William Stallings

Data and Computer

Communications

Chapter 3

Data Transmission

Dr. Mohammed Arafah

Terminology (1)
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmission Medium
Guided medium
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
Unguided medium
e.g. air, water, vacuum

Transmitter Receiver

Transmission Medium

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 2

Terminology (2)
Network Topology:
Point-to-point
Direct link: No intermediate
devices other than amplifiers or
repeaters used to increase signal
strength Point-to-Point Topology
Only 2 devices share link

Multi-point
More than two devices share the link
Multi-point Topology
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 3
Terminology (3)
Communication Modes:
Simplex
One direction
e.g. Television
Half duplex
Either direction, but only one
way at a time
e.g. police radio
Full duplex
Both directions at the same
time
e.g. telephone
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 4
Electromagnetic Signals
Time-Domain T = 0.002 sec

 Analog (varies smoothly over time)

 Digital (constant level over time,
followed by a change to another
level)

Frequency-Domain
 Spectrum (range of frequencies)
 Bandwidth (width of the spectrum)
1 1
T = 0.002 sec f    500 Hz
T 0.002
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 5
 Analog Signaling
represented by sine waves
Amplitude (volts)

1 Cycle

Time (sec)

Frequency (Hertz) = Cycles per Second

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 6

 Digital Signaling
represented by square waves or pulses
Amplitude (volts)

1 cycle

Time (sec)

Frequency (Hertz) = Cycles per Second

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 7

Frequency, Spectrum and
Bandwidth
Time domain concepts
Continuous signal
Various in a smooth way over time

Discrete signal
Maintains a constant level then changes to another constant
level

Periodic signal
Pattern repeated over time

Aperiodic signal
Pattern not repeated over time

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 8

Continuous & Discrete Signals

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 9

Sine Wave

x(t )  A sin( 2πft  f )

where x(t) is the signal at time t,
A is the maximum amplitude of the signal,
f represents the number of cycles per second,
and
f defines the phase of the signal.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 10

 Sine Wave – Example 1
T
10 Volt
Amplitude (volts)

Time (sec)
0.5 sec 1 sec

1 sec
A = 10 Volt
f = 2 Hz
f = 0 Radian
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 11
 Sine Wave – Example 2
T
15 Volt
Amplitude (volts)

Time (sec)
1/3 sec 2/3 sec 1 sec

1 sec

A = 15 Volt
f = 3 Hz
f = 0 Radian
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 12
 Sine Wave – Example 3
T
15 Volt
Amplitude (volts)

Time (sec)
1/3 sec 2/3 sec 1 sec

1 sec

A = 15 Volt
f = 3 Hz
f = /2 Radian
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 13
Sine Wave
Amplitude:
The amplitude is the instantaneous value of a signal at any time.
Peak Amplitude (A):
Maximum strength of a signal. Its unit is Volt.
Frequency (f)
Rate of change of signal
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
Period = time for one repetition (T)
T = 1/f
Phase (f)
Position of the waveform relative to time zero.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 14

Sine Wave
Phase:
The phase describes the position of the waveform
relative to time zero. The range of shift is within a
single period of a signal.
The phase is a measure in degree or radian (2 =
360o).
The figure shows two signals that are out of phase
by /2 radians.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 15

 Phase
Amplitude (volts)

Time (sec)

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Phase

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Varying Sine Waves

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 18

Wavelength
 Distance occupied by one cycle
 Distance between two points of corresponding phase in
two consecutive cycles
 Wavelength is commonly designated by 
 The wavelength is related to the period as follows:
  vT
where v : signal velocity
T : signal period
 Equivalently, v  f

where v = c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 19

Example
Your voice is a summation of sine waves, each sine wave
having its own frequency, phase, and amplitude. The range of
frequencies is normally between 300 and 3300 Hz. Give a
general equation.

x(t )  A1 sin( 2πf0t  f1 )  A2 sin( 2πf 2t  f2 )   An sin( 2πf nt  fn )

with 300 Hz < fi < 3300 Hz. f0 is called the fundamental

frequency, and f2, f3 … fn are called the harmonics.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 20

Periodic Signal
Periodic signal: a signal that repeats itself at
equal time interval.

It is made up of a infinite series of

sinusoidal frequency components.

