant and animal hormones.
.
3 2016.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) (i) Describe the structure and functions of endocrine glands.
(ii) Explain the difference between the adrenal gland and the salivary gland.
(b) (i) Explain the function of the following hormones in the body: Insulin.
(ii) Explain the function of the following hormones in the body: Antiduretic hormone (ADH)
.
4 ECZ-2014-P2-Q8(c) Compare and contrast the hormones adrenalin and glucagon.

5 2008.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) What are the differences between the nervous system and hormonal system?
(b) Explain the effects of thyroxine in early childhood of a person when it is.
(i) produced in excess.
(ii) produced below normal required blood levels.
(c) Explain how auxins affect the growth of a shoot in a plant.
6 2004.P2.QUESTION.10(b) A possible risk of danger to the body can bring about the release of the
hormone adrenaline. How does this hormone prepare the body to deal with danger?
.
7 2005.P2.QUESTION.8(a) Explain the effect of insulin on a named target organ.

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13.2 The Endocrine System – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) Oestrogen.
(ii) Thyroxine increases the body’s metabolic rate and regulates it growth and development.
(iii) Adrenaline prepares a person for vigorous action in times of danger, excitement, stress,
etc by increased supply of glucose in the blood.
(b) After completing their action in target organs, hormones travel in the blood plasma to the liver
where they are destroyed and later excreted by the kidneys and skin.
(c) Differences between control by hormones and nerve impulses

Hormonal control Nerve impulses control

1 Chemical in nature Electrical in nature
2 Transported by blood plasma Transmitted by nerve fibres
3 Slow response Immediate/rapid response
Hormones circulated to all parts of
Impulses sent only to specific
the body (general transmission),
4 target organs which respond.
though only the target organs (cells)
(Like a telephone call)
respond. (Like radio & TV broadcast)

5 Effect from short term to long lasting Effect only short term

2 Plant hormones shape the plant, affecting seed growth, time of flowering, the sex of flowers, senescence of
leaves, leaf formation and stem growth, fruit development and ripening.

Plant hormones Animal hormones

1 Produced throughout the plant. Produced in specialised "glands"
2 Mainly local targets (nearby cells and tissues) Distant targets ("action at a distance")
3 "Decentralized" regulation Regulation by central nervous system
Effects vary depending on interaction with
4 Specific effects
other hormones
Peptides/proteins/steroids and/or small
5 Small molecules only
molecules

6 Coordinate and regulate many activities Coordinate and regulate many activities

.
3 (a)(i) Endocrine glands are ductless glands (glands of internal secretion) which secrete
hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they are transported throughout the body.
These hormones act on remote organs (called target organs).
(ii)
Adrenal gland Salivary gland
1 It is an endocrine gland It is an exocrine gland

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2 It is ductless It has a duct

Secretes substances directly into duct
3 Secretes directly into the bloodstream
leading to target
4 Secretes hormones (adrenaline) Secretes enzymes (amylase)
5 The secretion is regulatory The secretion is functional (digestion)

It's important to note that the pancreas performs both endocrine and exocrine functions. It releases
insulin and glucagon directly into the blood (endocrine) and also secretes pancreatic fluid into the
pancreatic duct which leads to the duodenum (exocrine).

(b)(i) Insulin accelerates the rate at which blood sugar is converted to glycogen in the liver and promotes
the uptake of glucose from the blood by body cells for respiration. The failure of the pancreas to
produce sufficient insulin leads to diabetes. The diabetic cannot effectively regulate blood sugar
level. It may rise above 160 mg/ 100 cm3 and so be excreted in the urine or fall below 40 mg/100
cm3 leading eventually to convulsions and comma. The diabetic condition can be corrected by
regular injections of insulin or insulin tablets.
(ii) Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) is responsible for osmoregulation by the kidneys. If the blood
passing through the brain is concentrated (has less water), the hypothalamus stimulates the
pituitary gland beneath it to secrete into the blood the Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH). When this
hormone reaches the kidneys, It causes the kidney tubules to re-absorb more water from
the glomerular filtrate back into the blood. This prevents loss of water from the body and makes
the urine more concentrated.
.
4 Compare and contrast the hormones adrenaline and glucagon.

Adrenaline Glucagon
1 Secreted by the adrenal glands Secreted by the pancreas
2 Conversion of glycogen to glucose. Conversion of glycogen to glucose.
3 Prepares one for vigorous action Regulates blood sugar levels

5 (a) Differences between the nervous system and hormonal system.

Hormonal control Nerve impulses control

1 Chemical in nature Electrical in nature
2 Transported by blood plasma Transmitted by nerve fibres
3 Slow response Immediate/rapid response
Hormones circulated to all parts of the
body (general transmission), though Impulses sent only to specific target organs
4
only the target organs (cells) respond. which respond. (Like a telephone call)
(Like radio & TV broadcast)
5 Effect from short term to long lasting Effect only short term
6 Effect may be irreversible (e.g. growth) Effect reversible (e.g. blinking)

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(b) Thyroxine is produced by the thyroid gland and is responsible for regulating metabolic rate.
(i) When produced in excess (hyper-thyroidism) in early childhood:
- increases the basal metabolic rate
- increases the heart rate
- leads to loss of body weight
- causes extreme irritability.
(ii) When produced below normal required blood levels (hypo-thyroidism) in early childhood:
- causes cretinism (retarded mental, physical and sexual development).
- causes goitre.
(c) Auxins are plant hormones that promote growth. A shoot exposed to unidirectional light will grow
towards the light because more auxins will move to the dark side than on the illuminated side. This
causes the shoot grow more on the dark side than on the illuminated side leading to the growth of
the shoot towards light.

6 When impulses associated with danger or other situations needing vigorous action are transmitted
to the brain by sense organs, motor impulses are relayed to the adrenal glands. The glands release
the hormone adrenaline into the blood.
- When the blood with adrenaline reaches the heart it quickens the heart-beat.
- blood pressure increases.
- Blood is diverted from the alimentary canal and the skin to the muscles.
- Increased supply of glucose in the blood.
- Rate of breathing and respiration increases.
- The pupils dilate.
These changes prepare a person for flight or putting up a fight efficiently. Together with the nervous
system, they also produce the sensation of fear, thumping heart, hollow feeling in the stomach,
pale face, etc. Adrenaline may also be secreted in situations which promote anxiety or excitement.
.
7 When blood sugar levels are too high, the pancreas secretes more insulin and less glucagon. The liver cells
convert the excess glucose to an insoluble carbohydrate called glycogen, resulting in the drop in sugar levels
in the blood to normal. Insulin accelerates the rate at which blood sugar is converted to glycogen in the liver.
Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles.

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14.2 The Nervous System and Sense Organs –

Paper 2
1 (2013- P2- Q4) Figure 2.0 shows a cross section through a spinal cord.

(a) Identify the labelled parts M and P on Figure 2 above.

M:...................................................................
P:....................................................................
(b) The part labelled N contains some type of fluid. What is the role of the fluid found in N?.............................

(c) Draw the reflex arc on Figure 2.0 above......................................................................

(d) Distinguish between a sensory and motor neurone...................................................................
.
2 2008.P2.QUESTION.4
(b) Fig. 4.2 shows the structure which occupies the position X in Fig. 4.1 above.

(i) What name is given to the structure whose cross-section is shown in Fig. 4.2?
(ii) Identify the cell labelled T.
(iii) State the function of the cell labelled U.
(iv) Which two characteristics of part V makes it suitable for its function?

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3 2005.P2.QUESTION.5(a) Fig. 5.1 shows a section through the human eye.

(i) Name the structures labeled A and B.

A .................................
B .................................
(ii) State the functions of A and B
A .................................
B .................................
(b) Describe the changes that would take place to structure B when a person moves from a dark room
to a bright lit room.
(c) State three differences between the Aqueous humour and Vitreous humour.
4 2015- P2- Q8(a) Explain the functions of the following parts in the human ear.
(i) Eustachian tube
(ii) Cochlea [5]
(b) Distinguish between the sensory neurone and the motor neurone. [3]
(c) Describe the pupil reflex action in humans. [4]
5 (2010- P2- Q8) (c) Outline the path taken by an impulse through a spinal reflex arc.
6 2007.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) Fig. 8.1 shows a diagrammatic section of the eye.

With reference to parts A, B and C, describe how light from a nearby object is finally focused on the
retina.
(b) Explain how the following are adapted to perform their functions.
(i) Iris of the eye
(ii) Middle ear of the human ear

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7 2001.P2.QUESTION.7
(a)(i) What significant change occurs in a human's eye structures when he/she moves from a brightly lit
room to a dark room?
(ii) A pupil is comfortably seated at the back of the classroom reading a book. Then the teacher
suddenly asks the pupil to go and label a part on the chart in front of the classroom. What changes
occur in this pupil's eyes in order to focus on the chart?
.
8 2004.P2.QUESTION.10(a)
Touching a hot object brings about a reflex response.
(i) Why is such a response important to the body?
(ii) Explain how a nerve impulse passes from one neurone to another.

9 2006.P2.QUESTION.10(a) Explain how a named spinal reflex action is coordinated in a human being.

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14.2 The Nervous System and Sense Organs –

Paper 2
1 (a) M – Ganglion (dorsal root). P – Grey matter N – Central canal
(b) Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found in the brain and spinal cord.
- protects brain and spinal cord from trauma. (acts as shock absorber)
- supplies oxygen and nutrients to nervous system tissue.
- removes waste products from cerebral metabolism.
(c) Draw sensory receptor and sensory neurone; sensory neurone in dorsal root with cell body in
ganglion; relay neurone in grey matter; motor neurone in grey matter with axon in ventral root;
motor effectors.

(d)

Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone

1 Cell body in the middle (at the side) Cell body at the beginning
2 Cell body has no dendrites Cell body has dendrites
3 Short axon Long axon
4 Has dendron Has no dendron
5 Transmits impulses from receptors to CNS Transmits impulses from CNS to effectors

.
2 (b) (i) Spinal cord
(ii) T – Relay neurone. U – Sensory neurone. V – Synapse.
(iii) Sensory neurone carries impulses from sense organs to central nervous system (CNS).

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(iv) A synapse (V) is a structure that permits a neurone (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or
chemical signal to another neurone or to the target efferent cell.
- In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the presynaptic neurone is converted into the
release of a chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds to receptors located in the
plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical
response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the
postsynaptic neurone.
- In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected
by special channels called gap junctions or synaptic cleft that are capable of passing an
electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes
in the postsynaptic cell.
-
3 (a) (i) A – Cornea. B - Iris
(ii) Cornea – Refracts light (bends it) as it enters the eye.
Iris – Controls how much light enters the pupil.
(b) When a person moves from a dark room to a bright one, radial muscles of the iris relax, circular
muscles of the iris contract, the pupil constricts, the amount of light entering the eye decreases.
(c)
Aqueous humour Vitreous humour
1 watery fluid gelatinous fluid (jelly-like substance)
continuously generated and produced only during the embryonic
2 continuously absorbed into the blood. stage and stays for the entire lifetime.
3 Less in volume More in volume
4 In front of the lens Behind the lens

4 (a) (i) Eustachian tube – ventilation of the middle ear; maintenance of equalized air pressure on both
sides of the eardrum; to drain any accumulated secretions, infection, or debris from the middle ear
space; protects the ear from sudden loud sound.
(ii) Cochlea – transforms sound vibrations into neural signals (nerve impulses) which are taken up to
the brain to be interpreted..
For Your Information

Part Description Function

The flap-like skin-covered cartilage Act as a funnel which collects, amplifies
Pinna on either side of the head and directs the sound into the auditory
Outer commonly called ears. canal.
ear
Passageway between the pinna and Transmits sound waves from the pinna
Auditory canal
eardrum to the eardrum

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A membrane at the end of the

auditory canal, much like the skin
It transmits sound waves to the ossicles
Eardrum covering the top of a drum. Sound
in the middle ear by vibrating.
waves from the auditory canal
makes the eardrum vibrate.
The three small bones in the middle
ear (smallest bones in the body): the
hammer (malleus), the anvil (incus) Amplify and transmit sound waves
Ossicles
and the stirrup (stapes). These three from the eardrum to the inner ear.
bones form a kind of bridge
between outer and inner ear.
Ventilation of the middle ear;
maintenance of equalized air pressure
Middle on both sides of the eardrum; to drain
A tube that connects the throat to
ear Eustachian tube any accumulated secretions, infection,
the middle ear
or debris from the middle ear space;
protects the ear from sudden loud
sound.
A membrane covering the entrance
to the cochlea in the inner ear. The
The oval Transmits sound waves from the
pressure of the sound waves on the
window middle ear to the inner ear.
oval window is some 20 times
higher than on the eardrum.
Transforms sound vibrations into
neural signals (nerve impulses) which
Cochlea Snail-shaped fluid-filled coiled tube.
are taken up to the brain to be
interpreted.
A bundle of nerve fibres between Transmits neural signals (nerve
Auditory nerve the cochlea in the inner ear and the impulses) from the cochlea to the brain
Inner
brain. to be interpreted.
ear
Consists of three ring-shaped
passages, oriented in three
To register the body's movements and
Semi-circular different planes. All three passages
orientation, thus ensuring that we can
canals are filled with fluid that moves in
keep our balance.
accordance with the body's
movements.

(b)
Sensory Neurone Motor Neurone
1 Transmits impulses from receptors to CNS Transmits impulses from CNS to effectors
2 Cell body has no dendrites Cell body has dendrites
3 Short axon Long axon
4 Has dendron Has no dendron
5 Cell body at the side (middle) Cell body at the terminal (beginning)

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(c) When bright light enters the eyes, the photoreceptors in the retina of the eyes are stimulated and
trigger impulses which travel along the sensory neurone in the optic nerve of the eye to the brain. The
sensory fibres enter the brain via the cranial nerves. In the grey matter, the impulses pass from the sensory
neurone to a relay neurone across a synapse. The relay neurone then makes a synapse with one or more
motor neurones. The impulses are thus transmitted to the motor neurones, then to the effector muscles of
the iris. The radial muscles of the iris relax, circular muscles of the iris contract, the pupil constricts, the
amount of light entering the eye decreases. This involuntary action protects the eyes from damage.

.
5 When a person touches a very hot object, for example, the pain receptors in the skin are stimulated and
trigger impulses which travel along the sensory fibres in a nerve of the arm. The sensory fibres enter the
spinal cord via the dorsal root. In the grey matter of the spinal cord, the impulses pass from the sensory
neurone to a relay neurone across a synapse. The relay neurone then makes a synapse with one or more
motor neurones. The impulses are thus transmitted to the motor fibres which leave the spinal cord through
the ventral root and pass in a nerve to the muscles. The biceps muscles are made to contract, so removing
the hand from the painful stimulus. This involuntary action protects the hand from damage.

