Latin literature

Latin literature includes the essays, histories, poems, plays, and other writings written in the Latin
language. The beginning of Latin literature dates to 240 BC, when the first stage play was performed in
Rome. Latin literature would flourish for the next six centuries. The classical era of Latin literature can be
roughly divided into the following periods: Early Latin literature, The Golden Age, The Imperial Period
and Late Antiquity.

Latin was the language of the ancient Romans, but it was also the lingua franca of Western Europe
throughout the Middle Ages, so Latin literature includes not only Roman authors like Cicero, Virgil, Ovid
and Horace, but also includes European writers after the fall of the Empire, from religious writers like
Aquinas (1225–1274), to secular writers like Francis Bacon (1561–1626), Baruch Spinoza (1632–1677),
and Isaac Newton (1642–1727).

Contents
History
Early Latin literature
The Golden Age
The age of Cicero
The Augustan Age
The Imperial Period
Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity
Characteristics
Language and form
See also
References
Sources
External links

History

Early Latin literature

Formal Latin literature began in 240 BC, when a Roman audience saw a Latin version of a Greek play.[1]
The adaptor was Livius Andronicus, a Greek who had been brought to Rome as a prisoner of war in 272
BC. Andronicus also translated Homer's Greek epic the Odyssey into an old type of Latin verse called
Saturnian. The first Latin poet to write on a Roman theme was Gnaeus Naevius during the 3rd century BC.
He composed an epic poem about the first Punic War, in which he had fought. Naevius's dramas were
mainly reworkings of Greek originals, but he also created tragedies based on Roman myths and history.
Other epic poets followed Naevius. Quintus Ennius wrote a historical epic, the Annals (soon after 200 BC),
describing Roman history from the founding of Rome to his own time.[2] He adopted Greek dactylic
hexameter, which became the standard verse form for Roman epics. He also became famous for his tragic
dramas. In this field, his most distinguished successors were Marcus Pacuvius and Lucius Accius. These
three writers rarely used episodes from Roman history. Instead, they wrote Latin versions of tragic themes
that the Greeks had already handled. But even when they copied the Greeks, their translations were not
straightforward replicas. Only fragments of their plays have survived.

Considerably more is known about early Latin comedy, as 26 Early Latin

comedies are extant – 20 of which Plautus wrote, and the remaining six of
which Terence wrote.[3] These men modeled their comedies on Greek
plays known as New Comedy. But they treated the plots and wording of
the originals freely. Plautus scattered songs through his plays and increased
the humor with puns and wisecracks, plus comic actions by the actors.
Terence's plays were more polite in tone, dealing with domestic situations.
His works provided the chief inspiration for French and English comedies
of the 17th century AD, and even for modern American comedy.

The prose of the period is best known through On Agriculture (160 BC)
by Cato the Elder. Cato also wrote the first Latin history of Rome and of
other Italian cities.[4] He was the first Roman statesman to put his political
speeches in writing as a means of influencing public opinion. Cato the Elder

Early Latin literature ended with Gaius Lucilius, who created a new kind
of poetry in his 30 books of Satires (2nd century BC). He wrote in an easy, conversational tone about
books, food, friends, and current events.

The Golden Age

Traditionally, the height of Latin literature has been assigned to the period from 81 BC to AD 17, although
recent scholarship has questioned the assumptions that privileged the works of this period over both earlier
and later works.[5] This period is usually said to have begun with the first known speech of Cicero and
ended with the death of Ovid.

The age of Cicero

Cicero has traditionally been considered the master of Latin prose.[6][7]

The writing he produced from about 80 BC until his death in 43 BC
exceeds that of any Latin author whose work survives in terms of quantity
and variety of genre and subject matter, as well as possessing unsurpassed
stylistic excellence. Cicero's many works can be divided into four groups:
(1) letters, (2) rhetorical treatises, (3) philosophical works, and (4) orations.
His letters provide detailed information about an important period in
Roman history and offer a vivid picture of the public and private life
among the Roman governing class. Cicero's works on oratory are our most
valuable Latin sources for ancient theories on education and rhetoric. His
philosophical works were the basis of moral philosophy during the Middle
Ages. His speeches inspired many European political leaders and the
Cicero founders of the United States.
Julius Caesar and Sallust were outstanding historical writers of
Cicero's time. Caesar wrote commentaries on the Gallic and civil
wars in a straightforward style to justify his actions as a general.
He wrote descriptions of people and their motives.

