Chemistry Zone
Environmental chemistry Notes For Chemistry 6th Semester
Pedosphere:
Pedos mean soil in Greek and pedophere is used to donate the soil cover of the terrestrial part of earth.
> Pedosphere is a part of the earth's surface that contains the soil layer.
Pedology
The study of the formation, characteristics, and distribution of soils is called pedology.
Soil:
Soil is a biologically active porous medium that is present on the uppermost layer of the Earth’s crust
formed by weathering processes under various influences. Soil is formed by the weathering of parent
rocks and decomposition of organic matter.
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as wood material through contact
with earth atmosphere, water and biological organisms.
Weathering can be:
Mechanical or physical (abrasion, temperature changes) Physical Weathering is when rocks are broken
apart by mechanical processes such as rock fracturing, freezing and thawing, or breakage during
transport by rivers or glaciers.
Chemical (hydrolysis, oxidation) Chemical Weathering results from chemical reactions between
minerals in rocks and external agents like air or water. Oxygen oxidizes minerals to alteration products
whereas water can convert minerals to clays or dissolve minerals completely.
Classification of soil:
Soil is classified into four types:
1- Clay > 0.002mm
2- Silt > 0.002-0.02mm
3- Sand > 0.02-2mm
4- Gravel > 2mm
Uses /Importance of soil:
> Soil is use for growing crops, without which no human or animals could survives.
> Agriculture is the most important for all human activities, since without it neither our society, not our
race would be able to exist. Today more than 50% of our words population lives on farms.
> Soil is the main component of biosphere, vital layer of our planet populated by various organisms,
from tiny bacteria to plant, animals and humans.
> Soil provides a central link between different biospheric compartments.
> It provides a physical supports for all terrestrial organisms, plant, animals and humans.
> It is impossible to destroy the whole soil covers of our planet; however, it is possible to degrade the
quality of the soil to such an extent that it becomes useless, harmful even deadly.
> Many early civilizations died out when the soil cover on which they relied was degraded to a point
where it was no longer capable of sustaining agriculture. Agriculture as well as having many benefits,
not least the maintenance of adequate food supplies to feed the world's population, can also have
harmful effects on the environments.
Soil pollution:
> The human use of soil can lead to its deterioration by the introduction of various polluting substance,
the degradation of the soil organic matter and lowering of the fertility of the upper soil layer due to
erosion.
> Degradation of soil organic matter and decreasing fertility due to erosion and overuse have been
problem since the early days of agriculture; however, soil pollution has become a problem only since the
advent of industrialization
> Physical factors and biological materials cause soil pollution. But most soil pollutants are chemical
substance.
> Soil quality determines its actual and potential use. E.g. the quality of soil intended for agricultural use
depend on the content of both heavy metals and pesticides.
> Maintaining good soil quality and minimizing soil pollution and degradation is of fundamental
importance and deserves the highest priority for a number of reasons.
> To protects our food supplies from toxic substance which can accumulate in the soil where they can
have harmful effects on crops, as well as entering food chain.
> To protects groundwater supplies, which are an important source of drinking water, from toxic
pollutants which may seep through the soil into aquifers.
> To protect surface waters from being contaminated with agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers and
pesticides, the former contributing to problems of eutrophication and the latter being bio accumulated
by aquatic organisms and passed down the food chain.
Sludge:
sludge is a semi-solid slurry that can be produced from a range of industrial processes, from water
treatment, wastewater treatment or on-site sanitation systems.
> Large quantities of sludge are generated in municipal sewage treatment plants.
> Approximately 1-2% of the wastewater ends up as a wet sludge and about 2-3 L of sludge are
produced per person each day. The total dry solids contents of sludge vary between 0.05% and 12% and
60-70% of these solids consist of organic matter.
> Sludge is composed of highly polluting substance and it undergoes various treatments at sewage
works in order to provide it suitable for disposal or reuse.
> Among the more harmful components of sludge are pathogens, toxic organic substances and toxic
heavy metals. Concentration of pollutants can be especially for heavy metals.
