Saneo. see CIE Retest eee e err) Explained SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL TRANSLATION Ex- PLAINED Jody Byrne RContents Acknowledgements xi About this book vil Using this book xiv 1, Scientific and Technical Translation 1 : 1.1 Introduction 1 1.4.1 Some distinctions 2 1.1.2. Historical significance 3 1.1.3 Modern scientific and technical translation 5 : 1.1.4 Some legal dimensions 6 | 1.2 Aplace for translation theory? 8 / 1.2.1. Recreating the source text 8 | i 1.2.2 Focusing on the target text a | 4 1.3. Tools of the trade 4 i : 1.3.1 General tools 16 i 1.3.2. Text processing tools 16 : : 1.3.3 Translation tools 7 7 E 1.4 Who's who in scientific and technical translation? 18 I 1.4.1 The translator 20 | 1.4.2 The clients 23 i ! 2. Translation and Technical Communication 25 i E 24 Introduction 25 i : 2.2. What is technical communication? 5 : ‘ 2.2.1. Generic features of technical communication a i i 2.3. Who reads technical documentation? 30 i 2.3.1 Understanding audiences 30 2.3.2. Finding out who the audience is 35 2.3.2.1 Asking the right questions 37 2.4 Knowing what you're talking about a2 3. Understanding Technical Documentation a7 3.1 Introduction AT 3.4.1. Specific features of technical documentation a7 f 3.1.1.1 Language 48 3 3.1.1.2 Facts and specifications 52 f 3.1.1.3 References 53 a 3.1.1.4 Graphics 54 3.1.1.5 Formulae, equations and scientific notation 56 3.2 Typical text types 58‘ io oo 3.2.1. Manuals 59 5.3.3. When not to translate 138 = | 3.2.2. Applications and proposals 62 5.3.3.1 Official translations and proper names 140 i oS 1 3.2.3 Reports and scientific papers 63 5.3.3.2 Laws ; 140 & ‘ : 3.2.4 Presentations 65 54 weit 5. 333 European Directives ua ae | 3.2.5. Regulatory documents 67 4 Writing within lieits : 5.4.1 Terminoloy 144 i 3.2.6 Popular science 6 5.4.2 Clarity, readability and usability 145, - 3.2.7. Aword on how texts are structured 69 n , me yo 3.2.8 Making sense of text types in translation 70 5.4.3 Editing and proof reading M7 — 1 . S432 Geneal hint toredingandreveving — | 4 4. Case Studies 7 translations 148 Sl 4.1 Introduction a“ 5.5 When in doubt 148 oo | 4.2. Scientific Journal Paper 74 = | 43 Technical Data Sheet (TDS) 82 6. Pitfalls, Problems and How to Deal with Them 152 oe es i 44 — Creating your own document profiles 89 - 6.1 — Introduction 152 a Se “4 4.4.1 Document Profile Sheet 90 6.2 Abbreviations and acronyms 152 eee el | 4.5. Test Instructions 94 6.3. Formulae and Equations 154 Se a. 4.6 Expert Technical Report 94 6.4 Quantities and units of measure 155 ee i 4.7 User Guide 101 6.5 Currencies 158 = 4.8 Popular Science Book 106 6.6 Culture and Familiarity 159 ol 48, Sean otcem tn 6a Salta adcptr oe is at 4-10 Technical Case Stusy aad 6.9 Graphics, screenshots and menus 165 - : ‘i - 6.10 Product names 167 ao 5: Basie Transition Techniques te 6.11 Contact details 168 4) : i 6.12 Scenarios and examples 170 q 5.2 The basics 118 6.13 Giving warnings and advice a1 4 5.2.1 Direct translation 18 6.14 References to other documents 174 ] 5.2.1.1 Literal translation iis 6.15 Partially translated source texts 174 | 5.2.1.2 Borrowing 120 6.16 Latinisms and scientific nomenclatures 175 a 5.2.1.8 Calque 20 : 6.17 Instructions that do not make sense 180 a 5.2.2 Oblique translation 120 6.18 Tables of contents and indices 182 | 5.2.2.1 Equivalence tar 6.19 Formatting and layout 183 5.2.2.2 Transposition/Recategorization 121 6.20 Managing and naming files 184 5.2.2.3 Modulation 122 6.21 Using the Internet 185 5.2.2.4 Adaptation 123 5.2.3 Expansion and contraction 124 : | 5.2.3.4 Recycling information 125 Bibliography 190 Generalizing and particutarizing 27 : - Compensation 8 Appendix 1. Glossary of Terms 196 Restructuring 129 : Appendix 2, Scientific Notation & Units of Measure 202 527 tconic Linkage bo i Appendix 3. Hazard, Risk and Safety Phrases 206 5.3 What type of translation are you producing? 132 : Appendix 4. Sample Document Profiles 2an 5.3.1 Instrumental and documnentary translations 134 : Index 226 5.3.2 Producing a translation brief 137List of Figures Figure 1: Figure 2: Figure 3: Figure 4: Figure 5: Figure 6: Figure 7: Figure 8: Figure 9: Figure 10: Figure 11: Figure 12: Figure 13: Figure 14: Figure 15: Figure 16: Figure 17: Figure 18: Figure 19: Figure 20: Sample reader roles and their needs High and Low Context Cultures (Katan 1999:183) Worksheet for profiling a target audience (Hoft 1995:61) Example of a screenshot for a software application Technical diagram with labels Examples of equations Schematic diagram with labels and measurements Document Profile Sheet Example of a table of contents modified for two different audiences Sample translation brief form Example of a style rule from the Apple Publications Style Guide (Appie 2003:103) Sample assessment criteria for evaluating texts Menu bar from a software interface with hotkeys underlined Postcard with hidden message European hazard warning symbols and accompanying. indications Directional terms for human anatomy Part 1 of Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first edition of Systema Naturae (1735) Part 2 of Table of the Animal Kingdom (Regnum Animale) from Carolus Linnaeus's first edition of Systema Naturae (1735) Confusing instructions for a child's toy (Michael O’Mara Books 2004:87) Diagram for Practical Exercise 25 32 40 4 54 55 57 58 130 139 143 181 163 170 173 176 a7 178 180 189 Acknowledgements This book is based on my experience over many years as a technical translator, technical writer, trainer and researcher and it draws on various aspects of my work with numerous translation agencies, localization vendors, translators and academics to provide what is, hopefully, 2 useful and accessible resource on scientific and technical translation. In particular, the many students | have taught at Dublin City University and the University of Sheffield as well as the people ‘who asked insightful questions at conferences and guest lectures have played a vital role in determining which information is included in this book and how it should be presented. am particularly grateful to the series editors who provided helpful comments on the various drafts of this book, My sincerest thanks go to John Kearns and to Kerry and Rick Gilchrist who, despite their heavy workloads, read sections of this book and provided invaluable comments, suggestions and feedback. | would also fike to acknowledge and thank the SCigen group, Oxford University Press, Henkel Avocent and Elaine McAndrew at Merrill Brink International for their kind support for reproducing some of the texts used in Chapter 4. My undying gratitude goes to my wife, Janice, for her eternal patience, sup- port and love during this project. Thank you (again)!About this book The purpose of this book is to introduce you to the issues involved in translating scientific and technical texts and to provide you with the skills and knowledge to deal with them. Despite varying estimates as to the true monetary value of scientific and technical translation, few people could deny that it is one of the most important areas of translation, both from a professional and, increasingly, from a training point of view. In this book, you will gain an overview of scientific and technical translation, explore its origins and its professional context and develop the knowledge and skills necessary to deal with a wide range of texts. One of the main difficulties for anyone interested in scientific and technical translation has always been the chronic lack of resources on the subject. This has been an issue since I was an undergraduate translation student and unfortunately, if comments from students and trainers are anything to go by, the situation has improved very little since then. This book is aimed, therefore, at students who are interested in scientific and technical translation, both as a career choice and as a research area, but who have found it difficult to find sufficient information to help them get started. This book is also aimed at anyone who simply wants to learn more about the area. In writing this book, | had three main aims, The first was to provide as broad and holistic an introduction to scientific and technical translation as possible so as to give a better understanding of this complex interdisciplinary area. By positioning scientific and technical translation within the field of technical ‘communication, it will be apparent that communicating technical information between languages requires more than just a good dictionary and an ability to write clearly, This approach will also highlight areas of common interest between translation and other aspects of communication, and hopefully stimulate ideas for further research. My second aim was to provide practical advice to help those starting out or intending to work as technical translators. While it is not possible to prepare translators for every eventuality, tis possible to highlight some of the more com- mon scenarios and provide suggestions on how to deal with them. This means novice translators will not find themselves completely unprepared for the reality of professional scientific and technical transtation. Finally, | wanted to provide a range of practical activities to help students prac- tise their skills and to familiarize them with the processesin scientific and technical translation. These activities can be found at various points in each chapter. By presenting typical translation strategies drawn from professional practice and from various other sources, this book will help you to explore scientific and technical translation in more detail and develop your own translation strategies. ‘The learning activities in particular are intended to inspire and encourage trainers and students to develop their own learning and teaching methods.xiv Jody Byrne Using this book ‘This book is designed to provide knowledge and skills that can be applied in practical transiation scenarios. Itis not intended solely as a theoretical exercise, although it does draw, where necessary, on theory to provide a context for the practical strategies proposed. It also explains that scientific and technical transla- tion is highly interdisciplinary, both as an activity and as a field of study. This book can be used in a number of ways. It can be used in conjunction with classroom-based practical translation courses with individual sections and chapters being referred to as necessary. Chapters J to 3 can also be used as int- tial reading at the start of a semester. Individual students will also find that the various activities are useful as self-study strategies as part of thelr independent learning. Chapter 1 begins by identifying scientific and technical translation and by describing whatit is and, more importantly, what it is not, We will then examine the professional, organizational and theoretical context within which scientific and technicat translation operates. Chapter 2 introduces the idea that scientific and technical translation should not be regarded just as a type of translation but as part of the broader field of ‘technical communication. This is necessary not simply because technical com- munication is the traditional source of the texts which we will translate, but because of the shared interests and, in many respects, the overlap in activities and skills, This chapter introduces you to technical communication and emphasizes the role of scientific and technical translation as a communicative process that is aimed at specific audiences. Given the overwhelming importance of the audi- ence in the translation process, it is important to understand their needs, their expectations and even their idiosyncrasies so that we can tallor our translations accordingly. The chapter concludes with some suggestions on how to go about gaining a better understanding of audiences. Chapter 3 examines the typical features of scientific and technical language before examining several main categories of texts. This is important if we are to understand the ways in which audiences’ needs are met by particular types of text. For each main category, a discussion of the main features and content is provided with observations as to how some of these factors may affect the translation process. The chapter concludes by looking at how Translation Stud- ies can help us to categorize and make sense of the various text types we will encounter. After the preparatory background information provided in the previous chapters, Chapter 4 looks at some of the main types of text you may be asked to translate, The first two examples are accompanied by document profiles, which highlight the main features of the text as well as a list of problems you are likely to face and how to deal with them. To help develop your text analysis skills, you will need to produce profiles for the remaining text types yourselt, although Ap- pendix 4 contains sample profiles, which you can consult if you need to. Scientific and Technical Translation Explained oo Chapter 5 looks at some of the general translation approaches, which may come in useful when translating scientific and technical texts. Starting with generic translation strategies with which most translators are familiar, the book looks at how strategies such as modulation, recategorization (which was once known as transposition) and borrowing are used in the context of scientific and technical translation We will also look at other more radical strategies such as restructuring, recycling information, expansion and contraction, again illustrating how they are applied to the translation of technical documentation. Next, we look at the different types of translation you may be expected to produce. Understanding what each type of translation involves will help you decide which translation macrostrategy is the most appropriate for a given project. This chapter also draws on the idea of the translation brief proposed by Skopos theory as a way of identifying what it is your translation is supposed to achieve. Again, this will help you decide how you need to tackle a particular translation, Chapter 6 is perhaps the most practice-orientated chapter and in it we look at specific aspects of scientific and technical texts and the challenges they can pose for translators. These aspects cover a range of areas such as culture-specific features, errors in the source text, authoritative translations, and formatting issues that will require either a cautious approach, direct action or even no action at all. Finally, a glossary of key terms and other useful resources are also provided as appendices at the end of the book. hope that the topics covered in this book, together with the practical strat- egies and learning activities will do justice to what is an interesting, rewarding and demanding field of translation, Jody Byrne Dublin, May 2011 www jodybyre.com Find out more on Facebook facebaok.com/ScitechExplained i1. Scientific and Technical Translation In this chapter This chapter introduces you to scientific and technical transiation and explains its origins and its importance both from a historical perspective and in terms of its current position within the language and other industries. This chapter will also show that while scientific translation and technical translation are closely related fields, they are not identical and the terms scientific and technical cannot be used interchangeably. We will discuss the significance of this type of translation before examining how theories of translation can help the translator. You will also learn about who is involved in scientific and technical translation and gain an overview of the typical tools you will need to use as a translator. This chapter will discuss your responsibility asa scientific and technical translator from a legal and ethical point of view before presenting some practical activities to help you practise what you have learned. 