Review

Oil-Immersed Power Transformer Condition Monitoring

Methodologies: A Review
Lan Jin 1, Dowon Kim 1, Ahmed Abu-Siada 1,* and Shantanu Kumar 2

1 School of Electrical Engineering, Computing, Mathematical Sciences, Curtin University,

Perth, WA 6845, Australia; [email protected] (L.J.); [email protected] (D.K.)
2 BHP, Perth, WA 6000, Australia; [email protected]

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: A power transformer is one of the most critical and expensive assets in electric power
systems. Failure of a power transformer would not only result in a downtime to the entire transmis-
sion and distribution networks but may also cause personnel and environmental hazards due to oil
leak and fire. Hence, to enhance a transformer’s reliability and extend its lifespan, a cost-effective
and reliable condition monitoring technique should be adopted from day one of its installation. This
will help detect incipient faults, extend a transformer’s operational life, and avoid potential conse-
quences. With the global trend to establish digital substation automation systems, transformer
online condition monitoring has been given much attention by utilities and researchers alike. Sev-
eral online and offline condition monitoring techniques have been recently proposed for oil-im-
mersed power transformers. This paper is aimed at providing a state-of-the-art review for the vari-
ous condition monitoring technologies used for oil-immersed power transformers. Concept of
measurements and analysis of the results along with the future trend of condition monitoring tech-
niques are presented.

Citation: Jin, L.; Kim, D.; Keywords: oil-immersed power transformer; condition monitoring; asset management; transformer
Abu-Siada, A.; Kumar, S. Oil- failure; operational life estimation
Immersed Power Transformer
Condition Monitoring
Methodologies: A Review. Energies
2022, 15, 3379. https://doi.org/
1. Introduction
10.3390/en15093379
Oil-immersed power transformers are widely used in the power systems due to their
Academic Editor: Sérgio Cruz
ability to handle higher voltage levels than dry-type transformers. Owing to the fact that
Received: 1 April 2022 power transformers are constantly operating under harsh thermal, electrical, and mechan-
Accepted: 1 May 2022 ical stresses, they are prone to several types of faults. Faults such as windings and core
Published: 6 May 2022 mechanical deformation, partial discharge, overheating, and arcing result in deterioration
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu-
to the transformer’s mechanical integrity and/or degradation to the dielectric insulation
tral with regard to jurisdictional
system [1]. While the transformer may operate normally with incipient faults, some faults
claims in published maps and institu- such as winding axial displacement can progress rapidly and lead to catastrophic conse-
tional affiliations. quences if not detected and rectified at an early stage [2]. Short-circuit faults and over-
loading can further increase the probability of unexpected failures of power transformers.
A survey on the power transformer failures within Australia was conducted by the
University of Queensland in the year 2017 [3]. The survey was conducted on 6057 power
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. Li- transformers that represented 98% of the Australian fleet. Collected data show that 199
censee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. transformer failures, representing 3.29% of the analyzed transformers, were reported dur-
This article is an open access article ing the period 2000 to 2015. The statistics reveal a high number of non-catastrophic fail-
distributed under the terms and con- ures occurred in the 30 to 49 years age group while a higher catastrophic failure rate oc-
ditions of the Creative Commons At- curs in age groups 0 to 9 years and above 49 years. The causes of the failures have been
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre-
divided into five major groups: bushings, on-load tap changer (OLTC), windings, insula-
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
tion system, and others, with the failure distribution profile as shown in Figure 1 [3]. This
survey shows the necessity to adopt a reliable condition monitoring technique for various

Energies 2022, 15, 3379. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15093379 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 2 of 32

power transformer components. Figure 2 shows the main components of the power trans-
former along with the required parameters to monitor each component [4,5].

Figure 1. Distribution of failures for Australian power transformers during the period 2000 to 2015.

Figure 2. The parameters to be monitored for oil-immersed power transformer components.

Over the years, a wide variety of sensor technologies that can be used for online or
offline fault diagnostic methods have been developed for power transformer condition
monitoring systems [6]. In Section 2 of this paper, nine typical offline power transformer
diagnostic methods are presented.
Compared to offline testing methods, online condition monitoring has several ad-
vantages including timely information about transformer health conditions, incipient
fault detection that helps asset managers make a proper and timely decision, reduction of
the probability of unplanned downtime due to catastrophic failures, decrease the loss of
production costs due to transformer outage, and minimize the risk for personnel since
they need less frequent access to the high voltage substation. Therefore, it is necessary to
keep improving the online condition monitoring methods for oil-immersed power
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 3 of 32

transformers. Four commonly known online methods are presented in Section 3 of this
paper. Figure 3 shows all offline and online condition monitoring methods for oil-im-
mersed power transformers currently used by the industry. The purpose of this compre-
hensive review is to present and discuss various online/offline condition monitoring
methods for power transformers.

Figure 3. Offline and online condition monitoring methods for an oil-immersed power trans-
former.

2. Offline Condition Monitoring Methods

2.1. Degree of Polymerization of Insulation Paper
The insulation paper and pressboard within the transformer is made of cellulose pol-
ymer. With transformer aging over the time, the structure of cellulose polymer as shown
in Figure 4 becomes fragile, causing paper insulation to lose its dielectric and mechanical
strength. The length of the cellulose chain is measured by the number of monomer units
in the polymer, also known as degree of polymerization (DP). The quality of cellulose is a
function of the DP value that can be measured using average viscosity method [7,8].

Figure 4. Chemical structure of cellulose.

In general, new transformers indicate around 1000–1400 DP values [9]. When DP

drops to 100–250, it is considered the end of the paper’s life which corresponds to the end
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 4 of 32

of the transformer’s life [9]. To measure the DP, paper samples are collected from different
spots of the transformer windings, which is impractical for operating transformers. There-
fore, this method is only performed during planning for transformer replacement. Other
indirect methods, such as Furan analysis, can be used to estimate the paper DP value.

2.2. Furan Analysis

Furan analysis is a feasible diagnostic tool to assess the paper insulation condition
for oil-immersed power transformers. Cellulose degradation due to high temperature, ox-
ygen, moisture and acid contents generates five chemical furan compounds as listed in
Table 1 [10,11].

Table 1. Furan compounds and associated types of stresses.

Furan Compound Symbol Nature of Stress

2-furaldehyde 2-FAL Overheating
5-methyl-2-furaldehyde 5-M2F Local severe overheating
5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde 5-H2F Oxidation
2-acetyl furan 2-ACF Lightning
2-furfurol 2-FOL High moisture

The concentration of these furan compounds in parts per million (ppm) can be meas-
ured using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or gas chromatography-
mass spectrometry (GC/MS) in a laboratory environment [12,13]. From industry practice,
2-FAL is considered as the main compound due to its high generation rate and stability in
the oil [10]. A strong correlation between 2-FAL measurements and DP value as shown in
Table 2 has been reported in the literatures and IEEE guides [12,14]. This correlation facil-
itates a non-intrusive diagnostic option to replace the DP test. However, this test is nor-
mally performed in the lab by trained personnel and expensive equipment. Additionally,
there is no standard code correlating furan to DP for biodegradable oil and thermally up-
graded paper yet.
A new method based on ultraviolet-to-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopic technology
along with artificial intelligence is proposed in [15] to estimate the concentration of the 2-
FAL compound in a transformer oil sample. UV-Vis spectroscopic diagnostic is based on
the absorbance of the light by the contaminations in transformer oil [16]. Hence, this tech-
nology can also be used to assess the quality of transformer oil and quantify the reduction
in its lifetime [16,17]. The proposed UV-Vis spectroscopic method is low cost, easy to per-
form by unexperienced personnel, and can be conducted onsite or implemented online.
However, this method has not been tested widely on operational transformers.

Table 2. The correlation between 2-FAL and DP for paper insulation with condition level.

2-FAL (ppm) DP Value Degree of Degradation

0–0.1 1200–700 Healthy
0.1–1.0 700–450 Moderate
1–10 450–250 Extensive
>10 <250 End of Life

2.3. Interfacial Tension Analysis and Acidity

Interfacial tension (IFT) analysis and acidity number measurement are used to assess
oil quality. Contaminations and degradation products can affect insulating oil’s physical
and electrical properties and hence reduce IFT of the oil. Additionally, when oil is oxi-
dized, one of the by-products is acid [18]. To perform IFT measurement, a planar ring with
circumference d is inserted into a container filled with insulating oil and water mixture. It
then measures the interfacial force (F, dyne/cm) required to lift the ring 10 mm upward
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 5 of 32

through the oil–water interface [18]. IFT analysis is detailed in standard ASTM D971. In
general, transformers ≤ 69 kV with IFT ≤ 22 dynes/cm; and transformers > 69 kV with
IFT ≤ 25 dynes/cm are considered to approach the end of insulating oil service life. The
conventional IFT test requires a trained person and expensive equipment to conduct the
measurements. Therefore, the test is normally performed in a laboratory environment.
There has been research on using UV-Vis spectrum method to determine the IFT value of
a transformer oil sample [19]. This spectroscopic measurement is based on measuring en-
ergy level in atoms and molecules. The measurements can then be analyzed using an ar-
tificially intelligent software tool to estimate the IFT value. This method has an online
application feasibility but has not been tested in the practical field yet.
Acidity number, also known as neutralization number (NN), is a reflection of the
acids in the insulating oil. The measurement represents the mass of potassium hydroxide
(KOH) in milligrams (mg) needed to neutralize the acid in one gram (gm) of the oil. The
NN increases as the transformer ages. The limitation of NN is stated in standard ASTM
D974. In general, transformers ≤ 69 kV with NN ≥ 0.20 mg KOH/gm; transformers of rated
voltage between 69 kV, 230 kV with NN ≥ 0.15 mg KOH/gm; and transformers ≥ 230 kV
with NN ≥ 0.10 mg KOH/gm are considered to be in critical condition in terms of oil qual-
ity.

2.4. Oil Dielectric Breakdown Voltage

Oil dielectric breakdown voltage (BDV) test is a common method used to determine
the breakdown voltage of insulating oil. As a transformer ages, the insulating oil degrades
and decomposes, resulting in moisture, sludge, gases, and impurities that decrease the
dielectric strength of the insulating oil [20].
The BDV test can be performed on-site using a mobile test device. According to the
standard IEC 60156, the test is conducted by applying a steady incremental voltage of 2
kV/s until breakdown occurs at the electrode, which is immersed in the insulating oil sam-
ple. The test is repeated at least six times and the average value of the measurements is
considered as the oil BDV [21]. The correlation of the transformer oil dielectric strength
and the oil BDV is detailed in the standard IEEE C57.106 [22]. In general, an oil of BDV
that is less than 30 kV calls for further investigation and correction action [23].
An online BDV test unit is currently under development. The idea is to install the
detection unit near a transformer and connect it to the main oil tank, allow oil to continu-
ously circulate in a closed loop through the measuring unit.