6 (a) When light from an external object enters the eye, it is refracted by the cornea, aqueous humour,
lens (C) and vitreous humour, onto the retina. When the eye is focusing on a NEAR object, the ciliary
muscles (A) contract, the suspensory ligaments (B) slacken, the lens (C) becomes thicker (more
convex) and is able to bend light from the near object onto the retina. Light rays from nearby objects
require more bending, which is achieved by the more convex lens.
(b) (i) The Iris of the eye contains an opaque disc of tissue which and an opening in the centre called
pupil. The iris has antagonistic set of muscles (radial and circular) which control the intensity of
light entering the eye by controlling the size of the pupil. When a person moves from a dark room
to a bright one, radial muscles of the iris relax, circular muscles of the iris contract, the pupil
constricts, the amount of light entering the eye decreases. The opposite happens when in dim lit.
.
(ii) The middle ear is an air-filled cavity in the skull. It is separated from the outer ear by a membrane
of skin and fibres called the eardrum. The middle ear has three small bones, the ossicles, which link
the eardrum to the inner ear. The vibrations of the eardrum are transmitted to inner ear by the
ossicles (malleus, incus and stapes) which act as levers. The oscillations of the stapes set the fluids
in the cochlea vibrating.
The middle ear communicates with the naso-pharynx through the Eustachian tube which
is responsible for ventilation of the middle ear; maintenance of equalized air pressure on both sides
of the eardrum; to drain any accumulated secretions, infection, or debris from the middle ear space;
protects the ear from sudden loud sound.

7 (a)(i) When a person moves from a bright room to a dark one, circular muscles of the iris relax, radial
muscles of the iris contract, pupil dilates, amount of light entering the eye increases.
(ii) When the eye is focusing on a DISTANT object, the ciliary muscles relax, the suspensory ligaments
become taut, the lens becomes thinner (less convex).
.
8 (a) (i) A reflex action is an immediate and involuntary response to stimulus. Reflex actions
protect the body from harm and help it to survive. A reflex happens instantaneously before

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the brain registers it. The pain is usually felt only after the reflex action has taken place
when impulses are carried to the cerebrum and interpreted as pain.
(ii) A nerve impulse passes from one neurone to another by means of a synapse. A synapse is
a structure that permits a neurone (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal
to another neurone or to the target efferent cell.
- In a chemical synapse, electrical activity in the presynaptic neurone is converted into the
release of a chemical called a neurotransmitter that binds to receptors located in the
plasma membrane of the postsynaptic cell. The neurotransmitter may initiate an electrical
response or a secondary messenger pathway that may either excite or inhibit the
postsynaptic neurone.
- In an electrical synapse, the presynaptic and postsynaptic cell membranes are connected
by special channels called gap junctions or synaptic cleft that are capable of passing an
electric current, causing voltage changes in the presynaptic cell to induce voltage changes
in the postsynaptic cell.
The synapses ensure that impulses move in the correct direction.

9 See answer 5.

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15.2 The Skeleton and Locomotion – Paper 2

1 2008.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Fig. 4.1 shows a vertebrum of a mammal.

(i) Identify the part marked S.

(ii) In which region of the vertebral column is this vertebrum found?
(iii) Give a reason for your answer in a (ii) above.

2 2006.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Fig. 4.1 shows a joint in the forearm of a Human being.

(i) On fig 4.1 label structures A, B and C.

(ii) Name a disease that can affect the Humerus.
(iii) Identify the type of joint shown in Fig. 4.1

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(b) Fig. 4.2 shows the muscles in a straightened leg.

(I) In order to straighten the leg, what happens to muscles X and Y?

(II) Which of these muscles is a flexor or extensor muscle?

3 2016.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) State the parts of a synovial joint and explain their functions.
(b) Explain why a bone is considered a living tissue.
.
4 ECZ-2014-P2-Q9
(a) Distinguish between a ball-and-socket joint and a hinge joint.
(b) Describe the action of antagonistic muscles in the straightening and bending of the arm.
(c) Differentiate between the thoracic and lumbar vertebrae in human beings.

5 (2011- P2- Q8)

(a) Describe the structure of a synovial joint and explain the functions of its parts.
(b) Differentiate the following:
(i) tendon and ligament.
(ii) ball-and-socket joint and hinge joint.
.
6 (2013- P2- Q9)
(a) Describe the three types of skeletons using named examples.
(b) Explain why a bone is regarded as a living tissue.
(c) Compare and contrast between the hinge joint and ball-and-socket joint.

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15.2 The Skeleton and Locomotion – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) S – Centrum
(ii) Cervical (neck) region.
(iii) 1. Only the cervical vertebrae have three openings or foramina – the vertebral
foramina and two transverse foramina.
2. Bifid (divided) spinous processes.

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2 (a) (i) A – ligament B – Cartilage C – Synovial fluid.

(ii) Arthritis, Osteoporosis, Osteoarthritis,
(iii) Ball and socket joint. [It allows movement in all directions. It is formed between the
rounded head (ball) of the humerus and the socket of scapula (shoulder blade).]
(b) (I) Muscle X relaxes while muscle Y contracts.
(II) X – flexor muscle. Y – extensor muscle.
A flexor muscle bends the leg (or arm), but the extensor muscle straightens it.

3 (a) A synovial joint is a movable joint where two or three bones meet. It contains the following
structures:
Articular cartilage – the bones of a synovial joint are covered by this layer of hyaline cartilage. It absorbs
shock and reduces friction during movement.
Synovial membrane – secretes and holds the synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid – lubricates the joint, absorbs shocks and nourishes the joint. Reduces friction between bone
surfaces.
Ligaments – join bone to bone to prevent dislocation of the joint during movement; allow easy movement.
(b) - Presence of blood vessels
- Presence of cells (osteocytes)
- Bones are able to regenerate
- Production of blood red blood cells and white blood cells
- Bones grow
4 (a)
Ball-and-socket joint Hinge joint
1 Allows movement in three planes Allows movement in one plane only
2 Allows rotational movement Does not allow rotational movement
Rounded head of one bone fits into the Convex surface of one bone fits into
3
hollow cup-shaped socket of another the concave surface of another
4 Found in hips and shoulders Found in elbows, knees and fingers

(b) Contraction of biceps and relaxation of triceps bends the arms. Contraction of triceps and relaxation
of biceps straightens the arm. A flexor muscle bends the arm, but the extensor muscle straightens
it. Therefore, the biceps are the flexor muscles and triceps are the extensor muscles.
(c)
Thoracic vertebra Lumbar vertebra
1 Long and thick spinous process (spine) Short and blunt spinous process (spine)
2 The vertebral canal is almost circular. The vertebral canal is triangular
3 The transverse processes have a backward slant. Slender transverse processes
4 Has articular facets for the ribs No articular facets for the ribs

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5 (a) A synovial joint is a movable joint where two or three bones meet. It contains the following structures:
Articular cartilage – the bones of a synovial joint are covered by this layer of hyaline cartilage. It absorbs
shock and reduces friction during movement.
Synovial membrane – secretes and holds the synovial fluid.
Synovial fluid – lubricates the joint, absorbs shocks and nourishes the joint. Reduces friction between bone
surfaces.
Ligaments – join bone to bone to prevent dislocation of the joint during movement; allow easy movement.

(b) (i)
Tendon Ligament
1 Joins muscle to bone Joins bone to bone
2 Made of collagen Made of connective tissue
3 Cannot stretch Can stretch

(ii)
Ball-and-socket joint Hinge joint
1 Allows movement in three planes Allows movement in one plane only
2 Allows rotational movement Does not allow rotational movement
Rounded head of one bone fits into the Convex surface of one bone fits into
3
hollow cup-shaped socket of another the concave surface of another
4 Found in hips and shoulders Found in elbows, knees and fingers

.
6 (a) A skeleton is a supporting framework of an organism.
Exoskeleton – is found on the outside of an organism. Most exoskeletons consist of chitin. Examples are
arthropods (including insects) and molluscs.
Endoskeleton – is found inside the body and is made of bone and cartilage. Examples are vertebrates
(mammals, birds, reptiles)
Hydrostatic skeleton – support is provided by fluid under pressure in the body cavity. Examples are jellyfish
and worms.
(b) - Presence of blood vessels
- Presence of cells (osteocytes)
- Bones are able to regenerate
- Production of blood red blood cells and white blood cells
- Bones grow
(c)
Ball-and-socket joint Hinge joint
1 Allows movement in three planes Allows movement in one plane only
2 Allows rotational movement Does not allow rotational movement
Rounded head of one bone fits into the Convex surface of one bone fits into
3
hollow cup-shaped socket of another the concave surface of another
4 Found in hips and shoulders Found in elbows, knees and fingers

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16.2 Tropic and Taxic Responses – Paper 2

1 ECZ-2014-P2-Q8
(a) Explain what is meant by the term positive phototropism.
(b) Explain the effects of gravity on the plumule and radical in a germinating seed.

2 (2012- P2- Q7)

(a) Using the auxin theory, explain the effects of light coming from one direction on the growth of shoots.
(b) Describe the term taxic responses with named examples.
.
3 (2011- P2- Q7)
(a) What is meant by the term hormone?
(b) Describe the function of auxins in plants.
(c) Relate the effects of auxins in geotropism.
.
4 (2010- P2- Q8)
(a) Explain the meaning of the following terms:
(i) positive geotropism
(ii) phototropism
(b) Distinguish between a tropic response and a tactic response.

5 2006.P2.QUESTION.10(b) Why are tropic responses important to flowering plants?

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16.2 Tropic and Taxic Responses – Paper 2

1 (a) Positive phototropism – a growth in response to the stimulus of light in the direction of
light.
(b) Gravity acts as a stimulus to the plumule and radicle. The plumule and radical respond differently
to the force of gravity. The plumule experiences negative geotropism by growing against (away)
from gravity in order to have higher chances of finding light. The radicle experiences positive
geotropism by growing toward gravity in order to have higher chances of finding water and mineral
salts.
2 (a) Auxin is a plant hormone produced in the tips of the shoots and roots, which controls the direction
of growth. Auxins can diffuse to other parts of the plant. Auxins change the rate of elongation in
plant cells, controlling how long they become. In a shoot, the shaded side contains more auxin
because auxin moves to the darker side of the plant. This means that the shaded side grows longer,
causing the shoot to bend towards the light (positive phototropism).

(b) A taxic response is a movement of an organism toward or away from the source of a stimulus
(locomotory response).
- Fly larvae (maggots), woodlice and cockroaches move away from light to avoid exposure and
desiccation.
- Adult flies fly toward light to warm up. Cockroaches seek out narrow dark places to hide.
- Mosquitoes respond to heat generated by the host to target exposed flesh.
.
3 (a) In animals – a hormone is chemical secreted by an endocrine gland that regulates the function of
a specific tissue or organ. It is transported to the target tissues/organs by blood circulation.
In plants – a hormone is a substance synthesised by plants that regulates their growth and
development by influencing physiological responses to environmental stimuli.
(b) Auxin is a plant hormone produced in the tips of the shoots and roots, which controls the direction
of growth. Auxins can diffuse to other parts of the plant. Auxins change the rate of elongation in plant cells,
controlling how long they become. Shoots and roots respond differently to high concentrations of auxins:
- cells in shoots grow more
- cells in roots grow less.
Plants need light and water for photosynthesis. They have developed responses called tropisms to
help make sure they grow towards sources of light and water.
Phototropism
In a shoot, the shaded side contains more auxin because it auxin moves to the darker side of the plant. This
means that the shaded side grows longer, causing the shoot to bend towards the light (positive
phototropism).
In a root, the shaded side contains more auxin, but this time the shaded side grows less than the light side.
This causes the root to bend away from the light (negative phototropism).
Geotropism
Auxins are also involved geotropisms. Auxins inhibit (retard) root growth. In a root placed horizontally, the
bottom side contains more auxin than the top side. This makes the bottom side grow less than the top side,
causing the root to bend in the direction of the force of gravity (positive geotropism).
In a shoot placed horizontally, the bottom side contains more auxin than the top side. This makes the bottom
side grow more than the top side, causing the shoot to bend and grow against the force of gravity (negative
geotropism).
For Your Information
401

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(c) Geotropism
Geotropism is the response of plants to gravity. Auxins are involved geotropisms. Shoots and roots
respond differently to high concentrations of auxins:
- cells in shoots grow more
- cells in roots grow less.
Auxins inhibit growth in roots. In a root placed horizontally, the bottom side contains more auxin than the
top side. This makes the bottom side grow less than the top side, causing the root to bend in the direction
of the force of gravity (positive geotropism).
In a shoot placed horizontally, the bottom side contains more auxin than the top side. This makes the bottom
side grow more than the top side, causing the shoot to bend and grow against the force of gravity (negative
geotropism).

4 (a) (i) Positive geotropism – a growth in response to a stimulus of gravity in the direction of the force
of gravity.
[Negative geotropism – a growth in response to a stimulus of gravity against the force of gravity.]
(ii) Phototropism – a growth in response to the stimulus of light.
(b) - A tropic response is a growth response by plants in a particular direction. A tactic response is a
movement of an organism toward or away from the source of a stimulus (locomotory response).
- Tropic responses are slow, while tactic or taxic responses are fast.
- Tropic responses are more permanent, while tactic or taxic responses are temporary.
- Tropic responses are influenced by growth hormones, while tactic or taxic responses are not influenced
by hormones.

5 Tropic response is a growth response of a plant towards or away from a stimulus. Examples of stimuli plants
respond to include light, gravity, water and chemicals. A shoot of a plant responds positively to light, making
it to be exposed to light which is necessary for photosynthesis. Roots respond by growing towards gravity
where they are exposed to water and mineral ions which are also necessary in the manufacture of organic
substances in a plant.
Response towards chemicals in a flower by the growing pollen tube leads to fertilization which is necessary
in the development of seeds and fruits.

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17.2 Growth and Development – Paper 2

1 (2010- P2- Q3) Figure 3. 1 shows a longitudinal section through a bean seed

(a) Identify the parts labelled I and J.

(b) Describe the role of the micropyle and structure J.

(c) Figure 3.2 shows the position of the plumule after exposure of a seedling to one-sided light for five days.

(i) Explain the effects of one sided light on the tip of the Plumule................................
(ii) What is the benefit of this effect to the seedling? ............................................................

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2 2007.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) A student measured the thickness of the annual rings in the outer region of the trunk of a tree and
obtained the results shown in Fig. 3.1.

In 1993 the ring was thicker than usual.

(i) What does this suggest about the growth of the tree?
(ii) What does it suggest about the weather conditions in 1993?
(b) (i) In which two years was there less growth?
(ii) Suggest a possible reason for the less growth mentioned in (b)(i).
(c) Which tissue is responsible for secondary growth in a stem?

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(d) The Fig. 3.2 is a part of an under-five clinic card of a child. The bold lines A and B show the two
limits of normal growth.

(i) During which period was the growth of the child most rapid?
(ii) At what age is the child going to experience another rapid growth?
(iii) What is the change in weight of the child between the month of October and November in its first year?
(iv) In what other way can growth of an organism be measured apart from the one shown in Fig.3.2?

3 2005.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) Describe any four differences between monocotyledonous plants and dicotyledonous Plants.
(b) Explain how plant stems are able to stand upright and also support the leaves.

4 2006.P2.QUESTION.8(b) Describe the process of elongation in plants

5 (2011- P2- Q6)
(a) (i) Define the term growth.
(ii) Describe the process of growth in plants from a seed to a seedling. .

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6 2005.P2.QUESTION.4 (a) Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2 show the germination of broad bean and sunflower
respectively.

(i) What type of germination is indicated by Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2?
Fig. 4.1 ...........................................
Fig. 4.2 ...........................................
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a) (i) above.
Fig. 4.1 ...........................................
Fig. 4.2 ...........................................
(b) Explain the function of water in the first two days of seed germination.

