PADEL, ERICA JOANNA L.

BSA 1-1 MMW 0001-24

HOMEWORK 05

INSTRUCTIONS

• Use PDF format before uploading your answer in the assignment tab
• Hand-written answer will be accepted, take a picture then convert to pdf

This homework is an Introduction to Graph Theory: origin, history, definition, basic concepts and
terminologies.

Question 1 (6 points)
Find out the origin and definition of graph theory.

Leonhard Euler, a Swiss mathematician, is credited with developing graph theory,

which has its roots in the 18th century. In 1736, while analyzing the "Seven Bridges of
Königsberg" puzzle, Euler introduced the idea of graphs.

The Königsberg city, with its seven bridges across a variety of terrain masses, was
the center of the issue. It was a matter of trying to determine if one could traverse the city
on foot, going across each bridge just once before turning around and going back to where
they had started. Euler took a mathematical structure known as a graph as a starting point
for his solution to this issue.

A graph is a mathematical depiction of a collection of objects, sometimes known as

vertices or nodes, in the field of graph theory. Edges or arcs, which are curved or straight
lines, join these vertices. A collection of vertices and edges is the traditional way to depict a
graph.

A graph G is officially defined as an ordered pair (V, E), where V denotes the set of
vertices and E denotes the set of edges. Any discrete object can be the vertex, and the edges
show the connections or relationships between those things. There may or may not be a
connection between vertices, depending on whether an edge is directed or undirected.

There are many different forms of graphs, including weighted graphs (which assign
values to the edges), directed graphs (which have directed edges), simple graphs (which lack
numerous edges or self-loops), and more. These graphs' attributes, traits, and relationships
between their vertices and edges can all be studied using a framework provided by graph
theory.

In recent years, network analysis, computer science, operations research, the social
sciences, and optimization issues have all found use for the foundational part of
mathematics known as graph theory. Powerful tools and methodologies have been made
available for dealing with difficult issues relating to connectivity, routing, scheduling, data
analysis, and other issues.
Question 2 (16 points)
Search for four words or terms related to graph theory and give their meaning.

1. Vertex
A vertex, also known as a node in graph theory, is a basic component of a graph.
Within the graph, it represents a distinct object or thing. In visual representations of
graphs, vertices are typically represented as points or circles.

2. Edge

In a graph, a link between two vertices is called an edge (sometimes called an arc
or a line). It shows how the corresponding things represented by the vertices interact or
are related to one another. Depending on whether the relationship they reflect has a
specified direction or not, edges can be either directed or undirected.

3. Degree
In a graph, a vertex's degree is the total number of edges that have passed
through it. In other terms, it shows how many neighbors or connections a vertex has. A
key characteristic of a vertex's degree can shed light on the graph's connectedness and
structure.

4. Path
In a graph, a path is a series of edges that link a series of vertices. It shows a path
or a set of actions that can be followed to get from one vertex to another. The graph's
vertices and edges can be traversed by paths of varied lengths. For comprehending
connectedness and reachability inside a graph, the concept of pathways is crucial.

Question 3 (16 points)

Give four (4) types of graph and their definition in graph theory.

1. Simple Graph
The most fundamental kind of graph in graph theory is a simple graph. It consists
of a set of edges connecting two different vertices, as well as a set of vertices. There are
no self-loops (edges connecting a vertex to itself) or numerous edges connecting the
same set of vertices in a simple graph.

2. Equivalent Graph
An analogous graph is a graph that may have different vertex or edge labels but
has the same fundamental structure or features as another graph. The notion behind
comparable graphs is that a graph's structure is more significant than the precise labels
given to its vertices or edges.

If there is a bijection (a one-to-one correspondence) between two graphs G1 and

G2, which retains the adjacency relationships, then the two graphs are regarded as being
equivalent. For example, if two vertices are close in G1, their corresponding vertices are
likewise adjacent in G2, and if two vertices are not adjacent in G1, their corresponding
 vertices are also not adjacent in G2. This indicates that for every vertex in G1, there is a
corresponding vertex in G2, and vice versa.