2.5. Insulation Resistance Test

The insulation resistance (IR) test is designed to evaluate the insulation resistance of
power transformers. IR value reveals the insulation degradation due to contamination,
moisture, and severe cracking. The test is performed by applying a constant DC voltage
for 10 min between windings or windings and ground [24,25]. IR values are measured
every minute or less in MΩ using a metering instrument called Megger or Megohmmeter.
Typical trend of IR measurements is shown in Figure 5 [25]. A single IR result is not
enough to determine the insulation status [26]. An insulator is considered to be a capacitor
where, with the application of voltage, a charging current will flow. If the insulation is
contaminated, the charging time is typically 1 min [25]. After 10 min of testing, the IR
value can reach a stable level. Historical trending results for IR are useful to monitor in-
sulation condition over years [26]. If the IR value drops from the previous test, further
investigation and analysis will be required.
Polarization index (PI) is another parameter used to evaluate the insulation condi-
tion. The common calculation of PI uses IR measurements taken in 1 min (IR1min) and 10
min (IR10min) as given by (1) [25,27]. A sharp decline in PI is an indication to severe insula-
tion degradation [26].
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 6 of 32

IR MΩ
PI = (1)
IR MΩ
The limitation of the IR test is its inability to identify the IR value of each individual
insulation system such as bushings, paper, and oil.

Figure 5. Typical IR measurements versus time of the applied voltage.

2.6. Dissipation Factor Measurement

Dissipation factor (DF) analysis is used to assess bushings and insulation condition.
This offline test is performed periodically on bushings and windings [28]. The insulation
is a dielectric material, which can be considered in an ideal case as a pure capacitor. Over
time, the permittivity of the material changes due to aging, and it causes capacitive current
variations. Additionally, resistive leakage current increases due to the deterioration of the
material.
Dissipation factor, also known as power factor or tan delta, presents the ratio between
the capacitance current and resistive current components through the insulation. Figure
6a shows a simple equivalent model of a dielectric structure. On an isolated transformer,
AC voltage up to 10 kV is energized through the bushings [29]. Ideal insulation shows the
capacitive current leading the applied voltage by 90 degrees as shown in Figure 6b [30].
Hence, the total current I equals the capacitive current IC, and the DF (tan δ) is zero.
However, some leakage current (resistive current IR) through the insulation surface
increases due to the contamination or carbonization in the insulation, and it represents the
resistive loss, also called Watt-loss. The term tan delta (tan δ) presents the ratio between
the resistive IR and capacitive IC current components, and power factor (cos θ) represents
the fraction of IR with respect to the total current I.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 7 of 32

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Equivalent circuit represents a dielectric and (b) phasor diagram.

The DF and power factor (PF) calculations are given by (2) and (3),(3) respectively
[29,30]. Any changes in these values indicate power dissipated in the insulation. Lower
DF and PF means lower dielectric losses [13]. For mineral-oil-immersed power transform-
ers in normal condition, PF is lower than 0.5%. PF value between 0.5% and 1% could be
acceptable, whereas a PF value over 1% is an indication of insulation degradation [13].

% Dissipation Factor DF = % tan δ = × 100% (2)

𝐼 (3)
% Power Factor PF = % cos θ = × 100%
𝐼
The value of DF represents the average index of the dielectric integrity considering
both capacitive and resistive currents in the apparatus. For detailed analysis of insulation
quality, the trend of IC and IR variation is investigated. The main drawback of DF analysis
is that it provides an average condition of insulation integrity, and the results are sensitive
to the ambient temperature [13]. This test is generally performed on-site during commis-
sioning, regular maintenance, or malfunction investigation. The results of DF measure-
ment are compared to previous DF rates for analyzing the trend of insulation degradation.
Online PF measurement is available for assessing the insulation condition of bush-
ings. Figure 7 shows the equivalent circuit for a bushing’s PF setup [29]. The bushing has
dielectric resistance RX shunted by a capacitance CX, with bushing tap U2 connected to the
ground through an impedance ZM. The voltage U2 is compared to a reference voltage U1.
Bushing condition changes result in changes in the amplitude and phase of U2 with respect
to the reference voltage.

Figure 7. Equivalent circuit for bushing PF monitoring.

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 8 of 32

2.7. Dielectric Response Methods

Impurities such as moisture and aging by-products in oil-paper insulation system
increase the dielectric losses [31]. Moisture content and contaminations such as sludge
result in polarization within the dielectric molecules [32]. Moisture, temperature, aging,
and other factors lead to different characteristics of polarization. These phenomena can be
identified by the dielectric response methods listed below [33]:
• Recovery/return voltage measurements (RVM)
• Dielectric spectroscopy in time domain—polarization/depolarization currents (PDC)
• Dielectric spectroscopy in frequency domain/frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS)
These three techniques are elaborated below.

2.7.1. Recovery/Return Voltage Measurement

Recovery voltage measurement (RVM) is utilized to analyze the slow polarization
process of the oil and paper insulation [33,34]. The basic measuring circuit for RVM is
shown in Figure 8a. By applying a step DC voltage U0 and closing switch S1, the insulation
is charged for a specific time period tc. This results in a polarization current flow through
the insulation after which the insulation is short-circuited by opening switch S1 and clos-
ing switch S2 for a certain time td, allowing depolarization current to flow. Switch S2 is
opened after the short-circuit period while switch S3 is closed to measure the recovery
voltage. The charging/discharging time and recovery voltage are shown in Figure 8b. The
initial slope dUr/dt of the recovery voltage reveals the polarization characteristics [34,35].
Interpretation of RVM results is based on the magnitude and position of the maxi-
mum recovery voltage [36]. In the polarization spectrum profile shown in Figure 9, pa-
rameters such as the maximum recovery voltage Urmax along with the central time constant
are utilized for assessing the insulation condition [37–39]. The central time constant is the
charging time to the peak value of the recovery voltage.
In general, an insulation system with a higher moisture content has a relatively
shorter charging and discharging time. On the other hand, an insulation system with
lower moisture content has a relatively slow polarization response [37]. RVM from factory
acceptance testing (FAT) can be used as a reference to monitor the trend of insulation state
with future test results.

(a)

(b)
Figure 8. (a) Basic RVM measuring circuit and (b) measurements.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 9 of 32

Figure 9. Example of RVM polarization spectrum.

2.7.2. Polarization/Depolarization Currents

Polarization/depolarization currents (PDC) method is also a time domain analysis to
assess the transformer’s insulation condition. PDC measures the polarization and depo-
larization currents [40]. The basic test circuit is similar to RVM, only the measured param-
eters are the currents as shown in Figure 10a. The polarization current ip is measured when
switch S1 is closed and switch S2 is open. The depolarization current id is measured when
S1 is open and S2 is closed. Figure 10b shows that the test is performed by applying a step
DC voltage U0, to charge the insulation for a specific period tp, then short-circuit the insu-
lation for a certain time td. Water content and contamination increase the insulation con-
ductivity. Higher values of conductivity raise the polarization and depolarization currents
[36,41]. Figure 11 shows the variation in the polarization and depolarization currents (Ip
and Id) corresponding to insulation conductivity. Insulation with higher conductivity has
higher PDC values [40]. The advantage of PDC method over RVM and frequency domain
spectroscopy is its ability to assess paper and oil’s status separately.

(a)

(b)
Figure 10. (a) Basic PDC measuring circuit and (b) waveform of polarization and depolarization
currents.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 10 of 32

Figure 11. Example of relationship between polarization/depolarization currents and insulation

conductivity.

2.7.3. Frequency Domain Spectroscopy

In the frequency domain spectroscopy (FDS) method, an AC voltage is applied to the
test object with a frequency starting from 1 kHz to 1 mHz as shown in the basic circuit of
Figure 12a. The voltage and current measurements are recorded at each testing frequency
point. Dielectric parameters such as relative complex permittivity, complex capacitance,
and dissipation factor (tan δ) can be obtained from this test [42]. These parameters reflect
the polarization characteristics of an oil-paper insulation system.
In Figure 12b, a typical dielectric response of the oil-paper insulation system is pre-
sented as a dielectric dissipation factor (tan δ) curve. The variation of dissipation factor
with frequency indicates the aging and moisture content in both paper and oil insulation.
According to the curve, the response for oil insulation dominates the frequency range of
0.1 Hz to 10 Hz, and dissipation factor increases towards the lower frequencies [43].

FDS was found to be of good consistency with other chemical and electrical analysis
methods, and hence, it has been a preferred method among the three dielectric response
analysis techniques [42]. In addition, FDS detection method exhibits less sensitivity to ex-
ternal noise than PDC [38].

(a)

(b)
Figure 12. (a) Basic FDS measuring circuit and (b) typical FDS response.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 11 of 32

2.8. Sweep Frequency Response Analysis

Sweep frequency response analysis (SFRA) is mainly used to assess the mechanical
integrity of a power transformer. Ideally, this test should be performed after the installa-
tion of the transformer to record its healthy frequency response signature that can be com-
pared with future signatures to detect any anomalies [44]. The measurement is conducted
using a frequency response analyzer that injects a low AC voltage (10 V) of wide frequency
range (up to 2 MHz) into the terminal of each phase while measuring the response at the
other terminal. The frequency response signature could be in the form of winding imped-
ance, admittance, or transfer function (in dB) as shown in Figure 13, which also shows the
phase angle of the three phases of the low-voltage windings. The measured response is
compared with the reference signature to detect any variations. If the refence signature is
not available, other methods such as comparison with the signature of a sister transformer
or phase-to-phase comparison is used.

(a)

(b)
Figure 13. FRA measurement example; (a) transfer function amplitude. (b) Transfer function phase
angle.

While the SFRA measurement is well developed and standardized, analysis of the
obtained results is still a challenging task. Some attempts have been published in the lit-
erature in order to identify and quantify mechanical faults based on SFRA signature. Most
of these techniques are developed based on artificial intelligence [45], statistical coeffi-
cients [46], and the estimation of transformer equivalent circuit parameters [47]. While the
current industry practice only looks at the SFRA magnitude signature, some studies pro-
posed the integration of SFRA magnitude and phase angle plots into 2D or 3D plots to
facilitate the application of digital signal processing techniques and improve the accuracy
of the interpretation process [48].
The main drawback of the SFRA measurement technique is its offline nature that calls
for taking operating transformers out of service. Some attempts were published in the
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 12 of 32

literature for the possibilities of using the natural switching operation, lightning, and im-
pulse signal for online SFRA measurements [49,50]. However, none of these techniques
has been implemented in real field applications yet. The main issue of implementing
online SFRA measurements is the requirement to impose a signal of a wide frequency
range to the electricity grid in which the power frequency should be maintained at 50 or
60 Hz. Some studies proposed the use of transformer I–V Lissajous patterns at the power
frequency [51] as an alternative online technique to the offline SFRA method. However,
this method has not been tested in real field applications yet.

2.9. Transformer Turns Ratio Test

The transformer turns ratio (TTR) test can be used to determine insulation failure
between turns, core structure insulation failure, or inter-winding insulation failure. TTR
test is normally performed during commissioning and planned maintenance periods [52].
TTR test needs to be checked on each tap position and calculated for all three phases.
To calculate the voltage ratio Vratio, a reduced voltage Vp is applied to the primary side,
resulting in a voltage Vs on the secondary side. The primary and secondary terminal volt-
ages are proportional to the respective number of turns, the primary side Np, and the sec-
ondary side Ns. Therefore, the ideal turns ratio is given by (4) [53].