The birth of lyric poetry in Latin occurred during the same period.
The short love lyrics of Catullus are noted for their emotional
intensity. Catullus also wrote poems that attacked his enemies.
Contemporary with Catullus, Lucretius expounded the Epicurean
philosophy in a long poem, De rerum natura.

One of the most learned writers of the period was Marcus Roman orator
Terentius Varro. Called "the most learned of the Romans" by
Quintillian,[8] he wrote about a remarkable variety of subjects,
from religion to poetry. But only his writings on agriculture and the Latin language are extant in their
complete form.

The Augustan Age

The emperor Augustus took a personal interest in the literary works

produced during his years of power from 27 BC to AD 14. This period is
sometimes called the Augustan Age of Latin Literature. Virgil published
his pastoral Eclogues, the Georgics, and the Aeneid, an epic poem
describing the events that led to the creation of Rome. Virgil told how the
Trojan hero Aeneas became the ancestor of the Roman people. Virgil also
provided divine justification for Roman rule over the world. Although
Virgil died before he could put the finishing touches on his poem, it was
soon recognized as the greatest work of Latin literature.[9][10]

Virgil's friend Horace wrote Epodes, Odes, Satires, and Epistles. The
perfection of the Odes in content, form, and style has charmed readers for
hundreds of years. The Satires and Epistles discuss ethical and literary
problems in an urbane, witty manner. Horace's Art of Poetry, probably
published as a separate work, greatly influenced later poetic theories. It
stated the basic rules of classical writing as the Romans understood and
Virgil
used them. After Virgil died, Horace was Rome's leading poet.[11]

The Latin elegy reached its highest development in the works of Tibullus,
Propertius, and Ovid. Most of this poetry is concerned with love. Ovid
also wrote the Fasti, which describes Roman festivals and their legendary origins. Ovid's greatest work, the
Metamorphoses weaves various myths into a fast-paced, fascinating story. Ovid was a witty writer who
excelled in creating lively and passionate characters. The Metamorphoses was the best-known source of
Greek and Roman mythology throughout the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. It inspired many poets,
painters, and composers.

In prose, Livy produced a history of the Roman people in 142 books. Only 35 survived, but they are a
major source of information on Rome.[12]

The Imperial Period

From the death of Augustus in AD 14 until about 200, Roman authors emphasized style and tried new and
startling ways of expression. During the reign of Nero from 54 to 68, the Stoic philosopher Seneca wrote a
number of dialogues and letters on such moral themes as mercy and generosity. In his Natural Questions,
Seneca analyzed earthquakes, floods, and storms. Seneca's tragedies greatly influenced the growth of tragic
drama in Europe. His nephew Lucan wrote the Pharsalia (about 60), an epic poem describing the civil war
between Caesar and Pompey. The Satyricon (about 60) by Petronius was the first picaresque Latin
novel.[13] Only fragments of the complete work survive. It describes the adventures of various low-class
characters in absurd, extravagant, and dangerous situations, often in the world of petty crime.

Epic poems included the Argonautica of Gaius Valerius Flaccus, following the story of Jason and the
Argonauts in their quest for the Golden Fleece, the Thebaid of Statius, following the conflict of Oedipus's
sons and the Seven Against Thebes, and the Punica of Silius Italicus, following the Second Punic War and
the invasions of Hannibal into Italy. At the hands of Martial, the epigram achieved the stinging quality still
associated with it. Juvenal satirized vice.

