Frequency Modulation

Dr. Hwee-Pink Tan

http://www.cs.tcd.ie/HweePink.Tan

Lecture material was abstracted from "Communication Systems" by Simon Haykin.

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Outline
 Day 1

Angle Modulation

Frequency Modulation (FM)
 Narrowband and Wideband FM
 Transmission bandwidth
 FM Stereo Mix
 Day 2

Phase-locked Loop (PLL)

Non-linear effects in FM receivers

Summary
 Day 3

Tutorial

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 Recall…What is modulation?
Message m(t) Sinusoidal
Highest freq W carrier c(t)= Accos [2fct]

modulation
transmitter

Direct transmission
Unsuitable/ Transmission channel Modulated signal
inefficient s(t)=A(t)cos
(t)

m(t)
demodulation
receiver

 s(t) obtained by varying characteristic of c(t) according

to m(t)

Amplitude A(t)<-> Amplitude Modulation

Angle
(t) <-> Angle Modulation
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Recall…Amplitude Modulation
 s(t) = Ac[1+kam(t)]cos 2
fct

 Envelope of s(t) has same shape as

m(t) provided:

|kam(t)|<1

fc>>W

 Easy and cheap to generate s(t)

and reverse

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Recall…Amplitude Modulation
 Drawbacks of AM

wasteful of power
 transmission of carrier

wasteful of bandwidth
 transmission bandwidth, BT = 2W

 Improved resource utilization (power or

bandwidth) traded-off with increased system
complexity

 Angle modulation offers practical means of

trading-off between power and bandwidth

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Angle modulation
1 d i (t)

s(t) = Ac cos[ i (t)], fi (t) =
2
dt

Phase Modulation (PM)

 i (t) = 2
fct + k p m(t)

 s(t) = Ac cos[2
fct + k p m(t)]

Frequency Modulation (FM)

fi (t) = fc + k f m(t)
t

 s(t) = Ac cos[2
fct + 2
k f  m(t)dt]

0

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 PM vs FM
Frequency modulator

Phase FM wave
Integrator
modulator
t

s(t) = Ac cos[2
fct + 2
k f  m(t)dt]

Modulating
0

wave, m(t) Accos(2
fct)

Frequency PM wave
Differentiator
modulator
s(t) = Ac cos[2
fct + k p m(t)]

Phase modulator

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 Frequency modulation
t
Non-linear function of m(t)
 FM signal: s(t) = Ac cos[2
fct + 2
k f  m(t)dt]
0
 Consider single tone signal: m(t)=Amcos2
fmt

fi (t) = fc + k f m(t)
= fc + k f Am cos[2 fm t]
= fc +
f cos[2 fm t] Frequency deviation
t

 i (t) = 2  fi (t)dt
0

f
= 2 fct + sin[2 fm t]
fm
= 2 fct +  sin[2 fm t] Modulation index

s(t) = Ac cos[2 fct +
sin(2 fm t)]

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 Narrowband FM (
<<1)
Expanding s(t), we have :
s (t ) = Ac cos(2f c t ) cos[  sin( 2f mt )]
Ac sin( 2f c t ) sin[  sin( 2f mt )]

1

sin(2fmt)
If  << 1, s(t )  Ac cos(2f c t )
 Ac sin( 2f c t ) sin( 2f mt )
1
 Ac cos(2f c t ) +  Ac {cos[2 ( f c + f m )t ]
cos[2 ( f c
f m )t ]}
2

ltant
Resu Lower
side-frequency Upper
side-frequency
carrier

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Comparison with AM
AM Signal
Upper
side-frequency
Resultant
carrier Lower
side-frequency

Narrow band FM Signal

ltant
Resu Lower
side-frequency Upper
side-frequency
carrier

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 Wideband FM
s(t) = Ac cos[2 fct +
sin(2 fm t)]
fc >> fm

= Re[Ac exp( j2 fct + j
sin(2 fm t))]

= Re[ s
(t)exp( j2 fct)] (*)

s
(t) = Ac exp[ j  sin(2 fm t)]


= Ac  J ( )exp( j2 n f
n m t)
nth order Bessel function of first kind
n =


Subst. into (*), and applying FT:


A
S(f) = c
2
 J ( )[ ( f
f
n c
nfm ) +  ( f + fc + nfm )]
n =


Ac A
= Ac J 0 ( ) ( f
fc ) + J ±1 ( ) ( f
fc
fm ) + c J ±2 ( ) ( f
fc
2 fm ) + …
2 2
Carrier Side freq fc±fm Side freq fc±2fm
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 Observations J 0 (
) = 1
J1 (
) =
2

