Journal of Petroleum Geology, Vol.

34(2), April 2011, pp 117-134 117

SOURCE ROCK POTENTIAL OF THE

UPPER JURASSIC – LOWER CRETACEOUS
SUCCESSION IN THE SOUTHERN
MESOPOTAMIAN BASIN, SOUTHERN IRAQ

Q. Abeed*, A. Alkhafaji** and R. Littke*+

This paper reports on the hydrocarbon potential of subsurface samples from the Upper Jurassic
Lower Cretaceous succession at the Rumaila (North and South), Zubair, Subba and West Qurna
oilfields in southern Iraq. A total of 37 fine-grained core samples of the Sulaiy, Yamama, Ratawi
and Zubair Formations from ten wells were analyzed. Contents of organic carbon and sulphur
were measured; other analyses included Rock-Eval pyrolysis, optical microscopy in incident light,
solvent extraction and gas chromatography of non-aromatic hydrocarbons. The results indicated
that the samples from the Cretaceous succession (Yamama, Zubair and Ratawi Formations) are
at moderate levels of thermal maturity, whereas samples from the Upper Jurassic – Lower
Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation are at a stage of thermal maturity beyond peak oil generation.
According to the results of this study, the Sulaiy Formation is an excellent highly-mature source
rock and it is probably responsible for the generation of large quantities of oil in the study area.
The samples differ with respect to their organic facies and biomarker distribution, indicating
that palaeo depositional conditions varied significantly.

INTRODUCTION on these intervals. The purpose of this study is to

analyze potential source rocks at oilfields in the Basra
About 80 % of Iraq’s oil production comes from only area of southern Iraq with respect to quantity, quality
two reservoir intervals: the Cenozoic (Kirkuk Group and maturity of organic matter. Analytical data was
or “Main Pay” at the Kirkuk field in northern Iraq), used also to interpret source rock depositional
and the Cretaceous (Zubair Sandstone at Zubair, and environments.
the Mishrif Formation carbonates at Rumaila) in
southern Iraq. Petroleum systems in other parts of Stratigraphic and Tectonic Setting
the country remain either undeveloped or only partially The Mesopotamian Basin lies in the east of the Stable
developed, and most of Iraq’s oil reserves are located Shelf (sensu Jassim and Goff, 2006; Aqrawi et al.,
in the Mesopotamian Basin which is dominated by 2010) which covers most of central, southern and
Cretaceous plays (Aqrawi et al., 2010). Source rocks western Iraq. Buday and Jassim (1984) divided the
are mostly Tithonian – Lower Cretaceous shales but Mesopotamian Basin into (from north to south) the
only limited geochemical analyses have been performed Tigris, Euphrates and Zubair subzones (Fig. 1). The
* Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum Zubair subzone includes the study area around the
and Coal, RWTH Aachen University, Lochnerstrasse city of Basra. Oilfields here are located along elongate,
4-20, D-52056 Aachen, Germany. narrow anticlines. According to Jassim and Goff
** Dept. of Chemistry, College of Science for Women,
University of Babylon, Iraq. Key words: Mesopotamian Basin, Iraq, Rumaila oilfield,
+
Corresponding author, email: Zubair oilfield, Sulaiy Formation, source rocks, organic
[email protected] geochemistry.

© 2011 The Authors. Journal of Petroleum Geology © 2011 Scientific Press Ltd
118 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

38°E 40°E 42°E 44°E 46°E 48°E

TURKEY Daryacheh ye Orumiyeh

LEGEND

Th
Oil field
(Producing,Appraised,Discovered)

ru
st
Gasfield

Fo

Zo
Buhayrat Al Asad Mosul
Studied well

ld
36°N Erbil

ne
Tigris Subzone A

ed
Euphrates Subzone B

Zo
Kirkuk

ne
Zubair Subzone

SYRIA N

34°N Samarra

34°N

M
Buhayrat ath Tharthar

e
R A s
o IRAN
ut Ar Ramadi
p
ba Baghdad
o
ta
S

h
a

JORDAN
- m
lm

Je Behr al Milh
Karbala
ia
zi
a

Ad Diwaniyah
n
n

ra B
32°N
B
Z

Zo Najaf a 32°N
o

ne s
in
n
e

MAJNOON
Nasiriyah
C
WEST QURNA WQ-41
WQ-12
NAHR UMR Basra

30°N SUBBA RUMAILA N.

Rumaila N.-172
SINDABAD 30°N
Su-8 Zb-40
RATAWI
TUBA Basra
Rumaila N.-167
ZUBAIR
RUMAILA Tu-1 K U WA I T
LUHAIS

RACHI JEBEL SANAM

DIBDIBBA
JERISHAN
UMM QASR
SAUDI ARABIA 0 50 100 150 200km.

40°E 42°E 44°E 46°E 48°E

Fig. 1. Map of oilfields in Iraq with boundaries of the Mesopotamian Basin and major tectonic units (after
Aqrawi et al., 2010). Inset map shows oilfields and wells in the study area near Basra.

(2006), these structures originated during the Late 1991; Al-Ameri et al., 2009). The Sulaiy in its type
Proterozoic Nabitah orogeny and were reactivated area in Saudi Arabia rests on the Upper Jurassic Hith
during the Permo-Carboniferous, Mesozoic and Anhydrite Formation and passes up into the overlying
Tertiary, possibly related to movement of Yamama Formation (van Bellen et al., 1959) (Fig. 2).
Infracambrian salt (Aqrawi et al., 2010). It was deposited in a shelfal sea and is known from
Aqrawi et al. (2010) divided the Tithonian – outcrops in Saudi Arabia (Jassim and Goff, 2006)
Cretaceous succession in Iraq into six supersequences where it comprises chalky, massive limestones and
which correspond broadly to Sharland et al.’s (2001) calcarenites (Powers et al., 1966) and is of early
AP8 and AP9 Megasequences. The basal Valanginian age. A section described by Rabanit (in
supersequence (upper Tithonian – middle Valanginian) van Bellen et al., 1959) at well Ratawi-1 in SE Iraq
includes the argillaceous and marly limestones of the consists of over 331 m (base not reached) of detrital,
Sulaiy Formation which is a major source rock in oolitic limestones and recrystallized limestones with
southern Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia (Beydoun, minor shales. In southern Iraq, the formation is
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 119

composed of alternating argillaceous, dolomitic and

Lithology
Formation

Tectonics
Petroleum
System
pyrite-rich limestones with a thickness between 196

Age
and 304 m (Al-Ameri et al., 1999).
The overlying Yamama Formation is known from
outcrops in Saudi Arabia (Powers et al., 1966). van r at
ya
Bellen et al. (1959) described a 257 m thick interval Maastrichtian Ta
at well Ratawi-1 as the “Yamama-Sulaiy” Formation.