1.1 Introduction Scientific and technical translation is part of the process of disseminating information on an international scale, which is indispensable for the functioning of our modern society. (Pinchuck 1977:13) Translation is an important driving force of modern society. it facilitates the flow of ideas, expertise, values and other information between different cultures. Itis also essential for scientific and technological advancement. In today's informa- tion age, the role of scientific and technical translation is more important than ever. It has facilitated some of the most significant scientific and technological advances of recent decades. These advances have transformed our daily lives to the extent that the world around us is virtually unrecognizable from fifty, or even twenty, years ago. Virtually every aspect of our lives from education and work to entertainment, shopping and travel has been swept along by a seemingly unstoppable wave of new inventions and technological advances. What many people do not realize is that these inventions and advances are accompanied at almost every step of the way by translation in its capacity as a vehicle for dis- seminating scientific and technical knowledge. Although in terms of translation studies, scientific and technical translation is just one of a number of fascinating areas of study, it is, however, an area of translation which has had a profound impact on society. Furthermore, as a field of translation activity, itis one which will have most impact on the vast majority of translation students, as itis here that many translators find a sizeable amount of their income.2 Jody Byrne 1.1.1 Some distinctions Despite their similarities, technical and scientific translation are not interchange- able terms. The aim of this book is to introduce the fundamental features of scientific and technical translation and the skills needed to engage in this type of activity. It is important to realize, however, that the terms scientific and technical are not identical and that the expression scientific and technical is not a tautological reference to the same type of translation. Part of the decision to group these areas together has to do with the way in which these subjects are traditionally taught, rather than any similarity between the two. The majority of translator training institutions offer modules with titles such as “Scientific & Technical Translation” or “Advanced Translation — Scientific & Technical” and presumably, this is a convenient way of organizing teaching provision. ‘Another reason is that the lines separating scientific and technical texts are becoming increasingly blurred. As we will discuss later, it is not uncommon for texts to combine elements of both scientific and technical texts and all of the issues that this entails. So, while the two areas are separate in many ways, the ‘ways in which they appear in the real world mean that they need to be consid- ered together. Pinchuck (1977:13) identifies three key categories of information, which provide the materials for scientific and technical translation: 1. The results of pure science; 2. The results of applied scientific research carried out in order to solve a particular problem; and 3. The work of technologists, which is intended to result in an industrial product or process, which can be sold. Pinchuck quite rightly points out, though, that there is always a significant amount of overlap between these categories and that the work of today’s scientists, Le. theoretical scientific information, is likely to become tornorrow’s technology and as such give us various tangible products, devices, services and so on. From this perspective, it is worth remembering this relationship as we examine scientific and technical translation in this book; while the texts may differ and the informa- tion may take different forms, their foundations are ultimately built upon largely the same information. However, the way in which this information is presented and used varies quite significantly between scientific and technical translation. So, while a technical text is designed to convey information as clearly and effectively as possible, a scientific text will discuss, analyze and synthesize information with a view to explaining ideas, proposing new theories or evaluating methods, Due to these differing aims, the language used in each type of text, and consequently the strategies needed to translate them, may vary significantly. It could even be said that scientific translation has just as much to do with literary translation as it does with technical translation. While the common view of scientific writing is that itis dry, highly objective and impartial, with all traces of Scientific and Technical Translation 3 style and linguistic creativity chased from the discourse like a fox from a chicken coop, the reality is quite different. Locke (1992) comprehensively dismantles the idea that there is no place for individualism, style, metaphor and creativity in scientific discourse. Indeed, he argues that the very nature of science means that individual style and creativity are intrinsic parts of the scientific process. He Cites, for example, the use of metaphors as a foundation of scientific language with terms such as the Big Bang and the Greenhouse Effect owing their existence to the creativity of scientists and writers. The implication of this for translators, then, is that they must be able to recognize and negotiate culture-bound meta- phors in much the same way as literary translators must. 1.1.2 Historical significance Technical transiation’s long and colourful history helps us understand its impor- tance today. Translation is practically as old as writing itself and for almost as long as humans have been writing they have been translating. Indeed, evidence of this can be found in ancient clay tablets containing bilingual Sumerian-Eblaite glossaries {Deslisle & Cloutier 1995:7). Some have gone so far as to say, rather humorously, that translation is the “second oldest profession” known to humanity (Baer & Koby 2003:vil). To many, translating sacred texts such as the Bible or Koran imme- diately springs to mind when we speak of translation in historical terms. However, the translation of scientific and technical texts has a history, which is as long as that of religious translation, ifnot longer. That translation has accompanied virtu- ally every significant scientific and technological discovery throughout the ages is well documented and it is difficult, if not impossible, to find a single example of an invention or discavery which was not exported to another language and culture by means of translation. While translation has always facilitated the dissemination of knowledge, it was not until the 15" century that it really came into its own. In 1447, Johannes Gutenberg developed what is widely credited as being the first moveable type printing system which revolutionized printing and made it much easier to produce and, indeed, own books. That this invention had such an impact on translation and the dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge is due to the ensu- ing explosion in the number of books produced in Europe. Tebeaux (1997:14-30) describes how, during the English Renaissance, countless books were written on topics such as medicine, farming methods, animal husbandry, fishing, gardening, household management, horse riding, falconry, fencing, military science, navi- gation, road building, carpentry, stained glass making and so on. Gutenberg’s press permitted unprecedented levels of distribution for these books thanks to the relative ease and cost-effectiveness with which they could be produced. Not only did this make it easier to distribute original language texts, it also made it easier to disseminate information in translation. And so, translation, newly empowered by widespread printing, continued to play a central role in the dissemination of scientific and technical information for centuries. However, it was only during the last 100 or so years that translation4 Jody Byrne really made its mark on science and technology. This was a time when scientists were making countless new discoveries and writing about their findings in their ‘own native languages. With other researchers eager to acquire new knowledge and Jearn new techniques, the demand for translations of these scientific texts was un- precedented. This translation activity in turn fuelled new research, which resulted in even more new discoveries. Imagine how under-developed science would be, ‘were it not for translation; each language area would be intellectually isolated and each language community would have to discover the entire body of scientific and ‘technical knowledge for itself. This would not simply be a case of reinventing the Wheel, but of reinventing the wheel dozens, if not hundreds, of times. “The following are just a few examples of significant scientific pioneers and the languages in which they published their work: + Physics: Max Planck and Albert Einstein (German}, Nils Bohr (Danish), Robert Boyle (English), Hideki Yukawa (Japanese); «Biology and genetics: Camillo Golgi (Italian), Tang Dizhou (Chinese); * Radiology and medical diagnostics: Pierre and Marie Curie (French), Wilhelm Conrad Réntgen (German); + Bacteriofogy: Aiexander Fleming (English), Louis Pasteur (French); + Psychiatry: Sigmund Freud (German). The advent of printing also marked the start of a new era in transiation itself, which, it could be argued, saw the way in which translation was viewed and carried out change quite significantly. In the centuries before printing, there existed a manuscript culture with texts being handwritten, fragile and almost ephemeral objects. Texts, usually of a scientific or technical nature, were copied by scribes and were often modified, whether intentionally or unintentionally, through the addition, omission or modification of information. This resulted in variability and uncertainty with regard to texts and the problem became even more pronounced when translation was added to the mix. At the time, translat- ing lacked the standards of accuracy and quality that we expect today with the result that mistranslations or even omissions of difficult passages were common (Montgomery 2002:178). Indeed, such was the extent of the problem it was not uncommon for copies of the same work held, for example, in libraries in Paris and Oxford to differ quite significantly in terms of content (Grant 1992:367). As Grant points out: “knowl- edge was as likely to disappear as to be acquired” as a result of the translation process. This was made all the more problematic when we consider that there might only have been one copy of the source text and this would have been written on fragile vellum or papyrus. This trend can be traced back to ancient Rome and Greece where the concept of intellectual property as we currently know it simply did not exist. In Greece, for example, the demand for knowledge, particularly of a scientific and technical nature, gave rise to what we now call compilers, These compilers, whose name comes from the Latin “to plunder”, effectively “misappropriated” whole chunks of texts, usually through translation and presented them as their own work (Stahl 1962:5). Translators at the time Scientific and Technical Transiation 5 used source texts as the basis for new books and combined the ideas of the original with their own ideas, opinions and suggestions. Consequently, many of the great works by some of the most important scholars such as Posidonius or Ptolomy have effectively been lost; despite nu- merous publications purporting to contain the writings of these scholars, there is no trace of their actual writings left asa result of countless publications which