 Amplitude of carrier J n 2 (
)
0

varies with J0(
) J 2
n ( ) = 1

With AM, amplitude of n =


carrier = Ac

 Special case:
<< 1

Only J0(
), J1(
) 
fc ± fm significant nth order Bessel function of first kind
(narrowband FM)


A
S(f) = c
2
 J ( )[ ( f
f
n c
nfm ) +  ( f + fc + nfm )]
n =


Ac A
= Ac J 0 ( ) ( f
fc ) + J ±1 ( ) ( f
fc
fm ) + c J ±2 ( ) ( f
fc
2 fm ) + …
2 2
Carrier Side freq fc±fm Side freq fc±2fm
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 Example - fixed fm, variable Am
f
m(t) = Am cos[2 fm t], f = k f Am ,  =
fm
Ac A
S(f) = Ac J 0 ( ) ( f
fc ) + J ±1 ( ) ( f
fc
fm ) + c J ±2 ( ) ( f
fc
2 fm ) + …
2 2
Carrier Side freq fc±fm Side freq fc±2fm
component

fm fm

 Am 

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 Example - fixed Am, variable fm
f
m(t) = Am cos[2 fm t], f = k f Am ,  =
fm
Ac A
S(f) = Ac J 0 ( ) ( f
fc ) + J ±1 ( ) ( f
fc
fm ) + c J ±2 ( ) ( f
fc
2 fm ) + …
2 2

fm
fm

 fm 

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 Example - fixed Am, variable fm
f
m(t) = Am cos[2 fm t], f = k f Am ,  =
fm
Ac A
S(f) = Ac J 0 ( ) ( f
fc ) + J ±1 ( ) ( f
fc
fm ) + c J ±2 ( ) ( f
fc
2 fm ) + …
2 2

fm fm

As   , number of spectral lines within fc
f < f < fc + f 

As   , the bandwidth of s(t) approaches the limiting value of 2
f !!
[Note: For
 1, bandwidth of s(t)
2 fm (As in AM)]
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 Transmission bandwidth
Ac 
S(f) = 
2 n =

J n ( )[ ( f
fc
nfm ) +  ( f + fc + nfm )]

 transmission bandwidth =
!!!

But, effectively, finite number of side frequencies are significant

Large : Small :
Falls rapidly towards 0 Significant sidebands
for |f-fc|>2
f within |fc ± fm|

1
 Carson's rule: BT ,Carson
2
f (1 + )

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Transmission bandwidth
Ac 
S(f) = 
2 n =

J n ( )[ ( f
fc
nfm ) +  ( f + fc + nfm )]

 transmission bandwidth =
!!!

But, effectively, finite number of side frequencies are significant

 retain up to nmax side frequencies s.t. J nmax (
)   J 0 (
)

BT = 2nmax fm

BT ,1% = 1 % bandwidth with
= 0.01

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 1 percent bandwidth of FM wave



As
 , nmax   BT ,1% 
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 1 percent bandwidth of FM wave
Small

Large

Small values of
more extravagant in BT than larger
!!

Practically, BT ,Carson
BT
BT ,1%

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FM Stereo
 Transmit two separate signals via same
carrier

2 different sections of orchestra, e.g., vocalist
and accompanist, to give spatial dimension to
its perception

 Requirements

Must operate within allocated FM broadcast
channels

Must be compatible with monophonic radio
receivers

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FM Stereo Mux
ml+mr : Monophonic reception

ml-mr

2fc=38kHz

fc=19kHz

m(t) = [ml (t) + mr (t)] +[ml (t)
mr (t)]cos(2 [2 fc ]t) +K cos(2
fct)

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 FM Stereo Demux
ml (t) + mr (t)

[ml (t)
mr (t)]cos(2 [2 fc ]t)

K cos(2
fct) 2fc=38kHz

m(t) = [ml (t) + mr (t)] +[ml (t)
mr (t)]cos(2 [2 fc ]t) +K cos(2
fct)

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 Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
s(t) = Ac sin[2 fct +
1 (t)] v(t)
Loop
X
filter

r(t) = Av cos[2 fct +
2 (t)]

t

2 (t) = 2 kv  v(t)dt
0 Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator

 PLL for freq. demod

If s(t) is FM wave, obtain m(t) from v(t)

Require
1

2+90o <=> Phase lock!