V = = (4)

The measurements are compared to the ratios on the nameplate for all windings and
tap positions. The limitation of the difference ∆ratio given by (5) should be within 0.5%, and
for new transformers, this tolerance is within 0.1% [30].
V −V (5)
%∆ = × 100%
V
The TTR is a popular offline method due to the availability of test devices [54]. It is
also an important test for transformers operating in parallel. If the turns ratio of two par-
allel transformers is not equal, the voltage difference between transformer outputs will
generate circulating current through busbars. Even small turns ratio error will cause sig-
nificant equalization current and result in excess heat and power losses [54].

3. Online Condition Monitoring Methods

3.1. Dissolved Gas Analysis
Dissolved gas analysis (DGA) is one of the widely used methods to detect trans-
former internal faults [55]. This method has been developed based on the fact that under
harsh operating conditions, insulating oil and paper decompose and release certain gases
that dissolve in the oil and decrease its dielectric strength [56]. The fault gases include
hydrogen (H2); methane (CH4); ethane (C2H6); ethylene (C2H4); acetylene (C2H2); carbon
monoxide (CO); and carbon dioxide (CO2). Oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2), which are not
produced by faults, are also measured. The amount and type of these gases can be used
to identify and quantify different types of faults. Table 3 summarizes the fault types and
the key gasses corresponding to each fault.
The conventional offline DGA measurement is conducted in a laboratory environ-
ment using gas chromatography (GC) [57]. While this technique is very accurate, it in-
volves several standards that must be followed since the collection of oil samples occurs
from operating transformers, transporting the sample, and storing it [58]. Moreover, this
technique incurs a running cost, takes a relatively long time, and has to be conducted by
an expert. As such, several online DGA sensors, such as online GC, photo-acoustic spec-
troscopy (PAS), and online hydrogen detection, have been developed over the last few
years [59].
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 13 of 32

To perform online DGA, the monitoring sensor is placed in direct contact with the
transformer and a pump is required to circulate the oil through the measuring unit. It
usually takes three steps: gas extraction, gas detection, and data analysis.

Table 3. Fault types and key gases corresponding to each fault.

Temperature at Which
Gas–Formula Molecular Source of Gases
Gas Forms
<150 °C—corona effect in Partial discharge
oil thermal faults
Hydrogen–H2
>250 °C—thermal and elec-
Power discharges
trical faults
Corona, partial dis-
charge, low to/and
Methane–CH4 <150 °C–300 °C
medium tempera-
ture faults
High-temperature
Ethylene–C2H4 300 °C–700 °C
thermal faults
Low to/and me-
Ethane–C2H6 200 °C–400 °C dium temperature
faults
High hot spot. Low
Acetylene–C2H2 >700 °C
energy discharge
Thermal faults in-
105 °C–300 °C
Carbon Monox- volving paper press
ide–CO >300 °C complete decom- board, wood and
position etc.
Normal ageing,
Carbon Dioxide–
100 °C–300 °C thermal fault in-
CO2
volving cellulose
Indicator of system
Vacuum when temperature leaks, over pressur-
Nitrogen–N2
drops ization or changes
in temperature
Exposure to air,
Vacuum when temperature leaky gasket, air
Oxygen–O2
drops breathing through
conservator

3.1.1. Gas Extraction

A gas extraction device is installed for the online GC and PAS detection. The head-
space technique is a matured membrane-based dissolved gas-in-oil analysis method. It
applies negative pressure to the top space for the dissolved oil extraction [60]. This tech-
nology is highly efficient, has a low risk of gas pollution, and is easy to maintain. Figure
14 shows a diagram of the working principle for a Teflon-coated membrane (Teflon
AF2400) [61,62]. The membrane acts as a physical barrier, only allowing gas to migrate
between the gas phase and liquid phase. A quality membrane should offer excellent gas
permeability, oleophobic characteristics, and chemical and thermal stability.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 14 of 32

Figure 14. Headspace extraction structure diagram and membrane structure.

3.1.2. Gas Detection

Gas Chromatographic (GC)
The most common GC detectors are thermal conductivity detector (TCD) and flame
ionization detector (FID). These types of detectors are normally used as a combined
method in a laboratory environment due to their limitations. For example, TCD sensitivity
to detect hydrocarbon gases is low. FID is insensitive to hydrogen and requires several
types of carrier/auxiliary gases including hydrogen, which is not allowed to be used inside
substations due to its potential flammable hazards. A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) sensor
is a newly developed online GC detector [63]. It has high sensitivity and good repeatabil-
ity to detect H2, CO, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, and C2H2. The sensitivity to detect C2H2 is 0.05 ppm,
while it is 0.5 ppm in the case of FID and TCD sensors.
Figure 15 shows the basic framework of an online DGA system using GC with a
SOFC detector. From the diagram, the dissolved gas mixture is firstly separated from oil
in a gas extraction unit. Since different gases have different adsorption coefficients [64],
the gas mixture of H2, CO, CH4, C2H4, C2H6, and C2H2 is separated when passing through
a chromatographic column and detected by the SOFC sensor. The voltage output of the
SOFC detector, as shown in Figure 16, is then sent to a data acquisition unit to be con-
verted into digital signals representing the concentration of each gas.

Figure 15. Online GC system using SOFC detector.

Figure 16. Example of voltage signal output of SOFC detector equivalent to gas concentrations.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 15 of 32

Photo-Acoustic Spectroscopy (PAS)

Although GC technique can accurately detect the dissolved gases, it consumes carrier
gases. Additionally, after extended use, it requires calibration and replacing of the chro-
matographic column and sensors due to the change in their properties [65]. A photo-
acoustic spectroscopy (PAS) sensor uses indirect absorption spectroscopy and overcomes
GC’s limitation.
Figure 17 shows the principle of PAS that is based on photo-acoustic effect. The dis-
solved gases inside an enclosure container absorb light energy and increase the gas mole-
cules’ kinetic energy, resulting in a temperature increment on the macroscopic level. This
heat leads to pressure fluctuations (sound waves) and can be detected by a sensitive mi-
crophone. The concentrations of the gases are measured based on the amplitude of the
photo-acoustic signal detected by the microphone [66–68].

Figure 17. The principle of photo-acoustic effect.

The schematic diagram of a PAS unit is shown in Figure 18 [59]. In this system, the
light from the laser source passes through the light chopper and is measured using a
photo-acoustic cell. The light chopper wheel rotates and switches the light on and off. The
frequency of the light chopper is measured with a photo detector and is used as a reference
frequency. The performance of the PAS detection unit mainly depends on the laser light
source characteristics. If the frequency of the light coincides with the gas absorption band,
the gas molecules will absorb part of the light. According to the Beer Lambert Law, the
higher the concentration of the gas in the cell, the more light will be absorbed. Figure 19
shows the electromagnetic spectrum of light. The spectrum includes γ-radiation, X-ray,
ultraviolet (UV), visible light, infrared red light, microwaves, and radio waves. The ab-
sorption spectrum for gas molecules mostly falls into three regions: near infrared (NIR),
middle infrared (MIR), and far infrared (FIR) [69]. The system uses various types of laser
light sources to increase the detection sensitivity. An optical microphone is used to reduce
the electromagnetic interference from the harsh environment around the transformer. It
also uses an optical power meter to monitor and avoid the power drift of the light source
under long operational periods [70].

Figure 18. Schematic diagram of PAS detection unit.

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 16 of 32

Figure 19. The electromagnetic spectrum for various wavelength regions of light.

Online Hydrogen (H2) Detection

Table 4 shows that dissolved H2 in transformer oil samples can be a result of partial
discharge, thermal faults, and arcing [58]. According to this table, the increase of H2 con-
centration can be used as an indicator for most major faults. In a transformer’s normal
operation, H2 concentration should be lower than 100 ppm [71]. Although GC and PAS
techniques are capable of detecting hydrogen, these techniques require a gas extraction
component. An online hydrogen sensor is used directly in contact with transformer oil
without a gas and oil separation membrane. Therefore, it requires fewer components to
manufacture. The cost-effective hydrogen sensor offers an option for lower budget condi-
tion monitoring.
Using gas-sensitive detection materials is a fundamental principle for the H2 detector.
Over the years, there has been substantial research in metal-hydrogen catalytic effects [72].
In 1868, Thomas Grahab discovered the absorption of hydrogen by palladium (Pd) during
electrolysis [73]. Studies show that Pd has high hydrogen solubility and is superior as a
gate material for small amounts of hydrogen at room temperature [73]. When H2 mole-
cules come in contact with a Pd surface, H2 atoms diffuse into a Pd lattice and form palla-
dium hydride (PdHx), as shown in Figure 20 [74,75]. As a result, H2 absorption causes
volume expansion in the Pd structure and leads to a change in resistance (∆R), then the
signal conditioning circuit converts the resistance variation into hydrogen concentration
[75,76].

Table 4. Primary faults associated with key gases.

Key Gas Characteristic Fault

H2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6 Thermal fault from 150 to 300 °C
H2, CH4, C2H4, C2H6 Thermal fault from 300 to 700 °C
H2, C2H4, C2H2 Over 700 °C thermal fault
CO, CO2 Decomposition of cellulose
H2, CH4 Partial discharge
H2, C2H2 Arcing

Figure 20. Diagram of H2 atoms reacting with a Pd surface.

In a palladium–hydrogen system, if incorporated H2 atoms exceed the maximum H2

solubility in the Pd layer, this can cause hysteretic behaviour in the resistance with
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 17 of 32

irreversible structural changes in the Pd layer [76]. This affects the sensor performance
and results in a loss of long-term stability. Hence, a variety of Pd alloys such as Pd–Mg,
Pd–Au, Pd–Ag, and Pd–Ni have been studied [71]. Pd combined with Ni has already been
implemented in industrial hydrogen sensors, e.g., Siemens Energy’s SITRAM Guard hy-
drogen sensor.

3.1.3. DGA Data Interpretation

The various DGA diagnostic techniques currently used by worldwide utilities in-
clude (a) Key Gas Method (KGM); (b) Rogers’ Ratio Method (RRM); (c) Doernenburg Ra-
tio Method (DRM); and d) Duval Triangle Method (DTM) [77]. Currently, all the DGA
interpretation guides are based on laboratory results. There is no widely accepted guide-
line for online DGA [77,78].
(a) Key Gas Method
According to IEEE Std C57.104—2019, Key Gas Method (KGM) can be used to diag-
nose four types of faults: thermal degradation, overheating in oil and cellulose, partial
discharge (PD), and arcing as shown in Table 5. For thermal degradation fault diagnosis,
if the hotspot temperature exceeds 300 °C, the key gas C2H4 along with C2H6, CH4, and H2
will be formed. When the temperature is over 700 °C, C2H2 will be formed [79].
For overheating in oil and cellulose fault diagnosis, CO along with C2H4, C2H6, CH4,
and H2 will be found in the oil. For partial discharge fault diagnosis, H2 along with CH4,
and a much smaller amount of C2H4 and C2H6, will be found in the oil.
High-energy arcing can produce high temperatures between 2000 °C to 3000 °C or
even higher [80,81]. When the temperature exceeds 700 °C, the key gas C2H2 will be
formed along with H2, CH4, C2H4, and C2H6, and CO, which comes from insulating paper
breakdown, will be found in the oil [79].

Table 5. The summary of KGM from IEEE C57.104.