sh
The upper 203 m, now assigned to the Yamama

ni

Neo-Tethyhs
ira
1000

Sh

closure of
Formation (Sadooni, 1993), comprises 12 m of brown
Campanian
detrital limestones with thin shale beds overlain by a
rth
191 m of micritic and oolitic limestones (Jassim and Ha
Goff, 2006). According to Rabanit (in van Bellen et i
Santonian ’d
al., 1959), the Yamama-Sulaiy comprises in Sa
descending stratigraphical order six units: (1) 625 ft 1500

Neo-Tethys
a

Obduction
Coniacian
Turonian-
(190.5 m) of fine-grained detrital and oolitic m
nu
Ta

Cretaceous
limestones; (2) 40 ft (12.2 m) of brown detrital
limestones; (3) 260 ft (79.3 m) of brown detrital ib
as
limestones, shaly in part, with abundant organic debris; Kh
(4) 74 ft (22.6 m) of brown recrystallized limestones if
with rare organic remains; (5) 36 ft (11 m) of dark hr
is 2000

Cenomanian
M
grey limestones with streaks of current-bedded,
la
slightly arenaceous shale; (6) 86 ft (20.7 m) of dark ai
m
grey, massive, pyritic limestones. Ru
i
Supersequence 1 of Aqrawi et al. (2010) also ad
m
contains the limestone-dominated Lower Member of Ah
2500
the Ratawi Formation which is approximately d
du
au
Albian

equivalent in stratigraphic position to the Garagu M

Formation of northern and central Iraq. Samples in r
r Um
this study were taken from the clastic-dominated upper h
Na
member of the formation (which is assigned to

Neo-Tethys
opening of
a
Supersequence II: Aqrawi et al., 2010). The Ratawi Aptian ib
u’a 3000
Formation was defined by Nasr in 1950 (van Bellen Sh
et al., 1959) based on data from well Ratawi-1. Its ir
Barremian ba
thickness in southern Iraq ranges from 23 to 629 m. Zu
In some areas to the east and north of the type well i
location, beds of sandy shale and sandstone occur Hauterivian taw
Ra
and the formation contains a higher proportion of sand 3500
to the north and west (Jassim and Goff, 2006). In Valanginian a
am
the study area, the Ratawi Formation is 220-300 m m
Ya
thick. The upper member passes gradually into the Berriasian
y
lai
Zubair Formation (Alsharhan and Nairn, 1997). Su
U. Jurassic

Tithonian
The Ratawi Formation (Lower Member) is
ia
disconformably overlain by the progradational Zubair U.Kimmeridgian tn 4000
Go
Formation at the base of Supersequence II.
evaporite shale
According to van Bellen et al. (1959), the Zubair Legend shaly lmstn

Formation can be subdivided at its type locality at silty lmstn marl silt
source
Zubair field into five units (from top to bottom): (i) reservoir organic
silty shale
lmstn unconf.
the Upper Shale (100 m thick); (ii) the Upper seal massive sandstone sample
Sandstone or “Main Pay” composed of thick quartz source/ reservoir lmstn

arenites; (iii) the black or greenish- black Middle Shale;

(iv) the Lower Sandstone; and (v) the Lower Shale.
The proportion of shale in the formation decreases
rapidly to the SW. To the NE, the formation consists Fig. 2. Generalised stratigraphic column for the
almost entirely of shale near Dujaila in Central Iraq. study area in southern Iraq, with petroleum system
In South Iraq, the Zubair Formation comprises 380- elements and the location of core samples analysed.
400 m of alternating shales, siltstone and sandstones. (After Al-Ameri et al., 2009).
120 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

It passes laterally into the limestone-marl of the Shu’aiba from 350°C to 520°C (TOC). During the second
or Sarmord Formations in the around Buzurgan near stage, carbonates are converted to CO 2 in a
the frontier with Iran (Jassim and Goff, 2006). temperature range from 520°C to 1050°C. The
The Albian Nahr Umr and overlying Maudud CO2concentrations were quantified by IR-absorption.
Formations were deposited in the overlying Two standards were used for the calibration,
Supersequence III of Aqrawi et al. (2010). Due to the containing 1.01 % +/-0.01 % C (LECO Synthetic
abrupt facies change between the Nahr Umr and Carbon) and 12 % C (LECO Calcium Carbonate).
Shu’aiba Formation, these two cycles may be separated Standard deviations are less than 0.5 %.
by an unconformity. After relative tectonic stability of Rock-Eval and TOC results provided information
the basin in the previous sedimentary cycle, greater about the dispersed organic matter (OM) in the core
tectonic instability occurred in the region during the samples, including quantity and type of OM, level of
interval between the Cenomanian and the Campanian maturity and source rock potential. The S1-signal is
which was characterized by alternating siliciclastic and a measure of the amount of hydrocarbons liberated
carbonate deposition (Fig. 2). The Hartha, Shiranish, at 300 °C and represents the volatile portion of the
and Tayarat Formations of Campanian and bitumen present in the rock. The S2 peak represents
Maastrichtian ages probably represent transgressive the amount of hydrocarbons generated during
deposition which was terminated by end-Maastrichtian temperature-programmed pyrolysis (300 – 600 °C),
uplift and regression. The thickness of the Lower and represents the bitumen that would be generated
Cretaceous succession ranges from 500 to 700 m, if burial and maturation continued to completion. S1
and of the Upper Cretaceous from 700 to 1400 m. and S2 are expressed in mg of hydrocarbon per gram
(mg HC/g) of rock. S3 is the quantity of CO2 formed
MATERIALS AND METHODS by pyrolysis of the OM expressed in milligrams of
CO2 per gram of rock (mg CO2/g). Tmax (°C) is the
For this study, 37 fine-grained samples from the Upper temperature at which the maximum of the S2 peak
Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession from depths is reached and represents an estimate of thermal
ranging from 3167 to 4500 m were analysed (Table maturity. Although high TOC values may indicate
1). The samples came from cores recovered from ten good source rock potential, much of the OM may
wells in the Rumaila North and South, Zubair, West be inert due to sedimentary reworking, oxidation or
Qurna and Subba oilfields (locations in Fig. 1), and advanced levels of maturation and therefore have very
were provided by the Iraq South Oil Company. The little generation potential (Espitalié et al., 1985; Leckie
samples came from four formations: Zubair et al., 1988).
(Barremian-Aptian), Ratawi (Hautervian), Yamama The Hydrogen Index (HI) is the normalized S2
(Valanginian), and Sulaiy (Tithonian-Berriasian). value (S2/TOC), expressed as mg HC/g of TOC,
Samples were visually selected from dark-coloured which allows the types of OM to be estimated (Table
fine-grained core intervals. Stratigraphic and lithologic 1). The Oxygen Index (OI) is the normalized S3 value
information is presented in Table 1. Geochemical (S3/TOC), expressed in mg CO 2/g TOC. The
analyses were performed in the laboratories of the Production Index (PI) or transformation ratio (PI =
Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum S1 / [S1+S2]) indicates the level of thermal maturation
and Coal, RWTH Aachen University. and also the presence of migrated hydrocarbons.