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17.2 Growth and Development – Paper 2

1 (a) I – Testa J – Cotyledon.
(b) Micropyle – It admits water to the embryo before germination.
J (Cotyledon) –stores food reserves which are used by the embryo in the early stages of germination.
(c) (i) In a shoot, the shaded side contains more auxin because it auxin moves to the darker side
of the plant. This means that the shaded side grows longer, causing the shoot to bend
towards the light (positive phototropism).
(ii) This effect ensures that the shoot of seedling has enough sunlight for photosynthesis to
take place and produce more food for the seedling’s growth and development.

2 (a) (i) There was a lot of growth.

(ii) The weather conditions in 1993 were favourable.
(b) (i) 1989 and 1991
(ii) There was drought.
(c) Cambium.
In many vascular plants, secondary growth begins with the initiation of the vascular cambium, a
cylinder of meristematic tissue that produces additional xylic and phloic tissues. Secondary growth
increases the girth of the plant root or stem, rather than its length.
(d) (i) The first three months from December to February.
(ii) 11 – 15 years
(iii) 10kg – 9.5kg = 0.5 kg. The child lost 0.5 kg.
(iv) Measuring height.

3 (a)

Monocotyledonous plants Dicotyledonous plants

1 One cotyledon Two cotyledons
2 Leaves are parallel veined Leaves are net veined
3 Vascular bundles in stem are scattered Vascular bundles in stem arranged in rings
4 Fibrous root system Tap root system
Root vascular bundles have xylem
5 Root vascular bundles arranged in a ring arranged in a star shape with the phloem
arranged between the arms of the star
6 Seed has endosperm Seed has no endosperm
7 Flowers (petals) usually form in threes Flowers (petals) usually form in fives

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(b) Cell wall in plant cells is mainly composed of cellulose (polysaccharides) which gives the cell the
rigidity and strength for standing up straight as well as wilt. The vacuole in plant cells has several important
function such as store waste products and water. The water inside vacuole helps the cell maintains its tugor
pressure. Turgor pressure also gives the cell wall rigidity. So the cell wall and Vacuole are important
structures that help the plant stand up straight.
Plant stems have vascular bundles or veins made up of vessels and sieve tubes, with fibrous and
packing tissue between and around them. Vessels are made from columns of cells whose walls have become
impregnated with a substance called lignin which makes them very hard (woody) and able to support the
plant to stand upright.
The horizontal cross-walls of these cells have broken down before the cells are lignified and the
cells finally form a long continuous tube. In these vessels water is carried from the roots, through the stem
and to the veins in the leaves by transpiration pull.
The stem spaces out the leaves so that they are able to receive adequate air and sunlight.

4 The process of elongation in plants takes place just behind the regions of rapid cell division, apical meristems,
in the roots and shoots. New cells produced by the dividing region absorb water and develop vacuoles.
The intake of water causes the cells to elongate since the cell walls are still relatively plastic. Cells get bigger
and longer before they change shape to carry out their specialised function in the plant. Cell elongation is
promoted by plant hormones (auxins and gibberellins).

5 (a) (i) Growth is the permanent (irreversible) increase in the dry mass of an organism, which is
characterised by an increase in cell numbers, complexity and size.
(ii) Conditions necessary for germination of seeds are presence of water and oxygen and suitable or
favourable temperature. The seed absorbs water and swells. Water enters the seed through the micropyle.
Enzymes are activated and the dormancy is broken. Enzymes act on the starch and proteins in the
cotyledon/s to make soluble food products which are used by the actively growing regions where new cells
are being made. Water softens the testa. After about three days, depending on temperature, the radicle
grows and bursts through the testa. It grows down through the soil particles, its tip protected by root cap.

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Root hairs appear where cell elongation has ceased. Water and salts from the soil are absorbed by the root
hairs on the radicle and pass to the rest of the seedling. The radicle develops into a root system. The plumule
grows upwards and develops into a shoot system and start to photosynthesise, making the seedling
independent.
In epigeal germination, the cotyledons emerge out of the soil or above the soil. In hypogeal germination, the
cotyledons remain in the soil or below the soil. Eventually, cotyledons (and endosperm in case of monocots)
shrivel, fall off or rot away.
.
6 (a) (i) What type of germination is indicated by Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2?
Fig. 4.1 – epigeal germination
Fig. 4.2 – hypogeal germination
(ii) Give reasons for your answer in (a) (i) above.
Fig. 4.1 – In epigeal germination, the cotyledons emerge out of the soil or above the soil.
Fig. 4.2 – In hypogeal germination, the cotyledons remain in the soil or below the soil.
(b) - Water softens the testa so that the radicle can easily grow out.
- Water provides a medium for metabolic reactions in the germinating seed.
- Water activates the enzymes that have to work on food reserves in the cotyledons

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18.2 Asexual Reproduction – Paper 2

1 2008.P2.QUESTION.3
(b) Fig. 3.2 shows a plant.

(i) Identify the shelled parts Q and R.

(ii) State two functions of structure Q.

2 2002.P2.QUESTION.7(a)
Explain how asexual reproduction differs from sexual reproduction.
.
3 2009.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in flowering plants? [5]
(b) Explain how asexual reproduction in a fungi, such as a Rhizopus, takes place. [3]
.
4 ECZ-2014-P2-Q7(b) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation.
5 2015.P2.Q7
(a) Describe the following methods of artificial vegetative propagation.
(i) grafting
(ii) budding
.

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6 2006.P2.QUESTION.2
(a) Fig. 2.1 below shows part of Rhizopus.

What type of reproduction is shown in figure 2.1?

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18.2 Asexual Reproduction – Paper 2

1 (b) (i) Q – Tuber R – Bud.
(ii) Tuber (Q) – storage organ for nutrients to be used by the plant in winter or dry months.
– to develop new plants by asexual reproduction.
– to provide energy and nutrients to new plants.
[Draw table explaining Runners, rhizomes, corms, suckers, stem tubers, root tubers, bulbs]

Natural Propagation
Propagation Description Examples
A runner (stolon) is a horizontal stem that develops from a bud
and forms roots at the node. It grows horizontally along the
Runner ground. Where the buds touch the ground adventitious roots Strawberries
and a new plant develop. Later, the connection to the parent
plant dies away.
Sugar cane,
A thick underground horizontal stem that produces roots and
ginger,
Rhizome has shoots that develop into new plants. Rhizomes can be cut
bamboo,
into sections and planted for mass propagation.
Banana
A shoot that grows from the underground root or stem of a plant
Banana,
Sucker and is often able to produce its own roots and grow into a new
blackberries
plant.
A short swollen underground stem base in some plants. It
develops new corms (cormlets) that separate from the mother
Corm Gladiolus
corm and produce new plants. Corms can be cut into sections,
each having a bud, and then planted.
A very short underground stem surrounded by thick, fleshy scale
Bulb leaves. It is attched to a short fleshy stem. New bulbs grow from Onion, tulip
the stem.
A fleshy swollen underground stem. It does not bear roots in the
intact condition. The surface of the tuber bears a number of
spirally arranged eyes. Each eye represents a node. The distance Irish potato,
Stem tuber
between the two adjacent nodes is an internode. Each node or yam.
eye consists of a scale leaf and one or more buds. The tip of the
tuber possesses an apical bud.
A fleshy swollen root. Root tuber can arise from any part of the
root. Several finer root branches can arise from it. Eyes (buds), Sweet potato,
Root tuber
nodes and internodes are absent. Adventitious buds are, cassava, dahlia
however, present on the stem from which new plants form.

See pictures below.

1. Runner

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2. Rhizome

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3. Sucker

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4. Corm

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5. Bulb

6. Stem tuber

7. Root tuber

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2 Asexual reproduction differs from sexual reproduction in the following ways:

- asexual reproduction is a process when the parent cell splits, fragments or buds to produce offspring,
sexual reproduction is a process that involves formation and fusion of male and female gametes to form
a new individual.
- asexual reproduction involves no formation and fusion of gametes, sexual reproduction involves
formation and fusion of gametes.
- asexual reproduction is uniparental, sexual reproduction is generally biparental.
- in asexual reproduction reproductive units are somatic cells of parent, in sexual reproduction
reproductive units are germ cells of parent.
- asexual reproduction involves only mitotic divisions, sexual reproduction involves meiosis during
gamete formation.
- offspring in asexual reproduction are genetically similar to patents, offspring in sexual reproduction are
genetically different from parents.
- asexual reproduction often results in rapid production of large number of offspring, sexual reproduction
results in less rapid increase in numbers

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Note! Do NOT use tables in an exam when answering this type of question. Only use tables when studying
for easy assimilation and recollection of facts.

Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction

1 It involves no formation and fusion of gametes. It involves formation and fusion of gametes.
2 It is uniparental It is generally biparental.
3 Reproductive units are somatic cells of parent. Reproductive units are germ cells of parent.
4 It involves only mitotic divisions It involves meiosis during gamete formation
Offspring are genetically different from
5 Offspring are genetically similar to parents.
parents
Often results in rapid production of large
6 Less rapid increase in numbers
number of offspring
.
3 (a) Advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in flowering plants? [5]
- New varieties can arise which may be more successful than the parent stock.
- It promotes survival. New varieties may have different types of resistance against different threats. It
ensures survival of species in a population.
- Colonisation of new areas is fast and wide. Some of these areas may be favourable and lead to new colonies
springing up.
- The offspring may have characteristics of both parents.

Note! The disadvantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- It requires two parents. Any asexual organism can produce offspring on its own.
- It is a slower, more labor-intensive and more complicated process than asexual reproduction
- It produces fewer offspring than asexual reproduction.
- It can prevent favorable genes from being passed to offspring.
- Food reserves for new plants limited to cotyledons or endospern.
- Many seeds arrive in conditions unfavourable to germination and subsquent development.

Note! The advantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- It requires only one parent. Any asexual organism can produce offspring on its own.
- Fairly easy and uncomplicated process.
- It is fast and rapid process.
- Large number of offspring produced.
- Offspring can obtain food reserve from parent.
- Offspring produced in conditions already favourable to parents.
- Good traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.

Note! The disadvantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- The lack of any dispersal mechanism may lead to overcrowding, so the new plants may suffer owing to
competition for light and food.
- Bad traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.
- Colonisation of new areas slow and localised.

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- No new varieties are formed. If one of them develops a certain type of illness, the disease can easily spread
to the rest of the population and affect them all in the same way. As a result, their entire species can be
wiped out, rendering them extinct.

(b) Explain how asexual reproduction in a fungi, such as a Rhizopus, takes place. [3]
Asexual reproduction takes place by the production of large number of spores within the sporangia.
Immature sporangia are white while mature are black. The spores are thick-walled and non-motile. Each
sporangium is borne on a sporangiophore. The tip of the sporangiophores swells and many nuclei migrate
to this swelling. The central portion of the sporangium becomes separated from the peripheral zone by the
deposition of the dome shaped wall. This doom-shaped wall is called columella. Numerous spores are
formed within the sporangium. The outer wall of the sporangium breaks down and spores are displaced by
air currents. On a suitable spore germinates and develops into new hyphae.
.
4 Advantages and disadvantages of vegetative propagation.
Advantages:
1. It does not need external agencies, e.g. insects and wind, for pollination and dispersal
2. Since food is usually present in the vegetative structure, a rapid development of buds into daughter plants
can take place.
3. The daughter plants resemble the parent plant in every way. Beneficial or desirable qualities in the parent
plant are passed on directly to the young plants without any change.
4. This type of propagation involves only one parent and no fertilization is required.
5. Since plants are already in a suitable habitat, they can colonize the area more rapidly.

Disadvantages of natural vegetative propagation in plants are as following.

1. The lack of any dispersal mechanism may lead to overcrowding, so the new plants may suffer owing to
competition for light and food.
2. The new plants are not varied compared to those produced by seeds, thus they may be less adaptable to
changes in environmental conditions.
3. Bad traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.

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5 (a) (i) grafting

This method involves joining a stem piece onto the stem of another closely related plant that has
roots so that the cambium layers of both are in contact. The stem piece called the scion, and the
plant with roots is called the rootstock.

(ii) budding
This method involves joining a single bud onto the stem of another closely related plant that has
roots so that the cambium layers of both are in contact. The bud is called the scion, and the
plant with roots is called the rootstock.

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Note! Other methods

(iii) Stem cuttings
A piece of the stem is cut and placed in water or moist soil. Adventitious roots grow from
the base of the stem into the soil while the shoot continues to grow and produce leaves.

(iv) Layering
In layering, part of the plant’s stem is bent down and covered with soil. This stem can
generate a new root system and, therefore, an entirely new plant. The layered stem still
gets water and nutrition from the parent plant until it has roots and can support itself.
Layering is easier for plants with flexible stems. The new plant can be cut and replanted
elsewhere.

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6 Asexual reproduction
Rhizopus reproduce by forming asexual and sexual spores.
- In asexual reproduction, sporangiospores are produced inside a spherical structure, the sporangium.
Sporangia are supported by a large apophysate columella atop a long stalk, the sporangiophore.
Sporangiophores arise among distinctive, root-like rhizoids.
- In sexual reproduction, a dark zygospore is produced at the point where two compatible mycelia fuse.
Upon germination, a zygospore produces colonies that are genetically different from either parent.

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19.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering plants –

Paper 2
1 2016.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Figure 4.1. shows a certain type of flower.

Identify the parts labelled S, T and U.

(b) (i) Identify the type of pollination that occurs in the flower in Figure 4.1.
(ii) Give two features from Figure 4.1 which support your answer in (b)(i) above.
(c) (i) State one other type of pollination other than the one mentioned in (b)(i) above.
(ii) Give two characteristics of the flower where the type of pollination mentioned in (c)(i)
above occurs.
.
2 (2012- P2- Q3) Figure 3.0 shows some fruits from dicot plants.

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(a) (i) State the type of dispersal each fruit undergoes.

Fruit P.........................................
Fruit Q........................................................
(ii) Give a reason for your answer in (a) (i) above for each fruit.
Fruit P......................................................................
Fruit Q.....................................................................
(b) (i) Which fruit disperses seeds over a short distance?...........................................................
(ii) Which dispersal will involve seeds and not the fruit?..............................................................................
(c) Give three differences between Fruit Q and a tomato.
1. ........................................................................
2. ..........................................................................
3. .......................................................................
3 2001.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) What are the biological disadvantages of a sexual reproduction?
(b) Explain the events leading to fertilization in flowering plants.
.
4 2002.P2.QUESTION.7(b) Describe the events which take place in a flower following fertilization and
leading to the formation of a fruit.
.
5 2009.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in flowering plants? [5]
(c) Describe the sequence of events which take place in a flower from pollination to fertilization. [4]
.
6 (2013- P2- Q8)
(a) Describe the process of pollination in flowering plants.
(b) Distinguish between insect pollinated and wind pollinated flowers.
.
7 ECZ-2014-P2-Q7(a) Using named examples explain how fruits and seeds are adapted to fruit/seed dispersal.
8 2015.P2.Q9
(a) Explain the following terms:
(i) Pollination
(ii) Fertilisation
(b) Discuss fruit and seed dispersal.

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9 2001.P2.QUESTION.1
(a) Figure 1 shows the parts of a wind-pollinated flower.

Name the parts shown by the letters on the diagram.

A ......................................
B ......................................
C ......................................
(b) Which two structural features in the diagram confirm its adaptation for wind pollination?
(c) Explain how the two features you mentioned in (b) assist the mechanism of wind pollination.
(d) Which feature prominent in Figure 1 is not necessary in an insect-pollinated flower?
.
10 2007.P2.QUESTION.2
(a) Fig 2.1 shows a bee on a longitudinal section of a flower.