Key Gas Fault Type Typical Proportions of Generated Combustible Gases

Predominantly ethylene with smaller proportions of ethane, me-
Ethylene (C2H4) Thermal mineral oil thane, and hydrogen. Traces of acetylene at very high fault tem-
peratures.
Predominantly carbon monoxide with much smaller quantities of
Carbon monoxide Thermal mineral oil and cellu-
hydrocarbon gases. Predominantly ethylene with smaller pro-
(CO) lose
portions of ethane, methane, and hydrogen.
Electrical low-energy partial Predominantly hydrogen with small quantities of methane and
Hydrogen (H2)
discharge (PD) traces of ethylene and ethane.
Predominantly hydrogen and acetylene with minor traces of me-
Hydrogen and acet-
Electrical high-energy (arcing) thane, ethylene, and ethane. Additionally, carbon monoxide if
ylene (H2, C2H2)
cellulose is involved.

The limitation of KGM is its conservative nature as it relies more on the absolute
concentration of the gas rather than gas evolution. The failure rate is about 50% for incon-
clusive or wrong fault identification [77]. Additionally, CO is not always a good indicator
for thermal fault in insulating paper.
(b) Rogers’ Ratio Method
Rogers’ ratio method (RRM) uses the three gas ratios C2H2/C2H4, CH4/H2, and
C2H4/C2H6 to identify five different faults as shown in Table 6. Compared to KGM, RRM
can further diagnose three levels of thermal faults: low temperature, temperatures less
than 700 °C, and temperatures over 700 °C. For instance, if the ratio of C2H4/C2H6 falls
between 1.0 to 3.0 and the ratio CH4/H2 is larger than 1.0, then the transformer health
condition is considered to be in case 4—thermal fault less than 700 °C. RRM has limited
capabilities to identify faults even when the concentration of some gases is high [77].
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 18 of 32

Table 6. Rogers’ Ratio Method (RRM) from IEEE C57.104.

Case C2H2/C2H4 CH4/H2 C2H4/C2H6 Suggested Fault Diagnosis

0 <0.1 0.1 to 1.0 <0.1 Unit normal
1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 Low energy density acring-PD
2 0.1 to 3.0 0.1 to 1.0 >0.3 Arcing—High erergy discharge
3 <0.1 0.1 to 1.0 1.0 to 3.0 Low temperature thermal
4 <0.1 >0.1 1.0 to 3.0 Thermal < 700 °C
5 <0.1 >0.1 >0.3 Thermal > 700 °C
(c) Doernenburg Ratio Method
Doernenburg ratio method (DRM) uses four gas ratios—CH4/H2, C2H2/C2H4,
C2H2/CH4, and C2H6/C2H2—to identify three different faults: thermal decomposition, co-
rona, and arcing, as shown in Table 7.
From the table, if the ratio CH4/H2 is more than 1.0, the ratio C2H2/CH4 is compared
with the threshold limit (0.3) and the ratio C2H6/C2H2 is compared with the threshold limit
(0.4). If C2H2/CH4 is larger than 0.3, it is more likely to be an arcing fault. To apply DRM,
at least one of the four key gases used in the ratios (H2, CH4, C2H2, and C2H6) needs to
exceed twice the relevant L1 concentration shown in Table 8 [59]. DRM is an old diagnosis
method and due to its low accuracy, it is not commonly used nowadays [77].

Table 7. Doernenburg Ratio Method (DRM) from IEEE C57.104.

Ratio 4 (R4)
Ratio 1 (R1) CH4/H2 Ratio 2 (R2) C2H2/C2H4 Ratio 3 (R3) C2H2/CH4
Suggested Fault Diag- C2H6/C2H2 Extracted
Extracted from Min- Extracted from Mineral Extracted from Min-
nosis from Mineral
eral Oil|Gas Space Oil|Gas Space eral Oil|Gas Space
Oil|Gas Space
1—Thermal decompo-
>1.0 >0.1 <0.75 <1.0 <0.3 <0.1 >0.4 >0.2
sition
2—Corona (low inten-
<0.1 <0.01 Not significant <0.3 <0.1 >0.4 >0.2
sity PD)
3—Arcing (high inten- >0.01,
>0.1, <1.0 >0.75 >1.0 >0.3 >0.1 <0.4 <0.2
sity PD) <0.1

Table 8. Limit of concentrations of dissolved gases from IEEE C57.104.

Key Gas Concentrations L1 (μL/L (ppm v/v))

Hydrogen (H2) 100
Methane (CH4) 120
Carbon Monoxide (CO) 350
Acetylene (C2H2) 1
Ethylene (C2H4) 50
Ethane (C2H6) 65
(d) Duval Triangle Method
Duval triangle method (DTM) uses the graphical triangle shown in Figure 21 to di-
agnose various fault types. This method employs the concentration of three gases: CH4,
C2H2 and C2H4, which are presented as the triangle sides with a percentage from 0% to
100%. In DTM, the entire triangular area has been subdivided into seven fault regions
labelled PD, D1, D2, T1, T2, T3, and DT with a detailed code as given in Table 9 [77].
Using (6)–(8), the gas concentration in percentage can be calculated and used in the
Duval Triangle to locate the fault region. An example is given in Figure 21, when %CH4 is
34.5%, %C2H4 is 31%, and %C2H2 is 34.5%, the possible fault is D2—discharge of high en-
ergy, according to Table 9.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 19 of 32

%CH = (6)

%C H = (7)

%C H = (8)

Figure 21. Classic Duval Triangle from IEEE C57.104.

Table 9. Abbreviations of basic fabaults.

Symbol Fault
PD Partial discharge
D1 Discharge of low energy
D2 Discharge of high energy
T1 Thermal fualts of less than 300 °C
T2 Thermal fault between 300 °C and 700 °C
T3 Thermal faults greater than 700 °C
DT Mixture of themal and electrical faults

Although the classic Duval Triangle can diagnose the basic faults, misclassification
can happen when the located point is close to the boundaries between adjacent sections.
Additionally, the analysis of the Duval Triangle can be inaccurate for a transformer with
a load tap changer and a non-mineral liquid transformer. Hence, various modified Duval
Triangles along with other geometrical shapes such as the pentagon have been introduced
[6,59,77,78].
Duval pentagon method (DPM) is similar to DTM. Instead of three key gases, DPM
employs five key gases: H2, CH4, C2H2, C2H4, and C2H6 and can diagnose six fault types
(PD, D1, D2, T1, T2, and T3) along with stray gassing (S) in mineral oil as shown in Figure
22. This method also exhibits misdiagnosing for faults close to the boundaries between
adjacent sections.

Figure 22. Duval pentagon 1 from IEEE C57.104.

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 20 of 32

Online DGA method has been implemented for the online condition monitoring sys-
tem. However, all diagnostic methods are initially designed to determine a single fault.
When the transformers experience multiple faults, they are difficult to identify with cer-
tainty [77]. Therefore, developing new diagnostic methods based on artificial intelligent
methods can improve the accuracy of such systems [58,69].

3.2. Partial Discharge

Partial discharge (PD) is a localized dielectric discharge that partially bridges the in-
sulation between conductors or between conductors and earth [82]. In oil-immersed trans-
formers, PD can occur in insulating paper, oil, or at the interface of oil–paper insulation.
During long-term operation, moisture, gas bubbles, and electrode burrs are generated in-
side the transformer, resulting in PD phenomena [83]. Additionally, the insulation defects
due to overvoltage can cause PD and accelerate insulation aging [83].
Over time, PD activity deteriorates the transformer performance and leads to further
degradation to the dielectric insulation system. Once PD has started, it can propagate
throughout the insulation until complete breakdown [84]. Hence, early detection of PD
during operation is important to prevent transformer failure. Accuracy of the online PD
detection techniques in power transformers is based on several parameters such as elec-
tromagnetic emission, acoustic emission, and chemical changes [83]. These techniques are
elaborated below.

3.2.1. Ultrahigh-Frequency (UHF) Detection

PD events produce electromagnetic pulses with frequencies within the UHF range
(300 MHz to 3 GHz) [85]. In general, the interference signal frequency range on-site is
below 400 MHz [83]. Hence, UHF sensors are widely used due to their high sensitivity
and immunity to noise [86,87]. This method was developed for gas-insulated switchgear
(GIS) in 1988 and in 1997, it starts to be applied for power transformers [88].
UHF sensors can be mounted inside or outside the wall surface of the tank or through
an oil drain valve. In order to pinpoint the PD sources, multiple UHF sensors around a
transformer tank are utilized [89]. Localization of the PD source can be achieved by time
differences of arrival (TDOA), which measures and compares the captured signals arrival
time from different sensor locations [89,90].
UHF sensors are considered to be antennas that receive electromagnetic (EM) waves
from PD sources. The original UHF signals pass through a filter to eliminate noise [88,91].
An amplifier is connected to the filter in order to maintain measurement sensitivity. The
signals are transmitted by coaxial cables to the detector and sampled by data acquisition
(DAQ) as per the process shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23. The process of PD measurement.

UHF has two common methods: tuned UHF narrowband or medium band measure-
ment with variable centre frequency; and UHF broadband measurement with fixed band-
width [92,93]. Figure 24a shows an example of PD signal measured by tuned UHF nar-
rowband/medium band method [92]. The lower trace in the figure is the background noise
while the upper trace is the actual PD signal. It is worth mentioning that the interference
noise disturbs both the upper and lower traces [92]. Figure 24b shows a PD signal meas-
ured by the broadband UHF method with fixed bandwidth [92]. The setting of this is easy
to adapt, however, it has lower signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) [92].
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 21 of 32

(a)

(b)
Figure 24. (a) Signal of tuned UHF narrowband method and (b) bandwidth of UHF broadband
method.

UHF detection has advantages of immunity against electromagnetic disturbances

compared to the conventional methods presented in IEC 60270 [88]. Therefore, UHF sen-
sors have been employed for on-site PD detection. However, it is uncertain to identify the
correlation of the UHF signal magnitude to the amount of charge in pC, which results in
a lack of suitable calibration methods [88].

3.2.2. Optical Detection

The acoustic emission (AE) method measures the amplitude, attenuation, or phase
delay of acoustic signals that are produced from PD. Ultrasonic AE frequency lies between
the 20 kHz to 500 kHz range [85]. The traditional AE sensors’ detection element is lead
zirconate titanate (PZT)-based material [94]. It is difficult to ensure the sensitivity and ac-
curacy of PD detection, especially if it is highly affected by the electromagnetic interfer-
ence (EMI) [95,96]. Optical fibres have advantages of anti-EMI. The traditional optical sen-
sor is designed to detect the light from a PD event. However, this type of optical sensor is
unable to localize the PD source. To overcome these drawbacks, optical sensors based on
AE have become more popular. In addition, optical sensors can be installed inside the
transformer tank walls due to its compact size and the lack of using metal materials
[83,95].
There are three main types of optical technology: extrinsic Fabry–Perot (FP) based
sensor, dual-beam interference based sensor (intrinsic interferometer) and Fibre Bragg
Grating (FBG) based sensor. A brief comparison of various optical detection technologies
is given in Table 10 [83,94,96].
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 22 of 32

Table 10. Comparison of different optical detection technologies.