Vitrinite Reflectance Solvent extraction, liquid chromatographic

and Fluorescence Microscopy fractionation, GC-FID and GC-MS
Vitrinite reflectance (VRr) was measured with a Zeiss After the core samples were ground down, the
Axiophot microscope following the procedures resulting sediment powder (ca. 5 g) was extracted
described by Schoenherr et al. (2007). Another Zeiss for 24 h using 50 ml of DCM (CH 2 Cl 2 ;
Axiophot microscope equipped with an ultraviolet/violet dichloromethane). The solvent was removed with a
light source was used to recognize liptinite macerals rotary evaporator. The extracts were separated by
in fluorescent light because liptinite cannot be easily column chromatography over activated silica gel and
seen in reflected white light (Taylor et al., 1998). eluted sequentially into six fractions using n-pentane
(fraction 1), n-pentane/CH2Cl2 (95/5 v/v, fraction 2),
TOC analysis and Rock-Eval Pyrolysis n-pentane/CH2Cl2(90/10 v/v, fraction 3), pentane/
TOC was measured with a LECO RC-412 apparatus CH2Cl2(40/60 v/v, fraction 4), CH2Cl2 (fraction 5)
based on IR- absorption of CO2-bands in a two-stage and methanol (fraction 6). Details of the procedure
measurement process in an oxygenated atmosphere at were described by Schwarzbauer et al. (2000) and
variable temperatures. During the first stage, organic Amijaya et al. (2006). GC was carried out with a
carbon is converted to CO2 at temperatures ranging Carlo Erba 8000 gas chromatograph equipped with
Table 1. TOC and Rock-Eval pyrolysis results of the studied samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,Yamama and Sulaiy Formations from wells in the Rumaila (R-),
North Rumaila (Ru-), Subba (Su-), Zubair (Zb-) and West Qurna (WQ-) oilfields (locations in Fig. 1).

S1 S2 Tmax VRr TOC HI Sulphur CaCO3 (%)

Well Formation Depth (m) Lithology PI TIC
(mg HC/g rock) (mg HC/g rock) (°C) (%) (%) (mg HC/g TOC) (%) (TIC*8.333)
Ru-28 Zubair 3204 Mudstone 0.04 0.25 427 0.73 0.55 45 0.14 1.0 0.06 0.5
Ru-28 Zubair 3245 Mudstone 0.07 0.81 427 0.79 1.06 76 0.08 1.3 0.2 1.7
Ru-215 Zubair 3170 Mudstone 0.15 1.95 436 0.75 1.06 184 0.07 0.7 0.3 2.5
Ru-215 Zubair 3184 Mudstone 4.23 40.83 419 0.69 21.68 188 0.09 10.5 0.03 0.2
Ru-215 Zubair 3187 Mudstone 0.04 0.40 414 0.83 0.60 67 0.09 0.6 0.1 0.8
Ru-215 Zubair 3222 Mudstone 0.04 0.44 426 0.75 0.74 59 0.08 0.7 0.1 0.8
Ru-19 Ratawi 3277 Mudstone 0.13 1.70 429 0.76 1.39 122 0.07 1.4 0.2 1.7
R-172 Ratawi 3432 Mudstone 0.11 0.38 430 0.58 1.07 36 0.22 1.1 0.2 1.7
R-172 Ratawi 3446 Mudstone 0.14 0.27 434 0.65 0.61 44 0.34 0.88 0.3 2.5
R-172 Ratawi 3465 Mudstone 0.30 0.38 436 0.69 0.59 64 0.44 1.2 0.2 1.7
R-172 Yamama 3550 Marlstone 0.12 0.40 436 0.69 0.82 49 0.23 2.0 6.6 55.0
R-172 Yamama 3605 Marlstone 1.66 4.74 430 0.58 0.86 551 0.26 2.0 6.8 56.7
R-172 Yamama 3655 Marlstone 2.23 4.59 435 0.67 0.91 504 0.33 1.8 5.0 41.7
R-172 Yamama 3751 Marlstone 4.88 3.25 418 0.36 0.84 387 0.60 2.2 7.1 59.2
R-172 Sulaiy 3995 Carbonate 74.30 11.34 440 0.76 9.55 119 0.87 2.1 10 83.3
R-172 Sulaiy 4012 Carbonate 42.24 11.06 445 0.85 4.69 236 0.79 2.8 9.5 79.2
R-172 Sulaiy 4042 Carbonate 22.65 6.39 438 0.72 3.31 193 0.78 2.3 10 83.3
R-172 Sulaiy 4066 Carbonate 71.67 8.40 438 0.72 9.44 89 0.90 3.0 11 91.7
R-172 Sulaiy 4086 Carbonate 78.11 9.58 445 0.85 3.14 305 0.89 2.9 9 75.0
Ru-167 Yamama 4141 Marlstone 0.11 0.37 439 0.62 0.32 115 0.23 2.4 7.3 60.8
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4483 Carbonate 1.35 1.47 458 1 2.07 71 0.48 0.8 10 83.3
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4498 Carbonate 0.36 0.30 449 1.29 1.11 27 0.55 1.0 9.5 79.2
Ru-167 Sulaiy 4500 Carbonate 1.45 4.60 470 1.28 8.04 57 0.24 2.4 8 66.7
Su-8 Zubair 2883 Shale 0.06 1.15 431 0.6 1.04 111 0.05 0.5 2 16.7
Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke

Su-8 Yamama 3572 Carbonate 11.31 16.25 419 0.76 2.72 598 0.41 0.7 11 91.7
WQ-12 Yamama 3623 Carbonate 0.08 0.43 437 0.65 0.31 140 0.16 0.1 11 91.7
Zb-40 Zubair 3249 Mudstone 0.18 2.44 432 0.68 1.49 164 0.07 0.5 0.3 2.5
Zb-40 Zubair 3332 Mudstone 0.06 0.62 430 0.71 0.55 113 0.09 0.6 0.04 0.3
Zb-40 Zubair 3433 Mudstone 0.08 0.66 430 0.69 0.72 91 0.11 1.8 0.3 2.5
Ru-212 Zubair 3167 Mudstone 0.24 1.52 423 0.63 1.40 108 0.14 4.0 0.03 0.2
Ru-212 Zubair 3195 Mudstone 0.15 1.08 427 0.68 1.36 80 0.12 5.4 0.07 0.6
Ru-212 Zubair 3205 Mudstone 0.05 0.84 430 0.8 0.97 87 0.06 0.8 0.2 1.7
Ru-212 Zubair 3207 Mudstone 0.08 0.73 426 0.6 0.92 79 0.10 1.2 0.1 0.8
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4350 Carbonate 1.22 1.35 441 0.7 0.96 141 0.47 0.3 11 91.7
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4355 Carbonate 0.65 0.52 451 0.75 0.85 61 0.56 0.4 10 83.3
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4360 Carbonate 0.76 1.05 438 1 1.02 103 0.42 0.3 10.5 87.5
Ru-158 Sulaiy 4365 Marlstone 0.39 0.40 449 1.2 0.87 46 0.49 2.2 6 50.0
121
122 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

1.0
IMMATURE OIL ZONE DRY GAS ZONE

CONDENSATE ZONE
Zubair Fm
0.9 Ratawi Fm

Yamama Fm
0.8
Sualiy Fm
PRODUCTION INDEX (PI)

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1
LOW LEVEL CONVERSION HIGH LEVEL CONVERSION-
EXPULSION

0.0
380 430 480 530
Tmax (°C)

Fig. 3. Plot of Rock-Eval Tmax versus Production Index for samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,Yamama and Sulaiy
Formations from wells in the study area in southern Iraq.

a 30 m × 0.25 mm ID × 0.25 μm film Zebron–ZB 5 Kerogen Maturity

fused silica column. The oven temperature was Kerogen maturity was evaluated on the basis of
programmed from 60 to 300 °C at a rate of 3 °C /min, Rock-Eval Tmax and PI values (Fig. 3) as well as
with a 20 min isothermal period at 300 °C. Injection vitrinite reflectance (Fig. 4). Tmax values were only
was performed in the split/splitless mode with a splitless reported for samples with S2 values > 0.2 mg HC/g
time of 60 s. Hydrogen was used as a carrier gas (Table 1) and vary for the Zubair, Ratawi and Yamama
(injection temperature: 270 °C). Formations between 414 and 439°C. This range
GC/MS analysis was carried out using a Finnegan indicates a level of thermal maturity at the beginning
MAT 8222 mass spectrometer linked to an HP 5890 of the oil window. PI values generally range from
gas chromatograph. A 30 m × 0.25 ID × 0.25 μm film 0.06 to 0.2 but may reach values of 0.3-0.6, especially
Varina CP Sil-8CB fused silica column was used. in the Ratawi and Yamama Formations in well R-172
Helium was used as carrier gas. The temperature was indicating impregnation by migrated petroleum (Fig.
programmed from 80 to 310 °C at a rate of 3 °C/min, 3). Vitrinite reflectance in general ranges between
with a 5 min isothermal period at 310 °C. about 0.6 and 0.7 % (Fig. 4, Table 1).
The Sulaiy Formation samples were obtained from
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION greater depths (4000-4500 m). They are characterized
by Tmax values between 438 and 470 °C indicating
The TOC content of samples from the Zubair that the samples are highly mature or overmature with
Formation varies between 0.4 and 1 %; however two respect to oil generation. PI values vary between 0.4
exceptional samples had 2.7 and 22 % TOC. Ratawi and 0.9 (with one exception) and are particularly high
Formation samples had 0.6 to 1.4 % TOC; TOC values in well R-172. The high PI values (Figs 3, 5) indicate
for the Yamama Formation range from 0.3 to 2.7 % impregnation by generated bitumen which is related
(Table 1). The highest average TOC contents were to the presence of mature organic matter. Vitrinite
present in the Sulaiy Formation, ranging up to 10 %. reflectance values range between 0.7 and 1.2 %
Based on their organic richness, all these intervals indicating maturities close to or beyond peak oil
have the potential to act as efficient petroleum source generation (Figs 4, 5).
rocks (c.f. Leckie et al., 1988; Peters and Moldwan, In summary, maturities seem to be closely related
1993). to present-day burial depth (Fig. 5). Maturities are
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 123

1000
Rr
~ 0.55 % V Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm
900
Yamama Fm
Type I
Oil Prone Sualiy Fm

800

700
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

600
Type II
Oil Prone

500

ow
ind
lW
Oi

400

ow
300

ind
sW
Mixed Type II/III
Oil/Gas Prone

Ga
r
VR

et
0%

W
200
te-
1.0

r
VR
sa
~

en

%
nd

Type III
.40

w
Co

o
Gas Prone
i nd
1
W
~

100
as
yG
Dr

Type IV
Inert
0.0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6
VRr (%)
Fig. 4. Plot of vitrinite reflectance (VRr) versus hydrogen index (HI) for samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,
Yamama and Sulaiy Formations from wells in the study area in southern Iraq, indicating thermal maturity and
petroleum generation potential.

significantly higher in the Tithonian-Valanginian Sulaiy 1994). S2 values are moderate to high (HI reaches
Formation than in the overlying Zubair, Ratawi, and 500-600 in several samples). The kerogen has both
Yamama Formations. high hydrocarbon generation potential and high
sulphur content (Table 1) and can therefore be
Kerogen Quality and Organic Facies classified as Type II-S (Fig. 6).
Samples from the Zubair Formation are characterized The Sulaiy Formation contains abundant solid
by abundant vitrinite and sporinite with additional algal bitumen which is an overmature relic of previously-
material (alginite; Plate 1). A similar organic facies is formed oil. Petroleum generation is also expressed
present in the Ratawi Formation but the percentage of by high PI values. S2 and HI values are moderate
alginite is lower. This organic facies is consistent with and higher in the shallower samples (about 100 to
the relatively low S2 and HI values in these units (Figs 300 mg HC/g TOC) than in the deeper samples
4, 5, 6, 7). Kerogen can be classified as early mature (about 50 to 150 mg HC/g TOC). These values
Type III with only moderate to low oil generation reflect the advanced maturity of this formation;
potential. kerogen can be classified as Type II-III. However,
The Yamama Formation contains abundant bituminite/ based on the maceral composition (Plate 1), sulphur
amorphous organic matter with minor vitrinite, inertinite content (Table 1) and maturity, it can be assumed
and sporinite (Plate 1). This maceral composition is that this was originally Type II-S kerogen with a
typical of marine source rocks (Littke and Sachsenhofer, high petroleum generation potential.
124 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

2500
Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm.