Application of sewage sludge to soils:
> sewage sludge has been applied to agriculture, soil forest soil and dadicated land disporsal sites. Some
sludge is marked as soil conditioner and apply to vegetable, garden lawns, golf courses and parks.
> In US b/t 10% and 20% of sludge is composed and marked for commercial use. The purpose of sludge
application to soil is to fold:
> To provide a partial replacement for expensive fertilizer, as sludge contains many of the nutrients
required for plant growth.
> To further treat the sludge, as a sunlight and microorganisms combine to destroy pathogens and many
toxic organic substances.
> Typical nutrient contents of stabilized sewage sludge are N 3.3% P 2.3% and K 0.3%.
> In most application sewedge sludge can provide adequate supplies of nutrients for plant growth:
However P and K contents may be too low for some application.
> The suitability of sludge for a particular soil application has to be carefully assessed and several factor
have been considered, including chemical composition of sludge, national and local standards; the type
of land used(agricultural forest etc.) and other sites characteristics (topology to underlying groundwater
etc.)
> Soil application of sludge is regulated by governments authorities in order to avoid some of the
potential problems listed below.
> Pathogens presents in sludge could spread diseases if there is human exposure.
> Organic matter present in sludge cause problems and act as a breeding ground for flies mosquitoes
and rodents, thus further increasing the potential risk of disease.
> Nutrients ( N, P and K) present in sludge may cause problem if they are transported to ground and
surface water. Nitrate contamination of ground water is of special concern, as it may end up in drinking
water. Nutrients in soil run off that end up in surface water may contribute to problem of
eutrophication.
> Toxic Substanc namely heavy metals and trace organic compounds, may pos a risk to plants, animals
and humans. Cadmium accumulate in plant to level that could be toxic to human and animals, but are
not harmful to plant themselves.
Semdiments:
> Sadiments form a water bodies as a resultof the gravitational settling of suspended matter.In fast
flowing rivers, small partical may remain suspended while in still water, most suspended particals will
settle to the bottom.
> Considerable sedimentation takes place in esturies, where there is a reduction in the river flow
velocity due to mixing with seawater and this can result in the formation of muddy tidal flats.
> The surface layer of an inter-tidal sediment has generally aerobic condition.While lower layers are
anaerobic(anoxic) due to deplection of oxygen by microorganisms. These deeper layers are strongly
reducing and chemical specie will be present in there reduced forms.
> As sedimentation is a continuous process, analysis of sediment cores can provide a historical record of
the chemical composition of suspended particals.The depth of sediment core is proportional to time
going back from the present.
> Toxic substances may be accumulate in sediments. For example organic compound of low solubility
and high molecular mass may be adsobed onto sediments, where they are consumed by organisms
which feed on the bottom of the water body (mussels, scallops, fish, etc.).This could represent a
potential hazard to human are especially contaminated with heavy metals.
Dust:
> Dusts in the urban environment are of greatest concern because of the presence of many toxic
substances and the potential exposure of children who often play in the streets, school yards, parks, etc.
> Particals larger than 10pm in diameter are deposited quite rapiddly to the earth's surface under the
influence of gravity.
> Major route of exposure to atmosphere aerosols is by inhalation exposure to toxic substance in road
dust is mainly by ingestion.Greatest concern has been expressed about lead (Pb) in road dust but other
heavy metals are routinely observed in road dust : Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, etc.
Soil Test Dust Test Sludge Test:
> Soil test are widely uses in agriculture in order for formers to determine amount and types of fertilizer
( N, P, K, Mg ) to obtain high crop yields.
The most common tests invole Routine Nutrient (N, P, K ).
Measurements Soil test Kits and portable laboratories are commercially available( e.g Hach) for on-site
analysis. For farming purpose, field test are carried out once every 2 or 3 years.
Sampling and Sample Preparation:
> Sampling of inhomogeneous media such as soils, dusts, sludges and sediments presents some
difficulties, and the sampling programme should be carefully planned from the outset if representative
and meaningful result are to be obtained.