combined, modified, assimilated or falsified their work. Roman translators were no less cavalier in their approach to scavenging knowledge and passing it off as their own. Indeed, the Romans described these practices as inventio (invention), which involved the rewriting or rewording of the original during translation, and contaminare (contamination), which involved combining translations together from different sources to form an entirely new work. This changed quite significantly, however, with the advent of relatively high volume printing as facilitated by Gutenberg’s invention. Texts became fixed = objects to be respected rather than ragged scraps of vellum, which could be written and copied by anyone. The process of printing texts on paper and binding ‘them gave the knowledge they contained a legitimacy and permanency which had rarely existed previously. In the case of translation, the existence of a fixed and standardized source text made translators more accountable for omissions and mistranslations because it was easier to consult the original source text. We could argue that printing raised standards within scientific and technical translation and that, ultimately, it was instrumental in the emergence of various translation theories and concepts such as equivalence, faithfulness or foyalty and later concepts such as adequacy. Practical Exercise 1: The language of science Think of three major scientific discoveries and find out who are the — main scientists associat them. What is the nationality and working language of each scientist? Now identify three products or inventions that make use of one or more: ‘of these discoveries and ‘find out in which country they were made. 4.1.3 Modern scientific and technical translation Various factors over the centuries have changed the way we look at technical translation today. In today’s globalized economy, scientificand technical transiation in many respects represents the backbone of international trade and the scientific endeavour which fuels it. Virtually every product sold or specialized service provided ~ whether MP3 players, telephone conferencing systems, luxury cars, lame retardant cladding for use in the construction industry, online shopping websites, mobile phone services or designing a steel mill - will require the involvement of scientific and technical translators at some point in its lifecycle. This involvement may come as early on asthe design and consulting phase, during development and manufacture, as part of sales and marketing activities or to provide support to customers and users.a fC ee a oe = SS — i. eee a | 4 4 ae 6 Jody Byrne Ithas been estimated that scientific and technical translation now accounts for some 90% of global translation output (Kingscott 2002:247). Of course, this figure is unlikely to be completely accurate for a number of reasons ~ one of which relates to how we define scientific and technical transtation (see Byrne 2006:3). However, even assuming that the figure is exaggerated due to various confounding variables, this figure is unlikely to be too far off the mark. This is all the more likely when we consider that the localization industry, which tradition- ally makes extensive use of scientific and technical translators, is estimated to be worth around US$12 billion (DePalma & Beninatto 2006:4). Indeed, scientific and technical translation forms such a crucial part of mod- ern industry and society that it is the subject of numerous laws, regulations and directives and many international scholarly scientific journals, even those which publish papers in various languages, require translations of abstracts at the very least. Practical Exercise 2: Exporting languages ‘Make a list of the electrical appliances you have in your home : d note the countries in which they were designed and/or bi it your national language at the centre, draw a diagram illustrating the languages from which documents relating fo peur apaletes ee _ been translated. Q Try t0 find some of the documentation that came with these appli "ances. Are there any features, for example style, subject, language ‘formatting which you think would pose problems for a translator? if you had to translate one document yourself, how would you ap- proach these features? 2S ee ae 114 Some legal dimensions Understanding how various legal factors affect how and why we do our work. ‘One of the most compelling reasons for studying scientific and technical transla- tion is that in many cases the translation of documents in these domains is an activity which is required by law. In Europe, EU Council Resolution C411 specifi- cally states that in order to be able to legally sell or distribute technical products and appliances, all technical documentation relating to the product must be translated into the language(s) of the country where the product is to be sold (Council of the European Union 1998). A result of the Directive is that products are only regarded as being complete when they are accompanied by full operating instructions in the users’ own language; if there are problems or inaccuracies in the instructions, the whole product can be regarded as defective. To put this into perspective, any product that involves some form of technology, be it electronic, electrical, mechanical, chemical etc., must be accompanied by documentation in a variety of languages. Assuming that few companies have the resources to Scientific and Technical Translation 7 employ technical writers to produce documentation in each of the languages concerned, it is fair to say that there is a huge demand for translators (usually freelancers) who can translate this documentation into different languages. The translation of technical documentation is also subject to a range of other faws, regulations and directives. Another provision of Resolution C421 is that instructions must be clear, comprehensible and must provide clear warnings to prevent misuse of products and to advise users of possible risks and hazards. Since in practice these translations are not regarded as translations per se, but rather as original target language documents, the regulations regarding technical writing and documentation will apply. Other pieces of legislation which affect scientific and technical translation include Directive 2001/95/EC, which deals with general product safety, and Directive 88/378/EEC, which deals with the safety of toys. Both state that clear warnings about possible risks must be given in the users’ own language. Similarly, Directive 90/385/EEC, which deals with medical devices, and Directive 76/768/ EEC, which relates to cosmetics, state that documentation must be translated and it must anticipate potential risks (Byrne 200716). But even after translations have been produced, the law still plays an important role because translators can be held liable for mistakes in their texts as a result of contractual obligations or asa result of other liabilities arising from tort law (ibid.). Translation and liability - _ Consider the following scenario: When translating an installation man- __ lal for a gas heater, a translator notices that the source text contains a serious factual error. It says that the gas supply must not be tured off before starting work. It should have sald that the gas supply must ___ be fumed off. However, the translator retains this incorrect informa- _ tion in the target text. An engineer instaling a gas heater follows the ___ instructions and as a result the heater explodes, kiling the engineer andt fires ‘other people who:were working nearby. a ‘What are the key issues to be considered in this case? Who do you think is responsible for the deaths? Should the translator be found neg- ligent and fined/imprisoned? Why? Are there any mitigating factors? Practical Exercise 4: Finding legal resources ‘An important aspect of law is that in many jurisdictions itis constantly i evolving as a result of new.court rulings, laws and legislation. Web- sites such as EUR-Lex [htp-eur/ex.europa.eul provide a wealth of information on legislation in the EU. Using the Internet, your local library or whatever information sources are available to you, find three sources of national case law and legislation for your own country and three sources of international legislation. Try to identify any cases or laws which relate to transla- tion or the provision of specialized technical information.8 Jody Byrne 1.2 Aplace for translation theory? What can translation theory tell us about translating technical documentation? Translation theory has always been a problematic area of study. Part of the problem is that it seeks to understand and explain translation, which is itself a complex and notoriously difficult concept to pin down. In the rush to explain the various facets of translation - and possibly to justify translation asa discrete field of study a plethora of theories, models and approaches have emerged, some of which are extremely insightful and useful, but amidst the noise created by so much work it is sometimes difficult to make sense of it all. An introductory book intended to explain the practice of scientific and tech- nical translation is not the place for a lengthy discussion of translation theory, although it is necessary to mention briefly some of the more relevant theoreti- cal approaches which relate to this area. The following paragraphs will provide a very brief outline of how translation theory can be applied to scientific and ‘technical translation, One of the most difficult aspects of translation theory is that scientific and technical translation have traditionally been neglected by scholars and none of the mainstream theories really addresses scientific and technical translation specifically. Some models have been developed as general theories of translation while others have emerged from particular types of translation, such as literary translation or bible translation. As a result, applying any of the available theories. to scientific and technical translation is fraught with difficulty. Difficulties also arise because, as Chesterman {2000:49) points out, many theories of translation adopt a binary approach to translation consisting of dia- metrically opposed extremes. Some examples of this include formal vs. dynamic equivalence (Nida & Taber 1964), semantic vs. communicative (Newmark 1977) and covert vs. overt (House 1977). While this approach certainly serves to make the theories neater and easier to describe, it represents a rather oversimpli- fied vision of the translation process. Translation inevitably involves shades of grey — new scenarios, unusual combinations of factors and so on ~ which means that trying to shoe-horn a translation into one category or the other is often un- comfortable, if not impossible. Conversely, having too many categories or options can make classifying a particular translation scenario equally challenging. ‘While a ot of valuable work has been done in the field of LSP (Language for Special Purposes) and text typologies, which help us to understand why and how texts are produced in specific communicative contexts, there is stil a lot to be done before we can comfortably apply a theoretical model to scientific and technical transiation. Typologies are discussed in Chapter 3 but for more infor- mation see, for example, Gdpferich (1995) and Trosborg (1997). 1.2.1 Recreating the source text Traditionally, the source text has been regarded as the most important element in translation, particularly as it is the starting point for the whole process and Scientific and Technical Translation 9 the basis upon which target texts are produced, The prevailing view has been that, for a translation process to exist there has to be a source text, otherwise we would not be translators, we would be writers. In recent years, however, the focus of translation theory has, particularly in non-literary spheres, shifted away from frameworks based on the source text towards a more communica- tive approach, This means that translation is increasingly being regarded as a communicative process and, as such, the guiding factors are the message and recipient, i.e. the content and the target audience. This change of focus has made the study of translation clearer in that we can relate it to actual real-world events with real participants. The emphasis on the source text is perhaps most apparent in the numerous Gefinitions and types of equivalence, which all rely on one thing: a link or bond of some sort between the source text and the target text. It is this relationship that, according to Kenny (1998:77), allows the target text to be considered a translation of the source text. As Catford (1965:49) explains, “the TL text must be relatable to at least some of the situational features to which the SL text is relatable”. The focus in equivalence theory on the need to have a strong link between the source and target texts is unfortunately taken to extremes, however, with the result that the source text can erroneously be regarded as the most important component in the translation process, with translators striving to create as close a replica of the source text as possible. Indeed, some would argue that it should be the sole guiding principle for translators. Taking this approach to its natural conclusion, we would have a situation where we could never separate the source text and target text; the target text could not function as a translation without the ever-present source text. While this is clearly problematic in many ways, to deny that there must be at least some link would also be misguided. Quite simply, without the source text there can be no translation. While this relationship can, to a certain extent, be abused through, for example, an insistence on excessively literal translations motivated out of an unquestioning and sometimes misguided