The historian Tacitus painted an unforgettably dark picture of the early empire in his Histories and Annals,
both written in the early 2nd century. His contemporary Suetonius wrote biographies of the 12 Roman
rulers from Julius Caesar through Domitian. The letters of Pliny the Younger described Roman life of the
period. Quintilian composed the most complete work on ancient education that we possess. Important
works from the 2nd century include the Attic Nights of Aulus Gellius, a collection of anecdotes and reports
of literary discussions among his friends; and the letters of the orator Marcus Cornelius Fronto to Marcus
Aurelius. The most famous work of the period was Metamorphoses, also called The Golden Ass, by
Apuleius. This novel concerns a young man who is accidentally changed into a donkey. The story is filled
with tales of love and witchcraft.

Latin in the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and Early Modernity

Pagan Latin literature showed a final burst of vitality from the late 3rd century till the 5th centuries.
Ammianus Marcellinus in history, Quintus Aurelius Symmachus in oratory, and Ausonius and Rutilius
Claudius Namatianus in poetry. The Mosella by Ausonius demonstrated a modernism of feeling that
indicates the end of classical literature as such.

At the same time, other men laid the foundations of Christian Latin literature during the 4th century and 5th
century. They included the church fathers Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Ambrose, and the first great
Christian poet, Prudentius.

During the Renaissance there was a return to the Latin of classical times, called for this reason Neo-Latin.
This purified language continued to be used as the lingua franca among the learned throughout Europe,
with the great works of Descartes, Francis Bacon, and Baruch Spinoza all being composed in Latin.
Among the last important books written primarily in Latin prose were the works of Swedenborg (d. 1772),
Linnaeus (d. 1778), Euler (d. 1783), Gauss (d. 1855), and Isaac Newton (d. 1727), and Latin remains a
necessary skill for modern readers of great early modern works of linguistics, literature, and philosophy.

Several of the leading English poets wrote in Latin as well as English. Milton's 1645 Poems are one
example, but there were also Thomas Campion, George Herbert and Milton's colleague Andrew Marvell.
Some indeed wrote chiefly in Latin and were valued for the elegance and Classicism of their style.
Examples of these were Anthony Alsop and Vincent Bourne, who were noted for the ingenious way that
they adapted their verse to describing details of life in the 18th century while never departing from the
purity of Latin diction.[14] One of the last to be noted for the quality of his Latin verse well into the 19th
century was Walter Savage Landor.[15]
Characteristics
Much Latin writing reflects the Romans' interest in rhetoric, the art of speaking and persuading. Public
speaking had great importance for educated Romans because most of them wanted successful political
careers. When Rome was a republic, effective speaking often determined who would be elected or what
bills would pass. After Rome became an empire, the ability to impress and persuade people by the spoken
word lost much of its importance. But training in rhetoric continued to flourish and to affect styles of
writing. A large part of rhetoric consists of the ability to present a familiar idea in a striking new manner
that attracts attention. Latin authors became masters of this art of variety.

Language and form

Latin is a highly inflected language, with many grammatical forms for various words. As a result, it can be
used with a pithiness and brevity unknown in English. It also lends itself to elaboration, because its tight
syntax holds even the longest and most complex sentence together as a logical unit. Latin can be used with
conciseness, as in the works of Sallust and Tacitus. Or it can have wide, sweeping phrases, as in the works
of Livy and the speeches of Cicero.

Latin lacks poetic vocabulary that marks the Greek poetry. Some earlier Latin poets tried to make up for
this deficiency by creating new compound words, as the Greeks had done. But Roman writers seldom
invented words. Except in epic poetry, they tended to use a familiar vocabulary, giving it poetic value by
combinations of words and by rich sound effects. Rome's leading poets had great technical skill in the
choice and arrangement of language. They also had an intimate knowledge of the Greek poets, whose
themes appear in almost all Roman literature.