Yamama Fm
Sualiy Fm

3000

3500
Depth (m)

4000

4500

5000
0 1 2 410 440 470 0 300 600 0 0.5 1
VRr (%)
.

Tmax ( C) Hydrogen Production

A B C Index D Index

Fig. 5. Profiles of (a) vitrinite reflectance (VRr), (b) Tmax, (c) hydrogen index (HI) and (d) production index (PI)
versus depth for the analysed samples from the Zubair, Ratawi, Yamama and Sulaiy Formations.

Bitumen Composition: n- and iso-alkanes by CPI values greater than 1 (Table 2). This is typical
The non-aromatic fractions of the source rocks from of a land-plant contribution and also indicates low-
the study area are dominated by n-alkanes. Typical to-moderate source rock maturity. At high maturities,
chromatograms for samples from the four formations a value of 1 would be expected and a much lower
analysed are shown in Fig. 8a-d. concentration of long-chain n-alkanes. For the short
Samples from the Zubair Formation are chain n-alkanes, there is an odd-over-even
characterized by the occurrence of long- and short- predominance especially in the C17 range. This is
chain n-alkanes in high concentrations. Long-chain typical of rocks with a contribution of phytoplankton/
n-alkanes (C25 to C29) show a predominance of odd- algae. Pristane and phytane are abundant but occur in
over even-numbered molecules which is expressed smaller concentrations than the adjacent n-alkanes
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 125

Type I Oil Prone Type II Oil Prone

Zubair Fm
14.0
Ratawi Fm

Yamama Fm
12.0
Sualiy Fm

Mixed Type II/III

S2 (mg HC/g rock)

10.0

8.0

6.0
Type III

4.0

2.0
Type IV
Inert
0.0
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0

TOC (%)

Fig. 6. Plot of Rock-Eval S2 versus total organic carbon (TOC) for the analysed samples from the Zubair,
Ratawi, Yamama and Sulaiy Formations.

Fig. 7. Plot of Rock-Eval hydrogen index

1000
(HI) versus Tmax for the analysed samples Rr
~ 0.55 % V Zubair Fm.
from the Zubair, Ratawi, Yamama and
Sulaiy Formations. Ratawi Fm

900 Yamama Fm
Type I
Oil Prone Sualiy Fm

800

700
HYDROGEN INDEX (mg HC/g TOC)

600

Type II
Oil Prone
500

400
ow
i nd
lW
Oi

300
ow

Mixed Type II/III

ni d

Oil / Gas Prone

r
VR

sW
0%

Ga

200
1.0

et

Rr
-W

V
~

0%
te
sa

Type III
1.4

ow
en

i nd
nd

Gas Prone
~

100
Co

W
as
yG
Dr

Type IV
Inert
0.0
330 380 430 480

Tmax (ºC)
126 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Zub air Fo r m at io n

10µm 50µm 50µm

5µm 5µm 50µ m

Rataw i Form ati on

5µm 5µm 5µm

Vitrinite Rr = 0.75

Inertinite Rr = 1.35

50µm 50µm 50µm

Yam am a Fo r m at io n

50µm 50µm 50µm

Solid Bitumen

5µm 50µm 50µm

Sulai y Fo r m at i o n

5µm 5µm 50µm

50µm solid bitumen 50µm solid bitumen 50µm

Plate 1. Photomicrographs of particulate organic matter in the analysed samples from the Zubair, Ratawi,
Yamama and Sulaiy Formations under transmitted light (right-hand column) and incident light (left-hand and
central column).The upper rows of the incident light images for each of the four formations are illuminated
under fluorescent light.
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 127

Fig. 8.Typical whole

solvent extract
chromatograms obtained
by gas chromatography-
flame ionization detector
(GC-FID) showing a Zubair Fm C-27
concentrations of n-
alkanes, pristane (Pr) and
3249 m
phytane (Ph) for the
analysed samples.

b Ratawi Fm
3277 m C-27

c Yamama Fm.
3572 m C-27

d Sulaiy Fm.
4350 m
C-27

Retention time (mins) . .M

indicating that the samples are not biodegraded. part of the Ratawi Formation was deposited in a
Accordingly, Pr/n-C17 and Ph/n-C18 ratios are less than similar environment to the Zubair Formation.
1 (Fig. 9, Table 2). Pr/Ph ratios are variable but are For the Yamama Formation, the n-C17/n-C27 ratios
often > 1 (up to 5.3) indicating oxic/suboxic (Table 2) are > 1 with values up to 4. No odd/even or
depositional conditions and/or a contribution of higher even/odd predominance was observed. The unimodal
plant material (Table 2). n-alkane distribution (Fig. 8c) is typical for mature
The Ratawi Formation samples came from the source rocks (Tissot and Welte, 1984). A marine origin
shale-rich upper member (see Fig. 2). Chromatograms for the organic matter in the Yamama Formation is
(Fig. 8b) show a predominance of odd- over even- also indicated by low Pr/Ph ratios (Table 2), which
numbered n-alkanes expressed in Table 2 by CPI were < 1 for all the studied samples. No biodegradation
(Carbon Preference Index) values greater than 1 (up was observed for the Yamama Formation: Pr/n-C17
to 1.38). The pristane/phytane ratio is up to 2.14, and and Ph/n-C18 ratios are consistently < 0.3 (Table 2).
both iso-alkanes occur in smaller concentration than Extracts from the Sulaiy Formation do not show
the adjacent n-alkanes. Therefore, Pr/n-C17 and Ph/n- long-chain n-alkanes (Fig. 8d). Therefore n-C17/n-C27
C18 ratios are < 1. This data indicates that the upper ratios are very high or cannot be calculated (Table 2).
128 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Table 2. Concentration ratios of different organic molecules as calculated from gas chromatography – flame
ionization detector (GC-FID) analyses for the analysed samples from wells in southern Iraq. *Carbon
preference index (CPI) was calculated using the equation of Bray and Evans (1961).