(i) On Fig. 2.1,label X, Y and Z.

(ii) What is the function of structure Y?
(b) How does the plant benefit from being visited by the bee?
(c) Distinguish between self-pollination and cross-pollination.

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19.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering plants –

Paper 2
1 (a) S – anther (stamen). T – stigma. U - ovary.
(b) (i) Wind pollination.
(ii) - Feathery style or stigmas hanging outside the flower.
- Stamens hang out of the flower.
- Anthers are large and loosely attached to filament so that slightest air movement shakes
them.
(c) (i) Insect pollination.
(ii) - Petals brightly coloured to attract insects
- Scented and mostly with nectaries.
- Stamens are inside the flower
- Flat or lobed, sticky stigmas inside the flower

Note!

Wind pollinated Insect pollinated

1 Small inconspicuous flowers Large flowers or conspicuous inflorescences
2 Petals often green Petals brightly coloured to attract insects
3 No scent, no nectar Scented and mostly with nectaries.
Anthers are large and loosely attached to
Anthers not so large. Anthers firmly attached
4 filament so that slightest air movement
to filament.
shakes them
5 Stamens hang out of the flower Stamens are inside the flower
6 Large quantities of smooth light pollen Smaller quantities of pollen produced.
Feathery style or stigmas hanging outside
7 Flat or lobed, sticky stigmas inside the flower
the flower.

2 (a) (i) Fruit P - self mechanism

Fruit Q – animal dispersal
(ii) Fruit P – fibre tension in fruit walls (pericarp) causes the pods to split open and the seeds scatter.
Great force jerks the seeds a considerable distance away from the mother plant.
Fruit Q has hooks on pericarp which stick to the fur of passing animals.
(b) (i) Fruit P. Seed will be dispersed metres away from the parent plant. For fruit Q, it will be kilometres
due to animal movement.
(ii) Fruit P.
(c) 1. Fruit Q has hooks on pericarp, while tomato has smooth pericarp.
2. Fruit Q is externally dispersed by animals (by sticking on fur), while tomato is dispersed by
animals internally (by eating tomatoes).
3. The tomato is juicy and brightly coloured to attract animals, fruit Q is not.

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3 (a) Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

- It requires two parents. Any asexual organism can produce offspring on its own.
- It is a slower, more labor-intensive and more complicated process than asexual reproduction
- It produces fewer offspring than asexual reproduction.
- It can prevent favorable genes from being passed to offspring.

Note! Advantages of sexual reproduction over asexual reproduction in flowering plants.

- New varieties can arise which may be more successful than the parent stock.
- It promotes survival. New varieties may have different types of resistance against different threats. It
ensures survival of species in a population.
- Colonisation of new areas is fast and wide. Some of these areas may be favourable and lead to new colonies
springing up.
- The offspring may have characteristics of both parents.

Note! The advantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- It requires only one parent. Any asexual organism can produce offspring on its own.
- Fairly easy and uncomplicated process.
- It is fast and rapid process.
- Large number of offspring produced.
- Offspring can obtain food reserve from parent.
- Offspring produced in conditions already favourable to parents.
- Good traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.

Note! The disadvantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- The lack of any dispersal mechanism may lead to overcrowding, so the new plants may suffer owing to
competition for light and food.
- Bad traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.
- Colonisation of new areas slow and localised.
- No new varieties are formed. If one of them develops a certain type of illness, the disease can easily spread
to the rest of the population and affect them all in the same way. As a result, their entire species can be
wiped out, rendering them extinct.

(b) Pollen is transferred from anthers to stigma of flowers of the same species. Self-pollination is the
transfer of pollen grain from the anthers of one flower to the stigmas of the same flower or different flower
of the same plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from the anthers of one flower to the
stigmas of another flower on a different plant of the same species. Agents of pollination are insects and
wind.

After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs nutrients secreted by the stigma and begin to germinate. The
cytoplasm in the grain grows out as a pollen tube. This tube grows down through the style between the cells,
absorbing nutritive fluid from them. On reaching the ovary it grows to one of the ovules and enters it through
a hole, the micropyle. The tip of the pollen tube breaks open in the ovule and the male nucleus, which has
been passing down the tube, enters the ovule and fuses with the female nucleus there. This fusion of the
male gamete and female gamete is called fertilisation. The product of fertilisation is called zygote
.

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4 After fertilisation, the petals, stamens, style and stigma wither and eventually fall off. The zygote undergoes
cell division and growth to produce a seed containing a potential plant or embryo. The embryo consists of a
miniature root or radicle, a small shoot or plumule, and one or two leaves, the cotyledons, which usually
contain food reserves. The integuments of the ovules become thicker and harder, forming the testas of the
seeds. Finally, water is withdrawn from the seeds, making them dry and hard. The ovule becomes the seed.
The ovary becomes the fruit. The ovary wall may become dry and hard to form the capsule or pod, or it may
become succulent and fleshy as in the tomato, pawpaw and mango.
.
5 (a) The advantages of asexual reproduction over sexual reproduction in flowering plants.
- It requires only one parent. Any asexual organism can produce offspring on its own.
- Fairly easy and uncomplicated process.
- It is fast and rapid process.
- Large number of offspring produced.
- Offspring can obtain food reserve from parent.
- Offspring produced in conditions already favourable to parents.
- Good traits or characteristics of the parent are passed on to the offspring.

(c) Pollen is transferred from anthers to stigma of flowers of the same species by self-pollination or cross-
pollination. Agents of pollination are insects and wind.
After pollination, the pollen grain absorbs nutrients secreted by the stigma and begin to germinate. The
cytoplasm in the grain grows out as a pollen tube. This tube grows down through the style between the cells,
absorbing nutritive fluid from them. On reaching the ovary it grows to one of the ovules and enters it through
a hole, the micropyle. The tip of the pollen tube breaks open in the ovule and the male nucleus, which has
been passing down the tube, enters the ovule and fuses with the female nucleus there. This fusion of the
male gamete and female game is called fertilisation. The product of fertilisation is called a zygote.
.
6 (a) Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigma of flowers of the same species. Self-
pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from the anthers of one flower to the stigmas of the same flower
or different flower of the same plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from the anthers of
one flower to the stigmas of another flower on a different plant of the same species. Agents of pollination
are insects and wind.

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(b) Flowers are adapted to the method of wind or insect pollinations.

Differences between Wind and Insect Pollinated Flowers

Wind pollinated Insect pollinated

1 Small inconspicuous flowers Large flowers or conspicuous inflorescences
2 Petals often green Petals brightly coloured to attract insects
3 No scent, no nectar Scented and mostly with nectaries.
Anthers are large and loosely attached to
Anthers not so large. Anthers firmly attached
4 filament so that slightest air movement
to filament.
shakes them
5 Stamens hang out of the flower Stamens are inside the flower
6 Large quantities of smooth light pollen Smaller quantities of rough pollen produced.
Feathery/hairly style or stigmas hanging
7 Flat or lobed, sticky stigmas inside the flower
outside the flower.

8 Wind is the agent of pollination. Insects are the agent of pollination.

.
7 Seed/fruit dispersal
Seeds/fruits are dispersed away from each other and from the parent plant so that there is less competition.
The commonest methods of seed dispersal are:
Wind e.g. dandelion, sycamore fruits are light and have extensions which act as parachutes or wings to
catch the wind
Animal internal e.g. tomato, plum, raspberry, grape have brightly coloured and succulent fruits to attract
animals. They contain seeds with indigestible coats which allow the seeds to pass through the animal
undamaged.
Animal external e.g. blackjackgoose grass, burdock, the fruits have hooks which attach them to the fur of
passing animals.
Explosive/ self propelled e.g. pea and bean pod. The pod burst open when ripe projecting the seeds away
from the plant. Fibre tension in fruit walls causes the pods to split open and flick the seeds away.
Water dispersal: Many marine, beach, pond, and swamp plants have waterborne seeds, which are buoyant
by being enclosed in corky fruits or air-containing fruits or both. They float on water away from the parent.
Coconut and water lilies are examples.

8 (a)(i) Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anthers to stigma of flowers of the same species.
(ii) Fertilisation is the fusion of the male gamete and female gamete to form a zygote.
(b) Seed and fruit dispersal
Seeds/fruits are dispersed away from each other and from the parent plant so that there is less
competition. The commonest methods of seed dispersal are:
Wind e.g. dandelion, sycamore fruits are light and have extensions which act as parachutes or
wings to catch the wind
Animal internal e.g. tomato, plum, raspberry, grape have brightly coloured and succulent fruits to
attract animals. They contain seeds with indigestible coats which allow the seeds to pass through
the animal undamaged.

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Animal external e.g. blackjackgoose grass, burdock, the fruits have hooks which attach them to
the fur of passing animals.
Explosive/ self propelled e.g. pea and bean pod. The pod burst open when ripe projecting the seeds
away from the plant. Fibre tension in fruit walls causes the pods to split open and flick the seeds
away.
Water dispersal: Many marine, beach, pond, and swamp plants have waterborne seeds, which are
buoyant by being enclosed in corky fruits or air-containing fruits or both. They float on water away
from the parent. Coconut and water lilies are examples.
.
9 (a) A Anther B Filament C Stigma
(b) - Feathery style or stigmas hanging outside the flower.
- Anthers are large and loosely attached to filament so that slightest air movement shakes
them.
(c) - Anthers are large and loosely attached to filament so that slightest air movement shakes
them and pollen falls off to the stigma.
- Large feathery style or stigmas hanging outside the flower provide large surface area to trap
pollen grains.
(d) Feathery stigma hanging outside the flower (corolla).
.
10 (a) (i) X – Petals Y – Anther Z – Stigma .
(ii) To produce pollen grains.
(b) Pollination takes place as the bee moves from one plant to the other.
(c) Self-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain from the anthers of one flower to the stigmas of the
same flower or different flower of the same plant. Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grain
from the anthers of one flower to the stigmas of another flower on a different plant of the same
species.

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20.2 Reproduction in Animals – Paper 2

1 2003.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Some married couples fail to have children due to the females' failure to produce ova. In such cases,
female fertility drugs containing a hormone are taken.
(i) Name a hormone that stimulates production of ova.
(ii) Suggest why this treatment can result in the birth of many babies at once.
(b) Females possess an endocrine gland that secretes the hormone you have named in (a) (i) above.
(i) Name the endocrine gland.
(ii) Where in the female body is this gland situated?
(c) State any two methods of contraception used in Zambia.
.
2 2015.P2.Q7(b) Describe the artificial methods of birth control in humans.
.
3 (2012- P2- Q9)
(a) Describe the special dietary needs of a pregnant woman.
(b) Discuss artificial methods of birth control.
.
4 2007.P2.QUESTION.6
(a) (i) Explain two ways in which the events of meiosis cause each ovum to be genetically different
from one another.
(ii) Explain how the placenta is adapted to provide a developing foetus with it's nutrients.
(iii) Explain how cigarette smoking in a pregnant woman may damage the unborn baby.

5 2001.P2.QUESTION.10(c) Describe the role played by progesterone in pregnancy in humans.

.
6 2005.P2.QUESTION.6
(a) Explain why the blood vessels of the mother and those of the unborn child are not directly connected.
(b) Describe ways in which mother to child HIV transmission occurs.

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20.2 Reproduction in Animals – Paper 2

1 (a) (i) Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH).
(ii) The drugs may lead to the production and release of more than one ovum at once.
(b) (i) Pituitary gland.
(ii) The pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure located at the base of the brain, just below the
hypothalamus, to which it is attached via nerve fibers.
(c) Methods of contraception used in Zambia: male condom, female condom, contraceptive pill,
contraceptive injection, tubal ligation (on oviducts), rhythm method. .
2 2015.P2.Q7(b) Describe the Artificial methods of birth control in humans.
Mechanical methods of contraception:
- male condom, female condom, diaphragm: a thin rubber sheath that prevents sperm getting into a
woman’s vagina.
- Intra Uterine Device (IUD) – a small, T-shaped copper device that is inserted into a woman's uterus to
prevent pregnancy. It’s the copper metal itself that prevents pregnancy by making the uterus
inhospitable to sperm and may prevent sperm from being able to go into the egg by immobilizing the
sperm on the way to the Fallopian tubes. The copper IUD releases copper into the uterus, which works
as a spermicide.
Hormonal methods of contraception:
- contraceptive pill: it contains chemicals which have the same effect on the body as the hormones
oestrogen and progesterone. When mixed in suitable proportions, these chemicals suppress ovulation
and so prevent conception.
- contraceptive injection: The shot is administered by a healthcare provider every three months. It relies
on the hormone progestin to thicken cervical mucus and prevent sperm from ever reaching an egg.
Progestin may also stop ovulation, so no eggs reach the uterus at all.
- Intra Uterine Device (IUD): This type of IUD releases a form of the hormone progestin into the uterus.
The progestin thickens the cervical mucus so that sperm can't reach the egg.
Surgical methods of contraception:
- vasectomy: a surgical procedure to cut or seal the tubes that carry a man's sperm to permanently
prevent pregnancy. The tubes that carry sperm from a man's testicles to the penis are cut, blocked or
sealed with heat. This means that when a man ejaculates, the semen has no sperm in it and a woman's
egg can't be fertilised.
- tubal ligation: the fallopian tubes are cut, tied or blocked to permanently prevent pregnancy. Tubal
ligation prevents an egg from traveling from the ovaries through the fallopian tubes and blocks sperm
from traveling up the fallopian tubes to the egg. The procedure doesn't affect the menstrual cycle.

Note! Natural methods of contraception:

- rhythm method: a surgical procedure to cut or seal the tubes that carry a man's sperm to permanently
prevent pregnancy. The tubes that carry sperm from a man's testicles to the penis are cut,
blocked or sealed with heat. This means that when a man ejaculates, the semen has no sperm in it
and a woman's egg can't be fertilised.
- withdrawal: a man withdraws his penis right before ejaculation, so no sperm enter the vagina. But it's
not exactly effective.
- douching: water or other fluid is used to wash the semen out of the vagina. It is not an effective method.
- Abstinence: this means not having sex at all. It is the only method that is 100% effective.

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3 (a) What a woman eats and drinks during pregnancy is her baby's main source of nourishment. A pregnant
woman needs more calcium, folic acid, iron and protein.
Protein – More protein is needed during pregnancy for the growth of the foetus and preparation of the
mother’s body to sustain the pregnancy. Meat, dairy products, beans, poultry, eggs, etc.
Calcium – a mineral used to build a baby's bones and teeth. If a pregnant woman does not consume enough
calcium, the mineral will be drawn from the mother's stores in her bones and given to the baby to meet the
extra demands of pregnancy. Main sources include milk, cheese, yogurt, and sardines. During pregnancy
you need 1,000 milligrams (mg) daily.
Vitamin D – Many dairy products are also fortified with vitamin D, another nutrient that works with calcium
to develop a baby's bones and teeth.
Iron – Helps red blood cells deliver oxygen to your baby. Sources include lean red meat, dried beans, peas,
and iron-fortified cereals. During pregnancy you need 27 mg daily.
Folate (Folic Acid) – B vitamin important in the production of blood and protein, it also reduces the risk of
neural tube defects (a birth defect of the brain and spinal cord). You can find folate in green, leafy vegetables,
liver, orange juice, legumes (beans, peas, lentils), and nuts.
Carbohydrates are needed for energy to carry the pregnancy.

