Professional Jewelry Making

A Contemporary Guide to
Traditional Jewelry Techniques

PHoTogrAPHy
Barry Blau and Christine Dhein

IllUsTrATIons
George McLean and emiko oye
BrynMorgen Press
318 Bath Road
Brunswick, Maine 04011

© 2011 by Alan Revere. All rights reserved.

Photography by Barry Blau and Christine Dhein

Illustrations by George McLean, emiko oye, and Alan Revere
Book design: Kathleen Cunningham Design

Originally published as Professional Goldsmithing

© 1991 by Van Nostrand Reinhold

Reprints of original engravings from L‘Encyclopédie, ou

dictionaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers by
Denis Diderot. Courtesy of the Brancroft Library and the
Revere Academy of Jewelry Arts.

Printed in Hong Kong

IsBn 1-978-929565-42-9

WARNING: Some of the traditional procedures described in this

This book as well as a complete listing of instructional
book can be harmful if not executed properly. Learn about the
opportunities for jewelers is available from:
hazards of all techniques and materials before using them. Wear
protective goggles and use proper safety measures. When in doubt,
consult an expert.

Revere Academy of Jewelry Arts

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or utilized
760 Market Street, Suite 900
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means,
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now known or hereafter invented, including photo-copying,
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(415) 391-4179 or fax (415) 391-7570
 v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many generous people have helped in the preparation of Zaruba, Frank Trozzo, George Sawyer, Joannie Mar,
this book. During my practice and education I have met Wellington Dong, Julie Harrington, Holly Beye, Emmy
and shared information with countless craftspeople and McKenzie, Neal Pollack, Irene Hogan, Irving Gold,
other experts, each offering a unique point of view based Enrique Lopéz Larrea, David Clarkson, Keith Bartel,
on their own personal experiences. In 1972, in search of Abrasha, Michael Smorra, and Gregory Steerman. In
training that I could not find in the United States, I trav- addition, I wish to thank the many students at the
eled to Pforzheim, Germany, a town known throughout Revere Academy of Jewelry Arts who helped me prepare
the world as the “Gold City.” Pforzheim is located in the the material for this book including: John Sliwa, Bruce
Black Forest region, and for nearly two hundred years it Morrison, Catherine Glew, Jay Vullings, Keith Saslaw, Eric
has served as a major international center of goldsmithing Baltzley, Vinnie DiPadova, Terry Cook, Jeff Gray, and
and jewelry manufacturing. For two years I had the Kristin Baker.
good fortune to study at Pforzheim’s world-renowned
Two modern masters, Tim McCreight and Charles Lewton-
Fachhochshule fü r Gestaltung, formerly the Kunst und
Brain, contributed significantly to this project through their
Werkschule, with students from jewelry communities
service as technical editors. I would like to thank George
around the world. Indeed, the school has trained leaders
Holmes, the editor of Jewelers’ Circular-Keystone where
in the jewelry industry for well over a hundred years.
much of this material first appeared, as well as Lilly
Jewelry historian Ralph Turner noted that the Pforzheim
Kaufman of Van Nostrand Reinhold for her support; Anna
school “has probably produced more creative jewellers
M. Miller for putting me in touch with VNR; and jewelry
than any equivalent anywhere else in the world.”1
writer and critic Ettagale Blauer for her encouragement.
Professor Reinhold Bothner was most responsible for my
I would like to thank Bill Nigreen and Max Yasgur who
training as a goldsmith. At the time that I worked with him,
colluded to save me from law school, as well as Andrew
he was the senior master goldsmith in Pforzheim,
Wilner who showed me that crafts could be a way of life. I
having spent half a century creating treasures. I studied
acknowledge Carolyn Chaikin Rosenberg who introduced
design with Professor Reinhold Reiling, a master
me to art and craftsmanship at an early age. In addition to
goldsmith and internationally acclaimed jewelry designer.
the photographs, Barry Blau has given this project many
Professors Fö ll and Zeiss trained me in the skills of hand
years of his tireless perfectionism and humor, both in the
engraving and stonesetting, respectively. In addition to my
original and now revised edition.
classes and studio work, I was employed in several
workshops, includ- ing that of Klaus Ullrich, a renowned The reworking of Professional Goldsmithing into Profes-
designer, master goldsmith, and master silversmith. It was sional Jewelry Making was possible thanks to the tireless
while working for Professor Ullrich that I learned how to hours by my assistant, Christine Dhein, and book designer
use precious metals. Kathleen Cunningham. Also thanks to Yas Tanaka and
James Binnion for technical assistance, to emiko oye for
Many other dedicated craftspeople helped me gather the
her work on the illustrations, and to Robert Graham for his
information presented in this book. We all share a love of
eye in proofing the text.
fine metal work and together are carrying our craft into
the next millenium. Some are senior members of the Finally, I wish to thank Sherli and my father George for
jewelry community, and some are newcomers whose their support, patience, and encouragement during my
enthusiasm has helped keep the torch lit. Among these journey, as well as my children Dustin and Alexis, who
fine craftspeople are George McLean, Evert DeGraeve, inspired me to prepare this material for future generations.
Edward Friedman, Michael Good, Yas Tanaka, Jon T.
Dixon, Karen Sprague, Paul Christiansen, Harold
1
O’Connor, Steven Kretchmer, Jaime Pelissier, Doug Ralph Turner, Contemporary Jewelry (New York: Van Nostrand Rein-
hold, 1976), p. 46.
CONTENTS

Part 1 Getting Started

Precious Metals 2
General Procedures 15
Tools 22
Alloying & Ingots 42

Part 2 Basic Projects

1 7 13
Forged Bangle Pierced Earrings Sister Hook
50 95 138

2 8 14
Crochet Chain Carved Band Donut Ring
55 103 146

3 9 15
Hoop Earrings Box Ring Basket Pendant
63 112 153

4 10 16
Curb & Cable Chain Foxtail Chain Necklace Clasp
71 117 159

5 11 17
Twist Ring Gallery Ring Hollow Ring
80 123 165

6 12 18
Toggle Bracelet Forged Ring Ball Clasp
86 131 174
Part 3 Advanced Projects

19 25 31
Locket Hinged Bracelet Hollow Bracelet
181 220 265

20 26 32
Mesh Chain Solitaire Ring Gallery Pendant
192 229 277

21 27 33
Box Clasp Square Linkage Wire Brooch
197 236 289

22 28 34
Hollow Neckpiece Rope Chain Coronet Ring
203 243 297

23 29 35
Cylinder Clasp Bracelet Sections Cluster Ring
209 250 308

Appendix 318
Glossary 336
24 30
Index 340
Pierced Bezel Ring Tube Ring
214 259
 Technique Boxes

Throughout this book you will find several dozen Technique

Boxes like the one shown here. These present highlighted
information on specific techniques in condensed form that is
easy to locate. To revisit a particular box, use the index below.

Rolling Wire 48 Rolling Wire Flat 73

Annealing Wire 56 Sawing 74
Drawing Wire 57 Filing Flat 77
Using a Vernier Caliper 58 Piercing 97
Sharpening a Drill Bit 67 Buffing 101
Soldering 69 Polishing 102
Pickling 70 Step Rolling 104
Filing the Inside of a Ring 107 Making Tubing 140
Using a Sanding Stick 108 Tension Soldering Tubing 142
Sanding the Inside of a Ring 109 Dividers to Lay Out a Circle 161
Pick Soldering 120 Dapping a Hemisphere 176
Filing Outside a Curved Plane 125 Riveting 227
Using Binding Wire 128 Annealing Platinum 279
Linear Forging 134 Welding Platinum 287
x

