16 Polynomial Rings

Wit lies in recognizing the resemblance among things which differ and the
difference between things which are alike.
madame de staël

Notation and Terminology

One of the mathematical concepts that students are most familiar with
and most comfortable with is that of a polynomial. In high school,
students study polynomials with integer coefficients, rational coeffi-
cients, real coefficients, and perhaps even complex coefficients. In ear-
lier chapters of this book, we introduced something that was probably
new—polynomials with coefficients from Zn. Notice that all of these
sets of polynomials are rings, and, in each case, the set of coefficients is
also a ring. In this chapter, we abstract all of these examples into one.

Definition Ring of Polynomials over R

Let R be a commutative ring. The set of formal symbols

R[x] 5 {anxn 1 an21xn21 1 ? ? ? 1 a1x 1 a0 | ai [ R,

n is a nonnegative integer}
is called the ring of polynomials over R in the indeterminate x.
Two elements
anxn 1 an21xn21 1 ? ? ? 1 a1x 1 a0
and
bmxm 1 bm21xm21 1 ? ? ? 1 b1x 1 b0
of R[x] are considered equal if and only if ai 5 bi for all nonnegative
integers i. (Define ai 5 0 when i . n and bi 5 0 when i . m.)

298
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 16 | Polynomial Rings 299

In this definition, the symbols x, x 2, . . . , x n do not represent

“unknown” elements or variables from the ring R. Rather, their purpose
is to serve as convenient placeholders that separate the ring elements
an, an21, . . . , a0. We could have avoided the x’s by defining a polyno-
mial as an infinite sequence a 0, a1, a2, . . . , an, 0, 0, 0, . . . , but our
method takes advantage of the student’s experience in manipulating
polynomials where x does represent a variable. The disadvantage of our
method is that one must be careful not to confuse a polynomial with the
function determined by a polynomial. For example, in Z3[x], the poly-
nomials f (x) 5 x and g(x) 5 x3 determine the same function from Z3 to
Z3, since f(a) 5 g(a) for all a in Z3.† But f(x) and g(x) are different ele-
ments of Z3[x]. Also, in the ring Zn[x], be careful to reduce only the
coefficients and not the exponents modulo n. For example, in Z3[x],
5x 5 2x, but x5 2 x2.
To make R[x] into a ring, we define addition and multiplication in
the usual way.

Definition Addition and Multiplication in R[x]

Let R be a commutative ring and let
f(x) 5 anxn 1 an21xn21 1 ? ? ? 1 a1x 1 a0
and
g(x) 5 bmxm 1 bm21xm21 1 ? ? ? 1 b1x 1 b0
belong to R[x]. Then
f(x) 1 g(x) 5 (as 1 bs)xs 1 (as21 1 bs21)xs21
1 ? ? ? 1 (a1 1 b1)x 1 a0 1 b0,
where s is the maximum of m and n, ai 5 0 for i . n, and bi 5 0 for
i . m. Also,
f(x)g(x) 5 cm1nxm1n 1 cm1n21xm1n21 1 ? ? ? 1 c1x 1 c0,
where
ck 5 akb0 1 ak21b1 1 ? ? ? 1 a1bk21 1 a0bk
for k 5 0, . . . , m 1 n.

Although the definition of multiplication might appear complicated,

it is just a formalization of the familiar process of using the distributive

†In general, given f(x) in R[x] and a in R, f(a) means substitute a for x in the formula
for f(x). This substitution is a homomorphism from R[x] to R.