A signal is periodic if and only if:

s(t  T )  s(t )    t  

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 21

Periodic Signals

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 22

Periodic Signal
Mathematically, we can express any periodic
waveform as follows:

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 23

Frequency Domain Concepts
Signal usually made up of many frequencies
Components are sine waves
Can be shown (Fourier analysis) that any
signal is made up of component sine waves
Can plot frequency domain functions

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 24

Frequency Components of
Square Waves
 The Frequency components of a square wave with
amplitude A and –A can be expressed as follows:
4 
sin( 2kft)
s(t )  A   
 k oddk 1 k

 This waveform has an infinite number of frequency

components, and hence an infinite bandwidth.

 The peak amplitude of the kth frequency component is

only 1/k, so most of the energy in this waveform is in
the first few frequency components
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 25
Frequency Components of
Square Waves

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 26

Frequency Components of
Square Waves
∞
4 sin(2𝜋𝑘𝑓𝑡)
𝑠 𝑡 =𝐴× × ෍ A = 10 Volt , f = 2 Hz
𝜋 𝑘
𝑘 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑘=1

Fundamental Frequency 5th Harmonic

15 15
10 10
5 5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-5 -5

-10 -10

-15 -15

3rd Harmonic 7th Harmonic

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-5 -5

-10 -10

-15 -15

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 27

Frequency Components of
Square Waves
∞
4 sin(2𝜋𝑘𝑓𝑡)
𝑠 𝑡 =𝐴× × ෍ A = 10 Volt , f = 2 Hz
𝜋 𝑘
𝑘 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑘=1

Up to Fundamental Frequency Up to 5th Harmonic Up to 9th Harmonic

15 15 15
10 10 10
5 5 5

0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15

Up to 3rd Harmonic Up to 7th Harmonic Up to 11th Harmonic

15 15 15

10 10 10

5 5 5

0 0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-5 -5 -5

-10 -10 -10

-15 -15 -15

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 28

 Frequency Components of
Square Waves
Fundamental Frequency + Third
harmonic + Fifth Harmonic:

Fundamental Frequency + Third

harmonic + Fifth Harmonic + Seventh
Harmonic:

Square waveform with an infinite

number of frequency components

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Frequency Components of
Square Waves

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Addition of Frequency Components

Fundamental Frequency Component:

Third Harmonic:

Fundamental Frequency + Third

Harmonic Components:

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 31

Frequency-Domain
 For square waves, only odd
harmonics exist (plus the
fundamental component of
course)

 Figure (a) is discrete

because the time domain
function is Periodic.

 Figure (b) is continuous

because the time domain
function is Aperiodic.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 32

Spectrum & Bandwidth
Spectrum
range of frequencies contained in signal
Absolute bandwidth
width of spectrum
Effective bandwidth
Often just bandwidth
Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the
energy
DC Component
Component of zero frequency

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 33

Absolute and Effective Bandwidth

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 34

Bandwidth
Example 1

If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine

waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, what is the bandwidth?

Let fH be the highest frequency, fL be the lowest

frequency, and B be the bandwidth. Then,
B = fH - fL = 900 – 100 = 800 Hz

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 35

Bandwidth
Example 2

A signal has a bandwidth of 20 KHz. The highest

frequency is 60 KHz. What is the lowest
frequency?

Let fH be the highest frequency, fL be the lowest

frequency, and B be the bandwidth. Then,
B = fH - fL
 fL = fH - B
 fL = 60 KHz – 20 KHz = 40 KHz

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 36

Decomposition of a Digital Signal

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Signal with DC Component

  

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Time Domain and Frequency Domain

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Data Rate and Bandwidth
Any transmission system has a limited band of
frequencies

This limits the data rate that can be carried

For economic and practical reasons, digital

information must be approximated by the
signal of limited bandwidth.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 40

Data Rate and Bandwidth
Example 1:
 f = 1 MHz

 Bandwidth = fH – fL = 5MHz – 1 MHz = 4 MHz

 Period of the signal = T = 1/f = 1 sec
 The signal is a bit string of 1s and 0s
 One bit occurs every Tb=0.5 sec  Data Rate of 2 Mbps
(R= 1/Tb)
 Thus, a bandwidth of 4 MHz, a data rate of 2 Mbps
isDr. achieved.
Mohammed Arafah 41
Data Rate and Bandwidth
Example 2:
 f = 2 MHz