PREFACE

In the early 1700s a French philosopher, art critic, and is based on classical goldsmithing education as handed
writer named Denis Diderot began the monumental down for generations. It describes a series of practical proj-
work of creating the largest encyclopedia of his time, ects including rings, chains, bracelets, earrings, and
L’Encyclopédie, ou dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des clasps. The work was executed by Alan Revere, a modern
arts et des métiers (The Encyclopedia or Rational Dictionary master jeweler, and is presented in a graduated format.
of the Sciences and Trades). Through twenty-eight volumes Each project has been successfully completed by student
of highly detailed engravings, Diderot documented the jewelers following the instructions presented in this book.
technology of pre-industrial Europe. The original 1751 edi-
tion, which was later revised, covered hundreds of subjects Professional Jewelry Making is a revised and expanded
in great detail, from the art of gardening to the art of version of Professional Goldsmithing, by Alan Revere,
war, from belt making to barrel making, and from originally published in 1991. This edition includes
blacksmith- ing to goldsmithing. larger photographs that have been refined and corrected
to show the greatest level of detail. Professional Jewelry
Nearly three centuries have passed since Diderot’s encyclo-
Making includes five new chapters as well as a totally
pedia first appeared, and in that time, most of the trades he
new look and layout.
described and illustrated have either disappeared or have
been mechanized by modern technology. Interestingly The projects in this book are generally arranged in order
enough however, the art of jewelry making has of difficulty; that is, the first few are the easiest and they
remained virtually unchanged. Jewelry makers today still become more challenging as the book progresses. Later
fabricate rings and bracelets in much the same way as projects may include techniques introduced earlier.
did the arti- sans of Diderot’s time, and moreover, the Because skills are presented as they are needed and some
tools they use have remained nearly identical to those that procedures are used in several projects, we presume that
Diderot docu- mented. And despite the passage of nearly the reader will be familiar with those techniques already
three centuries, the finest jewelry is still made the old discussed in earlier chapters. In many cases, several differ-
fashioned way, by hand. ent techniques can be used to achieve the same results,
and so different solutions to the same type of problem are
This book follows the spirit of Denis Diderot, documenting
demonstrated in different projects.
the practice of making jewelry using precision photography
along with detailed technical instructions. The material in Before embarking on a project, it is best to read through
this book was compiled in the workshop of the Revere the procedures and study the illustrations. Try to under-
Academy of Jewelry Arts in San Francisco, California, and stand and visualize what is happening. Try to imagine how
 PREFACE xi

the metal is being transformed, how the tools affect it, and
An old master once said, “The art of
what it should look like when completed. While you are
making a new piece, keep a journal in which you can take jewelry making is really very simple
notes and make sketches. You could even place the fin-
ished piece of jewelry on a copy machine and paste the
and can be summarized by ten tech-
image into your journal. niques. However,” he said with a smile,
Above all, enjoy yourself. The purpose of undertaking “there are ten thousand tricks.”
these projects is to build and improve your skills. Take the
time required, without distraction, to do your best.
Begin counting.
While the purpose is to challenge yourself and learn new
skills, do not attempt a project that is too far beyond your
current level. It is more rewarding to complete a simpler
project well than to struggle and meet frustration at every
turn in a more advanced one.

This book is intended for anyone interested in making jew-

elry and doing fine metal work. For beginners it provides a
graduated course of study in the art of making jewelry, with
an emphasis on hand skills. For experienced jewelry bench
workers, the projects provide a chance to increase techni-
cal versatility. And for the jewelry collector, historian, and
merchant, this book demystifies one of humankind’s oldest
and most refined art forms.

The projects are presented clearly and concisely, with step-

by-step instructions for replication in a small jewelry
work- shop, with photographs and text to show how to
hold each tool and fabricate the components of each
project. Instruc- tions reveal trade secrets and tricks that are
rarely taught in schools and seldom shared in today’s
jewelry industry.
Part 1

Getting Started
Chapter 1

Precious Metals
 Chapter 1 | Precious MetalS 3

T hroughout history, precious metals have been

highly valued and sought after. Precious metals are
extremely durable because they are highly resistant
to attack from the environment, most acids, and tarnish.
The title noble metals refers to the high value and endur-
Their durability, appearance, and malleability make all of
the precious metals (except osmium) ideal for use in jewelry.

A metal is an element characterized by a distinctive luster,

malleability, ductility, and thermal and electrical conduc-
tivity, or is an alloy of such metals. In turn, an alloy is a
ing quality that sets these metals apart from all other ele-
mixture or combination formed by the fusion of two or
ments found in nature.
more metals. Pure metals are elements and cannot be
Gold was probably the first metal discovered, and it has separated or purified further. Of the 79 metals among the
been used to fashion objects of special value and 103 naturally occurring elements, only 4—gold, silver,
adornment for thousands of years. Gold is the king of platinum, and copper—are found in metallic form in
metals in several regards. It is the only yellow metal and it nature. Native metals, as these are called, are rarely pure
is more visually striking and workable than all others. but are usually found in natural alloys with other
Silver has also been widely used and appreciated since metals. Native gold, for instance, is generally combined
antiquity for its high degree of workability and for its white with vary- ing proportions of silver; when it contains
lustrous appearance. Platinum, although found in pre- approximately 50 percent silver, it is called electrum. The
Columbian artifacts, was not significant in jewelry until six platinum metals are found together in nature and share
the nineteenth century. similar char- acteristics, in fact, the six were not
completely distin- guished until the nineteenth century.
There is a total of eight elements under the collective
group- ing of precious metals; they are gold, silver, and
platinum, and the five other metals in the platinum GOLD
family: iridium, osmium, palladium, rhodium, and Gold has been used in jewelry for over seven thousand
ruthenium (Table 1.1). years! The beauty of pure gold is incomparable. As the only
yellow metal, its rich, deep yellow color and its substantial
weight are universally appealing. Ancient people associated
Atomic
Metal Symbol Number Jewelry uses gold with the sun and gold has always stood for wealth and
Gold Au 79 Usually alloyed power. Throughout the ages, most of the gold that has been
with other metals mined has been used to make articles of jewelry and orna-
for jewelry
mentation. Even today, approximately 56 percent of the
Silver Ag 47 Usually alloyed with
7.5 percent copper world’s output of gold is used to make jewelry. Another 13
to make sterling percent is consumed by electronics, industrial, and dental
Platinum Pt 78 Usually alloyed uses, and 31 percent winds up as gold coins, bars, and other
with other metals
for jewelry investments (World Gold Council 2009). Gold has often
Iridium Ir 77 Traditionally added been the standard on which paper currency is based. Until
to platinum to 1939, the paper money of the United States was backed by
increase hardness
gold, meaning that upon demand at a bank anyone could
Palladium Pd 46 Used to make setter’s
white gold. Contem- redeem gold for their paper money.
porary use on its own
Gold is the most malleable (i.e., “softest”) of all metals,
Rhodium Rh 45 Electroplated over
white metals for which means that it requires the least effort to bend and
durable finish shape. It is also the most ductile, making it easiest of
Ruthenium Ru 44 Sometimes added to all metals to draw into a long wire without breaking. In
platium and gold
for hardness fact, 1 ounce of gold can be drawn into a fine thread
Osmium Os 76 Too hard for jewelry several miles long. Pure, or fine, gold is exceptionally
uses well-suited
Table 1.1 The precious metals.
4 Professional Jewelry Making

to chasing and forging, but like pure silver and pure

separate system used to weigh precious gems. One carat
plati- num, it is generally considered too soft for jewelry
equals 0.2 grams. This usage has ancient roots, derived from
due to its vulnerability to scratching, denting, and wear.
the consistent weight of a carob seed.
Some Asian (mainly Chinese) jewelry is made with pure
gold, but in the West, pure gold is rarely used in jewelry, In the karat system, gold’s purity is measured in twenty-
except in cer- tain cases. For instance, fine gold and fine four parts, and so fine gold (100 percent pure) contains
silver are used in enameling, and occasionally a bezel is twenty- four/twenty-fourths gold, which is stated as 24k.
made of pure metal to facilitate the setting of very fragile An alloy that contains 75 percent, or eighteen/twenty-
gemstones. fourths gold is 18k. The fineness of precious metals can also
Most often though, pure gold is alloyed with copper and be expressed in parts per thousand, which is the
silver in varying proportions to produce the wide range of international system used in most other countries,
karat gold alloys used in jewelry (Illustration 1.1). The pro- making pure gold 1000 fine, and 18k equal to 750 fine.
portions of these three metals determine the color and Pure gold thus can be stamped either 24k or 1000. Gold
working characteristics of the alloy. suppliers offer a wide variety of alloys, or karat golds, to
meet specific needs such as casting, fabrication, or
Gold and other precious metals are weighed and traded
pinstems for brooches (Table 1.2).
internationally in troy ounces. In this ancient system, 1 troy
ounce equals 20 pennyweight (dwt), each of which con-
tains 24 grains. In the metric system, 1 troy ounce equals 18K GOLD
31.103 grams. Eighteen-karat gold is the international standard for the
finest gold jewelry. This alloy is 75 percent pure and highly
workable. It is composed of 18 parts gold by weight and
KARAT GOLDS 6 parts other metals, making it a nearly perfect compromise
The purity or fineness of gold alloys is based on the propor-
between pure gold’s rich yellow color and feel, and the
tion of pure gold to other metals. The measure of gold’s
increased hardness and durability made possible through
purity is expressed as its karat, abbreviated K, Kt, k, or kt in
alloying. The exact composition and proportion of the
the United States. In Great Britain the spelling is carat,
non-gold components depends on the color and working
abbreviated c or ct. The term carat also refers to a
characteristics that are sought (see Physical and
completely
Mechanical Properties of 18k Gold Alloys in the
Appendix).