Sensor Type Comparison

Extrinsic Fabry-Perot Interferometer • Complicate to manufacture
• Compact in size
Intrinsic Interferometer (Mach-Zehnder, • Easy to manufacture
Michelson and Sagnac Interferometric) • Sensitivity can be improved by
using longer optical sensing fibre
Fiber Bragg Gratings • Easy to multiplex
• Not sensitive as interferometers to
acoustic waves

The Fabry–Perot interferometer sensor is a typical fibre-optic interferometer [96]. In

the sensor structure shown in Figure 25, the light from a laser light source propagates into
the sensing probe through a fibre coupler. The first reflection of the light occurs in the FP
cavity which is at the end of the fibre core. A small amount of incident light returns along
the original path of the fibre core. Most of the light undergoes the second reflection at the
quartz membrane of the FP cavity. The second reflection also returns back to the fibre
coupler. By adjusting the quartz membrane, the two beams of light can be of the same
frequency, amplitude, and direction at the fibre coupler. The PD event changes the quartz
membrane shape and the phase of the second reflected light and can be detected by a
photo-detector, which generates an electrical signal as shown in Figure 26 [83,97].

Figure 25. Fabry–Perot interference sensor structure.

Figure 26. Example of the electrical signal output from the Fabry–Perot optical sensor.

The working principle of dual-beam interferometers such as the Mach–Zehnder sen-

sor, Michelson sensor, and Sagnac sensor is similar to the Fabry–Perot interference sensor,
as they all have an interference optical structure [83]. In the Mach–Zehnder sensor
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 23 of 32

structure, the light in fibre coupler 1 is divided into two beams, through reference and
sensing fibres, and interfere again in fibre coupler 2 as shown in Figure 27.

Figure 27. Diagram of Mach–Zehnder interferometer structure.

Different from the Mach–Zehnder sensor, in the Michelson sensor structure, the two
light beams pass through the reference and sensing fibres, then are reflected by a Faraday
rotating mirror back to the previous path as shown in Figure 28. So, when the sensing
fibre is deformed by PD, it causes a phase difference between the two light beams [83].

Figure 28. Diagram of Michelson interferometer structure.

In the Sagnac sensor structure, the light is divided at the fibre coupler as shown in
Figure 29. The two beams of light are travelling in opposite directions through the sensing
fibre. Then, the two light beams interfere at the fibre coupler. The PD event results in a
phase difference between the two optical signals [83,98].

Figure 29. Diagram of Sagnac interferometer structure.

Different from interferometers, Fibre Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors have a diffraction
optical structure. This detection technology is of a reflective structure in the core of an
optical fibre as shown in Figure 30 [99]. It reflects particular wavelengths of light and
transmits all others.

Figure 30. Working principle of FBG.

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 24 of 32

Any change in Bragg wavelength (λB) caused by PD is converted into an equivalent

change in optical intensity [83]. The optical intensity differences can be detected by pho-
todetector and converted into a voltage signal. The Fibre Bragg Grating sensor structure
is shown in Figure 31.

Figure 31. Diagram of Fibre Bragg Grating interferometer structure.

The optical sensors have advantages of being able to survive in harsh environments
such as in high temperatures and against chemical corrosion [96]. This offers an option to
install the optical sensors inside the transformer, which further reduces the external noise
interference. The geometric PD sensors’ location can be determined by utilizing multiple
optical sensors either around the transformer tank or in a sensor array [100–102]. Overall,
optical sensors have been proven to be effective techniques for PD detection.

3.2.3. Transient Earth Voltage Detection

Transient Earth voltage (TEV) is a relatively new PD detection method [103]. TEV
sensor can detect two frequency ranges: several 100 MHz from the surface current and
several 10MHz from the PD current [103].
When a PD event occurs, the lower frequency component can be detected as current,
which flows from the external ground to the TEV sensor. The electromagnetic radiation
from the PD source also propagates as a surface current on the tank wall. Due to the skin
effect, this current travels from inside of the transformer wall, leaks out from joints such
as bushings, and is detected by the TEV sensor as shown in Figure 32 [103–105].
Although the mechanism and propagation process of the TEV signal are not fully
understood yet [106], it is still considered as another online PD detection method. As a
non-intrusive method, the major advantage of a TEV sensor is that it can be easily attached
to the outer surface of the transformer tank wall without any operation interruption.

Figure 32. Detection principle of TEV signals.

Energies 2022, 15, 3379 25 of 32

3.2.4. High-Frequency Current Transformer

A high-frequency current transformer (HFCT) is another non-intrusive PD sensor.
HFCT can be clamped onto the ground connection(s) of a power transformer [107]. HFCT
measures the short transient current pulses that flow through the Earth conductor due to
PD activity.
A typical HFCT sensor has a copper wire wound around a ferrite core and is con-
nected to a 50-Ω BNC connector as shown in Figure 33. The transformer Earth cable carries
a transient current passing through the middle of the ferrite core. This current on the pri-
mary side produces an electromagnetic flux around the cable. Then, the flux induces a
current and voltage on the secondary winding [99,108].

Figure 33. Diagram of HFCT structure.

3.3. Thermal Measurements

The thermal measurements are used to detect temperature rise in the transformer
winding and insulation mediums [109]. When the transformer is in operation, the heat
generated from windings and core circulates with oil. The hotter oil flows to the top of the
tank and is cooled down then flows downward to the tank bottom. The traditional method
of thermal monitoring is to measure top oil temperature and estimate the hot-spot tem-
perature (HST) [110].
The temperature of the top oil of the tank can be measured by using a resistance
thermometer or thermocouple sensor. HST is the maximum temperature measured from
the winding insulation of the transformer. For new transformers, optical sensors can be
directly installed in the spacers of winding disks to measure HST [111]. However, for al-
ready assembled units, it is not practical to install optical probes inside the winding struc-
ture. HST values can be estimated based on the following techniques: thermal equivalent
circuits (TECs) [111] and stochastic, numerical, and practical experiment techniques [109].
TECs are based on the thermal-electrical analogy, and widely used due to their simplicity.
The most commonly used estimation method is presented in Clause 7 of IEEE Std C57.91
[9]. The continuous improvement on artificial intelligent technologies will help online
thermal analysis become more accurate in order to handle complex applications [112].
An infrared thermograph application is a non-destructive thermal detection method
that uses a thermal camera to detect infrared radiation emission. Abnormal conditions
such as a cooling system fault, short-circuit current, or poor joint contact can be monitored
online [113]. However, this method only scans the surface radiation and detects the trans-
former’s external temperature as shown in Figure 34. Although the infrared thermograph
method can be used for fast detection of temperature rise, its sensitivity is concerning,
especially for detecting HST.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 26 of 32

Figure 34. An example of a thermal image taken by infrared camera.

3.4. Vibration Analysis

Vibration analysis is used to detect internal mechanical faults such as deformation or
aging of the contacts in a transformer based on changes in vibration response [114]. The
vibration response can be measured by an accelerometer, which is the most commonly
used type. The output of the accelerometer is a voltage signal measured in mV, which
contains noise. Therefore, for accurate results, the signal needs to pass through filters
[115]. When a transformer is in good condition, the measurements can be recorded as a
fingerprint for future comparisons [116]. A healthy transformer always produces a peri-
odic vibration signal [114].
Vibration response analysis is an online method and can be used as a complement to
offline methods such as SFRA [117]. However, vibration response is detected from indi-
vidual measurement points on the tank, which results in inconsistent signatures.

4. Challenges and Opportunities

While several developments have been made to various condition monitoring and
fault diagnosis techniques currently used by the industry, a lot of challenges still need to
be solved through comprehensive research and field trials.
For instance, there is no practical online method to replace the offline SFRA measure-
ments. While some research efforts can be found in the literature to identify and quantify
mechanical faults within a transformer through its V-I characteristics at the power fre-
quency [118], the practical feasibility of this technique has not been assessed yet. Addi-
tionally, in the current SFRA method, the analysis of the results is not always a straight-
forward process due to the lack of widely accepted interpretation codes. The use of artifi-
cially intelligent (AI) and effective digital signal processing techniques may result in reli-
able, consistent, and automated code to analyze frequency response analysis signatures
[119]. Optimization and digital image processing techniques may also be used to improve
the accuracy of the analysis [120,121].
While measurements and analyses of dissolved gases are well matured for mineral
oil, research effort still needs to be conducted to develop reliable DGA codes for biode-
gradable insulating oil and thermally upgraded insulation paper. The currently used in-
terpretation codes are not consistent and may result in a different conclusion to the same
oil sample. Combining these techniques in one AI code can improve the detection accu-
racy of the DGA method [122]. The accuracy of current online DGA sensors depends on
several environmental and operating conditions, which calls for more research in this area
to increase the accuracy of such sensors and enable them to measure other oil parameters
such as Furan content, acidity, IFT, and BDV [17].
With the global trend to increase the reliance on renewable energy sources, more
fluctuation in the generated power and voltage is expected due to the intermittency of
such sources. Moreover, the load demand will exhibit uncertainty in magnitude and loca-
tion with the increased number of plug-in electric vehicles that also result in increased
harmonics in the power grids due to the power electronic interface. Such factors will have
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 27 of 32

a significant impact on the transformer condition monitoring and fault diagnosis tech-
niques. For example, if the oil is sampled for DGA measurement during a ramping period
in the generation and/or load, inaccurate values will be revealed [80,123]. On the other
hand, the harmonics in the voltage signal can be employed for online frequency response
analysis.
The use of multi-sensors to measure different diagnostic parameters may also call for
active research on wireless energy transfer to charge such sensors [124]. While the power
required by each individual sensor is small, the use of a large number of online sensors
may represent an additional burden to the network.
It is worth mentioning that with the worldwide efforts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and establish more DC and smart grids, the adoption of solid-state transformers
and advanced power electronic interfacing systems will be given much attention in the
very near future and the use of classical magnetic-core based transformers may be dimin-
ished [125,126].

5. Conclusions
Oil-immersed power transformer is a critical and expensive asset in power systems.
Failures of power transformers result in huge repair costs, environment disaster, and hu-
man injury or death. Therefore, reliable condition monitoring techniques must be adopted
to avoid such consequences. The conventional offline condition monitoring techniques
have been used for many years. Due to the offline line nature, the tests can only be per-
formed during scheduled maintenance and the opportunity to detect incipient faults
could be missed. The online condition monitoring technologies are relatively new and
have been given much attention by the industry and researchers. In addition, the power
industry is moving towards digital operation, which calls for more stable and accurate
online condition monitoring systems. Over the years, researchers and developers have
invented various online monitoring sensors and diagnostic methods such as DGA, PD,
thermal measurements, and vibration analysis.
This paper covers working principles of commonly used offline and online methods.
To design a most suitable condition monitoring system for a power transformer, it is im-
portant to understand the functions, measuring ranges, suitable diagnostic methods, and
advantages and limitations of each technique. The future generations of condition moni-
toring systems would be comprehensive and could provide users with more precise in-
formation. In such systems, it is expected to not only provide information about the health
condition of the transformer, but also to suggest a reliable asset management scheme and
estimate transformer remnant life based on the measured parameters.