3. Weighted Graph
A weighted graph is one in which each edge has a corresponding weight or value.
The weights can reflect a variety of characteristics, including cost, capacity, distance,
and other pertinent quantities. Weighted graphs are frequently used in optimization and
decision-making problems to depict situations where the edges have varying strengths
or relevance.

4. Hamiltonian
A graph with a Hamiltonian cycle is referred to as a Hamiltonian graph. A closed
loop is formed by a Hamiltonian cycle, which visits each vertex in a graph exactly once,
with the exception of the initial vertex, which is visited twice.

A graph with a Hamiltonian cycle is formally referred to as a Hamiltonian graph

(G). You can traverse the graph in a Hamiltonian cycle starting from any vertex, stopping
at each vertex precisely once, and then returning to the cycle's starting vertex. It's
important to remember that the Hamiltonian cycle might not exist in every Hamiltonian
graph.

Question 4 (6 points)
What is graph coloring in graph theory.

Assigning colors to a graph's vertices so that no two adjacent vertices have the same
color is referred to as "coloring" a graph, which is a fundamental idea in the field of graph
theory. In order to achieve this requirement, the graph must be colored using the fewest
number of colors feasible.

In the case of graph coloring, the colors are frequently expressed as positive
numbers or distinct labels. Adjacent vertices must have different colors in order for a graph's
coloring to be legitimate. The graph's "chromatic number" is the bare minimum of colors
needed to color it.

Numerous theoretical studies and practical issues can both benefit from the idea of
graph coloring. Typical uses for graph coloring include: • Representing regions on a map,
where each region (vertex) is a nation or state, and adjacent regions should have unique
colors to guarantee clarity and differentiation.

• Graph coloring can be used to assign time slots or resources to tasks or events in
scheduling difficulties, making sure that no two tasks with the same resource or time
slot are given to each other.
• Graph coloring is a technique in compiler design that is used to assign registers to
variables in a program, making sure that variables sharing the same memory location
(near vertices in the interference graph) do not utilize the same register.
 • To prevent interference between nearby nodes in wireless networks, adjacent nodes
might be given different channels by using graph coloring.

Finding the best or nearly best solutions to graph coloring problems sometimes
requires algorithmic methods due to their complexity. For the purpose of coloring graphs,
several different methods and algorithms have been created, including greedy coloring,
backtracking algorithms (such as recursive algorithms like the Welsh-Powell algorithm), and
more complex methods like the DSATUR algorithm and the chromatic polynomial

Examining the chromatic number, examining coloring methods, and learning about
related ideas like edge coloring and list coloring are all part of the study of graph coloring. It
also entails learning about the traits and traits of various graphs.

Question 5 (6 points)
Explain the Handshaking problem in graph theory.

The Handshaking problem, commonly referred to as the Handshaking lemma or the

Handshaking theorem, is a key finding in graph theory that has to do with the degrees of
vertices in a graph.

According to the Handshaking problem, the total degree of every vertex in an

undirected graph is equal to twice the total number of edges. In other words, the total even
number of degrees at all vertices.

If G = (V, E) is an undirected graph, where V denotes the set of vertices and E denotes
the set of edges, then the Handshaking problem can be expressed mathematically as follows:

G's total degree sum is equal to 2 * |E|, where |E| stands for the graph's total number of
edges.

The Handshaking issue is named after an analogy with handshakes: if each vertex
represents a person and an edge connects two vertices if those two people shake hands,
then the sum of degrees corresponds to the total number of handshakes made by all
individuals. Since there are two people involved in every handshake, there are twice as many
edges as there are degrees.

There are many uses for and implications of the Handshaking lemma in graph theory.
It can be used, for instance, to demonstrate features of graphs, such as the existence of even
degree vertices in an undirected graph (because the total of degrees is even). It is also used
in the analysis and design of network protocols, algorithms, and a variety of graph-related
counting and optimization issues.

A straightforward and effective conclusion from the Handshaking issue sheds light
on the structure and connectivity of undirected graphs by establishing links between
degrees and edges.