Silver and copper are the primary metals added to

make 18k alloys. When there is a greater proportion of
silver, the result is a softer gold alloy with a greenish
tint. Red-gold alloys contain a greater proportion of
copper, which raises the hardness. An 18k alloy with an
equal amount of silver and copper is a deep yellow color. It
is very workable and ideal for most jewelry applications.
Small amounts of zinc are sometimes added to karat golds
in order to lower the melting point.

In England, 18k gold became legal for jewelry during the

fifteenth century, and it has been used for jewelry ever
since. In the United States, 18k gold is used for the finest
gold jewelry, with the majority of commercial jewelry
being produced in 14k gold.

Illustration 1.1 Diagram of the Au–Ag–Cu ternary system.

 Chapter 1 | Precious Metals 5

Parts by
Karat Weight Gold Other Fineness Uses
Metals
24k 24 0 1.000 Bullion, some Asian jewelry.
23k 23 1 .958
22k 22 2 .916 Highest standard for gold jewelry in Britain and Japan.
21.6k 21.6 2.4 .900 Coinage
21k 21 3 .875
20k 20 4 .833
19k 19 5 .792
18k 18 6 .750 International standard for better gold jewelry: Japan, United States,
Germany, and Britain. Lowest legal standard permitted in France and Italy.
17k 17 7 .708
16k 16 8 .666
15k 15 9 .635
14k 14 10 .585 Most common alloy for gold jewelry in the United States , Germany,
and Japan. Lowest legal standard permitted for gold jewelry in
Austria, Denmark, and Norway.
13k 13 11 .542
12k 12 12 .500
11k 11 13 .458
10k 10 14 .417 Lowest legal standard permitted for gold jewelry in the United States
and Japan.
9k 9 15 .375 Lowest legal standard permitted for gold jewelry in Britain, Canada,
and Spain.
8k 8 16 .333 Lowest legal standard permitted for gold jewelry in Germany.
Table 1.2 Gold karat, fineness, and uses.

14K GOLD material will be. Rings, chains, and settings made of
In the United States, most gold jewelry is 14k, or 14/24, 14k gold will outlast similar items made of 18k, because
gold. Fourteen karat gold is 58.333 percent pure gold. of the increased hardness. Most 14k gold alloys need to
Convention has converted this number to the more be annealed more frequently than do 18k alloys, and most
manageable and slightly finer 58½ percent gold, which can 14k gold alloys are less resistant to tarnish than higher karat
also be expressed as .585, or 585/1000 pure. This quality is alloys. In addition, 14k gold is considerably less expensive
stamped 14k in than 18k gold because it contains approximately 20 percent
the United States, and often 585 in Europe. The remaining less pure gold. It is also less dense, further lowering the cost
41½ percent is usually composed of silver and copper. compared to that of 18k gold.
Fourteen karat gold is harder than 18k and more durable
for jewelry use, although it is paler in color. The more
copper there is in 14k alloys, the redder the color will be
WHITE GOLD
White gold alloys were developed in the twentieth century
(see Physical and Mechanical Properties of 14k Gold Alloys in
as a substitute for platinum. White gold can be produced
the Appendix). Likewise, the greater the proportion of silver
in several finenesses, including 14k and 18k. Two types of
is in the alloys, the greener the color and generally the
softer the
6 Professional Jewelry Making

white gold are most often used in jewelry manufacture:

stain. Firescale then usually appears during sanding and pol-
alloys that contain nickel and alloys that use palladium.
ishing, which breaks through the surface layer of metal,
Nickel white golds employ nickel as the bleaching agent,
revealing the purplish stain below.
and produces the least expensive white-gold alloy. The
addition of nickel hardens gold alloys, making them The two approaches to dealing with firescale are preven-
more durable and able to take a higher polish. Its hardness tion and remedy. If the metal is sealed from oxygen, the
makes nickel white gold less desirable for forging, chances of firescale occurring are diminished. This can be
forming, and especially for bright-cut or bead setting. accomplished by heating the metal in a controlled atmo-
sphere without free oxygen to combine with the copper in
Palladium white-gold alloys are called setter’s gold. They the silver alloy. Unfortunately it is not possible to control
are grayer in color and better suited for gem setting, espe- the atmosphere in the ordinary jewelry workshop, and so
cially bright-cut or bead setting. Palladium white-gold the jeweler’s most effective firescale preventative is to coat
alloys are more costly than nickel white-gold alloys, the metal with a thin layer of flux before heating it. When
because palladium itself is a precious metal. Other metals it is heated, the flux glazes the surface, like a clear enamel,
that can be found in white-gold alloys include platinum, and blocks the penetration of oxygen. Several formulas, all
silver, copper, zinc, and manganese. of which include borax, are at least partially effective for
preventing firescale. The most common formula for fire
SILVER coat protection is an equal amount of powdered boric acid
mixed with alcohol. Before being heated, the metal can be
Silver is an important precious metal and is used in jewelry
immersed in the mixture or it can be painted with the solu-
all over the world. It has been prized throughout history
tion. Then, when the alcohol is ignited, the boric acid is
for its unique whiteness, high degree of reflectivity and
released to coat the surface. Use caution when doing
excellent working characteristics. As a pure metal, silver
this, as it can start a fire.
is second only to gold in malleability and in ductility. Aside
from its use as a component in most gold alloys, silver is Prip’s flux , another solution that is applied in a similar
the principal component of sterling silver. Pure silver is manner for this purpose has the benefit of not being flam-
generally considered too soft for use in jewelry and other mable. Note, however, that no formula works all of the
objects and is usually alloyed into the universally standard time. Thus when using with silver, it is best to minimize its
sterling quality. Sterling silver contains 92½ percent silver exposure by heating it quickly. This prevents prolonged
and 7½ percent copper; it is easy to work yet durable exposure to oxidation and reduces the effects of firescale.
enough to stand up to extended wear.
After firescale has appeared, it can be removed mechani-
cally, chemically, or electrolyticly. Mechanical methods
FIRESCALE ON STERLING SILVER such as filing, sanding, and grinding remove the surface
After silver alloys are heated, a characteristic stain frequently layer containing firescale, but this is often not practical
appears on the surface. This stain is called firescale and is a because it is very time-consuming and distorts the dimen-
result of the oxygen combining with copper, where it forms a sions and surface of the work. Chemical methods used to
subsurface copper oxide. dissolve the discolored oxidation also usually result in a
finely textured surface. The electrolytical method for
The risk of firescale is increased by exposing the metal to
removing the surface is called electrostripping and is virtu-
high temperatures for extended periods during both anneal-
ally the reverse of electroplating. In electrostripping, the
ing and soldering. Firescale is not immediatly noticeable
surface metal is pulled off and deposited on the cathode in
because it is hidden by the effects of a process called deple-
an electrolytic bath. But, this too is not a perfect remedy, as
tion plating. During the pickling process, surface oxidation
it also leaves the surface with a characteristic texture. An
and nonprecious metals in the alloy are removed, raising
additional treatment of firescaled surfaces is to electroplate
the fine metal content on the surface, thereby concealing
over the area. Unfortunately this is merely a cosmetic
the
 Chapter 1 | Precious Metals 7