loyalty to the au- thor, often to the detriment of the target language (TL) reader, the fact remains that the source text forms the basis for the translation. Perhaps the most well known types of equivalence are formal and dynamic equivalence proposed by Nida in 1964. Formal equivalence is concerned the message in terms of its form and content. With this type of equivalence the message in the TL should match the different elements in the source language as closely as possible, be they lexical, syntactic, stylistic, phonological or ortho- graphic, According to Catford, a formal correspondent (or equivalent) is “any TL category (unit, class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to ‘occupy, as nearly as possible, the ‘same’ place in the ‘economy’ of the TLas the given SL {source language] category occupies in the SL" (Catford 1965:27). Dynamic equivalence, on the other hand, is based on the notion that the TT should have the same effect on its audience as the ST had on its own audience. With dynamic equivalence, the emphasis is not so much on finding a TL match for10 Jody Bye an SL message but rather on creating the same relationship between the target audience and the message as that which existed between the SL audience and the message (Nida 1964:159). The aim here is to produce a target text which is natural and idiomatic and which focuses on the TL culture. According to dynamic equivalence, a successful translation needs to capture the sense of the ST and not just the words. As such, it can only be regarded as a successful piece of com- munication if the message is successfully transmitted to the target audience. ida & Taber make the point, however, that eliciting the same response from ‘two different groups of people can be difficult, particularly when we consider that no two people from the same language group will understand words in exactly the same way (1969:4). This sentiment is also expressed by Steiner (1975:28). What we are left with, therefore, is an approach which is theoretically quite desirable but difficult to implement and imprecise in practice. Applying the idea of formal and dynamic equivalence to any type of translation, not just to scientific and technical transiation, rarely produces anything tangible or specific for a translator to make use of because they are such vague and subjective concepts. There are a number of systems, which have been put forward to examine the levels of equivalence (see, for example, Komissarov 1977, Koller 1979, Baker 1992). One of the most enduring of these is the scheme proposed by Koller (1979:188-189), according to which equivalence can occur on the following levels: * Denotational meaning, namely the object or concept being referred to; + Connetational meaning, which is, according to Koller divided into lan- guage level, sociolect, dialect, medium, style, frequency, domain, value and emotional tone; * Textual norms, which are typical language features of texts such as le- gal documents, business letters etc.; * Pragmatic meaning, which includes reader expectations; + Linguistic form, namely devices such as metaphors, rhyme and so on. Each of these levels then gives rise to a particular type of equivalence, which can be used to describe the relationship between the ST and TT. In scientific and technical texts, achieving equivalence on any of these levels might require the translator to focus more on the information being communicated (denotational meaning) in the case of an instruction manual, on the way in which information is expressed (linguistic form) in a popular science article or on set phrases and document conventions (textual norms) in the case of a certificate of conformity (see Chapter 4). In order to emphasize equivalence on one of these levels, transla- tors may find themselves having to settle for lower levels of equivalence on one or more of the remaining levels. It has become rather fashionable to dismiss equivalence when discussing professional translation (Pym 1995 & 2010}. The insistence of equivalence-based approaches on maintaining what some would regard as excessively close links between the target text and the source text and its original audience seems incongruous when the point of translation is to communicate to a new audi- Scientific and Technica! Translation 11 ence. Equivalence can also be criticized for its general difficulty in incorporating real-world, extratextual issues such as time constraints, preferred terminology and style, reader expectations, etc. However, to dismiss equivalence out of hand because it appears old-fashioned, excessively concerned with the source text and isolated from the world in which translation takes place is like saying that walking is not as useful as running and should be banned. In reality, both running and walking have their advantages and thelr disadvantages, it all depends on what itis you are trying to achieve. These levels of equivalence give us, in theory at least, the ability to compare source and target texts, once a translation has been produced. However, we need to be wary of trying to use the various types of equivalence to dictate how a translation should be produced and how the ST and TT should relate to one another, They are simply not designed to do this; equivalence cannot tell us which of its various levels should be used, primarily because it has difficulty tak- ing account of the fact that, as Toury (1995:26) says, a translation is a fact of the target language that hosts it. This means that scientific and technical translations will be governed and judged in the context of the norms, expectations and rules of the target text. in other words, they will be treated as if they were originally produced in the target language and not as translations. Moreover, equivalence does not take into account those real-world issues which play as much a role in shaping the translation process as the source and target languages, the text and its content etc. All that we can realistically expect to achieve using the various levels of equivalence is describe how the source and target texts relate to one another after the translation has been completed. A more helpful way of using equivalence is to employ its levels and types during the translation process asa set of tools or policies which can be selected in order to achieve some translation goal. In practice, this might mean that when translating an instruction manual, for instance, we would decide that denotational equivalence is more important than equivalence of linguistic form or connotational equivalence and that we would concentrate on conveying the information rather than on recreating the Particular stylistic features of the source text. The difficulty in adopting this type of approach, as hinted at above, is that we do not know which of the various levels of equivalence and, by extension, which aspects of the source text, are the most appropriate for a particular context. ‘Simply knowing the different ways in which a source text and target text can be equivalent does not mean that a translator will choose the most appropriate one for a particular project. As a result, translators are usually left to their own devices in choosing the most appropriate translation strategy and may or may not choose the right one, 1.2.2 Focusing on the target text Skopos theory was developed by Hans Vermeer in 1978 and was the first theory to fully recognize the professional reality of translation and that, unlike equiva- lence, the target text, or more precisely the purpose of the target text, is the12 Jody Byrne most important in determining the way we should translate texts (Vermeer 1982; 1987a). This theory is based on the principle that translation is a communicative activity, which is performed for a specific reason; a text is written for a specific purpose and it is translated for a specific purpose. It is this purpose, which is known as the Skopos, which governs the translation process, unlike equivalence, where the ST and its effects on the SL audience determine the translation process, or for that matter functionalism, where the ST function defines the TT function and the translation process. ‘Skopos theory maintains that the translation process is determined by the ‘Skopos of the TT as specified by the commissioner and the translator, A text, ac- cording to Skopos theory, is an offer of information, i. the raw materials from which any number of possible translations can be produced (Vermeer 1987b) The way in which a translator selects the “correct” translation depends on the intended purpose of the translation being known. While this may seem rather vague, it does in fact reflect the reality of translation. For example, the way in which we translate a document will depend on who is going to read it, how they are going to use it, the way in which the text will be distributed and so on. These factors do not necessarily remain constant between source and target text and they are particularly important in scientific and technical translation. Take, for example, a situation where we are asked to translate the user guide for a toaster. In both languages, such texts are expected to have an informative function so the primary function will not change. in the original source lan- guage culture, its normal for such documents to adopt a tone which emulates an expert “speaking down” to a layperson who is instructed to follow certai procedures. However, target language readers would react quite badly to what they would perceive as a patronizing and demeaning, almost insulting, tone. if this document were being translated for distribution in the target country, the appropriate course of action would be to translate the text in such a way that this expert-layperson register is replaced by a peer-to-peer register where the reader is advised to follow certain procedures. A translator would be entirely justified in making such changes, as the translation would fail in its purpose otherwise. However, if the user guide is simply being translated for use by a service engineer, the emphasis will be on the information and the reader is unlikely to be “offended” by harsh orders and will not need to have the translator explain every concept in simple terms. Ultimately, we would have two quite different translations originating from the same source text. But if, according to Vermeer, an ST is an offer of information and can give rise to any number of potential translations (Nord 1991:23), how is the translator to know which one is the most. appropriate one? If it were left to chance, there is the risk that the translator may pick the wrong one, i.e. translate the text in a way that does not meet the dlient’s requirements. Rather than leave such an important strategic decision to chance, Skopos theory introduces the notion of the translation brief, which is defined as a form of project specification which sets out the requirements for the translation (Byrne 2006:39). This brief is intended to form the basis for identifying the Skopos of the translation and is supposed to, among other things, clearly define what the trans- Scientific and Technical Translation 1B lation is to be used for and who will use it. in his definition of translation, Sager (1993:116) acknowledges the need for some form of brief or instructions “from a third party” on the basis of which the translation is carried out. Unfortunately however, producing a translation brief is quite a hit and miss affair with clients rarely able to provide anything more relevant or specific than “t have a 7,500 word document that | need transiated. It’s got something to do with electronics and | need it by the end of the week"! In such cases, the translator generally needs to ask certain probing questions such as “Is the text for publication?” etc, and on this basis construct some form of translation brief. This unfortunately weakens the effectiveness of Skopos theory somewhat. This problem is compounded by the fact that nobody seems to know exactly what should go into a translation brief although the general consensus seems to be that it should provide some form of information about the target audience, intended purpose of the text and any stylistic or terminological requirements. ‘Sunwoo (2007), in her paper “Operationalizing the translation purpose (Skopos)”, seeks to address this problem and presents a detailed “model for constituting the translation purpose from the translation commission” and a way of situating the text. The result is @ very detailed analysis although it is probably much too complex for practical use. Skopos theory can be tricky to use in practice because of the vagueness of the notion of the translation brief and also because it does not actually say how we are to fulfil a particular Skopos. But it does help us to concentrate on the most important aspects of the translation process. From this very brief description, we can see certain limitations which are also indicative of other theoretical approaches to translation. For example, while equivatence gives us theoretical criteria with which to compare translations against their originals and which can be used as strategies if needed, it cannot account for the numerous factors which exist outside texts but which nonethe- {ess playa crucial role in translation. Nor for that matter does equivalence tell us which of the various levels and types of equivalence is the most appropriate for a given translation scenario. Equivalence frequently places too much emphasis on the role of the source text to the detriment of all other factors. While the introduction of functionalism (see House 1977, for example) was a groundbreaking step in that it lessened the emphasis of translation on purely textual factors, it still, unfortunately, maintained the excessive importance at- tached to the source text. Skopos