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300 Rings

property and collecting like terms. So, just multiply polynomials over a
commutative ring R in the same way that polynomials are always mul-
tiplied. Here is an example.
Consider f(x) 5 2x3 1 x2 1 2x 1 2 and g(x) 5 2x2 1 2x 1 1 in Z3[x].
Then, in our preceding notation, a5 5 0, a4 5 0, a3 5 2, a2 5 1, a1 5 2,
a0 5 2, and b5 5 0, b4 5 0, b3 5 0, b2 5 2, b1 5 2, b0 5 1. Now, using
the definitions and remembering that addition and multiplication of the
coefficients are done modulo 3, we have
f(x) 1 g(x) 5 (2 1 0)x3 1 (1 1 2)x2 1 (2 1 2)x 1 (2 1 1)
5 2x3 1 0x2 1 1x 1 0
5 2x3 1 x
and
f(x) ? g(x) 5 (0 ? 1 1 0 ? 2 1 2 ? 2 1 1 ? 0 1 2 ? 0 1 2 ? 0)x5
1 (0 ? 1 1 2 ? 2 1 1 ? 2 1 2 ? 0 1 2 ? 0)x4
1 (2 ? 1 1 1 ? 2 1 2 ? 2 1 2 ? 0)x3
1 (1 ? 1 1 2 ? 2 1 2 ? 2)x2 1 (2 ? 1 1 2 ? 2)x 1 2 ? 1
5 x5 1 0x4 1 2x3 1 0x2 1 0x 1 2
5 x5 1 2x3 1 2.
Our definitions for addition and multiplication of polynomials were
formulated so that they are commutative and associative, and so that
multiplication is distributive over addition. We leave the verification
that R[x] is a ring to the reader.
It is time to introduce some terminology for polynomials. If
f(x) 5 anxn 1 an21xn21 1 ? ? ? 1 a1x 1 a0,
where an 2 0, we say that f(x) has degree n; the term an is called the
leading coefficient of f(x), and if the leading coefficient is the multipli-
cative identity element of R, we say that f(x) is a monic polynomial.
The polynomial f(x) 5 0 has no degree. Polynomials of the form
f(x) 5 a0 are called constant. We often write deg f(x) 5 n to indicate
that f(x) has degree n. As with polynomials with real coefficients, we
may insert or delete terms of the form 0xk; 1xk is the same as xk; and
1(2ak)xk is the same as 2akxk.
Very often properties of R carry over to R[x]. Our first theorem is a
case in point.

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 16 | Polynomial Rings 301

Theorem 16.1 D an Integral Domain Implies D[x] an Integral Domain

If D is an integral domain, then D [x] is an integral domain.

PROOF Since we already know that D[x] is a ring, all we need

to show is that D[x] is commutative with a unity and has no zero-divisors.
Clearly, D[x] is commutative whenever D is. If 1 is the unity element of
D, it is obvious that f(x) 5 1 is the unity element of D[x]. Finally, sup-
pose that
f (x) 5 anxn 1 an21xn21 1 ? ? ? 1 a0
and
g(x) 5 bmxm 1 bm21xm21 1 ? ? ? 1 b0,
where an 2 0 and bm 2 0. Then, by definition, f(x)g(x) has leading co-
efficient anbm and, since D is an integral domain, anbm 2 0.

The Division Algorithm

and Consequences
One of the properties of integers that we have used repeatedly is the
division algorithm: If a and b are integers and b 2 0, then there exist
unique integers q and r such that a 5 bq 1 r, where 0 # r , |b|. The
next theorem is the analogous statement for polynomials over a field.

Theorem 16.2 Division Algorithm for F[x]

Let F be a field and let f(x), g(x) [ F[x] with g(x) 2 0. Then
there exist unique polynomials q(x) and r(x) in F[x] such that f(x) 5
g(x)q(x) 1 r(x) and either r(x) 5 0 or deg r(x) , deg g(x).

PROOF We begin by showing the existence of q(x) and r(x). If

f(x) 5 0 or deg f(x) , deg g(x), we simply set q(x) 5 0 and r(x) 5 f(x).
So, we may assume that n 5 deg f(x) $ deg g(x) 5 m and let f(x) 5
anxn 1 ? ? ? 1 a0 and g(x) 5 bmxm 1 ? ? ? 1 b0. The idea behind this
proof is to begin just as if you were going to “long divide” g(x) into
f(x), then use the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction on
deg f(x) to finish up. Thus, resorting to long division, we let f1(x) 5