Well Formation Depth m. Age Pr/Ph Pr/n-C17 Ph/n-C18 n-C17/n-C27 (Pr/n-C17)/(Ph/n-C18) CPI*

Ru-28 Zubair 3170 L. Cretaceous 0.67 0.13 0.21 40 0.62 1.11

Ru-28 Zubair 3204 L. Cretaceous 1.25 0.26 0.19 8 1.38 1.09

Ru-28 Zubair 3245 L. Cretaceous 3.34 0.72 0.26 2 2.79 1

Ru-215 Zubair 3170 L. Cretaceous 2.07 0.44 0.20 5 2.14 0.9

Ru-215 Zubair 3187 L. Cretaceous 1.66 0.29 0.22 10 1.31 1.21

Ru-215 Zubair 3222 L. Cretaceous 1.26 0.19 0.20 5 0.96 1.21

Ru-215 Zubair 3283 L. Cretaceous 0.96 0.21 0.27 16 0.75 0.9

Ru-19 Zubair 3201 L. Cretaceous 1.54 0.23 0.17 4 1.35 1.17

Ru-19 Ratawi 3277 L. Cretaceous 2.14 0.45 0.23 2 1.95 1.38

R-167 Yamama 4141 L. Cretaceous 0.93 0.12 0.14 4 0.87 0.94

R-167 Sulaiy 4483 U. Jurassic 0.70 0.20 0.32 - 0.61 0.65

R-167 Sulaiy 4498 U. Jurassic 0.76 0.14 0.31 - 0.47 -

R-167 Sulaiy 4500 U. Jurassic 0.85 0.13 0.25 - 0.54 -

Su-8 Zubair 2883 L. Cretaceous 1.80 0.36 0.23 9 1.58 1.09

Su-8 Yamama 3572 L. Cretaceous 0.29 0.27 0.45 1 0.58 0.99

WQ-12 Yamama 3623 L. Cretaceous 0.16 0.15 0.40 3 0.37 0.9

Zb-40 Zubair 3188 L. Cretaceous 0.69 0.13 0.19 - 0.68 -

Zb-40 Zubair 3433 L. Cretaceous 5.27 1.03 0.22 1 4.61 0.91

Zb-40 Zubair 3249 L. Cretaceous 4.78 0.68 0.19 1 3.57 1.39

Zb-40 Zubair 3332 L. Cretaceous 1.34 0.25 0.18 5 1.36 1.14

Ru-212 Zubair 3167 L. Cretaceous 1.27 0.21 0.18 11 1.15 0.83

Ru-212 Zubair 3195 L. Cretaceous 3.20 0.67 0.21 3 3.21 1.33

Ru-212 Zubair 3205 L. Cretaceous 2.75 0.73 0.33 2 2.21 1.22

Ru-212 Zubair 3207 L. Cretaceous 1.37 0.26 0.22 14 1.16 1.12

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4350 U. Jurassic 0.51 0.24 0.39 7 0.62 0.9

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4355 U. Jurassic 0.93 0.27 0.34 8 0.79 0.92

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4360 U. Jurassic 0.68 0.18 0.33 17 0.56 0.92

Ru-158 Sulaiy 4365 U. Jurassic 0.96 0.22 0.25 24 0.89 0.92

There is no odd/even or even/odd predominance (Fig. metagenesis. Biomarkers are severely reduced in
8d). This pattern is typical of source rocks which concentration or completely destroyed because of their
have passed peak oil generation. This conclusion is instability under these conditions (Peters et al.,
consistent with the results from vitrinite reflectance 2005b).
and Tmax analyses. For all samples, Pr/n-C17 ratios are
< 0.3 indicating that samples are not biodegraded and Hopanes
have reached an advanced level of maturity (Fig. 9). Hopanoids are pentacyclic compounds usually in the
Pr/Ph ratios are consistently < 1 which is indicative C27 to C35 range which dominate the triterpanes found
of marine organic matter deposited in carbonate/ in sediments and crude oils (Miles, 1994), and are
evaporite environments (Dydik et al., 1978). widely used for correlation of crude oils and source
rocks (Hunt, 1996). They can be used to estimate oil
Bitumen Composition: Hopanes and Steranes and source rock maturity. Immature sediments have
Biomarkers provide important information on source a 17β(H), 21β(H) stereochemistry which changes to
rock depositional environments and plant communities 17α(H), 21β (H) with increasing maturity (Miles,
as well as the abundance of bacteria and several 1994).
biomarkers are moderately resistant to maturation and Several hopanes were identified in this study (Table
biodegradation (Peters et al., 2005b; Hunt, 1996). At 3.1, Fig. 10) and were used to investigate the maturity
subsurface temperature ranges of ~150-200 °C, and depositional environment of the respective
organic molecules are cracked to gas during formations (Table 4).
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 129

100.0
Zubair Fm.
Ratawi Fm
e III
Yamama Fm Ty p
Sulaiy Fm n o us
r ige
Ter

I
10.0
e II/II
Ty p
tion ed
Pristan e/n C17

Mi x

Ox
r ad a
d eg II

id
e
Bio Ty p

at i
al
Alg

on
e
rin
Ma

Re
du
cti
1.0

on
ion
tu r at
Ma
0.10
0.10 1.0 10.0

Phyt ane/nC18

Fig. 9. Plot of phytane/ n-C18 versus pristane n-C17 ratios from gas chromatography – flame ionization detector
(GC-FID) chromatograms of source rock extracts, showing variation of organic matter type, thermal maturity
and depositional environment (fields after Peters et al., 2005a).

The Ts/(Ts+Tm) ratio (Table 4) must be interpreted Steranes

with caution because Ts and Tm commonly co-elute The sterols in eukaryotic organisms are precursors
with tricyclic or tetracyclic terpanes on the m/z 191 of the steranes in source rocks and petroleum (Peters
mass chromatogram, resulting in possibly spurious et al., 2005a,b). These compounds are found in the
values for Ts/ (Ts+Tm) ratios (Peters and Moldwan, saturated hydrocarbon fraction and are derived from
1993). Ts/(Ts+Tm) appears to be sensitive to clay- both plants and animals. Biologically produced sterols
catalyzed reactions. For example, oils from carbonate have 8β,9α,10β,13β,14α,17α,20-R stereochemistry.
source rocks appear to have unusually low Ts/ Thermally induced changes to this stereochemistry
(Ts+Tm) ratios compared with those from shales occur at the 5, 14, 17 and 20 positions so that
(Peters et al., 2005b). The high value of Ts/(Ts+Tm) maturity ratios relate the concentrations of α and β
for the Ratawi Formation (Table 4) is therefore configurations and the R and S isomers (Miles, 1994).
unreliable as a maturity indicator, as both pyrolysis Steranes can also be used as a correlation tool by
and vitrinite reflectance results indicate that Ratawi using plots of C27-C28-C29 isomers (Hunt, 1996).
Formation is at oil window maturities. The high value In this study, different sterane biomarkers were
may have been affected by the clay content in the used to assess the maturity of the samples (see Table
upper part of this formation or by migrated bitumen. 4 for biomarker ratio calculations, and Table 3.2 and
The moretane/hopane ratio decreases with Fig. 11 for peak identification).
increasing maturity (Peters and Moldwan, 1993). The The 20S/(20S+20R) ratio of 5α,14α,17(H)-
Zubair Formation has the highest moretane/hopane steranes ranges from 0 in biological samples to ~0.5
ratio of the samples analysed (Table 4), consistent (0.52-0.55 = equilibrium) with increasing thermal
with the immaturity of these samples. maturity (Peters et al., 2005b). This and the other
The gammacerane/hopane ratio ranges from 0 to biomarker maturity parameters are of little use in the
0.55 (Table 4). Gammacerane is more resistant to case of the highly mature Sulaiy Formation. For the
biodegradation than hopane, but this is not of other formations, values range between 0.17 and 0.6
significance in the studied samples because the indicating early mature conditions.
presence of n-alkanes indicates the absence of Isomerization at C-14 and C-17 in the C29 20S and
biodegradation (Alexander et al., 1984). Moreover 20R regular steranes causes an increase in ββ/
gammacerane is an indicator of hypersaline conditions (ββ+αα) ratios from near-zero values to 0.7 (0.67-
(Peters et al., 2005b; Zhang et al., 1988). Values are 0.71 = equilibrium) with increasing maturity (Seifert
low for most samples. and Moldwan, 1986). The range of ratio values in
130 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Table 3.1. Hopane peak identification, see Fig. 10.