Author Contributions: Methodology, L.J.; software, L.J.; validation, L.J., D.K. and A.A.-S.; formal
analysis, L.J., D.K. and A.A.-S.; investigation, D.K.; resources, L.J. and A.A.-S.; data curation, A.A.-
S.; writing—original draft preparation, L.J.; writing—review and editing, L.J., D.K. and A.A.-S.; su-
pervision, A.A.-S.; project administration, A.A.-S.; funding acquisition, S.K. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: Authors sincerely acknowledge the support from BHP for providing a scholar-
ship to the first author to conduct her research on high voltage assets condition monitoring meth-
odologies. Authors also acknowledge the support from Curtin University, Australia for facilitating
research resources.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 28 of 32

References
1. Islam, M.M.; Lee, G.; Hettiwatte, S.N. A review of condition monitoring techniques and diagnostic tests for lifetime estimation
of power transformers. Electr. Eng. 2017, 100, 581–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00202-017-0532-4.
2. Aljohani, O.; Abu-Siada, A. Application of DIP to Detect Power Transformers Axial Displacement and Disk Space Variation
Using FRA Polar Plot Signature. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2017, 13, 1794–1805. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2016.2626779.
3. Martin, D.; Marks, J.; Saha, T. Survey of Australian power transformer failures and retirements. IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag. 2017,
33, 16–22. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2017.8014387.
4. Samimi, M.H.; Ilkhechi, H.D. Survey of different sensors employed for the power transformer monitoring. IET Sci. Meas. Technol.
2020, 14, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-smt.2019.0103.
5. Ahmed, A.-S. Power Transformer Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis; The Institution of Engineering and Technology: Stevenage,
UK, 2018.
6. Soni, R.; Mehta, B. Review on asset management of power transformer by diagnosing incipient faults and faults identification
using various testing methodologies. Eng. Fail. Anal. 2021, 128, 105634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021.105634.
7. Saha, T.K. Review of modern diagnostic techniques for assessing insulation condition in aged transformers. IEEE Trans. Dielectr.
Electr. Insul. 2003, 10, 903–917. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2003.1237337.
8. Li, S.; Ge, Z.; Abu-Siada, A.; Yang, L.; Li, S.; Wakimoto, K. A New Technique to Estimate the Degree of Polymerization of
Insulation Paper Using Multiple Aging Parameters of Transformer Oil. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 157471–157479.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2949580.
9. IEEE Std C57.91-2011 (Revision of IEEE Std C57.91-1995); IEEE Guide for Loading Mineral-Oil-Immersed Transformers and Step-
Voltage Regulators; IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2012; pp. 1–123. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2012.6166928.
10. Cheim, L.; Platts, D.; Prevost, T.; Xu, S. Furan analysis for liquid power transformers. IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag. 2012, 28, 8–21.
https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2012.6159177.
11. Abu-Siada, A. Correlation of furan concentration and spectral response of transformer oil-using expert systems. IET Sci. Meas.
Technol. 2011, 5, 183–188. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-smt.2011.0017.
12. Das, N.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. New approach to estimate furan contents in transformer oil using spectroscopic analysis. In
Proceedings of the 2012 22nd Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC), Bali, Indonesia, 26–29
September 2012; pp. 1–4.
13. IEEE Guide for Diagnostic Field Testing of Fluid-Filled Power Transformers, Regulators, and Reactors; IEEE Std C57.152-2013. IEEE:
Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2013; pp. 1–121. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2013.6544533.
14. Feng, D.; Wang, Z.; Jarman, P. Transmission power transformer assessment using furan measurement with the aid of thermal
model. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Bali, Indonesia, 23–
27 September 2012; pp. 521–524. https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2012.6416194.
15. Abu-Siada, A.; Lai, S.P.; Islam, S.M. A Novel Fuzzy-Logic Approach for Furan Estimation in Transformer Oil. IEEE Trans. Power
Deliv. 2012, 27, 469–474. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2012.2186986.
16. Karthik, R.; Raja, T.S.R.; Shunmugam, S.S. Performance evaluation of transformer oil using uv-visible spectrophotometer. Acta
Sci. Technol. 2014, 36, 245–250.
17. Polanský, R.; Hahn, P.; Kadlec, P.; Moravcová, D.; Prosr, P. Quantifying the Effect of Catalysts on the Lifetime of Transformer
Oil. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 1309. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10041309.
18. Bakar, N.A.; Abu-Siada, A. A novel method of measuring transformer oil interfacial tension using UV-Vis spectroscopy. IEEE
Electr. Insul. Mag. 2016, 32, 7–13. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2016.7361098.
19. Baka, N.A.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S.; El-Naggar, M.F. A new technique to measure interfacial tension of transformer oil using
UV-Vis spectroscopy. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2015, 22, 1275–1282. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2015.7076831.
20. Cui, H.; Yang, L.; Li, S.; Abu-Siada, A.; Yan, W.; Qu, G.; Li, S.; Zhu, Y.; Yue, W. Effect of Temperature and Pre-stressed Voltage
on Breakdown of Oil-Impregnated Paper. In Proceedings of the 2018 Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), Perth, WA,
Australia, 23–26 September 2018; pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2018.8535932.
21. Suleiman, A.A.; Muhamad, N.A.; Bashir, N.; Murad, N.S.; Arief, Y.Z.; Phung, B.T. Effect of moisture on breakdown voltage and
structure of palm based insulation oils. IEEE Trans. Dielectri. Electr. Insul. 2014, 21, 2119–2126.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2014.004431.
22. IEEE Std C57.106-2015 (Revision of IEEE Std C57.106-2006); IEEE Guide for Acceptance and Maintenance of Insulating Mineral
Oil in Electrical Equipment. IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2016; pp. 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2016.7442048.
23. Li, S.; Yang, L.; Li, S.; Zhu, Y.; Cui, H.; Yan, W.; Ge, Z.; Abu-Siada, A. Effect of AC-voltage harmonics on oil impregnated paper
in transformer bushings. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2020, 27, 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2019.008247.
24. Juris, J.S.; Duran, I.C.; Marulanda, A.R. Correlation between Insulation Resistance and Dissolved Gas Analysis Tests in Power
Transformers. In Proceedings of the 2020 IEEE PES Transmission & Distribution Conference and Exhibition—Latin America
(T&D LA), Montevideo, Uruguay, 28 September–2 October 2020; pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDLA47668.2020.9326248.
25. Karimi, H.T.F. Measurement variations of insulation resistance/polarization index during utilizing time in HV electrical ma-
chines—A survey. Measurement 2015, 59, 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2014.09.034.
26. IEEE Std 43-2013 (Revision of IEEE Std 43-2000); IEEE Recommended Practice for Testing Insulation Resistance of Electric Ma-
chinery. IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 1–37. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2014.6754111.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 29 of 32

27. Marques, A.P.; Azevedo, C.H.B.; dos Santos, J.A.L.; Sousa, F.R.d.C.; Moura, N.K.; Ribeiro, C.J.; Dias, Y.A.; Rodrigues, A.; Rocha,
A.S.; Brito, L.d.C. Insulation resistance of power transformers—Method for optimized analysis. In Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE
19th International Conference on Dielectric Liquids (ICDL), Manchester, UK, 25–29 June 2017; pp. 1–4.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ICDL.2017.8124629.
28. Malpure, B.D.; Baburao, K. Failure Analysis & Diagnostics of Power Transformer Using Dielectric dissipation factor. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis, Beijing, China, 21–24 April 2008; pp.
497–501. https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2008.4580334.
29. Setayeshmehr, A.; Akbari, A.; Borsi, H.; Gockenbach, E. On-line monitoring and diagnoses of power transformer bushings. IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2006, 13, 608–615. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2006.1657975.
30. Faria, G.; Pereira, M.; Lopes, G.; Villibor, J.; Tavares, P.; Faria, I. Evaluation of Capacitance and Dielectric Dissipation Factor of
Distribution Transformers—Experimental Results. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Electrical Insulation Conference (EIC), San
Antonio, TX, USA, 17–20 June 2018; pp. 336–339. https://doi.org/10.1109/EIC.2018.8481052.
31. Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. A new approach to identify power transformer criticality and asset management decision based on
dissolved gas-in-oil analysis. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2012, 19, 1007–1012. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2012.6215106.
32. Wang, D.; Zhou, L.; Yang, Z.-X.; Cui, Y.; Wang, L.; Jiang, J.; Guo, L. A New Testing Method for the Dielectric Response of Oil-
Immersed Transformer. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr. 2020, 67, 10833–10843. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2019.2959500.
33. Boss, P.; Csepes, G.; Der Houhanessian, V.; Filippini, J.; Guuinic, P.; Gafvert, U.; Zaeng, W. Dielectric response methods for
diagnostics of power transformers. IEEE Electr. Insul. Mag. 2003, 19, 12–18. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2003.1203017.
34. Zhang, T.; Tan, X.; Zhang, B.; Xu, X. Study on Moisture and Aging of Oil-Paper Insulation Using Relative Initial Slope of Re-
covery Voltage. IEEE Trans. Appl. Supercond. 2016, 26, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/TASC.2016.2600299.
35. Saha, T.K.; Tong, Y.Z. Experience with return voltage measurements for assessing insulation conditions in service-aged trans-
formers. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2003, 18, 128–135. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2002.803722.
36. Fofana, I.; Bouaicha, A.; Farzaneh, M. Aging Characterization of Transformer Oil-Pressboard Insulation using Modern Diag-
nostic Techniques. Eur. Trans. Electr. Power 2011, 11, 1110–1127. https://doi.org/10.1002/etep.499.
37. Talib, M.A.; Ghazali, N.A.M.; Christie, M.; Zakaria, W.; Hashim, I.; Uthman, S.; Jamali, M.N. Diagnosis of transformer insulation
condition using recovery voltage measurements. In Proceedings of the National Power Engineering Conference, PECon 2003,
Bangi, Malaysia, 15–16 December 2003; pp. 329–332. https://doi.org/10.1109/PECON.2003.1437467.
38. Linhjell, D.; Lundgaard, L.; Gafvert, U. Dielectric response of mineral oil impregnated cellulose and the impact of aging. IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2007, 14, 156–169. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2007.302884.
39. Saha, T.K.; Darveniza, M.; Hill, D.J.T.; Le, T.T. Electrical and chemical diagnostics of transformers insulation. A. Aged trans-
former samples. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 1997, 12, 1547–1554. https://doi.org/10.1109/61.634174.
40. Saha, T.K.; Purkait, P. Investigation of polarization and depolarization current measurements for the assessment of oil-paper
insulation of aged transformers. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2004, 11, 144–154. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2004.1266329.
41. Liu, J.; Zhang, D.; Wei, X.; Karimi, H.R. Transformation Algorithm of Dielectric Response in Time-Frequency Domain. Math.
Probl. Eng. 2014, 2014, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/547105.
42. Zhang, T.; Li, X.; Lv, H.; Tan, X. Parameter Identification and Calculation of Return Voltage Curve Based on FDS Data. IEEE
Trans. Appl. Supercond. 2014, 24, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/TASC.2014.2344763.
43. Kumara, S.; Bandara, K.; Wickramasuriya, P.; Yousuf, F.; Ekanayake, C.; Fernando, M.; Wang, Z.; Gubanski, S.M. Frequency
Domain Measurements for Diagnosis of Power Transformers: Experiences from Australia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka and UK. CIGRE
Sci. Eng. (CSE) 2021, 2021, 82–107.
44. Abu-Siada, A.; Aljohani, O. Detecting incipient radial deformations of power transformer windings using polar plot and digital
image processing. IET Sci. Meas. Technol. 2018, 12, 492–499. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-smt.2017.0412.
45. Bigdeli, M.; Abu-Siada, A. Clustering of transformer condition using frequency response analysis based on k-means and GOA.
Electr. Power Syst. Res. 2022, 202, 107619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2021.107619.
46. Al-Ameri, S.M.A.N.; Kamarudin, M.S.; Yousof, M.F.M.; Salem, A.A.; Banakhr, F.A.; Mosaad, M.I.; Abu-Siada, A. Understanding
the Influence of Power Transformer Faults on the Frequency Response Signature Using Simulation Analysis and Statistical
Indicators. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 70935–70947. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3076984.
47. Abu-Siada, A.; Mosaad, M.I.; Kim, D.; El-Naggar, M.F. Estimating Power Transformer High Frequency Model Parameters Using
Frequency Response Analysis. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2020, 35, 1267–1277. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2019.2938020.
48. Aljohani, O.; Abu-Siada, A. Application of digital image processing to detect transformer bushing faults and oil degradation
using FRA polar plot signature. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 428–436. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2016.006088.
49. Zhao, X.; Yao, C.; Zhao, Z.; Abu-Siada, A. Performance evaluation of online transformer internal fault detection based on tran-
sient overvoltage signals. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 3906–3915. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2017.006772.
50. Behjat, V.; Vahedi, A.; Setayeshmehr, A.; Borsi, H.; Gockenbach, E. Diagnosing Shorted Turns on the Windings of Power Trans-
formers Based Upon Online FRA Using Capacitive and Inductive Couplings. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2011, 26, 2123–2133.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2151285.
51. Zhao, X.; Yao, C.; Zhou, Z.; Li, C.; Wang, X.; Zhu, T.; Abu-Siada, A. Experimental Evaluation of Transformer Internal Fault
Detection Based on V–I Characteristics. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electr. 2020, 67, 4108–4119. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIE.2019.2917368.
52. Iwanusiw, O.W.; Eng, P. The Art and Science of Transformer Ratio Measurement. In Proceedings of the 2018 IEEE Electrical
Insulation Conference (EIC), San Antonio, TX, USA, 17–20 June 2018; pp. 390–394. https://doi.org/10.1109/EIC.2018.8481036.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 30 of 32