remedy that will only temporarily mask the firescale. increase its hardness. Platinum and its jewelry alloys behave
The best approach is to prevent the buildup of firescale by similarly to gold in such areas as sawing, filing, drilling, roll-
using an anti-firescale “fire coat” and reducing the metal’s ing, drawing, forming, and forging. Noteworthy differences
expo- sure time during heating. occur when soldering and polishing platinum alloys. During
soldering, the melting temperature of the solders is so high
THE PLATINUM FAMILY that the metal is heated to a cherry red (which requires the
use of very dark welder’s goggles).
Platinum has been used since the sixteenth century, when
it was discovered in South America. Initially it was It is good practice to work platinum in a clean station.
associ- ated with silver (plata in Spanish). Platinum is Many jewelers have a dedicated workbench and soldering
the most common and most widely used of the six metals station just for platinum work. If you cannot have a dedi-
in its fam- ily. Three of the metals—rhodium, ruthenium, cated workstation for this purpose, you should do a thor-
and palla- dium—are light, having a specific gravity ough cleaning of your workbench and soldering station
around 12. The other three—osmium, iridium, and because residues of other metals can contaminate the plati-
platinum—are heavy, with a specific gravity nearly twice num work. For example, it is important to clean all files
as high, around 21 or 22 (see Table 1.4). Grouped in so that metal stuck in the teeth of your files will not be
another way, three of the met- als— palladium, platinum, embedded in the platinum and contaminate the piece.
and rhodium—have even higher melting temperatures,
With the advent of new technologies in the jewelry field,
between 1550 and 1970°C. The other three—ruthenium,
plati- num work has become easier, or at least less time
iridium, and osmium—have very high melting
consuming. There are new filing tools (Valtitan files are
temperatures, over 2200°C (see Table 1.5). All of these
excellent for plati- num work); new sanding media (micron
metals are highly resistant to corrosion, and aside from
graded sheets, film, and strips); new polishing technologies
osmium, which has no jewelry application, they are used by
(rubber, silicone, and ceramic polishing wheels); new
jewelers. Osmium, even annealed, is so hard that it is
platinum polishing com- pounds, and radial bristle disks;
virtually unworkable and so it is used where extreme
and new soldering technolo- gies as well (platinum soldering
durability is required, such as for the tips of fountain pen
goggles, tungsten soldering picks, and tungsten or ceramic-
nibs.
tipped tweezers for soldering). These new technologies have
Platinum is used in jewelry because of its high degree of made it easier for jewelers to work in platinum with
workability and its white tarnish-free color. Most commonly, confidence.
platinum is alloyed with iridium, palladium, or ruthenium
to

Density Hardness (Vickers) Melting Point

Metal (g/cm3) annealed cold worked Metal ºC ºF
Gold 19.32 20 58 Silver 961 1762
Silver 10.49 22 100 Gold 1064 1947
Platinum 21.45 37 108 Palladium 1772 3222
Palladium 12.02 37 106 Platinum 1552 2826
Rhodium 12.41 123 260 Rhodium 1966 3571
Iridium 22.65 220 Ruthenium 2250 4082
Osmium 22.61 400 Iridium 2410 4370
Ruthenium 12.45 220 360/750 Osmium 3045 5513

Source: Grimwade 2009. Source: Adapted from Grimwade 2009.

Table 1.4 Density and hardness values for the precious metals at Table 1.5 Melting points of precious metals.
20ºC.
8 Professional Jewelry Making

WORKING WITH PLATINUM FLAME

In most ways platinum behaves in a manner similar to gold Because of platinum’s high temperatures and resistance to
and silver. Alloys of all three metals are highly malleable, heat conduction, a bright oxidizing flame is used when sol-
ductile, and workable. Platinum and its jewelry alloys are dering, welding, and melting platinum. Any oxygen-fuel
filed, sawed, drilled, rolled, drawn and formed in an identi- system will work for soldering platinum: hydrogen-oxygen
cal manner to gold and silver. Because of its hardness, how- is ideal and oxygen-natural gas, and oxygen-propane work
ever, platinum requires greater force during most mechani- well. Oxygen-acetylene is the least desirable. When heat-
cal processes and several extra steps when finishing. ing—during melting, soldering, or fusing—try to work
A major difference is encountered when soldering quickly, minimizing the metal’s exposure to heat.
platinum. Aside from its hardness, platinum is extremely
resistant to oxidation and attack by the environment. It has WELDING
a very high temperature range for soldering and is a very poor Because of its very low thermal conductivity, platinum can
conductor of heat. For theses reasons, procedures for be welded or fused. The advantages of welding are that an
soldering plati- num are quite different from working with additional level is added above the usual grades of solder
karat golds. while creating a joint that is clean and invisible. To close
Platinum items to be joined must fit together perfectly before a ring shank by welding, roll out a small piece of the
soldering, even to a higher standard than for gold. When same platinum alloy to about 0.2 mm thick. Cut a small flat
pol- ishing platinum, components must be sanded to a snip- pet slightly larger than the cross section of the ring.
higher degree than for gold. It is helpful to prepolish all Use tension to hold it in place between the two sides of
platinum components prior to assembly, a procedure that is the shank. Heat the snippet directly, unlike working with
frequently carried out in gold jewelry fabrication as well. gold, where heat must reach solder by conduction from
warmer nearby areas. Heat intensely until the metal flows
forming in an invisible joint of solid metal. File to clean
PLATINUM ALLOYS FOR JEWELRY up excess metal. A second level of welding can be carried
Pure platinum, like pure gold and silver, is too soft for
out using pure platinum (which has a slightly lower
use as jewelry. It is generally alloyed with other metals to
melting tempera- ture than a 10 percent iridium alloy) as
increase its hardness. The most common platinum alloys
the filler material.
are composed of 5 to 10 percent iridium, as well as other
alloys that include 5 percent ruthenium or 7.5 percent pal-
ladium. Its high density and cost make platinum jewelry SOLDERING
considerably more expensive than an identical item in After welding, many levels of solder are available for use
karat gold. Offsetting this increased cost is the fact that plat- with platinum. These begin at about 1700°C and drop in
inum’s durability permits components to be thinner and approximately 100° intervals down to as low as 900°C.
more delicate than those possible in gold fabrication. Therefore complex pieces can be assembled in several sol-
dering stages with decreasing melting temperatures. In
addition, due again to the low heat transfer of platinum, it
EYE PROTECTION is possible to use the same level of solder very close to
Due to platinum’s very high annealing, melting, and sol-
prior seams without disturbing them.
dering temperatures, it is absolutely essential to wear dark
welding goggles with a #5 filter to protect the eyes from the In all soldering operations involving platinum, extra care
blinding white light emitted. Even darker filters can be should be taken to make sure that components fit together
used when melting platinum. An alternative to wearing perfectly. Platinum solder will not fill in gaps. Avoid using
goggles is to hang a rectangular filter of the appropriate ordinary steel or iron tools such as tweezers, soldering
obscurity in front of the work area during heating. picks, and binding wire that will contaminate the metal if
Warn- ing: Even the darkest sunglasses are not acceptable heated together. Tungsten carbide works well for a solder-
as pro- tection when heating platinum. ing pick and soldering tweezers.
 Chapter 1 | Precious Metals 9