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302 Rings

f(x) 2 anbm21xn2mg(x).† Then, f1(x) 5 0 or deg f1(x) , deg f(x); so, by

our induction hypothesis, there exist q1(x) and r1(x) in F[x] such that
f1(x) 5 g(x)q1(x) 1 r1(x), where r1(x) 5 0 or deg r1(x) , deg g(x).
[Technically, we should get the induction started by proving the case
in which deg f(x) 5 0, but this is trivial.] Thus,
f(x) 5 anbm 21xn2mg(x) 1 f1(x)
5 anbm 21xn2mg(x) 1 q1(x)g(x) 1 r1(x)
5 [anbm 21xn2m 1 q1(x)]g(x) 1 r1(x).
So, the polynomials q(x) 5 anbm 21xn2m 1 q1(x) and r(x) 5 r1(x) have
the desired properties.
To prove uniqueness, suppose that f(x) 5 g(x)q(x) 1 r(x) and f(x) 5
g(x) q(x) 1 r(x), where r(x) 5 0 or deg r(x) , deg g(x) and r(x) 5 0
or deg r(x) , deg g(x). Then, subtracting these two equations, we obtain
0 5 g(x)[q(x) 2 q(x)] 1 [r(x) 2 r(x)]
or
r(x) 2 r(x) 5 g(x)[q(x) 2 q(x)].
Thus, r(x) 2 r(x) is 0, or the degree of r(x) 2 r(x) is at least that of
g(x). Since the latter is clearly impossible, we have r(x) 5 r(x) and
q(x) 5 q(x) as well.
The polynomials q(x) and r(x) in the division algorithm are called
the quotient and remainder in the division of f(x) by g(x). When the
ring of coefficients of a polynomial ring is a field, we can use the long
division process to determine the quotient and remainder.

†For example,
(3>2)x2
2x2 1 2 q3x4 1x11
3x4 1 3x2
2 3x2 1 x 1 1

So,
23x2 1 x 1 1 5 3x4 1 x 1 1 2 (3/2)x2(2x2 1 2)
In general,
anbm21xn2m
bm x 1 . .
m . qan xn 1 . . .
a xn 1 . . . n
f1 (x)
So,
f1(x) 5 (anxn 1 ? ? ?) 2 anbm 21xn2m(bmxm 1 ? ? ?)

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 16 | Polynomial Rings 303

EXAMPLE 1 To find the quotient and remainder upon dividing

f(x) 5 3x4 1 x3 1 2x2 1 1 by g(x) 5 x2 1 4x 1 2, where f(x) and g(x)
belong to Z5[x], we may proceed by long division, provided we keep in
mind that addition and multiplication are done modulo 5. Thus,
3x2 1 4x
x2 1 4x 1 2 q3x4 1 x3 1 2x2 11
3x 1 2x 1 x
4 3 2

4x3 1 x2 11
4x3 1 x2 1 3x
2x 1 1
So, 3x2 1 4x is the quotient and 2x 1 1 is the remainder. Therefore,
3x4 1 x3 1 2x2 1 1 5 (x2 1 4x 1 2)(3x2 1 4x) 1 2x 1 1.

Let D be an integral domain. If f(x) and g(x) [ D[x], we say that g(x)
divides f(x) in D[x] [and write g(x) | f(x)] if there exists an h(x) [ D[x]
such that f(x) 5 g(x)h(x). In this case, we also call g(x) a factor of f(x).
An element a is a zero (or a root) of a polynomial f(x) if f(a) 5 0.
[Recall that f(a) means substitute a for x in the expression for f(x).]
When F is a field, a [ F, and f(x) [ F[x], we say that a is a zero of
multiplicity k (k $ 1) if (x 2 a)k is a factor of f(x) but (x 2 a)k11 is not
a factor of f(x). With these definitions, we may now give several impor-
tant corollaries of the division algorithm. No doubt you have seen these
for the special case where F is the field of real numbers.

Corollary 1 Remainder Theorem

Let F be a field, a [ F, and f(x) [ F[x]. Then f(a) is the remainder in

the division of f(x) by x 2 a.

PROOF The proof of Corollary 1 is left as an exercise (Exercise 5).

Corollary 2 Factor Theorem

Let F be a field, a [ F, and f(x) [ F[x]. Then a is a zero of f(x) if

and only if x 2 a is a factor of f(x).

PROOF The proof of Corollary 2 is left as an exercise (Exercise 9).

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304 Rings

Corollary 3 Polynomials of Degree n Have at Most n Zeros

A polynomial of degree n over a field has at most n zeros, counting

multiplicity. 