53. Razzaq, A.S.A.; Yousof, M.F.M.; Al-Ameri, S.M.; Talib, M.A.; Mshkil, A.J. Interpretation of Inter-Turn Fault in Transformer
Winding Using Turns Ratio Test and Frequency Response Analysis. Intern. J. Electr. Electron. Eng. Telecommun. 2022, 11, 218-
225, https//doi.org/10.18178/ijeetc.11.3.218-225.
54. Osmanbasic, E. Importance of using high test voltage for transformer turns ratio test. Transform. Mag. 2021, 8, 98–105.
55. Abu-Siada, A.; Arshad, M.; Islam, S. Fuzzy logic approach to identify transformer criticality using dissolved gas analysis. In
Proceedings of the IEEE PES General Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 25–29 July 2010; pp. 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1109/PES.2010.5589789.
56. Norazhar, A.B.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. A review on chemical diagnosis techniques for transformer paper insulation degrada-
tion. In Proceedings of the 2013 Australasian Universities Power Engineering Conference (AUPEC), Hobart, TAS, Australia, 29
September–3 October 2013; pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/AUPEC.2013.6725476.
57. Abu-Siada, A. Improved Consistent Interpretation Approach of Fault Type within Power Transformers Using Dissolved Gas
Analysis and Gene Expression Programming. Energies 2019, 12, 730. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/1996-
1073/12/4/730 (22 Feburary 2019).
58. Abu-Siada, A.; Hmood, S.; Islam, S. A new fuzzy logic approach for consistent interpretation of dissolved gas-in-oil analysis.
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2013, 20, 2343–2349. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2013.6678888.
59. Bakar, N.A.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. A review of dissolved gas analysis measurement and interpretation techniques. IEEE Electr.
Insul. Mag. 2014, 30, 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2014.6804740.
60. Chow, J.; Lee, R.; Wong, E.; Leung, K.; Lai, G. Novel engineering techniques to overcoming traditional challenges in online
condition monitoring systems for power transformer. HKIE Trans. 2018, 25, 248–254.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1023697X.2018.1539348.
61. Ma, L.-C.; Chen, C.; Lin, J.Y.S. Teflon AF2400 Hollow Fiber Membrane Contactor for Dissolved Gas-in-Oil Extraction: Mass
Transfer Characteristics. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2020, 59, 16795–16804. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.0c03178.
62. Ma, L.-C.; Chen, C.; Chen, C.-H.; Tung, K.-L.; Lin, J.Y.S. Gas Transport Properties of Teflon AF2400/Ceramic Composite Hollow
Fiber Membranes in Dissolved-Gas-in-Oil Extraction. Ind. Eng. Chem. Res. 2020, 59, 5392–5401.
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.9b06026.
63. Fan, J.; Wang, F.; Sun, Q.; Bin, F.; Ding, J.; Ye, H. SOFC detector for portable gas chromatography: High-sensitivity detection of
dissolved gases in transformer oil. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 2854–2863.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2017.006438.
64. Fan, J.; Wang, F.; Sun, Q.; Ye, H.; Jiang, Q. Application of Polycrystalline SnO2 Sensor Chromatographic System to Detect Dis-
solved Gases in Transformer Oil. Sens. Actuators B Chem. 2018, 267, 636–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2018.04.014.
65. Mao, Z.; Wen, J. Detection of dissolved gas in oil–insulated electrical apparatus by photoacoustic spectroscopy. IEEE Electr.
Insul. Mag. 2015, 31, 7–14. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2015.7126069.
66. Cui, H.; Yang, L.; Zhu, Y.; Li, S.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. Dissolved Gas Analysis for Power Transformers within Distributed
Renewable Generation-Based Systems. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2021, 28, 1349–1356.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2021.009490.
67. Palzer, S. Photoacoustic-based gas sensing: A review. Sensors 2020, 20, 2745. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20092745.
68. Yun, Y.; Chen, W.; Wang, Y.; Pan, C. Photoacoustic detection of dissolved gases in transformer oil. Eur. Trans. Electr. Power 2008,
18, 562–576. https://doi.org/10.1002/etep.191.
69. Bakar, N.A.; Abu-Siada, A. A new method to detect dissolved gases in transformer oil using NIR-IR spectroscopy. IEEE Trans.
Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 409–419. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2016.006025.
70. Yang, T.; Chen, W. Detection of Dissolved Gas in Transformer Oil Based on All-Optical Photoacoustic Spectroscopy. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2020 IEEE International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and Application (ICHVE), Beijing, China, 6–
10 September 2020; pp. 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICHVE49031.2020.9279929.
71. Kondalkar, V.V.; Park, J.; Lee, K. MEMS hydrogen gas sensor for in-situ monitoring of hydrogen gas in transformer oil. Sens.
Actuators B Chem. 2021, 326, 128989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2020.128989.
72. Lewis, F.A. The palladium/hydrogen system. Berichte Bunsenges. Phys. Chem. 1967, 71, 1160–1161.
73. Christofides, C.; Mandelis, A. Solid-state sensors for trace hydrogen gas detection. J. Appl. Phys. 1990, 68, R1–R30.
https://doi.org/10.1063/1.346398.
74. Kumar, A. Palladium-based trench gate MOSFET for highly sensitive hydrogen gas sensor. Mater. Sci. Semicond. Process. 2020,
120, 105274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2020.105274.
75. Zhang, L.; Zhao, H.; Li, Y.; Han, Y.; Wang, S.; Shang, Y. Study on Multi-parameter On-line Monitoring System for Transformer
Bushing. In Proceedings of the 2020 Asia Energy and Electrical Engineering Symposium (AEEES), Chengdu, China, 29–31 May
2020; pp. 54–58. https://doi.org/10.1109/AEEES48850.2020.9121465.
76. Lee, E.; Lee, J.M.; Koo, J.H.; Lee, W.; Lee, T. Hysteresis behavior of electrical resistance in Pd thin films during the process of
absorption and desorption of hydrogen gas. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 2010, 35, 6984–6991.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.04.051.
77. IEEE Std C57.104-2019 (Revision of IEEE Std C57.104-2008); IEEE Guide for the Interpretation of Gases Generated in Mineral Oil-
Immersed Transformers. IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 1–98. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2019.8890040.
78. IEEE Std C57.155-2014; IEEE Guide for Interpretation of Gases Generated in Natural Ester and Synthetic Ester-Immersed Trans-
formers. IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2014; pp. 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2014.6966710.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 31 of 32