 Bandwidth = fH – fL = 10MHz – 2 MHz = 8 MHz

 Period of the signal = T = 1/f = 0.5 sec
 The signal is a bit string of 1s and 0s
 One bit occurs every 0.25 sec  Data Rate of 4 Mbps
 Thus, by doubling the bandwidth, we double the
potential data rate
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 42
Data Rate and Bandwidth
Example 3:
 f = 2 MHz

 Bandwidth = fH – fL = 6MHz – 2 MHz = 4 MHz

 Period of the signal = T = 1/f = 0.5 sec
 The signal is a bit string of 1s and 0s
 One bit occurs every 0.25 sec  Data Rate of 4 Mbps
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 43
Analog and Digital Data
Transmission
Data
Entities that convey meaning

Signals
Electric or electromagnetic representations of data

Transmission
Communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 44

Data
Analog
Continuous values within some interval
e.g. sound, video

Digital
Discrete values
e.g. text, integers

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 45

Signals
Means by which data are propagated
Analog
Continuously variable
Various media: wire, fiber optic, space
Speech bandwidth 100Hz to 7kHz
Telephone bandwidth 300Hz to 3300Hz
Video bandwidth 4MHz

Digital
Use two DC components

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 46

Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)

Telephone Channel

MUSIC
25 dB

SPEECH

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 47

Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)
The power ratio of typical speech has a
dynamic range of about 25 dB (decibels)

The power produced by the loudest shout may

be as much as 300 times greater than the least
whisper.

 25 dB = 10 log10X
 log10X = 2.5
10 log X = 102.5
10

 X = 102.5 = 316
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 48
Data and Signals
Usually use digital signals for digital data
and analog signals for analog data

Can use analog signal to carry digital data

Modem

Can use digital signal to carry analog data

Compact Disc audio

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 49

Analog Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data

PSTN
(Analog Network)

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Digital Signals Carrying Analog
and Digital Data

Digital Network

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Analog Transmission
Analog signal transmitted without regard to
content
May be analog or digital data
Attenuated over distance
Use amplifiers to boost signal
Also amplifies noise

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 52

Digital Transmission
Concerned with content
Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation etc.
Repeaters used
Repeater receives signal
Extracts bit pattern
Retransmits
Attenuation is overcome
Noise is not amplified

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 53

Advantages of Digital
Transmission
 Digital technology is cheaper
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology
 Data integrity
Longer distances over lower quality lines
 Capacity utilization
High bandwidth links economical
High degree of multiplexing easier with digital
techniques
 Security & Privacy
Encryption
 Integration
Can treat analog and digital data similarly
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 54
Transmission Impairments
 Signal received may differ from signal
transmitted
 Analog - degradation of signal quality
 Digital - bit errors

 Caused by
1. Attenuation and attenuation distortion
2. Limited Bandwidth
3. Delay distortion
4. Noise

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 55

Transmission Impairments

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1. Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance
Depends on medium (Chapter4)
Received signal strength:
must be enough to be detected
must be sufficiently higher than noise to be received
without error
Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency (Chapter4)

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 57

1. Attenuation
If we denote transmitted signal power level by
P1 and the received power by P2, then
Pin Pout 𝑃𝑖𝑛 > 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

𝑃𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 dB
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡

Pin Pout 𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 > 𝑃𝑖𝑛

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 dB
𝑃𝑖𝑛

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 58

1. Attenuation
Example:
A transmission channel between two DTEs is made up of three
section. The first introduces an attenuation of 16 dB, the second
an amplification of 20 dB, and the third an attenuation of 10 dB.
Assuming a mean transmitted power level of 400 mW,
determine the mean output power of the channel.

P1 = 400 mW 16 dB P2 20 dB P3 10 dB P4
Attenuation Amplification Attenuation

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝟒𝟎𝟎
 𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 59

1. Attenuation
Solution:
First section:

𝑃1
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
400
 16 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
400
 1.6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2 P1 = 400 mW 16 dB P2
400 Attenuation
1.6 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
 10 = 10 𝑃2

400 𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

 39.81 =
𝑃2
400
 𝑃2 =
39.81
 𝑃2 = 10.0475 𝑚𝑊
 𝑃2 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 10.0475 = 10.02 dBm

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 60

1. Attenuation
Solution:
Second section:

𝑃3
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃2
𝑃3
 20 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
10.0475
𝑃3
 2 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
10.0475 P2= 10.0475 mW P3
20 dB
𝑃3 Amplification
 102 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 10.0475
 100 =
𝑃3 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎
10.0475
 𝑃3 = 100 × 10.0475
 𝑃3 = 1004.75 𝑚𝑊
 𝑃3 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 1004.75 = 30.02 dBm