> The objective of monitoring programme should be clearly defined as
1- When to sample
2- where to sample
3- who many sample to collect
4- which extraction procedure and analytical method to employ.
> The depth of soil sampling depends on the aims of monitoring. Tn studies of agricultural crop nutrition
the top20-25cm is usually adequate as this is the zone where much of nutrients takes place.
> Analysis of the upper layers is also relevents in understanding soil interactions with other
environmental compartments and the pathways of polluntant between them. For example atmosphere
dust particals, fertilisers, pesticides and sewedge sludge are all deposited onto the soil surface, while
water and wind erosion of upper layers can transer polluntants to surface water nd
atmosphere,respectively.
However from lower horizons should also be analysed in order to assess the migration of substance
within soil profile.
The time of sampling is an important factor in soil analysis For example availability of many nutrients
such as P increase during the Spring and summer month and there is some evidence that inorganic N
levels are higher in the spring.
Plant Analysis:
Introduction:
> not only do plants serve as sourse of nutrition for animals and humans.they play a myriad of other
roles fundamental to the environment and societry.
> Plants provides an essential link between the atmosphere and terrestrial eccosystems with both
benefical and potentially harmful consequences. Through photosynthesis, plant fix inorganic carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and convert it into organic matter which can be used as a sourse of energy
by plants, animals and humans. while at the same time replenishing the air with that most vital
substance of all, Oxygen
6CO2 + 6H2O + hv ......> C6H12O6 + 6O2
> This primary production is the sourse of food on which all animals, including humans are dependent.
Organic matter can be used to produce energy required for various essential activities ( reproduction,
growth, etc ) by living organisms through respiration.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 ......> 6CO2 + 6H2O + energy
> Respiration releases carbon dioxide and water vapour back to atmosphere, thus balancing the
chemical action of photosynthesis. This equilibrium forms the basis of the main nutrient cycle in the
biosphere, the carbon cycle. Terrestrial plants, together with their aquatic counterparts, namely
photoplankton play a vital rule in maintaining conditions on the earth that are conductive to life .
photoplankton supply approximately 75% of the oxygen in the biosphere, while land-based plants
provide the remainder.
> Cicilization, as we know it, arose when humans first learned to utilize plant growth for their needs by
mass cultivation of crops, and to this day agriculture remains the most indispensible of all activities,
ensuring the continued survival of our race.Furturemore,we have the plants to thank not only for
meeting our biological energy requirements, but also those our modren society. Themassive amount of
energy used up daily throughout the word are almost exclusively provided by what were once living
plants.Fossil fuels, originating from long-dead plants and other organisms. Supply approximately 90% of
the word's energy.
Environmental Problems:
> Many of today's environmental problems are closely linked with plants. The combustion of fossil fuels,
over the past 150 years, released into the atmosphere huge quantities of carbon dioxide , which had
taken nature millions of years to converts, through the photosynthetic action of plants and other
biogeochemical processes, from atmospheric CO2 into coal,oil and gas.By simply comparing the time
scales of anthropogenic and natural processes, one cannot esape the conlusion that it is only a matter of
time before nature's delicate balance is broken. Agricultural practices themselves are responsible for
numerous environmental problems;
> Greenhouse gas emissions of methane(CH4) from rice fields and cattle farming.
> Deforestation whether by means of fire or otherwise which contributes to the increase in the
atmosphere content of CO2 and other greenhouse gases.
> Eutrophication caused by N and P fertilisers.
> Acidification by N fertilisers and SO2 and NO from bimass burning.
> Desertification by poor farming practices.
> Accumulation of toxic substances.
Plants and Polution:
> polluntants can impact on plants from the atmosphere, as in the cause of SO2 injury to leaves, or
through the roots of plants, as in cause of soluble Al.
> Plant pollution is of concerns for two reasons:
1- pollutants may have direct or inderect phytotoxic impacts on the plants themselves, leading to
decline in crops yields and threatening our food supplies. For example SO2 pollution may cause chronic
and acute injury to plants, alone or in synergism with NO2 or ozone, while acidification od soils by rain
fall orginating from the very same SO2 may mobilise toxic Al from the soil and cause injurty to plants.