(b) See answer to question 2 above.

4 (a)(i) - during the prophase stage of meiosis when homologous chromosomes pair up, maternal and
paternal chromosomes exchange portions i.e. the genes “crossover” to other chromosomes. This
crossing over gives the possibility of new combinations to arise in each gamete (ovum).
- during anaphase stage of meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate and randomly move to
opposite ends of the cell, taking the exchanged portions with them. This makes each ovum to be
genetically different from one another.

(ii) Explain how the placenta is adapted to provide a developing foetus with its nutrients.
- it is rich in blood supply from the mother’s circulation
- the membranes separating the maternal and embryonic blood vessels are very thin, hence dissolved
nutrients and waste products can pass across
- villi of the placenta protrude into the uterine line to increase the surface area for the diffusion of
nutrients from the mother’s blood to the foetus’.
- the folded uterine lining increases the surface area for the diffusion of nutrients from the mother’s blood
to the foetus’.
- Before the nutrients cross to the baby, the placenta works like a kidney to filter them of harmful
substances, while also letting those that are good for the baby pass through.
(iii) - Smoking can cause babies to be born with a low birth weight.
- Smoking reduces the amount of oxygen to the unborn baby.
- Premature birth (the baby being born too early).
- Smoking during pregnancy raises the risk of the baby being born with birth defects.
- Increases the chances of miscarriage and stillbirth
5 - One of progesterone's most important functions is to cause the endometrium lining of the uterus to secrete
special proteins during the second half of the menstrual cycle, preparing it to receive and nourish an
implanted fertilized egg.

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- If a pregnancy occurs, progesterone is produced in the placenta, and levels remain elevated throughout
the pregnancy. The combination of high estrogen and progesterone levels suppress further ovulation during
pregnancy.
- While the body is producing high levels of progesterone, the body will not ovulate. If the woman does not
become pregnant, the corpus luteum breaks down, lowering the progesterone levels in the body. This change
sparks menstruation.
- If the body does conceive, progesterone continues to stimulate the body to provide the blood vessels in
the endometrium that will feed the growing fetus.
- Progesterone helps prepare the breasts for milk production by encouraging the growth of milk-producing
glands in the breast during pregnancy.
- After the 8th week of pregnancy, production of progesterone shifts to the placenta.

6 (a) the blood vessels of the mother and those of the unborn child are not directly connected because:
- the mother’s blood pressure would burst the delicate capillaries forming in the embryo.
- many substances in the mother’s circulation would be poisonous to the embryo
(b) Mother-to-child transmission of HIV is the spread of HIV from a woman with HIV to her child:
During pregnancy – the foetus is infected by HIV crossing the placenta.
During childbirth – the baby is infected by HIV in the mother's cervical secretions or blood.
During breastfeeding – the baby is infected by HIV in the mother's breast milk (or blood).

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21.2 Genetics – Paper 2

1 2016.P2.QUESTION.5
(a)(i) Figure 5.1. below shows pedigree diagrams for two families A and B, outlining inheritance of a sex-
linked disease called haemophilia.

From Figure 5.1, which family has a parent who is a carrier for haemophilia?
.
(ii) Give a reason for your answer in (a)(i) above.
(b) (i) Using the symbols XH and Xh, state the genotypes for offspring H and J, if J is a carrier for
haemophilia.
(ii) Using a genetic diagram, show whether the offspring would be haemophilic or normal
when H and J are crossed.
.
2 2015.P2.Q5 Pure breeding dwarf garden pea plants were crossed with pure-breading tall garden pea
plants. The resulting offspring were all tall.
(a)(i) What is meant by pure breeding? [1]
(ii) Using your own symbols, state the genotypes of the parents.
Pure breeding dwarf garden pea plant = ..............
Pure breeding tall garden pea plant = ................. [2]
(b) Using a genetic diagram, show the cross between a dwarf parent and one of the offspring. [5]
(c) Differentiate between homozygous and heterozygous.
.
3 ECZ-2014-P2-Q5
(a) Explain what is meant by the term sex-linked characteristic.
(b) The allele for haemophilia (h) is a recessive allele carried on the non-homologous pair of the X
chromosome.
(i) A couple is both normal to this trait. They have three sons, two of whom are haemophilic. Use a
genetic diagram to explain how this may occur.
(ii) What is the probability of their next son being haemophilic?
.
4 (2013- P2- Q5)
A plant species has plants which produce white flowers and plants which produce blue flowers.
A homozygous white flowered plant was crossed with a blue flowered plant and all the F1 seeds produced
plants with only blue flowers.
(a) (i) State the flower colour which is controlled by the dominant allele.................

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(ii) Explain your answer in (a) (i) above........................................................

(b) (i) Using the symbols B and b to represent the two alleles for flower colours, state the genotype of the
white flowered plant.
(ii) Predict the genotype of the F1 offspring................................................
(c) Draw a genetic diagram to predict the likely results of a cross between one of the blue-flowered F1
offspring and a white-flowered parent plant.......................
.
5 (2011-P2-Q5) In an experiment to demonstrate the inheritance of coat colour in cattle, a roan bull was
repeatedly crossed with a roan cow and produced roan, white and red calves.
(a) Which coat colour is as a result of co-dominance?..............................................................
(b) Determine the genotypes of the three coat colours, given that CR is gene for red colour and CW is gene
for white colour..............
(c) Show using a genetic diagram the possible offspring which could be produced when a red bull was crossed
with a roan cow.......................................................

6 (2010- P2- Q5) Figure 5. 1 shows the inheritance of haemophilia in a family.

(a) Taking the allele for haemophilia to be Xh, what is the genotype of offspring 3 and 7?
Offspring 3: ..............................................................................................................
Offspring 7: ...............................................................................................................
(b) Offspring 4 married a person with similar genotype to offspring 7.
(i) Draw a genetic diagram to show the genotypes and the phenotypes of the offspring.
(ii) What is the probability of them having a normal child? .....................................................
(iii) What is the probability of them having a child who is a carrier? .......................................

7 2009.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) Haemophilia is an example of a sex-linked inherited disease arising from a blood disorder.
(i) What is a sex-linked characteristic?
(ii) Explain why males are more likely to suffer from sex-linked diseases than female?
(b) Colour blindness is another sex-linked disease. Using a genetic diagram, show the chances of having a
colour blind child from a couple made up of a normal mail parent and a carrier female parent. (Use the
symbols XR and Xr).
.

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8 2006.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) In guinea pigs, the gene for rough hair is dominant to that for smooth hair. Using your own symbols
to represent the genes:
(i) Explain why a guinea pig with rough hair may be homozygous or heterozygous for this character.
(ii) State the genotype for a pure breeding smooth haired guinea pig.
(b) (i) Using a genetic diagram, explain why a male guinea pig with rough hair which is crossed with a
female guinea pig with rough hair may produce guinea piglets with smooth hair.
(ii) What is the probability of their having a piglet with smooth hair?

9 2005.P2.QUESTION.4
The following questions, (c) (i) and (c) (ii), relate to cell division in the germinating seedlings shown in Fig.
4.1 and Fig. 4.2. Fig. 4.3 shows a cell taken from region X undergoing cell division.

(i) What stage of cell division is shown in Fig. 4.3?

(ii) How many chromosomes would a gamete formed in Fig. 4.3 have?

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10 2004.P2.QUESTION.1
(a) Fig 1.1 shows the chromosomes of three cells from one organism.

Which of the cells, B or C could be developed from cell A by:

(i) Mitosis
(ii) Meiosis
(b) (i) Name two places in the human body where mitosis occurs.
(ii) Name two places, one in the animal body and the other in a plant body where meiosis occurs.
1 Animal body...............................
2 Plant body ................................
(c) Describe the importance of meiosis in living organisms.

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11 2004.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) Fig 5.1 shows the inheritance of the eye colour within a family.

(i) Suggest which eye colour is dominant in fig. 5.1

(ii) Give reasons for your answer.
(b) What are the eye colours of the following persons?
Person 1 ...........................
Person 11 ...........................
Person 16 ...........................
(c) (i)Which three persons in fig. 5.1 are homozygous for eye colour?
Person ..............................
Person ..............................
Person ..............................
(ii) Which three persons in fig.5.1, F2 generation, are heterozygous for eye colour?
Person ..............................
Person ..............................
Person ..............................
(d) (i) If person 17 is homozygous for eye colour, what would be the chance of a child born to 16
and 17 being brown eyed?
(ii) If person 14 is heterozygous for eye colour, what would the chance of a child born to 13
and 14 being brown eyed?
.

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12 2003.P2.QUESTION.5
(a) Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2 show two examples of variations in humans.

Name the type of variations shown in Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2, and give one example for each type of variation.
(i) Type of variation (Fig 5.1.1) .........................................
Example ..................................................................
(i) Type of variation (Fig 5.1.2) .........................................
Example ..................................................................
(b) What genetic factors control the type of variations shown in Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2?
(i) ..............................................
(ii) ..............................................
(c) Give two environmental factors that might influence the type of variation shown in Fig 5.1.2.
(i) ..............................................
(ii) ..............................................
(d) Using a genetic diagram, explain co-dominance in the inheritance of blood groups in human beings.

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13 2002.P2.QUESTION.5
(a)(i) A farmer carried out a research by cross-breeding a white corn variety and a brown corn variety.
Most of the cobs that developed had white corns. The farmer then planted some of the white seeds
(Batch 1) and the plants were allowed to self pollinate. Most of the cobs that developed from these
crops (Batch 2) had a mixture of brown and white corns on them as shown in fig. 5.1.
The farmer randomly collected five cobs (Batch 2) and counted the corns on each cob. Table 5.1 shows the
number of corns from each of the five cobs.

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Calculate the total number of corns of each colour on Table 5.1

(ii) What is the ratio of white to brown corns?
(iii) Which colour is dominant?
(iv) Using alleles B and b, and genetic diagrams explain how the seeds from batch 1 could give
such results as shown in Table 5.1.
(b) On examining the cobs, the farmer noticed that cob 5 had one corn which was purple coloured.
(i) Suggest the process which most likely brought about purple colour in cob 5.
(ii) Assuming the allele for purple colour in this cob is recessive, briefly explain how, the farmer
would obtain many seeds which are purple coloured from the one seed.

14 2001.P2.QUESTION.5
(a)(i) Both Mrs Banda and Mrs Bwalya delivered baby, girls on the same day, in the same hospital. Mrs
Banda's baby girl was named Anansi and Mrs Bwalya's baby girl was named Bupe. Mrs Bwalya
began to suspect that her baby had been accidentally exchanged with Mrs Banda's baby at the
hospital. Blood tests were done on the two families.

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Using full genetic diagrams, show whether there was a mix up or not.
(i) Genetic Diagram I - Mrs Bwalya and Mr Bwalya
(ii) Genetic Diagram II - Mrs Banda and Mr Banda
(iii) Conclusion from the genetic diagrams.
5(b) From your knowledge of human blood groups, which blood group shows codominance?
.
15 2008.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) Explain what is meant by the following terms?
(i) Gene
(ii) Mutation
(iii) Meiosis
(b) Distinguish between continuous and discontinuous variation.
(c) Explain how environmental factors may cause variations among organisms of the same species.

16 2005.P2.QUESTION.9
(a) What is a mutation?
(b) Albinism is recessive to normal skin colour. Using the symbols M and n for the two alleles.
(i) Show how one normal couple might have an albino child.
(ii) What is the probability of their having an albino child?

17 2007.P2.QUESTION.6
(a)(i) Explain two ways in which the events of meiosis cause each ovum to be genetically different from
one another.
(ii) Explain how the placenta is adapted to provide a developing foetus with it's nutrients.
(b) A couple who both have the sickle-cell trait had a child with sickle-cell.
(i) Explain using a fully-labelled genetic diagram how sickle-cell would be inherited by the child.
(Use the letters H and h for the alleles)
(ii) What is the chance of the child being sickle-celled?

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21.2 Genetics – Paper 2

1 (a)(i) Family A.
(ii) Because family A has a child with haemophilia.
(b) (i) H – XhY H is haemophilic male (look at the key). The gene that causes this
disease is only found on the X chromosomes and always missing from
the Y chromosomes.
J – XHXh J is normal female, but a carrier. This means she carries the recessive
allele for haemophilia, which does not express itself because it is masked
the dominant allele on the other X chromosome.
(ii) Haemophilia is a sex-linked or X-linked disease. The gene that causes this disease is only
found on the X chromosomes and always missing from the Y chromosomes. The Y
chromosome is the one that determines whether the child is a boy or a girl. The genes that
cause sex-linked diseases are found on the X chromosomes and are more likely to affect a
male than a female.

H is an haemophilic male and J is a female carrier.

2 (a)(i) Pure breeding means the plants (or animals) are homozygous, that is, the pairs of alleles that express
a given trait are the same.
(ii) Pure breeding dwarf garden pea plant = t t
Pure breeding tall garden pea plant = T T

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(b) The genetic diagram shows the cross between a dwarf parent and a tall parent..

The genetic diagram shows the cross between a dwarf parent and one of the offspring.

(c) - homozygous has similar alleles of a trait, e.g. T T or t t, while heterozygous has different alleles of a
trait, T t.
- homozygous has either dominant or recessive but not both, while heterozygous has both dominant and
recessive alleles.
.
3 (a) A sex-linked characteristic is one controlled by a gene on the X or Y chromosomes.
(b)(i) Haemophilia is a sex-linked or X-linked disease. The gene that causes this disease is only found on
the X chromosomes and always missing from the Y chromosomes.

1
(ii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 ℎ𝑎𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑐 = × 100% = 25%
4
4 (a) (i) Blue
(ii) There are no white flowers among the offspring. White is recessive.
(b)(i) bb. The capital letter for the dominant trait is usually chosen as the symbol for the trait. The
letter for the recessive trait is represented by the small letter of the dominant trait.
(ii) Bb

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(c)

.
5 (a) Roan
(b) Red coat: CRCR
White: CWCW
Roan: CRCW
(c)

6 (a) Offspring 3: XhXh (female haemophiliac)

Offspring 7: XHY (normal male).
Note!
Haemophilia is a sex-linked or X-linked disease. The gene that causes this disease is only found on the X
chromosomes and always missing from the Y chromosomes. The Y chromosome is the one that determines
whether the child is a boy or a girl. The genes that cause sex-linked diseases are found on the X chromosomes
and are more likely to affect a male than a female. This is because the Y chromosome does not have an allele
that can dominate the recessive disease causing gene. The X chromosome does have allele that can
dominate the recessive allele and mask its effect.

(b) (i) Offspring 4 is normal female and a carrier – XHXh. Offspring 7 is normal male – XHY

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.
3
(ii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 = × 100% = 75%
4
1
(iii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 = × 100% = 25%
4

7 (a)(i) A sex-linked characteristic is one controlled by a gene on the X or Y chromosomes.

(ii) The genes that cause sex-linked inherited diseases mostly found on the X chromosomes and usually
missing from the Y chromosomes. The Y chromosome is the one that determines whether the child is a boy
or a girl. The genes that cause sex-linked diseases are found on the X chromosomes and are more likely to
affect a male than a female. Females have two X chromosomes. In females, the effect of a recessive disease
causing allele on one X chromosome may be masked by the effect of the dominant allele on the other X
chromosome. In males, these recessive genes exert their effect as there is no other X chromosome gene to
override them. (Males have one X chromosome and a much smaller Y chromosome.)