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 61

1. Attenuation
Solution:
Third section:

𝑃3
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
1004.75
 10 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
1004.75
 1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10 P3 = 1004.75 mW
𝑃4 10 dB P4
1004.75 Attenuation
1 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
 10 = 10 𝑃4

1004.75 𝑷𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

 10 =
𝑃4
1004.75
 𝑃4 =
10
 𝑃4 = 100.475 𝑚𝑊
 𝑃4 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100.475 = 20.02 dBm

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 62

1. Attenuation

P1 = 400 mW 16 dB P2 20 dB P3 10 dB P4
Attenuation Amplification Attenuation

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟐 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟑 = 𝟑𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 63

1. Attenuation
𝟐𝟎 𝒅𝑩

P1 = 400 mW 16 dB P2 20 dB P3 10 dB P4
Attenuation Amplification Attenuation

𝟏𝟎 𝒅𝑩
𝟏𝟔 𝒅𝑩

Overall Attenuation Channel = 16 - 20 + 10 = 6 dB

P1 = 400 mW 6 dB P4
Attenuation

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 64

1. Attenuation
Overall Attenuation Channel = 16 - 20 + 10 = 6 dB

P1 = 400 mW 6 dB P4
Attenuation

𝑷𝟏 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎 𝑷𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟎𝟐 𝒅𝑩𝒎

𝑃1
𝐴𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
400
 6 = 10 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
400
 0.6 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
𝑃4
400
0.6 𝑙𝑜𝑔10
 10 = 10 𝑃4

400
 3.981 =
𝑃4
400
 𝑃4 =
3.981
 𝑃4 = 100.475 𝑚𝑊
 𝑃4 = 10𝑙𝑜𝑔10 100.475 = 20.02 dBm

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 65

 2. Limited Bandwidth
 Channel Bandwidth specifies the sinusoidal
frequency components from 0 up to some frequency
fc that will be transmitted by the channel
undiminished. All frequencies above this cutoff frequency
are strongly attenuated.
 In general, channel bandwidth refers to the width of the
range of frequencies that channel can transmit, and not the
frequency themselves.
 If the lowest frequency a channel can transmit is f1
and the highest is f2, then the bandwidth is: f2 – f1.
 Because the telephone line can transmit frequencies from
approximately 300 to 3300 Hz, its bandwidth is 3 KHz.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 66

2. Limited Bandwidth

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 67

2. Limited Bandwidth

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 68

2. Limited Bandwidth
 The sequence 101010… generates the highest-
frequency components, while a sequence of all 1s
or all 0s is equivalent to a zero frequency of the
appropriate amplitude.
 The channel capacity is the data rate, in bit per
second (bps), at which data can be communicated.
 In 1928, Nyquest developed the relationship between
bandwidth (B) and the channel capacity (R) in noise-free
environment. The Nyquest relationship is:

R  2B
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 69
2. Limited Bandwidth
Example:
A binary signal of rate 500 bps is to be transmitted
over a communication channel. Derive the
minimum bandwidth required assuming:
(a) The fundamental frequency only,
(b) The fundamental and third harmonic, and
(c) The fundamental, third, and fifth harmonic of the
worst-case sequence are to be received.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 70

2. Limited Bandwidth
Solution:
The worst case sequence 101010… at 500 bps has
a fundamental frequency component of 250 Hz.
Hence the third harmonic is 750 Hz and the fifth
harmonic is 1250Hz.

The bandwidth required in each case is as follows:

(a) 0-250 Hz.
(b) 0-750 Hz.
(c) 0-1250 Hz.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 71

2. Limited Bandwidth

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 72

2. Limited Bandwidth
 We can transmit more than one bit with each change in
the signal amplitude, therefore increasing the data bit
rate.

 With multilevel signaling in noise-free environment, the

Nyquest formulation becomes:
R  2 B log 2 M

 Where R is the channel capacity in bps.

B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hz.
M is the number of levels per signaling elements.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 73

2. Limited Bandwidth

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 74

2. Limited Bandwidth
 For Limited-bandwidth channel such as PSTN, we can
often use more than two levels. This means that each
signal element can represent more than a single binary
digit.