Platinum does not oxidize or tarnish at all, and therefore

MELTING
does not require flux. Neither fire coat nor pickling is
When recycling platinum scrap, only the very cleanest,
needed.
solder-free metal can be melted without refining because
Whenever possible, hold the work in the air, not on a platinum is easily contaminated by trace amounts of other
sol- dering pad or charcoal block. The bottom of an metals. Melt small quantities at a time, and weld them
alumina crucible works well if a flat soldering surface is together if larger pieces are needed. Do not attempt to
needed. Rings and other small objects should be held in melt large ingots. Place the metal in an alumina
a third- hand (mounted soldering tweezers) or other crucible, and heat with a very hot oxidizing flame until it
insulated cross-locking tweezers. Tweezers should hold melts and congeals into a button. Allow the metal to air
the work at a point distant from the area to be heated, to cool or quench it in water after the red glow is gone.
prevent con- The round button can be hammered, rolled, sheared,
tamination. Either fine-nose tweezers or a wet brush can be and drawn to the size and shape desired.
used to pick up and transport the solder to its destination.
Use many very small pieces of solder placed carefully along
SETTING
the seam, rather than a few large pieces.
The strength and permanent brilliant white luster of pol-
Because the low thermal conductivity prevents the spread ished platinum make platinum the perfect choice for areas
of heat over a large area, heat is directed to only a small that are to be pavé set with diamonds. Again its hardness
area. There is no need to preheat or warm nearby areas. enables the metal to be extremely thin while retaining its
When soldering small items such as ring shanks, use a strength. Prior to setting, the metal should be annealed
small, very hot flame directed at the seam. Platinum solder evenly to avoid hard and soft spots. Normal stone setting
cannot be pulled along a seam as is possible when working burs can be used effectively on platinum. Platinum
with gold. Because of the slow heat transfer, the back of responds well to engraving.
a platinum ring can usually be soldered without fear of
over- heating a gem set on top of the ring. Heat the
FINISHING
solder directly until it flows, a distinct difference from gold
Platinum is more difficult to polish than gold because of its
proce- dure. When joining platinum to gold, use the
hardness and high density. Since the metal does not oxidize
appropriate gold solders.
during soldering, pieces should be prepolished whenever
possible before assembly. This is advantageous because
SOLDERING PAD small pieces are often easier to polish before they are
Charcoal burns away quickly at the high temperatures joined to others. Platinum must be finished with more steps
needed for platinum. For this reason, use an alumina or and more exacting craftsmanship than required for gold or
ceramic soldering pad intended for this purpose. silver. After rough filing or sawing, use fine #4 or #6 files to
achieve a finer finish. Sand with a sequence of abrasive
papers starting with 240 and going through 400 and 600
ANNEALING
paper. Buff with bobbing compound and then tripoli.
Platinum should be annealed when rolled or drawn to two-
Polish with a hard platinum rouge such as white or yellow.
thirds of its original thickness. Platinum must be absolutely
clean prior to heating. The metal should be placed on a
clean ceramic block used only for this purpose. Use a HALLMARKING
bright oxidizing flame to heat small objects such as rings, In Egypt as early as 2000 B.C., items of gold were tested and
and hold them at a bright orange color for thirty marked to indicate their purity. The term hallmarking
seconds. Large items require longer times for annealing. derives from Goldsmith’s Hall in London, which has over-
After heat- ing, the metal can be air cooled or quenched seen the marking of gold in England since 1300 ce. Most
in water. countries base their system of hallmarking at least in part on
10 Professional Jewelry Making

the English system. Each country sets its own standards both.
for gold alloys and is responsible for enforcing them.
Under- karating is the fraudulent stamping of precious
metals, indi- cating a higher quality than an alloy really is.
Underkarating is both a moral and a criminal offense
punishable under the law. In fact, until 1815,
hallmarking violations in England could result in a
sentence of death.

Four systems of enforcement are currently used around

the world:

COMPULSORY HALLMARKING
In England and France, jewelers must submit every item
manufactured of precious metal to a regional office for testing
and stamping. Items that do not meet the standards for which
they are submitted may be destroyed by the testing facility.

VOLUNTARY HALLMARKING WITH

PERIODIC GOVERNMENT AUDITS
In countries such as the United States, hallmarking and
quality standards for items made of precious metals are also
regulated by law. Individual makers are accountable for
adhering to them, yet they are rarely checked by govern-
ment audits. In the United States, The National Gold and
Silver Marking Act dictates the standards and requirements
for marking precious metals. Originally enacted in 1906
and revised several times since, this law requires the maker
and seller of precious metal objects to indicate the quality
and maker’s (or another’s) registered trademark, indicating
who is responsible for ensuring that quality. The maker’s
mark must be the same size as the quality mark, and be
placed as close as possible to it. As of October 1, 1981, gold
items without solder that are imported, exported, or trans-
ported through the United States must be of a fineness not
lower than 3/1000ths parts of that indicated. Those items
that contain solder have a greater tolerance and may be
7/1000ths lower than the indicated quality. Items that
com- bine two identifiable metals should bear the
quality mark of both, for example, “14k and Sterling.”

The Federal Trade Commission has published a booklet

entitled Guides for the Jewelry Industry that defines jewelry-
related terms and describes deceptive or misleading prac-
tices and other misrepresentations of products and pro-
cesses involved in jewelry manufacture and sale. Violations
of these laws can result in fines or imprisonment or
VOLUNTARY HALLMARKING “hammer ability”) refers to the capacity of a metal to be
Voluntary hallmarking leaves the quality and altered by such forces. Gold is the most malleable metal,
hallmarking up to the manufacturer without followed by silver and aluminum. Gold can be rolled
governmental supervision. thinner without annealing than can any other metal. In
fact, gold can be rolled or

SPONSOR’S MARKING
Some countries, such as Germany, do not require an
offi- cial assay. Instead, quality standards and
hallmarking are supervised by credentialed master
goldsmiths whose licenses entitle them to mark
items of precious metals.

Items of gold jewelry for import into many

countries are tested as they pass through customs.
A small sample, often scraped at a solder seam, is
tested for quality. In order to be imported and sold
in that country, the quality must be equal or
superior to that indicated on the hallmark, or else
the items can be refused entry.

PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES OF
PRECIOUS METALS
The physical properties of precious metals come
into play when they are worked. Each alloy has a
characteristic response to the forces exerted on it
during forming, forging, bending, rolling, and
drawing. Alloys are selected for spe- cific
applications because of these properties.

A metal’s hardness refers to its resistance to

denting. The hardness of metals is measured
scientifically by pressing a very hard object of a
known size with a known force into samples of
different metals and measuring the results. Fac-
tors affecting the hardness of metals include the
composi- tion of the alloy and the degree to which
it has been worked. The three different testing and
measuring systems for hardness are Brinnel (HB),
Rockwell (HR) and Vickers (HV). (Values from one
system can be compared to values from a different
system using an appropriate conversion table.
Brinell and Vickers values below 300 are very
close.) The metal’s hardness indicates its relative
response to the forces exerted while working it.
(Table 1.4)

When metals are hammered or rolled, they respond

differ- ently. Malleability (literally meaning
 Chapter 1 | Precious Metals 11

beaten so thin that light passes through it with a greenish other metal can without breaking. Second is silver, fol-
tint. The comparative malleability of metals in descending lowed by platinum. The comparative ductility of metals in
order is: descending order is:
Malleability
Gold Silver
Aluminum Copper Tin Platinum Lead Ductility Gold Silver
Zinc Platinum Iron Copper Aluminum Nickel Zinc
Iron Tin

Strength is the property of a metal to resist permanent

deformation.
One measure of ductility is elongation to break, or the
Tensile strength is a measurement of the maximum load length to which metal can be stretched before it will break,
that can be applied to metal without the occurrence of expressed as a percentage.
necking (localized reduction in diameter) or fracture.
Malleability is related to ductility but not all malleable
Ultimate strength or UTS is the maximum stress a metals are ductile. Gold is both malleable and ductile;
mate- rial can withstand, the point at which any further lead is malleable but not ductile.
stress will result in necking and weakening.
A sugar cube weighs less than a cube of gold the same size,
When stress is applied to metal, it deforms. When the stress the reason being that gold is denser, or weighs more for the
is below a certain threshold the metal will return to its orig- same volume. Density is measured as weight per unit of
inal shape when the stress is removed. This is called elastic volume, or specific gravity. It is expressed as grams per
deformation. The range of this temporary deformation is cubic centimeter (g/cm3) as compared with water, which
called the elastic zone. has a specific gravity of 1 g/cm3. Gold is very dense. With a
specific gravity of 19.32, its weight is almost twenty times
Plastic deformation is what happens when a metal is
greater than the same volume of water. The density of gold
deformed beyond its elastic deformation point. It is not pos-
explains why prospectors find gold when panning. Because
sible to accurately measure the exact transition between
of its high specific gravity (density) gold sinks to the bottom
elastic and plastic deformation. To provide a useable refer-
of any stream. When comparing the relative cost of making
ence, a permanent deformation of 0.2% was chosen to rep-
an item in 14k or 18k gold, one must consider that 18k will
resent the stress needed to cause plastic deformation.
weigh more for the same volume because of its higher spe-
Yield strength is the aspect of tensile strength that indicates cific gravity.
the amount of force or stress required to permanently
Melting point is defined as the point below which a metal
deform a metal by 0.2 percent.
is solid and above which it is liquid. Pure metals have a
Malleability indicates the ability of a metal to be formed specific melting point, but most alloys have a temperature
by compression (such as by being struck with a hammer) range where they are neither completely solid nor com-
without breaking. pletely liquid (Table 1.5). When an alloy is heated, it
reaches a point at which it is no longer a solid but is not yet
Ductility refers to the ability of a metal to be elongated
fully liquid. This is called its solidus point.
or drawn into a fine wire without breaking. Again, gold is
the most ductile metal, permitting it to be drawn finer than
any
12 Professional Jewelry Making