1
(b) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 = × 100% = 25%
4

.
8 (a)(i) Let the dominant gene for rough hair be R and the recessive gene for smooth hair be r. When the
hair is homozygous dominant, RR, the phenotype will rough hair. When it is heterozygous, Rr, it will be rough
hair because of the presence of the dominant gene, R, which will override or mask the recessive smooth
gene, r. Explain why a guinea pig with rough hair may be homozygous or heterozygous for this character.
(ii) rr
(b) (i) The smooth, recessive genes from heterozygous male and heterozygous female may combine to
form a homozygous recessive offspring with smooth hair.

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1
(ii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎 𝑝𝑖𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟 = × 100% = 25%
4

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9 (i) Anaphase
During anaphase, the pairs of chromosomes, also called sister chromatids, are drawn to
opposite poles of the elongated cell. Therefore, duplicate copies of the cell's DNA are now
on either side of the cell and are ready to divide completely. At this stage the microtubules
get shorter, which begins to allow the cell to separate.

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Note! Stages of Cell Division

Source: GSCE Biology, D.G. Mackean.

1. Interphase
During interphase, the cell is preparing itself for division. Cells contain many proteins and
structures called organelles that it must replicate in preparation for doubling. The DNA of

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the cell is also duplicated during this phase, creating two copies of each strand of DNA
called a chromosome. At this time the cell also increases in size. The majority of the cell's
lifespan is spent in interphase.

2. Prophase
In the phase to follow, called prophase, the duplicated chromosomes from the previous
phase condense, meaning they become compacted and more tightly wound. An apparatus
known as a mitotic spindle forms on the edges of the dividing cell. The mitotic spindle is
made up of proteins called microtubules that gradually lengthen during prophase, which
drives the division of the cell by elongating it.

3. Metaphase
Preceding metaphase is a period called prometaphase, during which the membrane, or
nuclear envelope, surrounding the chromosomes breaks down, allowing the condensed
chromosomes to come into direct contact with the microtubules of the mitotic spindle.
Upon entering metaphase, the pairs of condensed chromosomes line up along the equator
of the elongated cell. Because they are condensed, they move more easily without
becoming tangled.

4. Anaphase
During anaphase, the pairs of chromosomes, also called sister chromatids, are drawn to
opposite poles of the elongated cell. Therefore, duplicate copies of the cell's DNA are now
on either side of the cell and are ready to divide completely. At this stage the microtubules
get shorter, which begins to allow the cell to separate.

5. Telophase
The most important characteristic of telophase is that the nuclear envelope, which had
previously broken down to allow the microtubules to access and recruit the chromosomes
to the equator of the dividing cell, reforms as two new nuclear envelopes around the
separated sister chromatids.

6. Cytokinesis
The complete division of the cell, however, is not complete until cytokinesis takes place.
Cytokinesis is the process by which the elongated cell is finally pinched into two brand new
cells by a ring of proteins called actin and myosin, the same proteins found in muscle. At
this point, the cytoplasm, or fluid in which all cell components are bathed, is equally
divided between the two new daughter cells. Each daughter cell is identical, containing its
own nucleus and a complete copy of the organism's DNA.

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Mitosis vs Meiosis
Mitosis is used for almost all of your body’s cell division needs. It adds new cells during
development and replaces old and worn-out cells throughout your life. The goal of mitosis
is to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to their mothers.

Meiosis, on the other hand, is used for just one purpose in the human body: the production
of gametes—sex cells, or sperm and eggs. Its goal is to make daughter cells with exactly
half as many chromosomes as the starting cell. To put that another way, meiosis in
humans is a division process that takes us from a diploid cell—one with two sets of
chromosomes—to haploid cells—ones with a single set of chromosomes. In humans, the
haploid cells made in meiosis are sperm and eggs. When a sperm and an egg join in
fertilization, the two haploid sets of chromosomes form a complete diploid set.

Phases of meiosis
In many ways, meiosis is a lot like mitosis. The cell goes through similar stages and uses
similar strategies to organize and separate chromosomes. In meiosis, however, the cell
has a more complex task. It still needs to separate sister chromatids (the two halves of a
duplicated chromosome), as in mitosis. But it must also separate homologous
chromosomes, the similar but non-identical chromosome pairs an organism receives from
its two parents.
These goals are accomplished in meiosis using a two-step division process. Homologue
pairs separate during a first round of cell division, called meiosis I. Sister chromatids
separate during a second round, called meiosis II.
Since cell division occurs twice during meiosis, one starting cell can produce four gametes
(eggs or sperm). In each round of division, cells go through four stages: prophase,
metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
(Source: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology

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Source: GSCE Biology, D.G. Mackean.

(ii) 2
A gamete is a sex or reproductive cell containing half chromosomes, or half the genetic
material necessary to form a complete organism (i.e., haploid). Gametes are formed
through meiosis (reduction division), in which a germ cell undergoes two fissions, resulting
in the production of four daughter cells (gametes).

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10 (a) (i) C (in mitosis, daughter cell has same number of chromosomes as parent.)
(ii) B (in meiosis, daughter cell has half the number of chromosomes as parent.)
(b) (i) Muscle, liver, skin, etc
(ii) 1 Animal body – testis or ovary.
2 Plant body – anther or ovary.
(c) - Meiosis is used for production of gametes—sex cells (sperm, ovum, ovule, pollen grain).
- it brings about variation of characteristics in the offspring
- it generates, by crossing over of chromosomes and random assortment of chromosomes, the
genetic diversity on which natural selection can act.
- it ensures that the number of chromosomes in the cells of successive generations will remain
constant.
.
11 (a) (i) Brown
(ii) When blue (3) and brown (4) mate, all the offspring were brown. Blue was suppressed.
(b) Person 1 – Brown.
Person 11 – Brown.
Person 16 – Blue.
(c) (i) Person 3
Person 4
Person 16
For the recessive colour (blue) to express itself in persons 3 and 16, their genotype must
be homozygous recessive (bb). Person 4 is homozygous dominant (BB) because all its
offspring are brown.
(ii) Person 9
Person 10
Person 11. (and 12)
The above persons are a product of a cross between a homozygous recessive bb (3) and
homozygous dominant BB (4).

4
(d) (i) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑛 𝑡𝑜 16 𝑎𝑛𝑑 17 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑒𝑦𝑒𝑑 = × 100% = 100%
4

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(ii) 13 and 14 have same father and same mother, they are brother and sister. Something
wrong with the question. Also note that 13 can be heterozygous or homozygous.
.
12 (a) Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2 show two examples of variations in humans.

Name the type of variations shown in Fig 5.1.1 and Fig 5.1.2, and give one example for each type of variation.
(i) Discontinuous variation.
Example: Sex
(i) Continuous variation
Example: Weight

Note!
Continuous variation is the differences between individuals of the same species that has a range
of measurements from one extreme to another. A line graph is used to represent continuous
variation. It is affected by genes and environmental factors. Examples are height, weight, skin
colour, heart rate, finger length, leaf length, foot size, intelligence,
Discontinuous variation is the differences between individuals of the same species that has definite
categories or groups with no intermediate forms. A bar graph is used to represent discontinuous
variation. It is not affected by environmental factors. Examples are tongue rolling, finger prints,
eye colour, blood groups, sex, type of teeth,
(b) (i) Crossing over
(ii) Random assortment
(iii) Mutation
(c) (i) Nutrition
(ii) Temperature
(d) The alleles that determine blood group A, (IA), and B, (IB), express co-dominance blood group AB.
The allele that determines blood group O, (IO), is recessive and so it will only express itself when it
is homozygous recessive, IOIO. It is suppressed by both IA and IB.

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13 (a) (i) White corns – 156, Brown corns – 52, Purple corns – 1.
(ii) 3:1
(iii) White
(iv) B – white, b – brown.

(b) On examining the cobs, the farmer noticed that cob 5 had one corn which was purple coloured.
(i) Gene mutation. (This is the sudden spontaneous and permanent change to a gene caused
by radiation or chemicals.)
(ii) Ensuring self-pollination of the plant growing from the purple corn so that all the offspring have
homozygous recessive alleles of purple colour. Prevent cross-pollination from other corns which
might introduce dominant alleles that would suppress the recessive alleles in purple corn.
14 (a)(i) Genetic Diagram I - Mrs Bwalya (A) and Mr Bwalya (A). Baby Bupe (B).

(ii) Genetic Diagram II - Mrs Banda (B) and Mr Banda (A). Baby Anansi (O).

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(iii) The babies were swapped. It is not possible for Mr and Mrs Bwalya, both with A blood, to
have a baby with B blood. But Mr and Mrs Banda with A and B blood groups can have a
baby with blood group O.
(b) AB
.
15 (a) Explain what is meant by the following terms?
(i) Gene – a unit of inheritance. Genes are responsible for the hereditary traits in organisms. They
are made DNA material and occupy specific locations, or loci, on a chromosome.
(ii) Mutation – a sudden, spontaneous and permanent alteration of genetic material such that a
new variation is produced. It is caused by radiation or chemicals. It can be gene mutation or
chromosome mutation.
(iii) Meiosis – is a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells which are genetically
different, each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell (haploid). It happens in
reproductive organs during the production of gametes (sex cells) like sperms, ova, ovules, pollen
grains and spores.
(b) Continuous variation is the differences between individuals of the same species that has
a range of measurements from one extreme to another. A line graph is used to represent
continuous variation. It is affected by genes and environmental factors. Examples are height,
weight, skin colour, heart rate, finger length, leaf length, foot size, intelligence.
Discontinuous variation is the differences between individuals of the same species that has definite
categories or groups with no intermediate forms. A bar graph is used to represent discontinuous
variation. It is not affected by environmental factors. Examples are tongue rolling, finger prints,
eye colour, blood groups, sex, type of teeth.
(c) Identical twins with the same genotype may end up developing different phenotypes because of
different environmental factors like climate and nutrition. One enjoying healthy meals may become
fat and tall, while the other one living in poverty may become thin and short. One twin living in hot
climate may become dark skinned but the one living in cold climate can become light in complexion.

16 (a) Mutation is a spontaneous alteration of genetic material, gene or chromosome, such that a
new variation is produced. It is caused by radiation or chemicals.
(b)(i) The couple is heterozygous normal for skin colour.

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1 1
(ii) 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑟 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 × 100% = 25%
4 4

17 (a)(i) - during the prophase stage of meiosis when homologous chromosomes pair up, maternal and
paternal chromosomes exchange portions i.e. the genes “crossover” to other chromosomes. This
crossing over gives the possibility of new combinations to arise in each gamete (ovum).
- during anaphase stage of meiosis the homologous chromosomes separate and randomly move to
opposite ends of the cell, taking the exchanged portions with them. This makes each ovum to be
genetically different from one another.

(b) (i) The parents are carriers of sickle-cell allele. The two alleles, one from each parent, can combine
to affect the child as shown below.

1 1
(ii) 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑙𝑒 − 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 𝑜𝑟 × 100% = 25%
4 4

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22.2 Classification of Plants and Animals – Paper 2

1 2005.P2.QUESTION.2(a)
Fig. 2.1 shows the adult stage of an organism.

(i) To which phylum and class does the organism in Fig. 2.1 belong?
Phylum: ...........................................
Class: .............................................
(ii) State two visible features that enabled you to identify and classify the organism in Fig. 2.1.
Feature 1: .................................................
Feature 2: .................................................

2 (2013- P2- Q1)

A simple key was constructed to identify an insect, a mammal, a reptile and an Arachnid as shown below.
1. Animal with four legs............................................................2
Animal with more than four legs...........................................3
2. Animal with scales on skin.................................................. reptile
Animal with fur on skin....................................................... mammal
3. Animal with six legs.............................................................. P
Animal with more than six legs.............................................Q
(a) What name is given to a system of putting organisms into groups or categories?...................................
(b) (i) State the name of the biological key shown above..........................................................................
(ii) Suggest why this name was given to this type of biological key...........................................................
(c) (i) Explain the use of numbers at the end of some statements in the key..................................................
(ii) Why is key construction important in biology?....................................................................................
(d) Using the key, identify the animals labelled P and Q.
P:...............................................................................
Q:...............................................................................
.
3 [ECZ-2014-P2-Q1
(a) Figure 1.0 shows organisms in an ecosystem.

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Using letters classify the following organisms in figure 1.0

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22.2 Classification of Plants and Animals – Paper 2

1 (i) Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Kingdom: Animalia
(ii) Feature 1: three pairs of legs.
Feature 2: a single pair of antennae
Feature 3: three body segments: head, thorax and abdomen

2 (a) Classification
(b) (i) Dichotomous or numbered key.
(ii)Because it uses a series of paired/two contrasting statements or two options at each step.
(c) (i) To show the next pair of statements to read. Leads or guides where to go next.
(ii)For easy systematic identification, naming, grouping or classification of organisms.
(d) P: insect
Q: arachnid
.
3 Group Letters
Angiosperm H
Reptile F (snake)
Fungi E (mushroom)

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23.2 Soil – Paper 2

1 2016.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) Describe factors that make soil fertile.
(b) Explain the causes of loss of soil fertility.
(c) Explain methods of improving and retaining soil fertility.

2 (2011- P2- Q10)

(b) Describe the importance of each of the physical components of soil.
3 2006.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) (i) Describe the effects of agricultural practices on soil stability
(ii) Explain the effects of agricultural practices on climate.
4 2007.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) Explain the importance of:
(ii) earth worms in the soil.

5 2002.P2.QUESTION.8
(a) The soil is considered as bread of life.
Explain how agriculture can lead to loss of soil fertility.
(b) What role do insects play in the improvement of soil fertility?
(c) Explain the importance of bacteria and fungi in the soil to plant growth.

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23.2 Soil – Paper 2

1 2016.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) Factors that make soil fertile.
- Air occurs in tiny spaces between soil particles. A supply of oxygen is essential for the respiration of plant
roots and micro-organisms such as bacteria. Seeds need air (oxygen) to germinate. Air makes rocks to
weather and produce soil.
- Micro-organisms. Many microscopic plants, fungi and animals live in the soil. Fungi and some bacteria
are saprophytes that break down dead organic matter (plants and animals) and return mineral salts to the
soil which can be taken up in solution by roots. Other bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates
(organic compounds of nitrogen) that are usable by plants.
- Moisture. Water is spread over soil particles as a thin film. Soil water comes from rain, dew and snow.
The root hairs of plants absorb the water through osmosis. Water dissolves and transports mineral salts
from the roots to the rest of the plant. It helps seeds to germinate and is necessary for photosynthesis to
take place in plants.
- Mineral elements. Mineral salts come from the weathering of rocks, decomposition of organic matter,
artificial fertilisers etc. A fertile soil will contain all the major nutrients for basic plant nutrition (e.g.,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium), as well as other nutrients needed in smaller quantities (e.g.,
calcium, magnesium, sulfur, iron, zinc, copper, boron, molybdenum, nickel).
- Organic matter. It consists of dead plants and animals which are broken down by micro-
organisms to form humus. Organic matter supplies food to soil organisms like earthworms, ants and
rodents; it releases organic acids during decomposition that help in rock weathering and it is a source of
mineral salts.
- pH. The pH of soils varies. A soil on limestone or chalk may be alkaline, up to pH 8. Some clay soils and
soils containing much organic matter may be acid, down to 4.5 pH. Acid conditions in the soil often lead to
a deficiency of minerals by making them more soluble and easily washed out by rain. Alkaline conditions,
on the other hand, may make some minerals so insoluble that they cannot be taken up in solution by the
plant. A pH of about 6.5 is considered favourable for most crops. Cultivation methods can be used to
adjust the pH. Application of lime (calcium hydroxide or carbonate) will raise the pH of an acid soil, while
addition of ammonium sulphate will lower the pH of an alkaline soil.