2- plants may act as a vehicle for transferring pollutants into the food chain. For example Cd is readly
accumulated by plants and levels which may be harmful to the plants themselves could pose a
significant threat to animals and humans that consume plants.
> The latter is of great concern to public health authorities since pollutants which enter the food chain
can eventually affect human health.
> Heavy metals and pesticides are major pollutants in this respect. There has been major concern about
various pesticides( Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, rodenticides).
> Although persistent chlorinated hydrocarbons ( e.g DDT, aldrin chlordane dieldrin) which are stable to
chemical breakdown, have banned in most developed countries, many develping nation still continue to
use them.
> More degradable pesticides , such as organiophosphates and carbamates have been developed but
these tend to more toxic to invertebrates. Pesticide residues in plants may be transported through food
chains or they may be washed off from the soil and contaminate surface and ground water.
> Heavy metals can end up in the soil from various sourses of gratest concern being the application of
soil sludge to agriculture soils. Under appropriates conditions these could be absorbed by the plants
roots, either causing direct injury to plants or being accumulated and passing into the food chain both
organochlorine compounds and toxic metals may be accumulated as they pass through the food chain.
Direct effects of air pollutants on plants can vary from subtle to severe depending on:
- Nature of pollutants
- Concentration of pollutants
- Plant species
- Exposure time
> There is also variation sensitivity within plant species. depending on the environmental condition
( temperature nutrient availability soil moisture etc.). Phototoxic air pollutants include SO2, NO2, O3 ,
peroxyacetyl nitrate(PAN) and farmaldehyde. Both acute and cronic effects have been observed.
Furthure more two or more pollutants may act in combination to produce a greater effect than the sum
of indididual effects in what is known as synergism. plants exposed to air pollution exibit both physical
and biochemical responses. including change to photosynthesis and metabolism.
Plants Analysis:
Plant analysis is the determination of chemical substances in a specfic plants parts. Subtsance
determined in plant analysis include:
> Macronutrients (e.g N, P, K )
> Micronutrients ( e.g Zn, Mo )
> Biological important organic compounds ( e.g amino acids, Harmones ) Pesticides ( e.g Dieldrin Aldrin,
Malathion )
> Heavy Metals pollutants ( e.g Pb, Cd )
Sampling and Sample preperation:
> Major consideration when planning a sample are;
1- Which plant part to sample?
2- When to sample?
3- Which chemical substance to determine?
> Obtaining a plant tissue sample is respresentative of the general population is both importants and
difficult. General field variation of biological material greatly exceeds any introduced during analysis in
the labortory. Therefore it is essential to evaluate the feild variation if the reslut are meaningful and
serve the objective of analysis. The elemental content of a plant may very in different parts of plants. It
may vary from plant to plant( even belong to same species). It may vary with the season and even with
the time of day.
Plant Part:
> The selection of the plant part for analysis is largely determined by the aim of the study and the types
of plants. For small herbs and grasses it is often sufficient to sample the intire aerial growth. but larger
species may require sampling of leaves or other tissues. For monocotylendon it is recommeded to
sample the leaf blade above the sheath junction.the current year's growth of leaves is often an
adequate indicator of nutrient or pollution status for woody species. plant tissue that are either young
or past maturity are not sample.
Time of Sampling:
> Time of sampling is crucial because nutrients levels in all active plant tissue fluctuate with time.
Different sampling times for differents elements are rarely practical: however, plants suspected of
suffering from nutrient deficiency should be sampled immediately. Nutrient variation and sampling
recommedations for tree leaves are
Diurnal Variation The best time to sample trees is around middy.
Seasonal Variation Seasonal changes in concentration are generally due to the movement of nutrients
into component during growth, and movement in the opposite direction when senescence( ageing )
approaches, although individual nutrients differ in their mobilities.
Malik Abaid