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 Phase Locked Loop (PLL)
H(f)
HF : 4 fc term
e(t) = {
LF : K sin[1 (t)
2 (t)] 
s(t) = Ac sin[2 fct +
1 (t)]
v(t) =  e( )h(t
 )d

e (t ) Loop

X
filter

r(t) = Av cos[2 fct +
2 (t)]

t

2 (t) = 2 kv  v(t)dt
0 Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator

 Dynamic behavior of PLL



d e (t) d1 (t)
=
2 K o  sin[e ( )]h(t
 )d ,
dt dt


K o = km kv Ac Av

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 Non-linear PLL model
Sinusoidal non-linearity makes
it difficult to analyze PLL

 Dynamic behavior of PLL



d e (t) d1 (t)
=
2 K o  sin[e ( )]h(t
 )d ,
dt dt


K o = km kv Ac Av

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 Non-linear PLL model
Assume
e (t) << 1  sin
e (t) 
e (t)

 Linearized behavior of PLL

 FT can be applied!

de (t) d1 (t)
=
2 K o  e ( )h(t
 )d ,
dt dt


K o = km kv Ac Av

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Linear PLL model

1


e ( f ) =
1 ( f ),
1 + L( f )
H( f )
L( f ) = K o [Open-loop transfer function] ( jf / kv )L( f )
jf V( f ) =
1 ( f )
1 + L( f )
Ko

V( f ) = H ( f )
e ( f )
kv
jf
= L( f )
e ( f )
kv
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Phase-locked Linear PLL

( jf / kv )L( f ) 1
V( f ) =
1 ( f )
e ( f ) =
1 ( f )
1 + L( f ) 1 + L( f )

L( f )
1

jf
e ( f )  0  Phase lock!!!
V( f )

1 ( f )
kv
1 d1 (t)
 v(t) =
2 kv dt
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 Phase locked linear PLL as
frequency demodulator
If s(t) is FM signal,
kf
t
v(t) = m(t)

1 (t) = 2 k f  m(t)dt kv
0

 If |L(f)|>>1

Linearized PLL model

Phase lock satisfied [
e
0] Determines
1 d
1 (t)

v(t) = complexity of PLL
2 kv dt

 Bandwidth of s(t) >> bandwidth of H(f) [m(t)]

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Design of H(f)
 First order

H(f)=1

|L(f)|=Ko/f

 Drawback

Ko controls both
loop bandwidth and |L(f)|>>1
hold-in frequency
range, fH fH (Ko=1)
fH (Ko=3)

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 Second-order PLL
a

H( f ) = 1+
jf

 ( jf / fn )2 


e ( f ) = 
1 ( f ),
 1 + 2 ( jf / fn ) + ( jf / fn )2 
fn = aK o Natural frequency
Ko
= Damping factor
4a

For m(t) = Am cos 2 fm t,

1 (t) =
sin(2 fm t)
 e (t) = e0 cos(2 fm t +  )

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Second-order PLL

 With appropriate
choice of (,fn), we
can maintain
e small

Linear PLL model

 Rule of thumb:

Loop should remain
locked if
e0(fm=fn)<90o

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 Non-linear effects in FM systems
vi (t) memoryless vo (t) = a1vi (t) + a2 vi2 (t) + a3vi3 (t)
communications
vi (t) = Ac cos[2 fct +
(t)], channel vo (t) = A0
t
+ A1 cos[2 fct +
(t)]

(t) = 2 k f  m(t)dt
0
+ A2 cos[4 fct + 2
(t)]
+ A3 cos[6 fct + 3
(t)]

 Assume vi(t) is FM signal

f = frequency deviation

W = highest freq. comp. of m(t)

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 Non-linear effects in FM systems
memoryless
communications
vi (t) = Ac cos[2 fct +
(t)], channel vo (t) = A0
t
+ A1 cos[2 fct +
(t)]

(t) = 2 k f  m(t)dt
0
+ A2 cos[4 fct + 2
(t)]
+ A3 cos[6 fct + 3
(t)]
 Carson’s Rule


2f

fc-W fc fc+W 2fc-W 2fc 2fc+W

2f 4f

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Non-linear effects in FM systems
 To separate out desired FM signal

fc+
f+W < 2fc-W-2
f
=>fc > 3
f + 2W

Apply bandpass filter [fc-
f-W, fc+
f+W]

3
 vo '(t) = (a1 + a3 Ac 2 )vi (t)
4

Unlike AM, FM not affected by distortion due to
channel with amp. non-linearities

fc-W fc fc+W 2fc-W 2fc 2fc+W

2
f 4
f

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Summary
 Unlike AM, FM is non-linear modulation
process

Spectral analysis is more difficult

Developed insight by studying single-tone FM

 Carson’s rule for transmission bandwidth

BT = 2
f(1+1/)

 Phase-Locked Loop for frequency

demodulation

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