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(b) Deforestation – the permanent removal of indigenous trees and their undergrowth from forests
leads to loss of soil fertility due to loss of the fertile topsoil components through erosion by water
and wind.
Poor farming methods – slash-and-burn agriculture (chitemene system) and monocrop cultivation
where farmers grow the same crop like maize on the same piece of land each year can lead to acid
soil.
Late burning destroys grass meant for grazing, destroys plants that hold the ground, destroys
shrubs that are supposed to grow into trees and leads to soil erosion.
Overgrazing is a situation in which there are too many animals eating grass in an area. Overgrazing
removes vegetation cover thereby exposing soil to agents of erosion which removes the top soil.
Leaching is the washing away of soluble mineral nutrients from the soil by rain and irrigation water
Overgrazing and poor farming methods lead to leaching.
Harvesting – Soil fertility declines when the quantities of nutrients removed from the soil in
harvested products exceed the quantities of nutrients being applied.

(c) Explain methods of improving and retaining soil fertility.

Suitable pH – A pH of about 6.5 is considered favourable for most crops. Cultivation methods can
be used to adjust the pH. Application of lime (calcium hydroxide or carbonate) will raise the pH of
an acid soil. This is good treatment for soils damaged by acid rain near cities. The addition of
ammonium sulphate will lower the pH of an alkaline soil. Peat (decomposed vegetable matter) is
added to alkaline soils to lower the pH and make the soil more acidic.
Weeding – removing weeds regularly ensures more nutrients, water and space for harvest crops.
Application of fertiliser – organic and inorganic substances that can be added to soil to supply one
or more plant nutrients essential for the growth of plants. Organic fertilisers include manure and
compost.
Crop rotation – the practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land chiefly to
preserve the productive capacity of the soil. It is recommended that crops such as wheat and maize
are grown where legumes (beans, peas) grew the previous season. Legumes fix nitrogen in the soil
with the nodules on their roots. This replaces lost nutrients in the soil. Another is to grow shallow-
rooted crops in an area where deep-rooted crops have grown. Crop rotation can also help to
prevent pests and diseases from spreading in crops.
Conservation farming -

2 Air – it supplies oxygen roots and micro-organism for respiration.

Humus – supplies nutrients to the soil, creates presence of air spaces and is a medium for nutrients to diffuse
to the roots.
Soil particles – provide anchorage to plants. Sand promotes aeration of soil. Clay improves water retention
capacity.
3 (a)(i) - Disturbance of soil physicochemical and biological processes as a result of intensive tillage and
slash and burning.
- Pollution of soil and water through the overuse of fertilizers and the improper use and disposal
of animal wastes.
- Deterioration of soil quality due to nutrient depletion, organic matter losses, erosion and
compaction.

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- The consequences of agricultural practices on soil may be direct and far reaching. Organisms
which are of benefit to agriculture and which may be affected include those responsible for organic
matter decomposition and soil aggregation; breakdown of toxic compounds both metabolic by-
products of organisms and agrochemicals; inorganic transformations that make available nitrates,
sulphates and phosphates as well as essential elements such as iron and manganese; nitrogen
fixation into forms usable by higher plants.
Deforestation – the permanent removal of indigenous trees and their undergrowth from forests
for agricultural purposes leads to loss of soil fertility due to loss of the fertile topsoil components
through erosion by water and wind.
Poor farming methods – slash-and-burn agriculture (chitemene system) and monocrop cultivation
where farmers grow the same crop like maize on the same piece of land each year can lead to acid
soil.
Late burning destroys grass meant for grazing, destroys plants that hold the ground, destroys
shrubs that are supposed to grow into trees and leads to soil erosion.
Overgrazing is a situation in which there are too many animals eating grass in an area. Overgrazing
removes vegetation cover thereby exposing soil to agents of erosion which removes the top soil.
Leaching is the washing away of soluble mineral nutrients from the soil by rain and irrigation water
Overgrazing and poor farming methods lead to leaching.
Harvesting – Soil fertility declines when the quantities of nutrients removed from the soil in
harvested products exceed the quantities of nutrients being applied.

(ii) Explain the effects of agricultural practices on climate.

Through agricultural activities (e.g., land clearing, cultivation of annual crops, irrigation, grazing of
domesticated animals), humans are extensively altering the local, national and global land-cover
characteristics, including physiological and physical characteristics. It is generally accepted that the
expansion of agriculture into natural ecosystems has had a significant climate impact.

4 (a)(ii) - Improving soil aeration and water infiltration: Earthworms can make both horizontal and
vertical burrows (tunnels), some of which can be very deep in soils. These burrows create pores
through which oxygen and water can enter and carbon dioxide can leave the soil.
- Recycling organic material: Earthworms break down dead organic matter in a process known as
decomposition by eating organic matter and breaking it down into smaller pieces, allowing bacteria
and fungi to feed on it and release the nutrients.
- Improving soil structure: Earthworm casts (their faeces) are also very important in soils and are
responsible for some of the fine crumb structure of soils.
- Mixing soil layers: Earthworms are responsible for mixing soil layers and incorporating organic
matter into the soil.
- Improving soil fertility: After their death and decomposition, they increase the organic
constituents of the soil. Thus, the earthworms make the soil fertile.
.
5 (a) Deforestation – the permanent removal of indigenous trees and their undergrowth from forests
for agricultural purposes leads to loss of soil fertility due to loss of the fertile topsoil components
through erosion by water and wind.

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Poor farming methods – slash-and-burn agriculture (chitemene system) and monocrop cultivation
where farmers grow the same crop like maize on the same piece of land each year can lead to acid
soil.
Late burning destroys grass meant for grazing, destroys plants that hold the ground, destroys
shrubs that are supposed to grow into trees and leads to soil erosion.
Overgrazing is a situation in which there are too many animals eating grass in an area. Overgrazing
removes vegetation cover thereby exposing soil to agents of erosion which removes the top soil.
Leaching is the washing away of soluble mineral nutrients from the soil by rain and irrigation water
Overgrazing and poor farming methods lead to leaching.
Harvesting – Soil fertility declines when the quantities of nutrients removed from the soil in
harvested products exceed the quantities of nutrients being applied.

(b) What role do insects play in the improvement of soil fertility?

- Improving soil aeration and water infiltration: Insects (termites and ants) can make both horizontal
and vertical burrows (tunnels), some of which can be very deep in soils. These burrows create pores
through which oxygen and water can enter and carbon dioxide can leave the soil. They facilitate root
penetration and prevents surface crusting and erosion of topsoil.
- Recycling organic material: Insects break down dead organic matter in a process known as
decomposition by eating organic matter and breaking it down into smaller pieces, allowing bacteria
and fungi to feed on it and release the nutrients.
- Improving soil structure: The faeces of arthropods are the basis for the formation of soil aggregates
and humus, which physically stabilize the soil and increase its capacity to store nutrients and are
responsible for some of the fine crumb structure of soils.
- Mixing soil layers: The movement of particles from lower horizons to the surface by ants and termites
aids in mixing the organic and mineral fractions of the soil.
- Improving soil fertility: After their death and decomposition, they increase the organic constituents of
the soil. Thus, the insects make the soil fertile.

(c) Explain the importance of bacteria and fungi in the soil to plant growth.
- Many microscopic plants, fungi and animals live in the soil. Fungi and some bacteria are
saprophytes that break down dead organic matter (plants and animals) and return mineral salts
to the soil which can be taken up in solution by roots.
- Other bacteria (nitrogen fixing bacteria) convert atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates (organic
compounds of nitrogen) that are usable by plants.

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24.2 Ecology – Paper 2

1 2015.P2.Q5 Figure 4.1 shows a food web in a given ecosystem

(a)(i) Identify any primary consumer ............................... [1]

(ii) Construct a food chain using three organisms from Figure 4.1. [1]
(iii) Using the food chain in (a)(ii) construct a pyramid of energy. [3]
(b) Distinguish between a food chain and a food web. [2]
(c) Explain why organisms at the end of a food chain have the least amount of energy. [2]
.
2 [ECZ-2014-P2-Q1(d)] Figure 1.0 shows organisms in an ecosystem.

Construct a food chain using organisms found in 1.0.

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3 (2012- P2- Q4) The figure below shows a pyramid of biomass.

(a) (i) Identify trophic levels B and C.

B.........................................................................
C..........................................................................
(ii) State the names given to organisms that feed at trophic levels B and C.
B................................................................................
C............................................................................
(iii) Explain why level C is much smaller than the other levels..............................................
(b) Describe the flow of energy in the pyramid......................................................................................
4 (2010- P2- Q4) Figure 4.1 shows some components found in an ecosystem.

(a) Which of the above component corresponds to

(i) a population? ...................................................................................
(ii) a community? ...............................................................
(b) (i) Which of the above components contains abiotic factors? ...........................................................
(ii) From the component named in b (i), give one example of an abiotic factor............................
(iii) Construct a food chain using organisms in component A in figure 4.1. .....................................

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(c) Figure 4. 2 shows untreated industrial effluent being discharged into a river.

(i) What type of pollution is shown in figure 4.2? .............................................................................

(ii) Suggest a pollutant which can be found in the industrial effluent. .............................................
(iii) What measures can be taken to reduce this type of pollution? .................................................

5 2009.P2.QUESTION.4
Figure. 4.1 and Figure 4.2 show pyramids of food relationship among organisms in a forest and a lake.

(a)(i) Identify the organism found in trophic level labelled A in Figure 4.1.
(ii) What would happen if the population of insects in Figure 4.1 reduced?
(b)(i) What is the ultimate source of energy for both pyramids?
(ii) Explain the differences in energy between trophic levels as you go up the pyramids.

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(c) Traces of DDT applied on a nearby farm were washed by rain into the lake and were taken up by algae
in Figure 4.2. Why was there more DDT in organisms in the fourth trophic level of Figure 4.2 than in those
in the first trophic level?
.
6 2007.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) The Fig. 4.1 below is an example of an ecosystem.

(i) What ecosystem is shown in fig. 4.1?

(ii) What part is played by the plants in the ecosystem in fig. 4.1?
(b) Explain how light intensity can affect the distribution of plants in the ecosystem in Fig. 4.1.
(c) What role are the tadpoles playing in the ecosystem in Fig. 4.1?
(d) What two factors control the population growth rate of the fish in Fig. 4.1.?

7 2006.P2.QUESTION.2(c) Fig. 2.1 below shows part of Rhizopus.

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In the ecosystem, what role do micro-organisms play?

8 2004.P2.QUESTION.3
(a) Fig. 3.1 shows the circulation of carbon in nature.

Name the processes represented by the arrows A and B.

(b) (i) Name the gas produced as a result of process A.
(ii) Describe a simple chemical test which you could use to identify the gas you have named.
(c) In addition to carbon dioxide another acidic gas is released as a result of process C.
(i) Name the other gas produced by process C.
(ii) What is the effect of the gas you have named in (c) (i) above on human health?

9 2002.P2.QUESTION.4
(a) Figure 4.1 shows the changes in size of a population of producers and of a population of consumers
in a lake over several months.

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What is meant by producer in a food chain?

(b) Which graph, x or y, represents the consumers? Explain your answer.
(i) Graph .....................................
(ii) Explanation ..............................
(c) The change in population size of the producers between the months of June and September was a
result of farming around the lake. Suggest how farming methods may have caused this change.
(d) A biologist studying the lake several weeks after September found that the size of both populations
had fallen greatly while the number of bacteria were very high.
(i) What term is used to describe this effect?
(ii) What are the disadvantages of this process?
(e) Explain the relationship between graphs x and y.
.
10 2001.P2.QUESTION.2
(a) Figure 2 represents the Nitrogen Cycle.

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(i) What is the percentage of nitrogen in the air?

(ii) Name the two substances A and B.
(iii) Name the three processes represented by the letters P, Q and R.
(iv) Which process in living animals is represented by the letter S?
(b) (i) Suggest why it is essential to include a leguminous crop in crop rotation.
(ii) What are the three advantages of using organic manure as compared to the use of
chemical fertilizers?

11 (2013- P2- Q10)

(a) Explain what is meant by the term biodiversity.
(b) Describe the importance of biodiversity to humans.
(c) Discuss factors responsible for loss of biodiversity.
.
12 (2012- P2- Q10)
(a) With the aid of a labelled diagram, describe the carbon cycle.
(b) Discuss the effects of deforestation on the carbon cycle.
.
13 (2011- P2- Q10)
(a) Describe how nitrogen is cycled within the ecosystem.
.
14 (2010- P2-Q10)
(a) Explain the effects of the following human activities on other organisms.
(i) Fishing
(ii) Charcoal burning
(c) Describe the undesirable effects of the following types of pollution
(i) Raw sewage in water.
(ii) Sulphur dioxide in air
15 2008.P2.QUESTION.10
(a) What do you understand by the following terms?
(i) Habitat

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(ii) Community
(iii) Niche
(b) (i) Give one example of a food chain.
(ii) Explain how energy flows through the food chain in b(i) above.
(c) Explain the factors which limit the population growth of a specific organism.

16 2007.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) Explain the importance of:
(i) maintaining bio-diversity.

17 2006.P2.QUESTION.7
(b) Explain how application of fertilizers in a maize field eventually Kills the fish in a lake.

18 2005.P2.QUESTION.7
(a) Explain why green plants are considered as producer.
(b) Explain why only a small proportion of the energy reaching the surface of the earth is taken to the
carnivores in food chains.

19 2003.P2.QUESTION.8
(a)(i) Fig 8.1 shows the results of the study on the feeding pattern in a pond.

(i) Explain what happens to the other organisms at the same tropic level in the food web
when most of the kapenta is harvested from the pond?
(ii) How do the animals in this food web use the energy they receive?
(b) Why do organisms become fewer as you go up each tropic level?

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20 2001.P2.QUESTION.9
DDT is a well known insecticide. An experiment was carried out where a number of flies were sprayed with
DDT. The survivors were allowed to reproduce and the offsprings sprayed. This was repeated for several
more generations and the data expressed in a graph in figure 5.

(a) What is the biological explanation for the trend shown by the graph? .
(b) DDT is a non-biodegradable insecticide. What does the underlined word mean?
(c) What effect does a non-biodegradable substance like DDT have on the environment?
(d) Explain what the surviving flies of the 25th generation had gone through.
.
21 2001.P2.QUESTION.6
(c)(i) How does photosynthesis benefit:
(i) a caterpillar?
(ii) a bird of prey?

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24.2 Ecology – Paper 2

1 (a)(i) Grasshopper. Rabbit.
A primary consumer is the living organism that eats the producers, which are the plants.
A secondary consumer is an organism, primarily animals, which eat primary consumers.
(ii) Cabbage ---> Grasshopper ---> Bird.
Cabbage ---> Rabbit ---> Lion. Grasshopper ---> Bird ---> Vulture.
A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one
organism eats another.
(iii)

(b) A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through which nutrients and energy pass as one
organism eats another, while a food web is a network of interconnected food chains.
(c) Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to the environment
at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and reproduction.