As the metal is heated further it reaches its liquidus point,

GRAIN STRUCTURE AND
the point at which the metal is totally liquid. In this range
WORK HARDENING
between solidus and liquidus, the metal has a slushy con-
Metals have a crystalline structure. These crystals, often
sistency. Pure metals do not exhibit such a range.
referred to as grains, change in size and orientation as a
The exceptions are alloys that transition from liquid to result of external forces. Cold working precious metals
solid at a specific melting point. These are called eutectic increases their hardness and decreases their malleability
alloys and can be defined as the mixture with the lowest and ductility. When metal is initially cast into an ingot
melting temperature alloy. Not all alloy systems have a or into a finished piece of jewelry, the grain structure is
eutectic, but a very important one for jewelers is in the random, and the size of the grains is large. Such metal is
silver-copper system where the eutectic alloy is 71.9% soft and workable (Illustration 1.2). When working metals,
silver and 28.1% copper with a melting point of 1435°F the grains become packed together. Processes such as
(779°C). The presence of the silver/copper eutectic is felt bending, forming, rolling, and twisting compress the grains
not only in sterling silver melting and solidification and make the metal harder. The result, known as work
behavior but also in silver solders and even in gold alloys hardening, may be desirable for components that
that contain a significant amount of silver and copper require springiness or hardness, such as cuff bracelets,
such as 14k yellow with its relatively low melting point. clasp elements, pinstems, and hinge pins (Illustration
1.3).
As an electric current passes through different materials,
it meets a resistance characteristic for that material. In With continued working, the metal becomes even
general, metals are good conductors of electricity. Silver harder and more resistant to external forces because of the
has the best electrical conductivity, because it presents further compaction of the grains into an elongated and
the least electrical resistance. Copper is the second best flatter configuration (Illustration 1.4). If the metal is
electrical conductor with gold being third. This high pushed even further, it will eventually break along the
conductivity, combined with its superior resistance to boundaries of the grains. This phenomenon is exhibited
tarnishing, makes gold ideal for use in solid state circuitry when repeatedly bending a wire coat hanger back and
(Table 1.6). Like electricity, heat passes through materials forth to break it. To avoid overworking and consequent
in differing ways. Silver is the best thermal-conductive cracking, metal should be annealed when its thickness
material, again with copper being second and gold the has been reduced to approximately 50 to 75 percent of the
third-best thermal conductor (Table 1.7). starting point. This can be measured when rolling, drawing,
or forging a piece of metal but it is difficult to measure
when bending, forming, or twisting. For this reason, be
sensitive to an increase in hardness as a result of cold
Resistivity at 0ºC working.
Metal µΩ cm
Silver 1.47 Thermal Conductivity
0 to 100ºC
Gold 2.01 Metal W/m K
Rhodium 4.33 Silver 425.0
Iridium 4.71
Gold 315.5
Ruthenium 6.80
Rhodium 150
Osmium 8.12
Iridium 148
Platinum 9.85
Ruthenium 105
Palladium 9.93
Osmium 87
Source: Grimwade 2009. Palladium 76
Table 1.6 Electrical resistance of precious metals. Platinum 73

Source: Grimwade 2009.

Table 1.7 Thermal conductivity of precious metals.
 Chapter 1 | Precious Metals 13

Illustration 1.2 Grain structure of Illustration 1.3 Grain structure of Illustration 1.4 Grain structure of
fully annealed metal. partially work hardened metal. fully work hardened metal.

ANNEALING whereas higher temperatures result in increased malleabil-

After a significant amount of cold work has hardened ity and ductility, decreased hardness, and larger grain size.
metal, a workable state can be restored through a process Overheating the metal will result in even larger grains that
called annealing, which entails heating metal to an appro- are visible to the naked eye, accompanied by a decrease in
priate temperature. During this process, the stretched workability. It is important to anneal a piece of metal uni-
deformed grains recrystalize into larger sizes and more formly, to avoid creating differential grain sizes and conse-
uni- form shapes, restoring a metal’s workability. Although quent variations in hardness.
it is difficult to measure the temperature of a metal during Although greater control during heating can be achieved
this process, the color of both the metal and the flame are in a kiln, most jewelers anneal metal by heating it on a
indi- cators. For maximum annealing and the charcoal block with a torch. Observe the color during heat-
corresponding increase in workability, heat the metal to ing by placing the work in a darkened area. Use a broad
the proper tem- perature (and color) (Table 1.8). reducing flame over the entire object, or systematically
The effects of annealing are subject to both the variation in heat the metal in sections. Bundle wire tightly to avoid
duration and the temperature of heating. Short annealing accidental melting. During heating, watch the color to
times and lower temperatures relieve residual stress in the determine when annealing has occurred. Other visual indi-
metal with virtually no change in the size of the grains, cations of annealing are when flux becomes molten and
when the tip of a torch flame turns yellow-orange as it is

Approximate Annealing Temperatures

Metal ºC ºF Color by Eye
Fine Gold 200 400 Black heat
Fine Silver 200 400 Black heat
22k Colored Golds 550 1000 Very dark red
18k Colored Golds 550–600 1000–1100 Very dark red
14, 10, & 9k Colored Golds 650* 1200 Dark red
Palladium White Golds 650–700 1200–1300 Cherry red
Nickel White Golds 700–750** 1300–1400 Cherry red
Sterling Silver 600–650 1100–1200 Dark red
Platinum 800 1500 Bright red

* Colored golds of 18k and less should be water quenched from the annealing temperature to retain softness and ductility.
** Ni-white golds should be air-cooled to minimize phase separation and color change.
Source: Adapted from Grimwade 2009.
Table 1.8 Typical annealing temperatures for precious metals and their alloys.
14 Professional Jewelry Making

played on the surface. After annealing, remove the flame or

Fire assay, or cupellation, has been used for nearly 4500
cover the metal in a fuel-only (yellow) flame to reduce oxi-
years. It is an extremely accurate procedure in which scrap-
dation in cases where oxidation is a problem. When the
ings of an alloy are subjected to a series of elaborate steps
metal has lost its reddish glow, quench it in water
that include weighing, melting, rolling, dissolving in acid,
(except for nickel white-gold alloys, which are air cooled).
and reweighing. The beginning and ending weights are
Immerse the annealed metal in a warm pickle solution to
compared to determine the fineness of the original sample.
remove the surface oxides.
The touchstone or acid testing procedure has also been in
Slow cooling may result in effects similar to heat treating, use for centuries. This system is quick and simple but
in which the metal is partially hardened by holding it at a not as accurate as fire assaying. In this method, the alloy
low temperature for an extended period. Many alloys can in question is rubbed on a smooth dark stone next to a
be intentionally “heat treated” or “age hardened,” with similar rubbing from a standard alloy of known content.
each alloy having its own time and temperature A set
requirements. of test needles with tips ranging in purity is used as the
standard. A stripe of acid is spread across both rubbings,
and the results are compared. The rubbing with the higher
ASSAYING gold content will be more resistant to the acid and leave a
A number of methods for measuring, or assaying, the clearer, brighter stripe. Although this system is dependent
quality of precious metals have been used for centuries, on visual comparison, it is sufficiently accurate for use in a
particularly to determine the gold content of gold-bearing jewelry workshop. CAUTION: Acid is highly corrosive and
alloys. harmful if brought into contact with skin or eyes.
Chapter 2