 In general, if the number of signal levels is M, the

number of bits per signal element m, is given by:
m  log 2 M

 The rate of change of signal is known as the signaling

rate (Baud rate) (Rs), and measures in baud.
Rs  2 B
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 75
2. Limited Bandwidth
 It is related to the data bit rate, R, by the following
expression:
R  Rs m

 The signaling element time period, Ts, is given by:

1
Ts 
Rs

 The time duration of each bit, Tb, is:

1
Tb 
R
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 76
2. Limited Bandwidth

M  2  m  1  R  Rs

M  4  m  2  R  2  Rs

M  8  m  3  R  3 Rs

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 77

 2. Limited Bandwidth
Example 1: (Theoretical)
Data = 01 11 00 10 11 11 01 00

11 11 11 11
10 10
M=4
01 01 01
00 00 00
1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud
1 second
M=4  m=2
𝟏
Baud Rate = Rs = 8 baud  Ts = sec
𝟖
𝟏
R = Rs  m = 16 bps  Tb = sec
𝟏𝟔
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 78
2. Limited Bandwidth
Example 2: (Practical)
Amplitude & Phase

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 second
R = m  Rs = 3 × 8 = 24 bps
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 79
2. Limited Bandwidth
Example 2: (Practical)
Amplitude & Phase

1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud 1 baud

1 second
𝟏 𝟏
Rs = 8 baud  Ts = = second
𝑹𝒔 𝑹𝒔 𝟖
B= = 𝟒 Hz
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏
R = m  Rs = 3 × 8 = 24 bps  Tb = = second
𝑹 𝟐𝟒
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 80
2. Limited Bandwidth
The bandwidth efficiency of transmission
channel is defined as:

R 2 Bm
BandwidthEffeciency   2m
B B

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 81

2. Limited Bandwidth
Example 1:
Data is to be transmitted over the PSTN using a
transmission scheme with eight levels per signaling
element. If the bandwidth of the PSTN is 3000 Hz,
determine the Nyquest maximum data transfer rate (R)
and the bandwidth efficiency.

Solution:
𝑹 = 𝟐𝑩𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐𝑴
 𝑹 = 𝟐𝟑𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟑 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎𝟎 bps
Bandwidth Efficiency = 𝟐𝒎
 Bandwidth Efficiency = 𝟐𝟑 = 𝟔 bps/Hz
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 82
3. Delay Distortion
 The rate of propagation of a sinusoidal signal
along a transmission line varies with the
frequency of the signal.
 When we transmit a digital signal with various
frequency components, making up the signal,
arrive at the receiver with varying delays,
resulting in delay distortion of the received signal.
v
Note that: 
f
v  f

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 83

3. Delay Distortion

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 84

4. Noise
Additional signals inserted between transmitter
and receiver
A.Thermal Noise
Due to thermal agitation of electrons
Uniformly distributed  White noise
At all temperatures above absolute zero, all
transmission media experience thermal noise, where
absolute zero = 0 kelvin (K) = - 273ْ C.
Thermal noise cannot be eleminated

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 85

4. Noise
Thermal Noise
The amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1 Hz in any conductor is:
No  k T
where No is the noise power density for one Hz (watts/Hz),
k is Boltzmann’s constant (1.3803 x 10-23 joule K-1), and
T is the temperature in Kelvin (K).

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 86

4. Noise
Thermal Noise
The thermal noise in watts present in a bandwidth of
B Hz can be expressed by:
N  B  No

or, in decibel-watts,
N  10 log 10 k  10 log 10 T  10 log 10 B

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 87

4. Noise
B. Intermodulation Noise
When signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium, the resulting may be
Intermodulation Noise.
The effect of intermoduation noise is to produce signals
at a frequency that is the sum of two original
frequencies or multiples of those frequencies.
For example, the mixing of signals at frequencies f1 and
f2 might produce energy at the frequency f1+f2.
This derived signal could interfere with an intended
signal at the frequency f1+f2.
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 88
4. Noise
B. Intermodulation Noise - Example

I = cos x + cos y Output = (cos x + cos y)2

i 2
Nonlinear System

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = (cos 𝒙 + cos 𝒚) 𝟐

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = cos 𝒙 cos 𝒙 + 2cos 𝒙 cos 𝒚 + cos 𝒚 cos 𝒚
1 1
cos A. cos B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)
2 2
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = cos 2𝒙 + + cos 𝒙 + 𝒚 + cos(𝒙 − 𝒚) + cos 2𝒚 +
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

Multiple of Original Sum of Two Original Difference of Two Multiple of Original

Frequency Frequencies Original Frequencies Frequency

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 89

4. Noise
C. Crosstalk Noise
A signal from one line is picked up by another

D. Impulse Noise

Irregular pulses or spikes
e.g. External electromagnetic interference
Short duration
High amplitude

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 90

4. Noise
 The Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is expressed in decibels
as:
S
SNR  10 log 10 ( ) dB
N
where S is the average power in a received signal, and
N is noise power.