theory, on the other hand, is valuable in that it explicitly addresses the professional context of translation and takes a more holistic approach. Unfortunately, it can be problematic from the point of view that the Skopos of a translation is based on the undefined notion of the translation brief, which is open to interpretation and may, in some cases, be very difficult to formulate *Tonce received an email asking whether | would be available to translate a medical text: Before agreeing to take the job | asked to see the text frst, whereupon it emerged that the text was actually about guns, not medicine. The company for whom the text was to be translated normally made medical devices but had diversified into manufacturing accessories for guns.14 Jody Byrne because translators are rarely given meaningful translation briefs or commissions. Moreover, because Skopos is intended asa general theory of translation, itis not really in a position to offer explicit instructions or guidance on how to achieve specific Skopoi ‘One method of reconciling the problems outlined above might be to combine the best features of Skopos theory, equivalence theory and work carried out on text typologies. This would involve using Skopos theory to determine what itis ‘we need to achieve with our translation. This gives us our general overview of what type of translation is required When combined with a knowledge of text typologies we can then produce a clearer picture of what precisely our translation will look tike in terms of features such as language, terminology and content, based on what we know about comparable texts in the target language. Then, with this knowledge, we can use the various levels of equivalence not as criteria for comparing texts, but as guidelines, informed by our understanding of the purpose of the target text which will aid us when transtating. However, there is much more to translation theory than the examples given above. There are numerous other models and approaches available such as rele- vance theory (Gut 1991), translation norms (see Schaffner 1999}, descriptive translation studies (Toury 1995) and functionalism (Rei 1971), some of which may have something to offer scientific and technical translation. itis essential to realize however, that while none of the existing theories of translation on their ‘own can provide an infallible model of the translation process, particularly for scientific and technical translation, they do provide adequate raw materials with which we can develop an informed and acceptable working theoretical model to guide our practical work. The challenge here is to examine the various theoreti- cal approaches and models and then cherry pick those aspects which appear to be most relevant. It is quite conceivable that all of the components for a robust and reliable theory of transtation, not just scientific and technical translation, are available to us already. All that remains is to assemble the various pieces into a basic usable theoretical framework. Practical Exercise 5: Skopos versus equivalence Draw up a list of the advantages and disadvantages of using (1) just equivalence and (2) just Skopos theory to explain. scientific and technical translation. Compare the results of both lists. If you had to choose just one theory, which would it be and why? How would you combine the two theories? 1.3. Tools of the trade As well as linguistic skills, we also need to use a variety of software and tools as part of our work. When we consider the long association between translation and various in- novative technologies over the centuries it comes as no surprise to find that Scientific and Technical Translation 15 technology plays a crucial role in scientific and, perhaps more so, technical translation. While for the most part translation has traditionally facilitated the dissemination of new scientific and technical knowledge, science and technology have also had a tremendous impact on translation. Commercial translation (as distinct from interpreting), the point of which is to provide a written alternative to some foreign language, has always required the use of certain tools whether a clay tablet and stylus, quill and parchment or typewriter, telex and fax. Such tools, while requiring some acclimatization, mare so in the case of typewriters and telexes, were unlikely to have any radical impact on the work of the translator; they were simply improvements on exist- ing methods. The benefits to translators were modest and came in the form of slight improvements in the presentation of translations or faster delivery of texts. Translation only underwent a genuine metamorphosis as a result of technology with the advent of computers and the internet. Despite the fact that computers and the Internet have existed in one form or another for decades, their everyday use was virtually unheard of only thirty years ago. Computers at that time were bulky, room-sized contraptions which required teams of scientists to tend to their idiosyncratic and temperamental needs, The modern PC, as we know it, was at that time but a distant glimmer on the horizon. The internet, too, was at an embryonic stage, consisting of a dozen ‘or so computers located at military bases, research laboratories and universities in the USA. Itis only since around the mid-1990s that the Internet has truly made its mark on translation. in 1971, Sykes referred to typewriters as a staple part of any translator's office. Some 25 years later, O Hagan’s (1996:5) reference to the fax as the most popular form of communication shows that the Internet had yet to establish itself as a core component of the translation landscape. Computers and the Internet have changed business models throughout the world, in all industries and business sectors and have gone hand in glove with globalization. in the transiation industry, it has created new demands for trans- lations and placed new demands on translators, requiring them to adopt new technologies and practices as part of their day-to-day work. Indeed, technology has almost created its own demand by facilitating global business; it creates a demand for new processes which inevitably involve the use of technology. This process which has seen translation become a computer-based activity (Auster- miih! 2001:4) has transformed both the type of work we do and the way in which we perform this work. Nowhere has this impact been more pronounced than in the fields of scientific and technical translation. Perhaps it is because scientific and technical translation coexist so closely with technology that they have experienced such a drastic technological transforma- tion, or perhaps it is because working with companies and organizations where technology plays such a crucial role in their activities has required translators to become part of the technical landscape. Whatever the reason, the nature of scientific and technical translation means that the basic word-processing skills, which would once have been sufficient and are still sufficient for most transla~ tors, are simply not enough any more, particularly for those working in scientific and technical domains.: s 16 Jody Byrne Scientific and Technical Translation a7 Most documents are produced using word processors such as Microsoft Word. But despite the rather impressive range of features offered by this type of software, word processors are actually at the lower end of the text processing ee ‘Today's scientific and technical translator has to contend not only with word- s processing and sending files by email or electronic file transfer, but receiving ae documents in a bewildering array of file types which often have to be handled e G using specialized software. This software is often so far removed from mainstream spectrum in terms of complexity and the powerfulness of their features. Certain co computer use that someone outside our profession would never even know types of documents, such as those produced for highly technical products in- i about them, fet alone be expected to use them. The translator, who translates cluding software, machinery or vehicles are so large and complex as a result of | ee =S documents produced in industries where such software is commonplace, needs formatting, cross-referencing and graphics that they cannot be produced using ! S| firstly to be able to recognize such files and technologies, and secondly to know typical word processing software. Instead, they are produced using DTP software z oe : what to do with them. such as Adobe FrameMaker, InDesign or PageMaker. | Virtually all transtators - irrespective of the types of texts they translate ~ have ‘These are complex professional applications which allow authors to combine ee to contend with the increasing levels of technology necessary to do the job. text and graphics to produce documents with complex layouts for distribution ee Where once the translator's role was quite distinct from that of a graphic de- either in traditional print format or in a number of electronic formats for dis- signer, desktop publishing (DTP) specialist or even programmer, the expectation tribution via the Internet or on disk. Indeed, a large proportion of documents, a now is that translators need to be able to deal with various technologies, file particularly in [T-related domains are never actually printed - they are intended a formats and tools. to be distributed electronically and read on-screen. Consequently, technical Le - | Tohelp us make sense of the vast array of technologies and tools with which translators may receive documents in PDF format or in a mark-up language such 4 the technical translator must contend it helps if we group them into three broad as HTML or XML. However, such electronic documents are not solely produced aS categories: : by DTP applications. + General tools + Text processing tools + Translation tools 1.3.1 General tools This category of tools is used by virtually everyone, not just translators. This category forms the basic level of IT competence which is needed to be able to function in any career and it consists of general PC skills such as basic mainten- ance, installation and deinstallation of software, data archival and backups, file compression, CD creation and PC security. Perhaps more importantly, this category also includes the increasingly important communicative functions of the Internet such as online research using search engines and databases and communications using email, internet telephony, instant messaging and video conferencing as well as sending data using FTP servers etc. Nearly all translators have to deal with this level of technology as part of their day-to-day work, 1.3.2 Text processing tools ‘Text processing tools are the staple of any translator’s toolkit; they are the very means by which we do our work, Again, all translators need to be proficient in the use of basic word-processing packages, regardless of the translator's special- ism. For many translators, a solid understanding of Microsoft Word or possibly OpenOffice is more than enough to be able to work effectively as a translator. However, for certain groups of translators, most notably those of a scientific and technical persuasion, the situation can become much more complex indeed. The emergence of what is commonly referred to as “Web 2.0" (O'Reilly 2005) has caused an explosion in the volume of information published online. In comparison to the static information traditionally produced by the people who operated websites, the "new" web has become a platform for dynamically and often, collaboratively, produced data which is shared by everyone in a more fluid and democratic way than previously possible thanks to online content manage- ‘ment systems, social networking sites and blogs. The ubiquity of what can best be described as “Internet-related documents’, means that technical translators need to be comfortable with, although not necessarily expert at, using technologies such as HTML, XML, scripting and programming languages. This is so that they can identify the text to be translated in a file and translate it without damaging the technical parts of the file which make it work. Often, texts which are not even of a technical nature but which are in HTML format, for example, are sent to technical translators simply because, as a rule, they have more experience translating this type of file, 1.3.3 Translation tools There are, of course, tools which are designed specifically for translators and which are therefore unique to translation. These tools are specifically aimed at assisting translators in performing their daily tasks. In many cases, a translator's familiarity with such tools is a key deciding factor in whether the translator is actually awarded a project. Frequently referred to as Computer-Assisted Trans- lation or CAT tools, they include translation memory systems, terminology management systems, electronic corpora and sometimes machine translation (see Austermih! 