General Procedures
16 Professional Jewelry Making

E ven though goldsmiths produce objects in precious

materials, this book stresses the value of the process
rather than the product. In other words, the real value
is to be found not in the finished ring or chain but in the
procedures by which it is created. Rings and chains may
until you have studied and planned, step by step, all facets
of your action. Finally, when you have thought it out and
you are absolutely sure what to do, take action and execute
your plan.

wear out with time, but mastery of the techniques that make
beautiful objects is timeless. HANDWORK
Frequently when novices are confronted with the prospect
Strive for perfection at every point. The first step in making of making a simple yet tedious component for a piece of
a piece of jewelry is always the most important, that is, jewelry, such as a jump ring or a piece of tubing, they
until the second step comes along. Just as the placement of ask whether there isn’t an easier way, such as purchasing
the four corners of a building determines the course of the the element commercially. It is often easier to purchase
construction that follows, in making jewelry, layout is also a com- mercial parts—in fact, it would be even easier to
critical step. The finished product will never be more accu- purchase the entire piece of jewelry! But remember that
rate than the first step. it is the mastery of technique that yields the greatest
Although the ultimate goal is to work both flawlessly satisfaction. Aside from pride in craftsmanship, there are
and rapidly, the novice should concentrate exclusively several practi- cal reasons for developing the skill and
on the former. Ordinarily, the first time a craftsman knowledge to make every component of your work. First,
attempts a new project it can take as much as three times the design may call for a finding in an uncommon size,
longer than the time required by an experienced craftsman. color, karat, or shape that cannot be purchased. Even if
You cannot cut corners until you know where they all the finding you require is available, deadlines often
are. Speed comes with practice. As the project nears preclude waiting to receive it.
completion, look for areas that need a little more attention. No matter how well trained and experienced a craftperson
There will always be some way to improve your work. Do is, there will always be new and unexpected challenges.
not stop until you are convinced that you have done the Goldsmiths are often asked to make items of jewelry
best job possible, even if it takes longer than you that are unlike anything they have encountered before. In
expected. In the end, the results will be worth the effort. cases like these, craftspeople must improvise and seek new
solu- tions that may be a variation of techniques that
THREE STEPS FOR CORRECTING they have used previously. Sometimes they even must
ERRORS AND IMPROVING create new techniques. In many ways, the test of a
YOUR WORK master is not what he or she already knows but what he or
she can improvise based on similar experiences and the
First, closely examine and analyze your work. Take mea-
requirements of the project at hand. With the pressures of a
surements with calipers, dividers, spring gauges,
commitment push- ing from behind, necessity becomes
machinists squares, and flat edges, to check angles,
the mother of inven- tion. Sometimes this will result in
flatness, and dimensions and to make comparisons. It is
failure, but more often it will result in success. In either
often helpful to use a marker to write the measurements on
case there is something valuable to be learned.
the work itself. During this step, concentrate on studying
the situation; do not even consider the remedy yet.

Next, try to figure out what is wrong and plan actions to

USING THE METRIC SYSTEM
The metric system originated in France around 1790.
correct or improve it. Consider filing, sanding, sawing,
Although the United States was the first country to intro-
forging, or other techniques. Imagine the tools in your
duce metric currency—the dollar in 1789—it has been
hands and their effects on the metal. Do not begin working
one of the slowest to adopt the metric system of measure-
ment. Nonetheless, most countries in the world use only
 Chapter 2 | General Procedures 17

the metric system of meters, liters, and grams. Calcula-

MATERIALS
tions are far simpler in the decimal-based metric system
It has been said that “nothing else feels like gold.” And
in which 1 meter equals 100 centimeters which equals
although there is nothing quite like working in real karat
1000 millimeters, rather than the English system in
golds, in fact most techniques can be applied to nonpre-
which 1 yard equals 3 feet and 1 foot equals 12 inches and
cious metals. Nickel alloys, brass, and copper all saw,
then inches are divided into either fractions or thou-
file, bend, solder, anneal, forge, form, and roll in nearly
sandths. The basic metric unit used in jewelry is the milli-
the same way as gold and silver. The benefits of learning
meter, which is far smaller than the inch of the English
with nonprecious materials outweigh the very small
system. For jewelry work, the metric system is superior to
advantage of working in gold, silver, or platinum. As an
the English system because it is more precise and far eas-
analogy, the difference between driving a car at 40 or 60
ier to use.
requires no conscious adjustment; adapting what you do
comes naturally once you know how to drive. Similarly,
ACCURACY although the melting temperature of gold solder is
Goldsmithing demands attention to minute details. The higher than that of the silver solder you will use on brass
very nature of fabricating small objects with hinges, clasps, or copper, the process of soldering is the same and
settings, and so on requires that the components fit adjustment to differences such as these will quickly
together well. The tolerance for jewelry handwork in this become automatic.
book is one-tenth of a millimeter, 0.1 mm, which is only
An item made of precious metals is likely to be worn, given
about twice the diameter of the average human hair. That
away, or sold, whereas an item created out of materials
means that every piece of metal should be measured and
without intrinsic value will be saved for future reference.
corrected so that its dimensions are within 0.1 mm of
Imagine trying to replicate a project—or even worse, trying
the given specifications. Sometimes a greater error will
to make a variant of a project you made ten years earlier—
be hardly noticeable, but in most cases, a variation of
without the benefit of holding the original in your hand.
more than 0.1 mm will cause problems with fit or
But if you have saved the original sample as a reference
function.
along with good notes, you can easily reproduce the
Accordingly, it is important to have accurate measuring
pro- cess and replicate or alter the product to suit your
tools at hand, several of which are described in Chapter
current needs. A collection of nonprecious samples also
3. Although I have made every effort to give accurate
serves as a three-dimensional portfolio, demonstrating the
specifi- cations for the projects in this book, in reality some
skill of the maker to potential employers and customers.
varia- tion is understandable owing to the nature of
Such a col- lection is small, portable, and durable, and it
handwork. Be sure to keep in mind, however, that the
speaks for itself. While nonprecious samples have no
closer the compo- nents are to specification, the easier
intrinsic value, in actuality they are worth more than their
will be the job of fit- ting them together.
weight in gold.

Illustration 2.1 Combination metric and English ruler (shown at 100 percent).
18 Professional Jewelry Making

FLAME TYPES When even more oxygen is added to the flame, the inner
Torches produce heat by sustaining combustion while blue cone becomes smaller, sharper, and brighter. An oxi-
feeding two different gases into the flame. In oxygen- dizing flame such as this emits a hissing sound as excess
fuel torches, both gases are supplied under regulated oxygen is forced into the flame. Useful for delicate solder-
pressure: oxygen from a pressurized tank, combined with ing jobs where the heat must be intense and localized, this
fuel from either a tank or city-gas supplied to the building. type of flame floods the work with unconsumed oxygen
In air-fuel torches, fuel from a tank combines with air which can result in oxidation (tarnish). If used when melt-
drawn either from the atmosphere, or supplied by a ing, this flame will damage the metal.
pressurized tank.

Three different types of flames are important to goldsmith- FINISHING JEWELRY

ing. A cool reducing flame has a pale blue flame with a yel- There is no need to buff and polish work that is executed as
lowish tip, because there is more fuel than oxygen. A a learning exercise. In fact, in some countries, candidates
soft, bushy reducing flame is ideal for annealing and taking the practical portion of the test for their goldsmiths
melting. and master goldsmiths credentials are not permitted to pol-
Because of its size and composition, such a flame shields ish, electroplate, engrave, or set stones into their work. The
the surface from atmospheric gasses while absorbing oxy- reason is that polishing hides the craftsmanship by dimin-
gen that might otherwise combine with the metal. ishing sharp corners and crisp surfaces. By leaving a finely
With the addition of more oxygen, a neutral flame is sanded (satin) finish, therefore, the craftsmanship is
achieved. Such a flame is all blue, without any yellow at revealed for examination.
the tip. This flame has a softly defined bright blue inner This said, we should also note that the appeal of jewelry
cone within a pale blue outer cone. This type of flame is depends largely on its finish. Polishing is the most common
ideal for most soldering jobs where a large area can safely finish for jewelry made of precious metals, because it
be heated. The hottest point of the flame is the tip of the exploits their unique reflectivity and lustre. Buffing and
inner cone. polishing are a specialty apart from goldsmithing. Although
basic techniques do not require much experience, more
sophisticated techniques do call for a vast range of expertise
and equipment. Because the focus of this book is on gold-
smithing, we shall only briefly touch on buffing and
polishing.