79. Faiz, J.; Soleimani, M. Dissolved gas analysis evaluation in electric power transformers using conventional methods a review.
IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 1239–1248. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2017.005959.
80. Cui, H.; Yang, L.; Li, S.; Qu, G.; Wang, H.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. Impact of Load Ramping on Power Transformer Dissolved
Gas Analysis. IEEE Access 2019, 7, 170343–170351. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2926435.
81. Wannapring, E.; Suwanasri, C.; Suwanasri, T. Dissolved Gas Analysis methods for distribution transformers. In Proceedings of
the 2016 13th International Conference on Electrical Engineering/Electronics, Computer, Telecommunications and Information
Technology (ECTI-CON), Chiang Mai, Thailand, 28 June–1 July 2016; pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ECTICon.2016.7561320.
82. Sarkar, B.; Koley, C.; Roy, N.K.; Kumbhakar, P. Condition monitoring of high voltage transformers using Fiber Bragg Grating
Sensor. Meas.: J. Int. Meas. Confed. 2015, 74, 255–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2015.07.014.
83. Jiang, G.M.J. Partial Discharge Detection with Optical Methods. In Optical Sensing in Power Transformers; Wiley: London, UK,
2021; Chapter 5, pp. 137–188.
84. Kim, D.; Abu-Siada, A. Partial Discharge Analysis on-site in Various High Voltage Apparatus. In Proceedings of the 2018 Con-
dition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), Perth, WA, Australia, 23–26 September 2018; pp. 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2018.8535987.
85. IEEE Guide for the Detection, Location and Interpretation of Sources of Acoustic Emissions from Electrical Discharges in Power Trans-
formers and Power Reactors; IEEE Std C57.127-2018 (Revision of IEEE Std C57.127-2007); IEEE: Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2019; pp. 1–
72. https://doi.org/10.1109/IEEESTD.2019.8664690.
86. Neuhold, S.M.; Brugger, T.; Behrmann, G.; Schlemper, H.D.; Riechert, U.; Muller, P.; Lehner, M.; Schneiter, E.; Sigrist, P. Return
of Experience: The CIGRE UHF PD Sensitivity Verification and On-Site Detection of Critical Defects; CIGRE: Paris, France, 2018; pp.
1–13.
87. Roslizan, N.D.; Rohani, M.N.K.H.; Wooi, C.L.; Isa, M.; Ismail, B.; Rosmi, A.S.; Mustafa, W.A. A Review: Partial Discharge De-
tection using UHF sensor on High Voltage Equipment. J. Phys. Conf. Ser. 2020, 1432, 12003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-
6596/1432/1/012003.
88. Chai, H.; Phung, B.T.; Mitchell, S. Application of UHF Sensors in Power System Equipment for Partial Discharge Detection: A
Review. Sensors 2019, 19, 1029. https://doi.org/10.3390/s19051029.
89. Sinaga, H.H.; Phung, B.T.; Blackburn, T.R. Partial discharge localization in transformers using UHF detection method. IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2012, 19, 1891–1900. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2012.6396945.
90. Chakravarthi, M.K.; Giridhar, A.V.; Sarma, D.V.S.S.S. Localization of Incipient Discharge in Power Transformer Using UHF
Sensor. In Proceedings of the 2019 International Conference on High Voltage Engineering and Technology (ICHVET),
Hyderabad, India, 7–8 February 2019; pp. 1–3. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICHVET.2019.8724280.
91. Yuan, W.; Chuangli, G.; Zhipeng, W.; Pengcheng, D. UHF PD Online Monitoring of Huge-Size Transformers and Data Analysis.
In Proceedings of the 2011 International Conference on Computer Distributed Control and Intelligent Environmental Monitor-
ing, Changsha, China, 19–20 February 2011;pp. 2375–2378. https://doi.org/10.1109/CDCIEM.2011.338.
92. Hoek, S.M.; Krüger, M.; Körber, S.; Kraetge, A. Application of the UHF technology to detect and locate partial discharges in
liquid immersed transformer. Elektrotech. Inf. 2014, 131, 386–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00502-014-0236-7.
93. Chai, H.; Phung, B.T.; Zhang, D. Development of UHF Sensors for Partial Discharge Detection in Power Transformer. In Pro-
ceedings of the 2018 Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), Perth, WA, Australia, 23–26 September 2018; pp. 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2018.8535779.
94. Zhou, H.Y.; Ma, G.M.; Zhang, M.; Zhang, H.C.; Li, C.R. A High Sensitivity Optical Fiber Interferometer Sensor for Acoustic
Emission Detection of Partial Discharge in Power Transformer. IEEE Sens. J. 2021, 21, 24–32.
https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2019.2951613.
95. Gao, C.; Yu, L.; Xu, Y.; Wang, W.; Wang, S.; Wang, P. Partial Discharge Localization Inside Transformer Windings via Fiber-
Optic Acoustic Sensor Array. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2019, 34, 1251–1260. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2018.2880230.
96. Yaacob, M.M.; Alsaedi, M.A.; Rashed, J.R.; Dakhil, A.M.; Atyah, S.F. Review on partial discharge detection techniques related
to high voltage power equipment using different sensors. Photonic Sens. 2014, 4, 325–337. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13320-014-
0146-7.
97. Gao, C.; Wang, W.; Song, S.; Wang, S.; Yu, L.; Wang, Y. Localization of partial discharge in transformer oil using Fabry-Pérot
optical fiber sensor array. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2018, 25, 2279–2286. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2018.007065.
98. Qian, S.; Chen, H.; Xu, Y.; Su, L. High sensitivity detection of partial discharge acoustic emission within power transformer by
sagnac fiber optic sensor. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2018, 25, 2313–2320. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2018.007131.
99. Zachariades, C.; Shuttleworth, R.; Giussani, R.; MacKinlay, R. Optimization of a High-Frequency Current Transformer Sensor
for Partial Discharge Detection Using Finite-Element Analysis. IEEE Sens. J. 2016, 16, 7526–7533.
https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2016.2600272.
100. Ma, G.-M.; Zhou, H.-Y.; Shi, C.; Li, Y.-B.; Zhang, Q.; Li, C.-R.; Zheng, Q. Distributed Partial Discharge Detection in a Power
Transformer Based on Phase-Shifted FBG. IEEE Sens. J. 2018, 18, 2788–2795. https://doi.org/10.1109/JSEN.2018.2803056.
101. Búa-Núñez, I.; Posada-Román, J.E.; Rubio-Serrano, J.; Garcia-Souto, J.A. Instrumentation System for Location of Partial Dis-
charges Using Acoustic Detection With Piezoelectric Transducers and Optical Fiber Sensors. IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 2014,
63, 1002–1013. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIM.2013.2286891.
Energies 2022, 15, 3379 32 of 32

102. Búa-Núñez, I.; Posada-Román, J.E.; García-Souto, J.A. Multichannel detection of acoustic emissions and localization of the
source with external and internal sensors for partial discharge monitoring of power transformers. Energies 2021, 14, 7873.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14237873.
103. Yoshizumi, H.; Nakano, Y.; Kozako, M.; Hikita, M.; Fujii, Y.; Nakamura, Y.; Cho, H. Consideration of Generation Mechanism
of Low Frequency Component of Partial Discharge Signal Detected by Transient Earth Voltage. In Proceedings of the 2018
Condition Monitoring and Diagnosis (CMD), Perth, WA, Australia, 23–26 September 2018, pp. 1–4.
https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2018.8535989.
104. Reid, A.J.; Judd, M.D.; Duncan, G. Simultaneous measurement of partial discharge using TEV, IEC60270 and UHF techniques.
In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Electrical Insulation, San Juan, PR, USA, 10–13 June 2012; pp. 439–
442. https://doi.org/10.1109/ELINSL.2012.6251506.
105. Wang, L.; Wang, H.; Wang, L.; Lü, H.; Ning, W.; Jia, S.; Wu, J. Experimental investigation of transient earth voltage and acoustic
emission measurements of partial discharge signals in medium-voltage switchgears. In Proceedings of the 2013 2nd Interna-
tional Conference on Electric Power Equipment—Switching Technology (ICEPE-ST), Matsue, Japan, 20–23 October 2013; pp. 1–
4. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICEPE-ST.2013.6804296.
106. Itose, A.; Kozako, M.; Hikita, M. Partial discharge detection and induced surface current analysis using transient earth voltage
method for high voltage equipment. In Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Condition Monitoring and Diag-
nosis (CMD), Xi’an, China, 25–28 September 2016; pp. 456–460. https://doi.org/10.1109/CMD.2016.7757859.
107. Seo, J.; Ma, H.; Saha, T. A novel signal extraction technique for online partial discharge (PD) measurement of transformers. Int.
Trans. Electr. Energy Syst. 2016, 26, 1032–1048.
108. Hu, X.; Siew, W.H.; Judd, M.D.; Peng, X. Transfer function characterization for HFCTs used in partial discharge detection. IEEE
Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2017, 24, 1088–1096. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2017.006115.
109. Aslam, M.; Haq, I.U.; Rehan, M.S.; Basit, A.; Arif, M.; Khan, M.I.; Sadiq, M.; Arbab, M.N. Dynamic Thermal Model for Power
Transformers. IEEE Access 2021, 9, 71461–71469. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3078759.
110. Wang, M.; Vandermaar, A.J.; Srivastava, K.D. Review of condition assessment of power transformers in service. IEEE Electr.
Insul. Mag. 2002, 18, 12–25. https://doi.org/10.1109/MEI.2002.1161455.
111. Mikhak-Beyranvand, M.; Faiz, J.; Rezaeealam, B. Thermal Analysis of Power Transformer Using an Improved Dynamic Thermal
Equivalent Circuit Model. Electr. Power Compon. Syst. 2019, 47, 1598–1609. https://doi.org/10.1080/15325008.2019.1689452.
112. Kunicki, M.; Borucki, S.; Cichoń, A.; Frymus, J. Modeling of the Winding Hot-Spot Temperature in Power Transformers: Case
Study of the Low-Loaded Fleet. Energies 2019, 12, 3561. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12183561.
113. Mariprasath, T.; Kirubakaran, V. A real time study on condition monitoring of distribution transformer using thermal imager.
Infrared Phys. Technol. 2018, 90, 78–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infrared.2018.02.009.
114. Hu, Y.; Zheng, J.; Huang, H. Experimental Research on Power Transformer Vibration Distribution under Different Winding
Defect Conditions. Electronics 2019, 8, 842. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/8/8/842 (28 July 2019).
115. Secic, A.; Krpan, M.; Kuzle, I. Vibro-Acoustic Methods in the Condition Assessment of Power Transformers: A Survey. IEEE
Access 2019, 7, 83915–83931. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2923809.
116. Ji, S.; Shan, P.; Li, Y.; Xu, D.; Cao, J. The vibration measuring system for monitoring core and winding condition of power
transformer. In Proceedings of the 2001 International Symposium on Electrical Insulating Materials (ISEIM 2001). 2001 Asian
Conference on Electrical Insulating Diagnosis (ACEID 2001). 33rd Symposium on Electrical and Ele, Himeji, Japan, 22–22 No-
vember 2001; pp. 849–852. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISEIM.2001.973811.
117. Garcia, B.; Burgos, J.C.; Alonso, A.M. Transformer tank vibration modeling as a method of detecting winding deformations-
part II: Experimental verification. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2006, 21, 164–169. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2005.852275.
118. Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. A Novel Online Technique to Detect Power Transformer Winding Faults. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2012,
27, 849–857. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2011.2180932.
119. Aljohani, O.; Abu-Siada, A. Application of Digital Image Processing to Detect Short-Circuit Turns in Power Transformers Using
Frequency Response Analysis. IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform. 2016, 12, 2062–2073. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2016.2594773.
120. Abu-Siada, A.; Radwan, I.; Abdou, A.F. 3D approach for fault identification within power transformers using frequency re-
sponse analysis. IET Sci. Meas. Technol. 2019, 13, 903–911. https://doi.org/10.1049/iet-smt.2018.5573.
121. Mossad, M.I.; Azab, M.; Abu-Siada, A. Transformer Parameters Estimation From Nameplate Data Using Evolutionary Pro-
gramming Techniques. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 2014, 29, 2118–2123. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRD.2014.2311153.
122. Abu-Siada, A.; Hmood, S. Fuzzy logic approach for power transformer asset management based on dissolved gas-in-oil analy-
sis. Chem. Eng. Trans. 2013, 33, 997–1002. https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1333167.
123. Cui, H.; Yang, L.; Zhu, Y.; Li, S.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S. A comprehensive analyses of aging characteristics of oil-paper insula-
tion system in HVDC converter transformers. IEEE Trans. Dielectr. Electr. Insul. 2020, 27, 1707–1714.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2020.008788.
124. Kim, D.; Abu-Siada, A.; Sutinjo, A. State-of-the-Art Literature Review of WPT: Current Limitations and Solutions on IPT. Electr.
Power Sys. Res. 2018, 154, 493–502.
125. Abu-Siada, A.; Budiri, J.; Abdou, A.F. Solid State Transformers Topologies, Controllers, and Applications: State-of-the-Art Lit-
erature Review. Electronics 2018, 7, 298. Available online: https://www.mdpi.com/2079-9292/7/11/298 (5 November 2018).
126. Hasan, M.M.; Abu-Siada, A.; Islam, S.M.; Dahidah, M.S.A. A New Cascaded Multilevel Inverter Topology with Galvanic Isola-
tion. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2018, 54, 3463–3472. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2018.2818061.