2001 and Bowker 2002). When CAT tools initially emerged, it was widely believed (and indeed feared) that they would radically transform the18 Jody Byrne face of translation and change the role of the translator immeasurably. To a certain extent, this is true but the impact of such technologies did not transform all areas of translation, primarily because CAT tools are only suited to particular types of texts in particular subject areas. As such, they do not feature 2 prominently in the work of all translators. Taking translation memory tools as an example, itis clear that, because they can only reuse existing translations, they are only of use when translating texts which contain a lot of repetition or which will be updated frequently. Its unlikely that such tools would be very useful when translating literary, marketing or commercial texts. in fact, they are most commonly used in technical translation where the nature of documents means that there is frequently a high proportion of repetition and where new product releases require existing documents to be updated. imilarly, terminology management systems are at their most useful in situations where there is a large amount of terminology which must be used consistently. Admittedly, technical translators do not have the monopoly on such tools but they do represent perhaps the largest group of users. For the technical translator, CAT tools require significant investment in the form of purchasing software, upgrading infrastructure and obtaining training. Initially, the expense and effort may seem counter-productive as the translator spends time learning how to use software which would otherwise be spent earning money. Translators also need to grapple with alternative payment schemes introduced asa result of translation memory systems (see Austermiih! 2001 for example). However, proficiency in translation tools opens up a much larger pool of potential ‘work for translators for which they would otherwise not be considered, Another benefit of translation memory tools, particularly for the technical translator is that they can lessen the need to have experience of using the various DTP applications. Many translation memory tools provide filters which make it possible to extract the translatable text from files produced in different applica- tions so that they can be translated in a single translation environment. So rather than having to learn how to use five or six different DTP applications, a translator simply needs to learn how to use one translation memory tool. 1.4 Who's who in scientific and technical translation? Translation involves more than just a translator, a text and a mysterious target audience. As both Sykes (1971:1) and Byrne (2006:11) point out, scientific and techni- cal translation is a service, a communicative service carried out for people, by people. Scientific and technical texts are produced in response to a demand for information of a scientific or technical nature; such texts are translated because someone ina different language community wants to access or use the informa- tion these texts contain. But who are the people involved in this process? An extremely basic response would be to say that scientific and technical translation involves the author, the iene i Scientific and Technical Translation 19 ‘translator and the reader, but this is much too simplistic, particularly in view of the vast global industry that has developed around the process of translating texts from one language into another (Byme ibid.). The clear oversimplification notwithstanding, this basic categorization does provide a neat starting point for ‘our examination of the people involved in scientific and technical translation. Sager (1993:93-94) provides a relatively detailed breakdown of the partici- pants in the translation process which is indicative of what happens in real life. He identifies the following participants: * Producers: defined as the author of the source text whether a profes- sional or subject-specialist who writes occasionally; + Mediators: translators, editors, revisers; essentially anyone who modi- fies the text; * Communication agents: the commissioner of a text or translation; * Recipients: the intended end user or some person other than the ad- dressee who may have different expectations. A similar categorization of participants consists of the following (Byrne 2006:12-15): * Document initiator: The person or entity responsible for setting in mo- tion the production of a document. This is the person who wants to communicate something and “orders” the creation of a text. This may be a company that manufactures a product. * Writer: The person or persons actually responsible for writing the docu- ment. In some cases, this might be a staff writer or a freelance writer. * Translation initiator: This is the person responsible for initiating the translation process. It may be the same person as the document ini- tiator or it may be a third party who “encounters” the document and wants to understand it. + Translator: This is the person who actually produces the translation al- though strictly speaking it falls under Sager’s category of mediators. + User: The intended recipient of the translation, this person is concerned with accessing the information contained in the text as effectively as possible. Users of scientific and technical translations expect transla- tions to function as authentic target language texts, ‘As complex as this may seem, it gives only part of the story because there are numerous other people involved in the process of translating scientific and technical texts: agencies, localization vendors, vendor managers, translation technology specialists, experts, editors/proofreaders, project managers, in- country reviewers, DTP and graphic artists, software, website and computer game engineers etc. Given the fundamental role played by the client, who initiates the transla- tion process and the translator, who is responsible for carrying out the work, we should examine their roles in more detail.20 Jody Bye 1.4.1 The translator At the very heart of the translation industry is the translator, performing a role that is both essential and extremely complex. In any discussion of translation, we often see references being made to translators as some faceless, anonymous, almost mythical creature. For the most part, however, the actual nature of the translator's work and the conditions under which this work is cartied out receive little attention. Just as there are different types of text and subject, so too are there different types of translators and the types of work they do can vary significantly. Bear in mind that in referring to types of translators we do not mean broad distinctions such as legal translator, financial translator or technical translator, but rather more practical organizational distinctions, Some translators, known as staff translators, are employed by large com- panies and translate documents produced by the company. in many cases, staff translators work for engineering or IT companies although some legal firms, financial institutions, government bodies and international organizations (see Wagner et al. 2002, for example) employ their own translators directly. The motivation for employing staff transtators is generally a matter of finances: com- panies with a large and sustained demand for translations will generally find it more cost effective to employ their own translators who are constantly available and who receive a salary instead of being paid per translation. Other motivations include the need to develop a skilled and experienced in-house team to ensure consistency, accuracy and quality. Staff translators gener- ally deal with specific subject areas and quite often, specific range of text types. For example, a staffer working for a chemicals producer may typically translate packaging and labels, chemical data sheets, lab reports, chemical assay reports, instructions for use, health and safety documentation and as well as regulatory documents such as declarations of conformity. Similarly, a staff translator working for a manufacturer of agricultural machin- ery may translate user guides, repair and maintenance manuals, spare parts lists, conformity documentation and test reports from product authorization bodies as well as the odd press release or article for trade journals. What this type of translation job may lack in variety - depending on the company, the texts and subjects rarely change ~ it makes up for in the sheer detail and level of specialized knowledge translators gain. As they are working on the same subject virtually all of the time and dealing with new developments and innovations, staff transla- tors gain highly specialized knowledge of the subject area and of the documents produced in that area. Such expertise is often difficult to rival. In-house translators, like staff translators, are employed by companies on a full-time basis but, unlike their staff translator colleagues, they work for transla- tion companies or localization vendors. Working for a translation company can, depending on the individual company, provide scientific and technical translators with a greater variety of texts and subject areas and as such might appeal more to those who like the challenge of not knowing what project is around the corner. OF Scientific and Technica! Translation 21 course, to justify the expense of hiring in-house translators, agencies may require their translators to deal with more than just scientific and technical texts during quiet periods or where there is an urgent non-technical job. This often requires translators to work outside their comfort zones and while some translators may shy away from this, others may find this an appealing prospect. In certain large translation companies, teams of translators may be assigned to certain key clients, often forming a “virtual translation department” for that client, Such teams will deal exclusively with projects for a specific client and, in this respect, the job of the in-house translator closely resembles that of a staff translator. However, the most significant group of translators are not employed by large multinationals or by translation companies. instead, they work for themselves as freelancers, Freelance translators are self-employed and are responsible for finding their own work, whether directly from clients, through agencies or other translators or any combination of these sources. Some freelancers may also join an online translator community such as ProZ, Aquarius or Translators Café to find work but such practices are widely criticized by professional translators who blame sites like this for reducing rates of pay for translators and promoting the Use of unqualified translators (Ricketts 2010). Practical Exercise 6: Translation forums e Visit the Aquarius.net, ProZ.com and TranslatorsGafe.com websites and compare ‘the features available to translators: What costs are involved? What types of projects are typically posted on these sites? Do poles offer a fixed price or do they ask translators to at eee price? Freelance translators pick their own subjects and decide which projects they want to take on. This gives them the potential to have as much or as little variety as they want. In reality, however, the need to achieve a reasonable level of income means that many freelancers will often need to take on work in several areas, sometimes outside their main specialisms. This is not necessarily a bad thing as ithelps freelancers to expand their expertise and as such remain competitive. In some cases, freelancers may join forces with other freelancers in order to take on translation projects which are too large for one translator to handle within the time available. They may even group together to share rented office space in order to keep costs down while at the same time having access to a professional workspace which is separate from the translator’s own home. Freelance translators represent the largest group of translators in the world. This may sound surprising, but the vast majority of all translation work is car- ried out by freelancers. Whereas thirty years ago most translators were staffers, nowadays around 80% of all translators work on a freelance basis in what is a highly fragmented industry (Boucau 2005:28). In the current economic climate, ot just in individual countries but across the globe, this means that there are relatively few jobs available for full-time in-house or staff translators, Many companies cannot afford the expense of employing full-time translators and so22 Jody Byrne choose to outsource their work to agencies or directly to freelancers. This reality is something which deters many students from pursuing translation as a career altogether (Byrne 2003), Often students do not feel sufficiently ready for free- lancing when they leave university. Others are deterred by the uncertainty of not having a regular, fixed income and the need to be completely self-sufficient, While in many respects, the ideal career path would involve at least some in-house experience before setting up as a freelancer, sometimes there is no other option but to take the plunge and go straight into freelancing. As a career option, freelancingis demandingiin that it requires motivation, determination and courage but the rewards make the effort worth it: choosing your own working hours, flexibility, variety and, quite often, higher levels of income than in-house or staff translators. Regardless of the different types of job scientific and technical translators may find themselves doing, the actual work they do remains fairly constant. As a scientific and technical translator, your duties go beyond merely translating texts. Depending on your level of experience, you may well be called upon to edit or proof another translator’s work or to revise the work of less experienced trans- lators. Often, translation projects are so large and have such short turnaround times that it is simply not possible for one person to produce a translation. In such cases, several translators may work in a team, with each person translating a section of the text. Of course, there needs to be another translator who works as an editor to combine the various sections and ensure consistency in terms of style and terminology. Aclient may not know whether or not to commit to the expense of having a document translated; this is especially true of larger documents. Rather than adopt a “wait and see” attitude, translators may be asked to provide a “gist” or indicative translation, which is a very rough form of translation giving the basic meaning of a text but without any stylistic “polishing” or finesse. The idea of such translations is simply to give the client an idea of what the text is about 30 that they can access key information, for example to see if a foreign patent constitutes an infringement of another patent, or decide to have a full transla- tion produced. Senior transiators are often called upon to set and evaluate test translations which are given to job applicants. This is not quite the straightforward task it may seem, Test translations are typically quite short, i.e. in the region of 500 words, which means that itis vital to select a text which is suitably challenging, but fair at the same time, in order to select the right candidates. Evaluating test translations is made all the more challenging because, depending on the level of the position being applied for, the applicant may be permitted to make a certain amount of mistakes and still be considered for the job. As cultural experts, translators may also be asked to provide reports on the cultural appropriateness of various types of communications. Examples might include assessing television or newspaper advertisements to determine whether they contain anything which is likely to cause offence in their own culture or indeed, whether the advertisement is likely to be effective. This cultural insight RNC oa elas e Scientific and Technical Translation 23 also comes into play when translating or localizing websites: translators can and should advise customers if a website contains images, colours, language or content which is likely to prove problematic in the target culture. A variation of this type of cultural consulting involves assessing corporate brands, including ‘company names, to ensure they are appropriate for the target market. 