PROOF We proceed by induction on n. Clearly, a polynomial of

degree 0 over a field has no zeros. Now suppose that f(x) is a polyno-
mial of degree n over a field and a is a zero of f(x) of multiplicity k.
Then, f(x) 5 (x 2 a)kq(x) and q(a) 2 0; and, since n 5 deg f(x) 5 deg 
(x 2 a)k q(x) 5 k 1 deg q(x), we have k # n (see Exercise 19). If f(x)
has no zeros other than a, we are done. On the other hand, if b 2 a and
b is a zero of f(x), then 0 5 f(b) 5 (b 2 a)kq(b), so that b is also a zero
of q(x) with the same multiplicity as it has for f(x) (see Exercise 21).
By the Second Principle of Mathematical Induction, we know that
q(x) has at most deg q(x) 5 n 2 k zeros, counting multiplicity. Thus,
f(x) has at most k 1 n 2 k 5 n zeros, counting multiplicity.
We remark that Corollary 3 is not true for arbitrary polynomial rings.
For example, the polynomial x2 1 3x 1 2 has four zeros in Z6. (See
Exercise 3.) Lagrange was the first to prove Corollary 3 for polynomi-
als in Zp[x].

EXAMPLE 2 The Complex Zeros of xn 2 1

We find all complex zeros of x n 2 1. Let v 5 cos(360°/n) 1
i sin(360°/n). It follows from DeMoivre’s Theorem (see Example 10
in Chapter 0) that vn 5 1 and vk 2 1 for 1 # k , n. Thus, each of 1,
v, v2, . . . , vn21 is a zero of xn 2 1 and, by Corollary 3, there are no
others.

The complex number v in Example 2 is called a primitive nth root of

unity.
We conclude this chapter with an important theoretical application
of the division algorithm, but first an important definition.

Definition Principal Ideal Domain (PID)

A principal ideal domain is an integral domain R in which every ideal
has the form kal 5 {ra | r [ R} for some a in R.

Theorem 16.3 F[x] Is a PID

Let F be a field. Then F[x] is a principal ideal domain.

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 16 | Polynomial Rings 305

PROOF By Theorem 16.1, we know that F[x] is an integral domain.

Now, let I be an ideal in F[x]. If I 5 {0}, then I 5 k0l. If I 2 {0}, then
among all the elements of I, let g(x) be one of minimum degree. We will
show that I 5 kg(x)l. Since g(x) [ I, we have kg(x)l # I. Now
let f(x) [ I. Then, by the division algorithm, we may write f(x) 5
g(x)q(x) 1 r(x), where r(x) 5 0 or deg r(x) , deg g(x). Since r(x) 5 f(x) 2
g(x)q(x) [ I, the minimality of deg g(x) implies that the latter condition
cannot hold. So, r(x) 5 0 and, therefore, f(x) [ kg(x)l. This shows that
I # kg(x)l.
The proof of Theorem 16.3 also establishes the following.

Theorem 16.4 Criterion for I 5 kg(x)l

Let F be a field, I a nonzero ideal in F [x], and g(x) an element of

F[x]. Then, I 5 8 g(x)9 if and only if g(x) is a nonzero polynomial of
minimum degree in I.

As an application of the First Isomorphism Theorem for Rings

(Theorem 15.3) and Theorem 16.4, we verify the remark we made in
Example 12 in Chapter 14 that the ring R[x]/kx2 1 1l is isomorphic to
the ring of complex numbers.

EXAMPLE 3 Consider the homomorphism f from R[x] onto C given

by f(x) S f(i) (that is, evaluate a polynomial in R[x] at i). Then
x2 1 1 [ Ker f and is clearly a polynomial of minimum degree in Ker f.
Thus, Ker f 5 kx2 1 1l and R[x]/kx2 1 1l is isomorphic to C.

Exercises

If I feel unhappy, I do mathematics to become happy. If I am happy, I do

mathematics to keep happy.
paul turán

1. Let f(x) 5 4x3 1 2x2 1 x 1 3 and g(x) 5 3x4 1 3x3 1 3x2 1 x 1 4,

where f(x), g(x) [ Z5[x]. Compute f(x) 1 g(x) and f(x) ? g(x).
2. In Z3[x], show that the distinct polynomials x4 1 x and x2 1 x
determine the same function from Z3 to Z3.
3. Show that x2 1 3x 1 2 has four zeros in Z6. (This exercise is
referred to in this chapter.)

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