2 Grass ---> Grasshopper ---> Bird ---> Bacteria

3 (a) (i) B Primary consumers
C Secondary consumers
(ii) B Herbivores.
C Carnivores.
(iii) When a herbivore (B) eats, only a fraction of the energy becomes new body mass; the rest of the
energy is lost as waste or used up by the herbivore itself to carry out its own life processes.
Therefore, a carnivore (C) has to eat many herbivores to get sufficient energy to survive and grow.
(b) Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to the environment
at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and reproduction.

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4 (a) Which of the above component corresponds to

(i) Component B
A population is a group of organisms of the same species present in a habitat or ecosystem
(ii) Component C.
A community is all the living organisms (biotic part) of a habitat.
A habitat is a place or natural environment where an organism or population lives.
Environment means everything in the surroundings of an organism that could possibly
influence it.
Ecosystem is the community of living organisms in a habitat (biotic part) plus the non-
living (abiotic) part of the environment.
Ecology is the study of living organisms and their environment. In other words, It is the
study of ecosystems.
Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms.
(b) (i) Component A. Abiotic factors are non-living components of a habitat.
(ii) Rocks.
(iii) Grass ---> Zebra ---> Lion.
(c) (i) Water pollution.
(ii) Nitrates. Phosphates.
(iii) Treating industrial effluents before releasing it into the river.

5 (a)(i) Grass.

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(ii) The population of grass would increase, but the population of grogs and owls would reduce due to
shortage of insects.
(b)(i) Sun (Solar energy)
(ii) Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to the environment
at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and reproduction.
(c) DDT accumulates at each trophic level as you go up the pyramid.
.
6 (a) (i) Pond.
(ii) Plants are autotrophic organisms. They produce their own food using materials from
inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide and water. Consumers depend on this food
produced by plants.
(b) Three factors can limit the speed of photosynthesis: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration
and temperature. Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there
is plenty of water and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of
photosynthesis. Ecosystems with good light intensity have plenty of plants.
(c) They act as both consumers of plants and prey to other species (fish), thereby contributing to energy
transfer within ecosystem.
(d) - The population tadpoles. An increase in tadpole population increases food supply for the fish
which increase in number as a result.
- The population of birds which feed on fish. An increase in bird population will reduce the
population growth rate of the fish.

7 - Recycling of nutrients into the environment by decomposing dead organic matter. This makes soil fertile
- - Production of oxygen. Micro-organisms, such as cyanobacteria and blue green algae, produce just as much
oxygen as the rainforests. They also produce food for consumers.

8 (a) A – Photosynthesis B – Respiration.

(b) (i) Oxygen.
(ii) Oxygen relights a glowing splint.
(c) (i) Carbon monoxide. It is a product of incomplete combustion.
(ii) Carbon monoxide is a poisonous gas. Carbon monoxide is absorbed in the lungs and binds
with the haemoglobin in our red blood cells. This reduces the capacity of the blood to carry
oxygen.
9 (a) A producer in a food chain is an organism that produces its own food using materials from inorganic
sources such as carbon dioxide and water. Plants are producers or autotrophs.
(b) Which graph, x or y, represents the consumers? Explain your answer.
(i) Graph Y
(ii) The population size of Y (consumers) is normally less than that of producers. When the
population size of producers reduces, it negatively affects the population size of
consumers which also starts to reduce.
(c) - Removal of indigenous trees and their undergrowth from forests for agricultural purposes leads
to destruction of ecosystems around the lake.
- Slash-and-burn agriculture and late burning disturbed the ecosystem around the lake. They
destroy grass meant for grazing, destroys plants that hold the ground, destroys shrubs that are
supposed to grow into trees and leads to soil erosion.

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- Over application of chemical fertilisers on the farmland can lead to leaching, the washing away
of soluble mineral nutrients from the soil by rain and irrigation water. When these nutrients
accumulate in the lake, they lead to eutrophication.

(d) (i) Eutrophication

(ii) - It leads to depletion of oxygen which suffocates and kills aquatic animals.
- it leads to overgrowth of aquatic plants that can block water ways.
(e) Y is a consumer and X is a producer. The population size of Y (consumers) is normally less than that
of producers. When the population size of producers reduces, it negatively affects the population
size of consumers which also starts to reduce.
.
10 (a) (i) 78%
(ii) A – Ammonia. B – Nitrites.
(iii) P – Nitrification. Q – Denitrification R – Nitrogen fixation.
(iv) S – Excretion
(b) (i) Leguminous crops have nitrogen fixing bacteria (rhizobium bacteria) in their root nodules
that convert nitrogen gas to nitrates that make the soil fertile.
(ii) Advantages of Organic manure
- organic manure improves the structure of the soil and increases its ability to hold water
and nutrients.
- organic manure slowly releases nutrients to the soil, as a result, does not harm your
plants.
- Organic manure is renewable, biodegradable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly.

Advantages of Chemical Fertilizer:

- Since nutrients are available to the plants immediately, improvement occurs in days.
- They are highly analyzed to produce the exact ratio of nutrients desired.
- Standardized labeling makes ratios and chemical sources easy to understand.
- They’re inexpensive.
11 (a) Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms.
(b) Describe the importance of biodiversity to humans.
- ECOLOGICAL STABILITY: biodiversity sustains ecosystems. Each species performs a particular
function within an ecosystem. These include soil fertility, pollinators of plants, predators,
decomposition of wastes, purification of the air and water, stabilisation and moderation of the
climate, decrease of flooding, drought and other environmental disasters.
- ECONOMIC BENEFITS TO HUMANS: For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for daily life.
important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are listed below.
FOOD : crops, livestock, fruits and fish.
MEDICATION: Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes. For example quinine
(used to treat malaria) comes from the bark of a tree, and morphine from the Poppy plant (pain
relief).
INDUSTRY: fibres for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Other industrial products are oils,
lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork can
all be derived from various plant species.

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ECOTOURISM & RECREATION: commercial hunting, game viewing, sport hunting, birdwatching,
hiking, camping and fishing.
EDUCATION & RESEARCH: biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data.

(c) - Natural disasters like floods, storms, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions,

- Wild fires
- Deforestation
- Industrial Pollution
- Construction of dams and roads
- Poaching
- Overfishing
- Large scale farming
- Global warming/Climate change
Destruction of Habitat: The natural habitat may be destroyed by man for his settlement,
agriculture, mining, industries, highway construction, dam building. As a consequence, the species
must either adapt to the changes in the environment, move elsewhere or may succumb to
predation, starvation or disease and eventually die.

12 (a) - Carbon enters the atmosphere as carbon dioxide from respiration and combustion.
- Carbon dioxide is absorbed by producers to make carbohydrates in photosynthesis.
- Animals feed on the plant passing the carbon compounds along the food chain. Most of the carbon they
consume is exhaled as carbon dioxide formed during respiration. The animals and plants eventually die.
- The dead organisms are eaten by decomposers and the carbon in their bodies is returned to the atmosphere
as carbon dioxide. In some conditions decomposition is blocked. The plant and animal material may then be
available as fossil fuel in the future for combustion.

(b) - Deforestation has an effect on the Carbon Cycle also known as the Greenhouse gas effect and
global warming. Trees and forest balance the amount of Carbon in the atmosphere through the
process of photosynthesis in which plants make their own food with carbon dioxide. When there is

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an excess amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere a ‘blanket’ of carbon dioxide is created and
this ‘blanket’ traps heat and prevents it from leaving the earth surface in the atmosphere. This
excess heat warms the earth. If there is too much of it and this causes Global Warming and the
heating of the earth.
- Deforestation causes the loss of ecosystems and habitats of plants and animals. This causes
animals to die and in extreme cases species to become endangered or even extinct.
.
13 (a) Describe how nitrogen is cycled within the ecosystem.
The nitrogen cycle describes how nitrogen moves between plants, animals, bacteria, the atmosphere (the
air), and soil in the ground. Nitrogen is an important element to all life on Earth. For Nitrogen to be used by
different life forms on Earth, it must change into different states. Nitrogen in the atmosphere, or air, is N 2.
Other important states of nitrogen include Nitrates (N03), Nitrites (NO2), and Ammonia (NH3).
Nitrogen Fixation – Bacteria in the soil and in root nodules of leguminous plants and lightning strikes change
nitrogen into nitrates.
Nitrification – This is the process by which ammonia gets changed into nitrites and nitrates by bacteria.
Nitrates are what the plants can then absorb.
Assimilation – This is how plants get nitrogen. They absorb nitrates from the soil into their roots. Then the
nitrogen gets used in amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. Proteins are eaten by animals.
Ammonification – This is part of the decaying process. When a plant or animal dies, decomposers like fungi
and bacteria turn the nitrogen back into ammonium so it can reenter the nitrogen cycle.
Denitrification – Extra nitrogen in the soil gets put back out into the air. There are special bacteria that
perform this task as well.

.
14 (a) Explain the effects of the following human activities on other organisms.
(i) Unsustainable fishing is the greatest threat to ocean ecosystems. The practice destroys
the physical environments of marine life, and distorts the entire food chain in the oceans.
If the food chain breaks, the consequences will ripple up and down to all the living
organisms that are in the chain.

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Oil and liquid spills, chemical and solid elements discharged into the water by fishing
boats, vessels and trawlers often hurt marine life.
(ii) - Charcoal burning causes the loss of ecosystems and habitats of plants and animals. This
causes animals to die and in extreme cases species to become endangered or even extinct.
- Charcoal burning has an effect on the Carbon Cycle also known as the Greenhouse gas
effect and global warming. Global Warming and the heating of the earth can disturb the
habitats of some organisms.
(c)(i)
- decaying organic matter and debris can use up the dissolved oxygen in water so fish and other aquatic
animals cannot survive.
- Untreated sewage can lead to eutrophication. This occurs when too many nutrients, like nitrogen and
phosphorous accumulate. The most notable effect of eutrophication is algal blooms. When a bloom
occurs, the stream, river, lake or ocean becomes covered with algae, which is usually bright green. In
addition to looking pretty ugly, it also blocks light from reaching the water. This prevents the aquatic
plants from photosynthesizing, a process which provides oxygen in the water to animals that need it,
like fish and crabs.
- Aquatic organisms that die from suffocation will all sink to the bottom and start to decompose. The
microbes that break down these dead organisms use oxygen to do their work. So, in addition to the lack
of oxygen from photosynthesis, there is also now a lack of oxygen from the decomposition of dead
organisms.
(ii) When sulfur dioxide combines with water and air, it forms sulfuric acid, which is the main component
of acid rain. Acid rain can: cause deforestation, acidify waterways to the detriment of aquatic life,
corrode building materials and paints. Sulfur dioxide can harm plants and trees and slow down their
growth.
15 (a) What do you understand by the following terms?
(i) A habitat is a place or natural environment where an organism or population lives.
(ii) A community is all the living organisms (biotic part) of a habitat.
(iii) A niche is all of the interactions of a species with the other members of its community,
including competition, predation, parasitism, and mutualism. A species' niche includes all
of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment.

Population is a group of organisms of the same species present in a habitat or ecosystem.

Environment means everything in the surroundings of an organism that could possibly
influence it.
Ecosystem is the community of living organisms in a habitat (biotic part) plus the non-
living (abiotic) part of the environment.
Ecology is the study of living organisms and their environment. In other words, It is the
study of ecosystems.
Biodiversity is the variety of living organisms.
(b) (i) Grass ---> Zebra ---> Lion.
(ii) Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to the
environment at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and
reproduction.

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(c) A limiting factor is a resource or environmental condition which limits the growth, distribution or
abundance of an organism or population within an ecosystem. These can be either physical or
biological factors which can be identified through a response of increased or decreased growth,
abundance, or distribution of a population, when the factor is changed and when the other factors
necessary to life are not.
Physical factors or abiotic factors include temperature, water availability, oxygen, salinity, light,
food and nutrients;
Biological factors or biotic factors, involve interactions between organisms such as predation,
competition, parasitism and herbivory.

16 - ECOLOGICAL STABILITY: biodiversity sustains ecosystems. Each species performs a particular

function within an ecosystem. These include soil fertility, pollinators of plants, predators,
decomposition of wastes, purification of the air and water, stabilisation and moderation of the
climate, decrease of flooding, drought and other environmental disasters.
- ECONOMIC BENEFITS TO HUMANS: For all humans, biodiversity is first a resource for daily life.
important economic commodities that biodiversity supplies to humankind are listed below.
FOOD : crops, livestock, fruits and fish.
MEDICATION: Wild plant species have been used for medicinal purposes. For example quinine
(used to treat malaria) comes from the bark of a tree, and morphine from the Poppy plant (pain
relief).
INDUSTRY: fibres for clothing, wood for shelter and warmth. Other industrial products are oils,
lubricants, perfumes, fragrances, dyes, paper, waxes, rubber, latexes, resins, poisons and cork can
all be derived from various plant species.
ECOTOURISM & RECREATION: commercial hunting, game viewing, sport hunting, birdwatching,
hiking, camping and fishing.
EDUCATION & RESEARCH: biodiversity represents a wealth of systematic ecological data.

17 2006.P2.QUESTION.7
(b)
- Some nutrients supplied by the fertiliser applied in a maize field are washed away as soluble mineral
nutrients from the soil by rain and irrigation water. When these nutrients accumulate in the lake, they
lead to eutrophication. This occurs when too many nutrients, like nitrogen and phosphorous, supply the
algae with abundant food and lead to algal blooms.
- When a bloom occurs, the lake gets covered with algae, which is usually bright green. In addition to
looking pretty ugly, it also blocks light from reaching the water. This prevents the aquatic plants from
photosynthesizing, a process which provides oxygen in the water to animals that need it, like fish and
crabs. This oxygen depletion kills the fish.
- Aquatic organisms that die from suffocation will all sink to the bottom and start to decompose. The
microbes that break down these dead organisms use oxygen to do their work. So, in addition to the lack
of oxygen from photosynthesis, there is also now a lack of oxygen from the decomposition of dead
organisms.
- During night time, the algae will not photosynthesise, but respire, thereby suck up most of the oxygen
from the lake, killing more fish.
18 (a) Green plants are considered as producers because they produce their own food using materials
from inorganic sources such as carbon dioxide and water, using light energy.

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(b) Only about 1 – 2% of the Sun’s energy reaching the surface of the earth is used by plants during
photosynthesis. Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to
the environment at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and
reproduction. By the time food reaches the carnivores, only a small proportion is available.

19 (a) (i) The population of tadpoles will increase since there will be more food (weeds and
planktons) available to them due to lack of competition from the kapenta.
(ii) The animals in this food web will use the energy they receive for movement when hunting
their prey and running away from their predators, reproduction, growth, excretion.
(b) Only 10% of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next, 90% is lost to the environment
at every level. Energy is lost during respiration, excretion, egestion and reproduction.
.
20 (a) Adaptation.
(b) A non-biodegradable pollutant is one which is NOT capable of being decomposed by bacteria or
other living organisms (cannot be changed to a harmless natural state by the action of bacteria or
fungi).
(c) - Non-biodegradable poisonous substances like D.D.T when they enter any food chain, they keep
on accumulating progressively at each trophic level.
- Loss of biodiversity
- Loss of soil fertility.
(d) Undergone mutation and developed resistance to the negative effect of DDT.
.
21 (i) Photosynthesis produces food in the leaves. The caterpillar feeds on this food by eating
leaves.
(ii) A bird of prey feeds on caterpillars which survive by feeding on the product of
photosynthesis.

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