 High SNR means a high power signal relative to the

prevailing noise level, resulting in a good-quality
signal.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 91

4. Noise
In 1948, Shannon calculated the theoretical
maximum bit rate of a channel of bandwidth B
as
S
C  B log 2 (1  )
N
where C is the maximum channel capacity in bps,
B is the bandwidth of the channel in Hz,
S is the average signal power in watts, and
N is the thermal noise power in watts.

Note that:
ln x
log 2 x 
ln 2
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 92
4. Noise
𝑺
𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑵
𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑺 − 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈N
𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝑺𝒅𝑩𝑾 − 𝑵𝒅𝑩𝑾
Example:
S is Given
N can be calculated using N=B kT
Method 1:
𝑺
Calculate
𝑵
𝑺
Then calculate 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝑵
Method 2:
Calculate 𝑺𝒅𝑩𝑾 = 𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈𝑺 and calculate 𝑵𝒅𝑩𝑾 =𝟏𝟎𝒍𝒐𝒈N
Then calculate 𝑺𝑵𝑹𝒅𝑩 = 𝑺𝒅𝑩𝑾 − 𝑵𝒅𝑩𝑾
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 93
4. Noise
Example 1:
Assuming that a PSTN has a bandwidth of 3000
Hz and a signal-to-noise ratio of 20 dB, determine
the maximum theoretical data rate that can be
achieved.
Solution:
S S S
SNR  10 log 10 ( ) 20  10 log 10 ( )  10 2  100
N N N
S
C  B log 2 (1  )
N
ln 101
C  3000 log 2 (1  100 ) C  3000  19963 bps
ln 2
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 94
2. Limited Bandwidth
Example 2:

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 95

Effect of Noise on a Digital Signal

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 96

The Expression Eb / N0
 The parameter is the ratio of signal energy per bit to
noise power density per Hertz

 Consider a signal, digital or analog, that contains binary

digital data transmitted at a certain bit rate R.

 Recalling that 1 Watt = 1 J/s, the energy per bit in a

signal is given by Eb=STb , where S is the signal power
and is the Tb is the time required to send one bit.

 The data rate R is just R = 1/Tb . Thus

Eb S / R S
 
N0 N0 kTR

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 97

The Expression Eb / N0
 or, in decibel notation,
Eb
( ) dB  10 log 10 S  10 log 10 R  10 log 10 k  10 log 10 T
N0

Eb
( ) dB  SdBW  10 log 10 R  228 .6dBW  10 log 10 T
N0

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 98

The Expression Eb / N0
 The ratio Eb /N0 is important because the bit error rate for digital
data is a (decreasing) function of this ratio.

 Given a value of needed to achieve a desired error rate, the

parameters in the preceding formula may be selected.
 Note that as the bit rate R increases, the transmitted signal power,
relative to noise, must increase to maintain the required Eb /N0 .
Dr. Mohammed Arafah 99
The Expression Eb / N0
 Thus, for constant signal to noise ratio (SNR), an
increase in data rate increases the error rate.

 The advantage of Eb /N0 over SNR is that the latter

quantity depends on the bandwidth.

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 100

The Expression Eb / N0
 We can relate Eb /N0 to SNR as follows. We have:
Eb S

N0 N0R

 The parameter N0 is the noise power density in

Watts/Hertz. Hence, the noise in a signal with
bandwidth B is N=N0B . Substituting, we have:
Eb S B
 
N0 N R

S Eb R
 
N N0 B

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 101

The Expression Eb / N0
 Another formulation of interest relates Eb /N0 to spectral
efficiency.
 Shannon’s result can be rewritten as:
S S
C  B log 2 (1  )  2C / B  1
N N
Eb B C / B
 (2  1)
N0 C

 This is a useful formula that relates the achievable

spectral efficiency C/B to Eb /N0 .

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 102

Required Reading
Stallings chapter 3

Dr. Mohammed Arafah 103