1.4.2 The clients As mentioned previously, scientific and technical translation is a service provided to people who need either to communicate or access scientific or technical information. Such a broad definition inevitably means a vast range of potential clients for transiators, Assuming that every organization involved in scientific research or the development and production of some form of product will need translated documents at some point, it is fair to say that clients are to be found in virtually every sector of industry and business. ‘Such general statements do little, however, to explain where a scientific and technical translator's work comes from. Although many translators deal almost exclusively with translation agencies, not least because agencies relieve transla- tors of the effort of finding clients, translators are ultimately providing translations for individual clients. Agencies aside, obvious clients for scientific and technical translators include: + Engineering: Usually manufacturing products or providing services re- lated to some form of engineering, whether it is mechanical, electrical, electronic, chemical or medical. The texts involved generally relate to different fields and applications of chemistry, physics or biology. + Transport: Companies involved in the aerospace or automotive indus- tries, railway engineering, public transport, logistics, agricultural and works vehicles. + Information technology: In its broadest sense this includes software and hardware companies, companies involved in some way with the Internet, either providing services, software or systems, and providers of telecommunications solutions including hardware, infrastructure, software, design and management. + Research organizations: Government think tanks, standards insti- tutions, safety organizations (e.g. product approval bodies or road safety agencies), public service bodies such as meteorology centres, iversities, laboratories, regional development authorities and trade associations. Other, less obvious, clients might include: * Commercial entities: insurance companies (e.g. technical reports on accidents or structural reports for buildings), banks and venture capi- talists who may require detailed technical information in order to invest In new innovations or purchase new technologies, lawyers, business24 Jody Byme consultants who advise various businesses on improving processes and systems, auditors, etc. + Service providers: Training centres, technical consultants, architects, ‘town planners (e.g. public transport, environmental engineering, etc.), car dealerships, consumer associations, estate agents, etc. + Individuals: Anyone who, for whatever reason, needs to access scientific and technical information whether for personal reasons (e.g. translat- ing an obscure maintenance document for a classic car) or for research reasons (e.g. academic research or deciding which electronic compo- nents to buy for a project). In the next chapter, we will examine the context within which technical docu- mentation, the raw materials for scientific and technical translators is produced. Building on the descriptions of the key stakeholders involved in the translation Process, Chapter 2 will also examine the recipients of our translations in more detail. Suggested Reading Baer, Brian J. & Geoffrey S. Koby (2003) Beyond the Ivory Tower: Rethinking Transla- tion Pedagogy, Amsterdam/Phitadelphia: John Benjamins. Byrne, Jody (2006) Technical Translation: Usability Strategies for Translating Technical Documentation, Dordrecht: Springer. ~ (2007) Caveat Translator: Understanding the Legal Consequences of Errors in Professional Translation. Journal of Specialised Translation, 2007 (7): 2-24. Delisle, Jean & Judith Woodsworth [eds] (1995) Translators Through History, Am- sterdam: John Benjamins. Esselink, Bert (2000) A Practical Guide to Localization, Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2" edition, Finlay, |. (1971) The Staff Translator. J.B. Sykes (ed.) Technica! Translator’s Manual, London: Aslib. Heyn, Matthias (1996) Translation Memories: Insights and Prospects, In L. Bowker et al. (eds) Unity in Diversity? Current Trends in Translation Studies, Manchester: St Jerome, 123-136. Sykes, J.B. [ed.] (1971) Technical Translator’s Manual, London: Aslib. Tebeaux, Elizabeth (1997) The Emergence of a Tradition: Technical Writing in the English Renaissance 1475-1640, New York: Baywood Publishing Company, 2. Translation and Technical Communication In this chapter This chapter discusses translation from the point of view of technical com- munication and it will show that we need to consider scientific and technical translation as part of a much larger communicative environment which is based on the development and dissemination of scientific and technical information. This chapter will describe what technical communication is and you will discover, ‘what type of information is communicated and how it is presented in different texts. By the end of the chapter, you will have learned about the key features of typical technical texts and how they affect translation. You will also learn how the target audience is the most important variable when communicating technical information and you will learn useful strategies for understanding their needs. 2.1 Introduction Itis easy to think of translation in isolation, as if it were an island completely cut off from the shore and everything around it. We can forget that translation, for all of the theorizing, debating and, sometimes, arguing, is essentially a type of communication. Even then, it’s not the only type of communication, Many of the Issues involved in translation are not unique to translation; they are shared by other forms of communication too. In practice, there are almost always several ways of looking at a problem, and simply by holding something upside-down or sideways we can examine it from a completely different angle and gain a completely new insight into how it works. By remembering that translation is just one of many types of communica- tion, we allow ourselves not only to better understand what it is we are doing but also to access different bodies of knowledge, knowledge which is developed and added to by communicators from other areas who are working on simi problems, albeit from different perspectives. This gives us an insight which is, both highly relevant and useful for our work as translators of technical docu- mentation. When we talk about scientific and technical translation, our closest and most helpful neighbour is technical communication. 2.2 What is technical communication? Producing technical communication involves creating, designing, and transmitting technical information so that people can un- derstand it easily and use it safely, effectively, and efficiently. (Markel 2001:4)a | os | oS | a oo oe aE J 26 Any time you read a text that contains technical information which either explains how something works, how to do something or which helps you to understand technological concepts, the chances are that you are reading a product of techni- cal communication. Whether you are reading a science textbook, a user guide for your car, an environmental impact statement, a journal article or even a health and safety leaflet, you are reading a technical document. Technical communication, as the above definition suggests, seeks to help an audience understand a subject or to carry out a procedure, it helps people perform things quickly and safely, and may even help readers avoid dangerous situations or making mistakes when using something. Technical communication does this by combining text and graphics with an understanding of how to present information in such a way that what should be complex information is readily available and easily accessible for a particular audience in a particular context. Technical documents are generally produced by two types of people: technical professionals and technical communicators. Technical professionals are typically the subject experts who develop the data or knowledge being communicated in the texts in the first place. In many cases, these engineers, technicians or sci- entists write their own texts in addition to performing their traditional engineer tasks. Some estimates put the proportion of time scientists and engineers spend on writing at about 40% (Markel 2001:4). This is a lot when you consider that their primary training is in science and technology and not necessarily in com- munication. in fact, there is evidence to suggest that many do not even want to spend this amount of time writing and that they may be doing so because they have to, not because they want to. The other producer of technical documentation is the technical communica- tor. This person is the full-time communication professional whose job it is to produce and communicate technical information. Unlike the technical profes- sional, the technical communicator may not always have the same in-depth technical knowledge but they will have a much more detailed understanding of how best to communicate information and are generally doing the job because they like to write, To leave this description of who produces technical documentation as it is would be to omit another equally important producer. Translators are, without doubt, an essential part of the technical communication environment but they rarely, if ever, merit a mention in books on technical communication. For various reasons, most technical documentation will land at some point ona translator's desk and it is up to the translator to deal with this material, to present it to a new language audience who will treat it as if it were an original text. Now the traditional definition of technical communication limits itself almost exclusively to technical writing and it means that translators are rarely mentioned in large sections of the literature. More modern definitions proposed by profes- sional associations such as the institute for Scientific and Technical Communicators in the UK and the Society for Technical Communicators in the USA and by trans- lation researchers such as Schubert (2009), Gépferich (2009) and Byrne (2006) regard technical communication as a generic umbrella term which includes trans- lating, editing and illustrating. in this sense, translators are included in the term Jody Byrne ipieloee Translation and Technical Communication a “technical communicator” along with various other communication professionals, If we think back to the definition of technical communication given earlier, itis clear that translation has a rightful and important place in the process. In practice, this means that technical communication consists of technical writing which provides the raw materials which translators will translate, To do this to the best of our ability, we therefore need to know what it is technical writers do and how they do it As Schubert (2009:26) points out, the solutions technical writers opt for when designing and producing texts ultimately become controlling influences which affect translators’ work. Herman (1993:12) nicely sums this up when he says that the “principal stylistic goals of technical writing, are simultaneously those of technical translation” and that in order to be a good technical translator, you need to be a good technical writer. While the demands and expectations for quality placed on technical writers equally apply to transla- tors (see Byrne 2007), it is important not to overstate the si ies between technical writing and technical translation, ‘As well as the obvious task of writing texts, technical writing involves various factors such as information design, fonts and typography, graphics, page layout, and various decisions regarding the type and format of the document. Most, if not all, of these things are beyond the normal remit of a translator and cannot be changed during translation. Nevertheless, as translators we can benefit from understand- ing the documents writers produce and how they produce them, as well as from adopting the writing strategies and audience analysis methods they use. 2.2.1 Generic features