Peak No. Name Synonym Mass Formula
H1 18α(H)-22, 29, 30-Trinorneohopane Ts. Ts 370 C27 H46
H2 17α(H)-22, 29, 30-Trinorhopan Tm. Tm 370 C27 H46
H3 17α(H), 21β(H)-Dinorhopane. Bisnorhopane 384 C28 H48
H4 17α(H), 21β(H)-30- Norhopane. 398 C29 H50
H5 18α(H)-Norneohopane C29 - Ts 398 C29 H50
H6 17α(H), 21β(H)-Hopane. Hopane 412 C30 H52
H7 17β(H), 21α(H) -Hopane. Moretane 412 C30 H52
H8 Gammacerane 412 C30 H52
H9 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Homohopane 426 C31 H54
H10 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Homohopane 426 C31 H54
H11 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Dihomohopane 440 C32 H56
H12 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Dihomohopane 440 C32 H56
H13 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Trihomohopane 454 C33 H58
H14 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Trihomohopane 454 C33 H58
H15 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Tetrahomohopane 468 C34 H60
H16 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Tetrahomohopane 468 C34 H60
H17 (22S)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Pentahomohopane 482 C35 H62
H18 (22R)-17α(H), 21β(H)-29-Pentahomohopane 482 C35 H62
Table 3.2. Sterane peak identification, see Fig. 11.

Carbon No. Peak No. Compound Configuration Mass

St1 (20S)-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 372
St2 (20R)-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 372
C27- Sterane
St3 (20S)-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 372
St4 (20R)-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 372
St5 (20S)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 386
St6 (20R)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 386
C28- Sterane
St7 (20S)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 386
St8 (20R)-24-Methyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 386
St9 (20S)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20S 400
St10 (20R)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20R 400
C29- Sterane
St11 (20R)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14β(H), 17β(H)-Cholestane αββ20S 400
St12 (20S)-24-Ethyl-5α(H), 14α(H), 17α(H)-Cholestane ααα20R 400

this study is from 0.24 to 0.86. The Yamama and terrestrial macerals such as vitrinite and sporinite. A
Sulaiy Formations appear to have reached equilibrium terrestrial source is also indicated by the bimodal
conditions, whereas lower values for the Zubair distribution of n-alkanes (Fig. 8a). Rarely, very high
Formation indicate lower maturities. concentrations of organic matter were found. The
Thermal maturity, facies as well as redox potential organic matter is generally at an early mature stage as
during deposition can affect the diasteranes/ steranes indicated by different maturation parameters and also
ratio. As a result, this ratio is useful for maturity by the presence of brightly fluorescing organic
determination only when the oils or bitumens being particles (liptinites; Plate 1). Al-Ameri et al. (2009)
compared are from similar source-rock organic facies suggested that the Zubair Formation in the same study
(Peters et al., 2005b). Diasteranes are more stable area varies from immature to mature (VRr = 0.3-
than steranes, and the diasterane/sterane ratio 0.8%) with Tmax of 420-440 °C. With the exception
therefore increases at maturity stages corresponding of some samples from wells Ru-215 and Zb-40, most
to peak oil generation and above (Peters et al., 1990). samples of the Zubair Formation seem to have a poor
In this study calculated values vary between 0.14 and to fair potential for hydrocarbon generation (Table
0.49 (Table 4) and there is no clear correlation with 1). As a result of its low maturity, only deeper and
depth or age of the rocks. more mature parts of the Zubair Formation will
significantly contribute to petroleum generation.
DISCUSSION: SOURCE ROCK
CHARACTERIZATION Ratawi Formation
Results indicate that samples from the Upper Member
Zubair Formation of the Ratawi Formation contain good quantities of
The Zubair Formation contains variable amounts of organic matter; however kerogen is mainly Type III
Type III kerogen and is characterized by abundant with moderate hydrocarbon generation potential, as
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 131

Ratawi Fm Zubair Fm
3277 m 3183 m
m/z 191 m/z 191

Sulaiy Fm
Yamama Fm
4360 m
3572 m
m/z 191
m/z 191
H1

Fig. 10.Typical hopane distributions for the studied formations. Hopanes were absent or were at very low
concentrations in the samples from the Sulaiy Formation. Labelled peaks are identified in Table 3.1.

indicated by the high contents of vitrinite and sporinite. in this formation (Fig. 8c). Regular steranes are
Biomarker parameters suggest that the Ratawi dominated by C27 (Fig. 12) consistent with a dominant
Formation is at an early mature stage, similar to the input of marine organic matter. The occurrence of
Zubair Formation. A terrestrial source is also supported solid bitumen in a few of the samples may indicate
by the high ratio of C29/(C27+ C28) regular steranes that some petroleum generation has occurred, although
(Fig. 12) and the bimodal distribution of n-alkanes most of the maturity parameters indicate that peak oil
(Fig. 8b). generation has not been reached.
In summary, the Ratawi Formation has only a fair
potential for hydrocarbon generation and has not Sulaiy Formation
reached peak oil generation in the study area. The results indicate that the uppermost Jurassic –
Lower Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation has significant
Yamama Formation source rock potential. Maturity parameters suggest
The Yamama Formation consists of three cycles of that this formation has reached and passed peak oil
inner-ramp sediments separated by outer-ramp facies. generation but has not yet reached the (dry) gas
Each inner–ramp cycle shallows up into either an oolitic generation zone (Table 1). The unimodal shape of the
shoal or a patch reef. The outer-ramp facies are GC traces of n-alkanes and the CPI values also
composed of mudstones or shales (Sadooni, 1993). indicate the high maturity of this formation. In well
The Yamama Formation is a marine carbonate-rich R-167 from South Rumaila oilfield, samples from the
source rock unit. At wells Su-8 and R-172, the Sulaiy Formation contain solid bitumen (Plate 1)
formation has good source rock potential as indicated indicating that effective petroleum migration has
by the high values of TOC, S1, S2, PI. Kerogen is occurred. The Sulaiy Formation can be regarded as a
classified as Type I or II/III (Fig. 6) with abundant good source rock which has already realized most of
amorphous organic matter being visible under the its petroleum generation potential. Pr/Ph ratios indicate
microscope. The GC-FID fingerprints also support a an anoxic, carbonate-dominated, marine depositional
very low terrestrial contribution to the organic matter environment for the formation (Table 2). Although
132 Source rock potential of the Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous succession, southern Iraq

Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm m/z217
m/z217
31 83m
327 7m

Sulaiy Fm Yamama Fm
m/z217 m/z217
.SulaiyFm 436 5m 3572m

Fig. 11.Typical sterane distributions for the studied formations. No steranes were found in samples of the
Sulaiy Formation. Labelled peaks are identified in Table 3.2.

kerogen is classified as Type II/III (Fig. 6), this is has not yet been reached. Elevated PI values indicate
probably an effect of high maturity; microscope some petroleum impregnation in the Yamama
observations indicate that very little terrestrial organic Formation.
matter is present. The high thermal maturity which The oldest and deepest samples studied belonged
has also reduced HI values is indicated by vitrinite to the Tithonian-Valanginian Sulaiy Formation.
reflectance and Tmax values, and by the missing hopane Kerogen quality and type are difficult to evaluate due
and sterane biomarkers which have been thermally to the high thermal maturity of the samples. However
degraded (Figs. 10, 11). According to these results a thickness of about 200 to 300 m, high TOC contents
and the favourable burial history, the Sulaiy Formation and relatively high HI values indicate that the Sulaiy
appears to be an excellent source rock. Formation has excellent source rock characteristics
in the study area.
CONCLUSIONS Whereas the thermal maturity of the Zubair, Ratawi
and Yamama Formations is not sufficient for significant
Potential Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous source petroleum generation to have occurred, the Sulaiy
rocks in the subsurface of the Rumaila (North and Formation has reached and partly passed the peak oil
South), Zubair, Subba and West Qurna oilfields, generation stage, and high PI values indicate strong
southern Iraq, were analysed using organic petroleum impregnations. Overall thermal maturity
geochemical methods. Results indicate that the closley corresponds to present-day depth.
Cretaceous Zubair and Ratawi Formations can be Molecular geochemical parameters indicate
classified as poor to fair source rocks containing variable depositional environment for samples from
predominantly Type III kerogen. The thermal maturity the different units analysed. The Yamama and Sulaiy
of these formations was generally low and they were Formations are interpreted as typical marine,
thermally immature to early mature. By contrast, the carbonate-rich source rocks deposited under anoxic
Yamama Formation has good source rock potential bottom-water conditions. The Zubair and Ratawi
and contains Type II-S kerogen. Its thermal maturity Formations have a greater input of higher land plant
is generally low to moderate, and peak oil generation material. All the source rock extracts have a high
 Q. Abeed, A. Alkhafaji and R. Littke 133

C28

100
0
Zubair Fm
Ratawi Fm
Yamama Fm

75
25
50

50
Dia/(Dia+Reg)

25
75
0.35
0.44
0.14
0.35

0.39
0.49

0.38
0.35
0.24

0.45
0.19
0.44
0.4

-
-

100

0
C27 C29
0 25 50 75 100
ββ/(ββ+αα)
Sterane

0.36
0.38
0.29
0.59

0.24
0.69
0.82

0.71
0.65
0.81
0.86

0.73
0.8

- Fig. 12.Triangular diagram of C29, C28, C27 regular

- steranes (after Peters et al., 2005b)
20S/(20S+20R)

concentration of n-alkanes indicating that

0.17
0.31
0.54

0.75
0.43
0.22
0.44

0.22
0.42

hydrocarbons have not been significantly affected by

0.6
-

-
-
-
-

biodegradation.
Gammacerane

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Hopane

0.24
0.03

0.55
0.4

0.3
-

-
-

-
-
-

-
-
-
-
/

The authors are grateful to Abdullah Ali Al-Yasrrei (Iraq

South Oil Company) for his assistance with providing
the samples analysed in this study. They express their
Extended.
Hopane

11.28
1.21
1.34
2.19
1.06
1.04
1.53
0.92

3.62
0.85

gratitude to Sabine Heim and Jan Schwarzbauer

-

-
-
-
-

(Institute of Geology and Geochemistry of Petroleum

and Coal, RWTH Aachen University) for helpful
Moretane/
Hopane

discussions, especially concerning the biomarker data.

Hopane

0.59
0.19
0.02

0.55
0.41
0.15

0.06
0.13
0.11

0.98
0.3

-
-
-

They thank T. Al-Ameri (University of Baghdad) and

an anonymous reviewer for helpful comments which
Table 4. Hopane and sterane biomarker parameters used in this study.

improved the original manuscript

Ts/Hopane

0.42
0.02
0.03
0.09

0.44

0.32
0.07

0.03
0.01
0.29
-

-
-
-
-

REFERENCES
Ts/(Ts+Tm)

AL-AMERI, T. K., AL-MUSAWI, F.S., and BATTEN, D.J., 1999.

Palynofacies indications of depositional environments and
0.91
0.27

0.92
0.21
0.28

0.65

0.76
0.22

0.24
0.36
0.27
0.3

-
-
-

source potential for hydrocarbons: Uppermost Jurassic

– basal Cretaceous Sulaiy Formation, Southern Iraq.
Cretaceous Research, 20, 359-363.
AL-AMERI, T.K., AL-KHAFAJI, A.J. and ZUMBERGE, J., 2009.
Depth

4350
4365
3204

3188
3249
3284

3332

2883
3277
3167

3572
3623
4141
4483
4500

Petroleum system analysis of Mishrif reservoir in the

(m)

Ratawi, Zubair, North and South Rumaila oil fields,

Southern Iraq. GeoArabia, 14 (4), 91-108.
ALEXANDER, R., KAGI, R.I. and LARCHER, A.V., 1984. Clay
Formation

Yamama
Yamama
Yamama

catalysis of alkyl hydrogen exchange reactions – reaction

Ratawi
Zubair
Zubair
Zubair
Zubair
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