See also
Medieval Latin
Renaissance Latin
New Latin
Contemporary Latin
Prosody (Latin)
Clausula (rhetoric)
Alliteration (Latin)

References
1. Duckworth, George Eckel. The nature of Roman comedy: a study in popular entertainment.
(https://books.google.com/books?id=BuLEo5U9sb0C&pg=PA3&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false)
University of Oklahoma Press, 1994. p. 3. Web. 15 October 2011.
2. "Annales | work by Ennius" (https://www.britannica.com/topic/Annales-by-Ennius).
Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 January 2020.
3. Shipley, Joseph Twadell. Dictionary of world literature: criticism, forms, technique. (https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=AlUVAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA109#v=onepage&q&f=false) Taylor &
Francis, 1964. p. 109. Web. 15 October 2011.
4. Mehl, Andreas. Roman Historiography. (https://books.google.com/books?id=0W1rpowMywY
C&pg=PA52&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false) Wiley-Blackwell, 2010. p 52. Web. 18 October
2011.
 5. Hinds, Stephen (1998). Allusion and Intertext. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge. pp. 52–98.
ISBN 0521571863.
6. Eliot, Charles W. Letters of Marcus Tullius Cicero and Letters of Gaius Plinius Caecilius
Secundus: Part 9 Harvard Classics. (https://books.google.com/books?id=uLGVxD1fX8UC&
pg=PA3&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false) Kessinger Publishing, 2004. p. 3. Web. 15 October
2011.
7. Nettleship, Henry; Haverfield, F. Lectures and Essays: Second Series. (https://books.google.
com/books?id=pPcgIEC3CPIC&pg=PA105&dq#v=onepage&q&f=false) Cambridge
University Press, 2010. p. 105. Web. 18 October 2011.
8. Institutio Oratoria by Quintillian (https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quinti
lian/Institutio_Oratoria/10A*.html#1.95)
9. Morton Braund, Susanna. Latin literature. (https://books.google.com/books?id=IOwR7uVMG
UYC&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q&f=false) Routledge, 2002. p. 1. Web. 15 October 2011.
10. Colish, Marcía L. The Stoic Tradition from Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages: Stoicism in
classical Latin literature. (https://books.google.com/books?id=WY-2MeZqoK0C&pg=PA226
&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false) BRILL, 1990. p. 226. Web. 18 October 2011.
11. Britannica Educational Publishing. Poetry and Drama: Literary Terms and Concepts. (https://
books.google.com/books?id=LHA_SydyKOYC&pg=PA39&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false) The
Rosen Publishing Group, 2011. p. 39. Web. 18 October 2011.
12. Cary, Max; Haarhoff, Theodore Johannes. Life and thought in the Greek and Roman world.
(https://books.google.com/books?id=bx8OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA268&#v=onepage&q&f=fals
e) Taylor & Francis, 1985. p. 268. Web. 15 October 2011.
13. Grube, George Maximilian Antony. The Greek and Roman critics. (https://books.google.com/
books?id=jerucRW8UmMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Greek+and+Roman+Critics&hl=it
&ei=rLmZTtvLDsWDOsDKqYkK&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC4Q
6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=) Hackett Publishing, 1965. p. 261. Web. 15 October 2011.
14. D.K.Money, "The Latin Poetry of English Gentlemen", in Neo-Latin Poetry in the British Isles,
London 2012, pp. 125ff (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=baNhaEOtbzYC&lpg=PP1&pg
=PR5#v=onepage&q&f=false)
15. Poems online (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/landor.html)

Sources
Elaine Fantham, PhD, Giger Professor of Latin Emerita, Department of Classics, Princeton
University.
Fantham, Elaine. "Latin literature." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2011. Web. 18
October 2011.

External links
Corpus Scriptorum Latinorum. (http://www.forumromanum.org/literature/index.html)
The Latin Library. (http://www.thelatinlibrary.com)
Bibilotheca Augustana. (https://web.archive.org/web/20111213010615/http://www.fh-augsbu
rg.de/%7Eharsch/augustana.html)
Corpus Grammaticorum Latinorum: complete texts and full bibliography. (https://archive.is/20
121204163129/http://kaali.linguist.jussieu.fr/CGL/index.jsp)
Catalogus Translationum et Commentariorum (http://catalogustranslationum.org/)
"Latin Literature" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Lati
n_Literature). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
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