of technical communication Understanding the main features that shape technical communication There are numerous different types of documents which fall under the category of technical communication and defining them all would be next to impossible. In just the same way as the subject material is vast and varied, so too are the texts used to convey this information. That said, there are certain key features Which are common to most if not all types of technical document and they can help us appreciate the complexity of the task being performed. Technical communication addresses specific readers All technical documents are produced for a specific purpose, whether it is to help users perform a task, to demonstrate a particular concept, or to provide sufficient information to allow a decision to be made. In other words, technical documents can be thought of as task-orientated tools aimed at a particular group oF groups of people. Sometimes the identity of this audience is made quite clear, for example through specific requests froma client or as a result of an identified need, and this means a document can be carefully tailored to that audience’s needs. Some documents will be read by multiple audiences, some of whom may not even be the intended audience, and this may even require writers to prioritize these audiences and cater for their needs accordingly, Regardless of how many potential audiences there are, a technical document is conceived, designed and produced with the needs of a specific group in mind,28 Jody Byrne Technical communication is a tool Whether it is performing a task, understanding a concept or making a decision based on clear facts, the aim of a technical document is to help readers to do something. Most people will read a technical text not because they enjoy it, but because they need to in order to do something else. Texts, therefore, are tools, 2 means to an end which is outside the text itself. Consequently, the text should not be the focus of attention. Itis not there to entertain nor is t supposed to be a vehicle for the writer's literary talents and aspirations — the aim is to convey the right information to the right people in the right format so that they can get on with their jobs. There is, of course, an exception to this general rule and that is the sub- category of scientific writing. In this category of text, we are communicating a different type of information, information that is less pragmatic and more theo- retical. Here, writers may need to invent terms for new concepts, use various rhetorical devices in order to convince readers of the merits of the information being presented and, particularly in the case of popular science texts, to enter- tain them. In these cases, creativity and literary prowess are often essential in order ‘to achieve a communicative goal. imagine trying to describe the concept of a Red Giant (a type of star) or the Big Bang (a way of explaining the origins of the universe) without using literary creativity. This dichotomy of function, however, involves very specific and easily identifiable instances and it does not detract from the basic premise. Even though technical texts ~ as opposed to scientific texts ~ do not ®@ Technical translation is creative too! : ee use ornate, prosaic and fancy language, it does not mean that th not creative. The fact that technical language is supposed to be cleat, straightforward and functional places significant constraints on writers and translators as they try to communicate technical information when the number of waysin which they can say somethingis severely limited. - By effectively excluding vast sections of a language which could be used. t0 nicely explain various complicated ideas, these constraints mean that only some of the linguistic tools can be used. While the language is restricted, the information, events and situations it: is supposed to _ covey are not. Like subtitlers who need to convey large amounts of [information in a very small box measuring just 40 or so characters across, technical writers and translators. who are working with such _ limited resources need to come up with some pretty creative solutions in orcier to get the message across. For a good example of creativity in technical translation, see Scenarios and examples on page 170. Technical communication is often produced collaboratively Unlike letters or essays, which are usually the work of one single person, technical documents are frequently the product of several people working together. In Translation and Technical Communication 29 certain companies, documents may be produced by teams of technical writ- ers or other contributors, each writing specific sections of the text. But even where only one writer is involved, documents invariably pass through several cycles of review by various people such as technical experts, marketing people, lawyers and users with changes being made to each iteration or version of the document. With several people working on a documentation project, itis very easy for stylistic inconsistencies to make their way into the text simply because different people have different ways of writing and they may not adhere to style guides consistently. For translators, this means that sometimes the same concept is referred to using different terms throughout a document or the text suddenly stops making sense when we reach a particular chapter. In extreme cases, a text may suddenly become incredibly difficult to translate because the style and clarity of the text suddenly deteriorates in comparison to the rest of the document, Similarly, technical documents are often translated by teams of translators, particularly in the case of large documents with short delivery times. Again, the problem of inconsistencies in style has to be dealt with, usually by an editor or a senior translator, but also by a lone freelancer. Technical communication uses design to improve usability ‘Simply presenting information in clear and carefully crafted prose is not a guar- antee that the audience will understand it or that they will be able to do so easily or efficiently, Often, seemingly simple factors such as the font and its size, the colours and amount of white space in a document can make the world of difference to how effectively readers absorb information (see Byrne 2006:68ff). Beyond these cosmetic factors, technical documents frequently use graphics to reinforce and support textual information or to convey large amounts of infor- mation quickly and clearly, As a transtator, itis not particularly likely that you would need to concern yourself with issues such as fonts, page layout and graphics (unless they have particular cultural connotations and need to be changed), but, as we will discover later on, you will have to work with and around them and you can also play a significant role in ensuring the usability of information in documents. Technical communication uses a variety of technologies As we discovered in Chapter 1, technical translators can expect to be exposed to a range of technologies which are used to produce technical documents. This is because the writers themselves use a range of tools to create and disseminate their documents. Often, the nature and complexity of a document will neces- sitate the use of one tool or another, For example, a simple one-page instruction leaflet can be comfortably produced using a basic word processor, whereas a complex document comprising several hundred pages containing graphs, design blueprints, equations, conditional text, variables and hyperlinks will need to be created using sophisticated tools such as FrameMaker or using mark-up technolo- gles such as DITA. Whatever the scenario, the variety of media used to produce and distribute technical information is a key characteristic of this area.! | | 30 Jody Byrne ‘Typing Architecture, is a prime example of a structured writing tool. Baséd on the XML mark-up langliage, it is used to identify information. _____ by type and not by content. For example, definitions are marked as definitions, concepts and tasks are clearly identified as suc ‘document types are used to present information relevant to a particu- lar task and they can contain predetermined types of information and sometimes in a specific order. The aim is to imiprove the consistency, accuracy and comprehensibility of information, and because it sepa- rates information content from its presentation, specific information | « This is known as Single-Source, Multi-channel Publishing and makes | it possible for information producers to gain as much use from their formation as possible. A wealth of information on DITA is available on the DITA World website (wwwnditaworld.com). 2.3 Who reads technical documentation? tf technical communication is an activity which js aimed at providing people with information, then it makes sense to find out a little more about these people and what itis they want. By looking at what an audience needs, how they expect information to be presented and the way in which they are going to use that information, we can better understand the challenges facing us as translators and formulate strategies for translating texts. This is particularly true if we think back to the discussion of Skopos theory in Chapter 1, where we learned that it is essential to understand the purpose for which a translation is produced in order to translate it properly. In those all-too- frequent cases where the translator is not provided with a specific translation brief, we have to resort to knowledge of what the typical text function is and an understanding of what the typical audience for a particular text is. 2.3.1 Understanding audiences As obvious as it might seem to say that translations are produced with a specific audience in mind, it is worth taking a little more time to understand our audi- ences in more detail. Once upon a time, it was fairly safe to assume that the only people who would read a technical text were technical people: engineers, technicians, scientists, all people whose jobs revolved around science and technology. This meant that you could be pretty sure that whomever you were writing for would have good, ifnot excellent, knowledge of the subject matter. This basic assumption led some translation scholars (for example, Hervey et ai. 1995) to imply that there is no Translation and Technical Communication 31 such thing as an absolute novice or lay reader. We now know that this is untrue, particularly when we consider the sheer volume of products and services being documented these days. Is it really fair to expect and assume that your grandmother has a background in electronics and communications technology before she reads the instructions for the mo- bile phone you bought her for her birthday? Probably net. Granny will read the instructions and they will have to present information in such a way that she can understand them, even without a degree in telecommunications. ‘The same applies to pretty much every other act of technical communica- tion. Nowadays, it would appear that background knowledge has been replaced by interest, or most likely necessity, as a key assumption about our audiences. People read technical documents either because they are interested in the topic or, in the majority of cases, because they have to, whether this is due to their jobs or because they cannot get something to work, But back in the days when people assumed that only “technical” people would read technical texts, writers and translators only had to worry about making sure that texts were accurate and relatively comprehensible. As such, you could take a lot for granted in terms of background information. This meant that additional explanation, examples and clarification would rarely be necessary because the chances were that the reader was an expert in that area or a very close area and would not want every little abbreviation, acronym and technical term to be ex- plained, nor would they need to be told every single step in a basic procedure. ‘The traditional technical writing approach to the issue of audiences has been to categorize readers into hypothetical categories based on the typical jobs or roles they hold (see for example Price 1984: 32). This gives us an insight into what people will use a text for, how they will use it and how they expect the text to look, There are various examples of how readers can be categorized. Van Laan & Julian (2001:89ff) focus on readers’ job titles, functions and duties, to propose novice users, power users, programmers and system administrators, although these will typicaily only apply to texts in a software context, not to a broader technological area. Similarly, Markel (2001:99-100) describes experts, technicians, managers and general users. A more widely applicable set of categories comes from Horton (1994:28-29) who describes novices as having little background knowledge but who are curious to learn more yet cautious about making mistakes and occasional users who may ‘once have mastered a concept but through infrequent use may forget certain information. Transfer users, according to Horton, are knowledgeable of a similar subject area and try to apply this existing knowledge in a new context (we can think of these people as “super educated laypersons”). The final categories defined by Horton include the self-explanatory expert user and the rote user. Rote users use information or a product without knowing or understanding much about the hows or whys of what they are doing. They follow explicit instructions, often in repetitive, unchanging scenarios and run into prob- Jems when new or unknown situations arise, Figure 1 combines the categories provided by Horton and Markel and gives a brief overview of how a user's role affects their needs and their interactions with technical documentation. ne