Reducing flame
SANDING
In general, jewelry made of precious metals should be
sanded to a fine finish in preparation for polishing. A piece
is usually sanded to remove filing marks, scratches, and
imper- fections after all other work such as soldering,
hammering, and filing have been completed. Sometimes,
however, a complex piece with several components is
Neutral flame
sanded and polished before it is assembled because
afterward some of the components will be inaccessible for
polishing. During or after a piece is completed, sanding
progresses from coarse abrasive paper (220-grit) to finer
grades (400-600-grit), changing direction with each step up
in fineness. A general guideline is that large flat surfaces
Oxidizing flame
(which are difficult to polish) should be sanded to a higher
prepolish finish with
 Chapter 2 | General Procedures 19

fine (600-grit) paper. Sanding sticks and sanding drums are SAFETY
good for holding abrasive paper and cloth. Other commer-
Although the procedures in this book are performed safely
cial and custom-made wheels and jigs can be used for sand-
by thousands of goldsmiths every day, newcomers and
ing. Before going on to buffing, check to make sure that
experienced jewelers alike need to observe some safety pre-
all of the file marks and scratches have been removed.
cautions. Above all, concentrate on what you are doing
whenever you are working with hazardous materials or
SETTING STONES tools. Consider what could happen and prevent accidents.
The responsibility of the goldsmith ends when the construc- Accidents take only a second to occur, so do not allow
tion and finishing of a piece of jewelry are complete. If yourself to be distracted—even for a second. Note particu-
an item has stones to be set, this usually will be done by a larly the following:
stone setter, an artisan with specialized training and skills.
• Acids can be extremely dangerous, so do not let them
Although contemporary jewelers frequently set their own touch your skin and do not inhale the fumes. Contact
stones, stone setting is a field encompassing complex tech-
with eyes can be especially harmful; for this reason wear
niques, that are too numerous to be included in this book.
a full face shield when working with acids and chemi-
cals. Some workers wear safety glasses whenever they are
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS in the studio. Pickling solution is kept warm and so
should be used with adequate ventilation. Keep an open
The following are a few general suggestions regarding the
box of baking soda near the pickle pot for the immediate
projects in this book and goldsmithing as a whole:
neutralization of acid spills. Quench metal in water or
• Keep your work clean as you proceed. Use an air cool it before submerging it in hot pickling solution.
abrasive pad to remove grease and oxides and to impart Never throw metal into the pickle; instead, use copper
a fine sat-
tongs to slide it into the solution without splashing.
in finish during fabrication. It is easier both to see and to
work on clean components. • Torches and melting equipment are inherently hazard-
ous, so never use them recklessly or even casually.
• With most projects it is best to work from the inside out.
That is, always file, sand, and polish the inside of • Spinning tools such as a flex shaft, polishing lathe,
rings and bench grinder can eject small particles at high
(and most other items) first. velocities.
Always wear goggles, tie back long hair and sleeves,
• A basic rule in goldsmithing is to work up a shape evenly
and keep your fingers clear of the spinning tool. In
and uniformly. If several components or parts of compo-
addition, when polishing, do not entrap your fingers in
nents are to match, bring them all up to form at the
work that could be grabbed by such rotating tools.
same time. Rather than concentrating on one area until
it is finished, work alternately on all areas, collectively • Sharp tools such as files, drills, and gravers can cause in-
jury and should be handled with care. Consider the ef-
bringing the entire piece to the same stage of
completion. fects of slipping with a sharp tool, and position your fin-
gers accordingly.
• Carry each step to the limit of your ability. Take a short
break and then return to the work, looking for ways to • Fumes can be hazardous if inhaled. They are emitted by
the pickle bath, solvents, glues, solders, and by drying
improve the results even further.
correction fluid (used as an antiflux). Work in well-venti-
• As you read through this book, remember that there is
lated areas and avoid inhaling fumes.
usually more than one way to do most jobs. Knowing
only one tool or technique for a particular job, will not
be enough because the method that usually works may
not solve a slightly different problem. Be open to sugges-
tion. Never discard someone else’s method, but file it in
the back of your mind for the time when your old way
will not work.
20 Professional Jewelry Making

Soldering: Avoid solders containing cadmium or anti-

mony. Avoid fluxes containing flouride. Avoid skin contact
SAFETY ALERTS
with boric acid and do not ingest.
We should explain here our protocol for the usage of safety Soldering Hollow Forms: Drill a small vent hole
alerts throughout the book. before soldering a hollow form to allow expanding gasses
to escape safely. The hole allows gas to move in and out
ACIDS dur- ing heating and prevents explosion.
Acid can be extremely dangerous. Avoid direct contact with Soldering a volumetric form closed is difficult and even
the skin. Do not inhale the fumes. Contact with the eyes can hazardous. The problem is that air gets trapped and then
be very harmful and for this reason a full face shield is expands tremendously when heated, especially if it contains
advised when working with acids. any moisture. The expansion of the internal gas makes it
Pickle: Pickling solution is kept warm and should be used difficult to solder a form completely closed. The force of
with adequate overhead ventilation. Keep an open box of the expanding gas may even blow a hole in the piece with
baking soda near the pickle pot for immediate neutraliza- the force of a firecracker, sending hot metal flying across
tion of acid spills. Metal is quenched in water or air cooled the room.
prior to submersion in hot pickling solution. Never throw Soldering Platinum: Because of the high melting
metal into the pickle. Instead, use copper tongs to slide it temperature of platinum and platinum solders, use at least
into the solution without splashing. Think carefully before #5 filtered soldering/welding goggles when welding and
putting hot metal into hot pickle, because this is hazardous soldering platinum. Annealing, soldering or welding
and forces the pickle into areas where it will be difficult to platinum without filtered eye protection could lead to
remove later. Do it only with extra face and hand protection serious eye damage. Do not remove your glasses until the
and great caution. The submersion of hot metal into hot glow dissipates from the piece. Because of the high heat
pickle increases the effects of pickling, resulting in acid involved in annealing and soldering platinum, be sure the
leeching (depletion plating). piece is completely quenched or air cooled before handling
it. A plastic or glass quench bowl is not recommended.
HEATING Antiflux: Antiflux is a fluid that can be painted on seams
Follow proper fire safety procedures, observe all gas han- before soldering to prevent solder from flowing again. If
dling rules, and use proper ventillation. Keep all flammable using typwriter correction fluid as an antiflux, paint it on
items away from the soldering area. Wear fire-resistant seams and let it dry. Do not inhale the fumes and use proper
clothing and shoes. Tie back long hair and sleeves. Refer to ventillation during application and soldering.
the pickling safety procedures for cleaning metal after
torchwork.
INVESTMENT
Dopping Wax, Shellac, and Jett Sett: Dopping wax Investment contains silica and is dangerous if inhaled. Use
and shellac, used to hold metal pieces when working, are with proper ventillation and wear a dust mask. Avoid skin
melted with a cool, yellow (fuel-only) flame. Do not drip and eye contact. Investment removal should be performed
hot wax onto your skin. Do not overheat the wax. If it under a fume hood or with appropriate protection.
smokes, it is too hot. Avoid inhaling fumes from melting or
smoking wax. Dopping wax dissolves in acetone, which is
toxic. Shellac is a safer alternative because it dissolves in
alcohol. Avoid breathing solvent fumes. Jett Sett is one
brand of a plastic that becomes malleable in hot water and
is used as an alternative to dopping wax and shellac in
many applications. No solvents are required.