Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications

Chapter 1: The Foundations:

Logic and Proofs

1.4 Predicates and Quantifiers

1
 Introduction
⚫ Propositional logic cannot adequately express the meaning of
all statements in mathematics and in natural language.

⚫ E.g. “Every computer connected to the university network is

functioning properly.”

⚫ “CS2 is under attack by an intruder,” where CS2 is a

computer on the university network, to conclude the truth of
“There is a computer on the university network that is
under attack by an intruder.

2
 Predicates and Quantifiers
Predicates
⚫ Statements involving variables are neither true nor false.

⚫ E.g. “x > 3”, “x = y + 3”, “x + y = z”

⚫ “x is greater than 3”
“x”: subject of the statement
“is greater than 3”: the predicate

⚫ We can denote the statement “x is greater than 3” by P(x),

where P denotes the predicate and x is the variable.

⚫ Once a value is assigned to the variable x, the statement P(x)

becomes a proposition and has a truth value.
3
 Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ Example: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3.” What are
the truth values of P(4) and P(2)?
Solution: P(4) – “4 > 3”, true
P(3) – “2 > 3”, false

⚫ Example: Let Q(x,y) denote the statement “x = y + 3.” What

are the truth values of the propositions Q(1,2) and Q(3,0)?

Solution: Q(1,2) – “1 = 2 + 3” , false

Q(3,0) – “3 = 0 + 3”, true

4
 Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ Example: Let A(c,n) denote the statement “Computer c is
connected to network n”, where c is a variable representing
a computer and n is a variable representing a network.
Suppose that the computer MATH1 is connected to network
CAMPUS2, but not to network CAMPUS1. What are the
values of A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) and A(MATH1,
CAMPUS2)?

Solution: A(MATH1, CAMPUS1) – “MATH1 is connect to CAMPUS1”, false

A(MATH1, CAMPUS2) – “MATH1 is connect to CAMPUS2”, true

5
 Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ A statement involving n variables x1, x2, …, xn can
be denoted by P(x1, x2, …, xn).

⚫ A statement of the form P(x1, x2, …, xn) is the value

of the propositional function P at the n-tuple (x1, x2,
…, xn), and P is also called a n-place predicate or
a n-ary predicate.

6
 Predicates and Quantifiers
Quantifiers

⚫ Quantification: express the extent to which a

predicate is true over a range of elements.
⚫ Universal quantification: a predicate is true for
every element under consideration
⚫ Existential quantification: a predicate is true for
one or more element under consideration
⚫ A domain must be specified.

7
Predicates and Quantifiers
DEFINITION 1
The universal quantification of P(x) is the statement
“P(x) for all values of x in the domain.”
The notation xP(x) denotes the universal quantification of P(x). Here  is
called the Universal Quantifier. We read xP(x) as “for all xP(x)” or “for
every xP(x).”

Example: Let P(x) be the statement “x + 1 > x.” What is the

truth value of the quantification xP(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers?
Solution: Because P(x) is true for all real numbers, the
quantification is true.
8
Predicates and Quantifiers

⚫ A statement  xP(x) is false, if and only if P(x) is not

always true where x is in the domain. One way to show
that is to find a counterexample to the statement  xP(x).
⚫ Example: Let Q(x) be the statement “x < 2”. What is the
truth value of the quantification  xQ(x), where the domain
consists of all real numbers?

Solution: Q(x) is not true for every real numbers, e.g. Q(3) is
false. x = 3 is a counterexample for the statement xQ(x).
Thus the quantification is false.
9
Predicates and Quantifiers

⚫ Example: What does the statement  xN(x) mean if

N(x) is “Computer x is connected to the network”
and the domain consists of all computers on
campus?
Solution: “Every computer on campus is connected to the
network.”

10
Predicates and Quantifiers
DEFINITION 2
The existential quantification of P(x) is the statement
“There exists an element x in the domain such that P(x).”
We use the notation  xP(x) for the existential quantification of P(x). Here
 is called the Existential Quantifier.
• The existential quantification  xP(x) is read as
“There is an x such that P(x),” or
“There is at least one x such that P(x),” or
“For some x, P(x).”

11
Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ Example: Let P(x) denote the statement “x > 3”. What is
the truth value of the quantification  xP(x), where the
domain consists of all real numbers?
Solution: “x > 3” is sometimes true – for instance when
x = 4. The existential quantification is true.
⚫  xP(x) is false if and only if P(x) is false for every element
of the domain.
⚫ Example: Let Q(x) denote the statement “x = x + 1”. What
is the true value of the quantification  xQ(x), where the
domain consists for all real numbers?
Solution: Q(x) is false for every real number. The existential
quantification is false. 12
Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ If the domain is empty,  xQ(x) is false because there can
be no element in the domain for which Q(x) is true.
⚫ The existential quantification  xP(x) is the same as the
disjunction P(x1) V P(x2) V … VP(xn)

Quantifiers
Statement When True? When False?
xP(x) xP(x) is true for every x. There is an x for which xP(x)
is false.
xP(x) There is an x for which P(x) is P(x) is false for every x.
true.

 13
Predicates and Quantifiers
Translating from English into Logical Expressions
⚫ Example: Express the statement “Every student in this
class has studied calculus” using predicates and
quantifiers.
Solution:
If the domain consists of students in the class –
xC(x)
where C(x) is the statement “x has studied calculus.
If the domain consists of all people –
x(S(x) → C(x)
where S(x) represents that person x is in this class.
If we are interested in the backgrounds of people in subjects
besides calculus, we can use the two-variable quantifier Q(x,y) for
the statement “student x has studied subject y.” Then we would
replace C(x) by Q(x, calculus) to obtain  xQ(x, calculus) or 14

x(S(x) → Q(x, calculus))

Predicates and Quantifiers
⚫ Example: Consider these statements. The first two are
called premises and the third is called the conclusion. The
entire set is called an argument.
“All lions are fierce.”
“Some lions do not drink coffee.”
“Some fierce creatures do not drink coffee.”

Solution: Let P(x) be “x is a lion.”

Q(x) be “x is fierce.”
R(x) be “x drinks coffee.”
 x(P(x) → Q(x))
 x(P(x) Λ ¬R(x))
 x(Q(x) Λ ¬R(x))

15