ii

Contents

1 Introduction 1
1.1 How to Use the Study Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Keys to Success in Studying Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Preparing for the Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Functions and Models 4

2.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Principles of Problem Solving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.5 The Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 Limits and Derivatives 7

3.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Prescribed Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.1 Introduction to the Limit Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4.2 Definition of a Limit: Left- and Right-hand Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.5.1 Limits as x → c (c ∈ R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.5.2 Limits as x → ±∞ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.5.3 Limits Involving Absolute Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.5.4 Left-hand and Right-hand Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.5.5 Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5.6 The Squeeze Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.5.7 The ε-δ Definition of a Limit (Read only for other modules eg MAT2615) . 33
3.5.8 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

4 Differentiation Rules 46
4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.2 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.3 Prescribed Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.1 Introducing the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.4.2 Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.5 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.5.1 Differentiation from First Principles (derivative as a Function) . . . . . . . 51
4.5.2 Basic Differentiation Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions and Inverse Trigonometric Functions 61

MAT1512 iii
 4.5.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.5.5 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.5.6 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.5.7 Tangents and Normal Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.5.8 The Mean Value Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

5 Integrals 93
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.2 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
5.3 Prescribed Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.4.1 Antiderivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
5.4.2 The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part II . 98
5.4.3 The Definite Integral and the Area Between the Curve and the x-axis . . . 99
5.4.4 The Definite Integral and Area Under the Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.5 The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.7 Integration in General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.8 Indefinite Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.9 The Substitution Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.10 Integration of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.11 Review of Formulas and Techniques of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

6 Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain Rule 132
6.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.2 Learning Outcomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6.3 Prescribed Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4 Worked Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4.1 Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.4.2 Growth and Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.4.3 Partial Derivatives/Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

A Sequence and Summation Notation 169

B Mathematical Induction 174

iv
 Contents

MAT1512 v
 Study Unit 1

Introduction

Calculus is a set of formal rules and procedures. It gives you the tools you need to
measure changes both qualitatively and quantitatively. Wikipedia (www.wikipedia.org
) defines calculus as a branch of mathematics that includes the study of limits, deriva-
tives, integrals, and infinite series, which constitute a major part of modern university
education. Calculus has widespread applications in science and engineering and is used
to solve complex and expansive problems for which algebra alone is insufficient. It builds
on analytical geometry and mathematical analysis and includes two major branches –
differential calculus and integral calculus – which are related through the Fundamental
Theorem of Calculus. Differential calculus explores and analyses rates of change quanti-
tatively and qualitatively. Integral calculus deals with the analysis (quantitatively and/or
qualitatively) of how quantities or measures of values accumulate or diminish over time.
The two processes – differentiation and integration – are reciprocal.

The purpose of this module is to equip you, the student, with those basic skills in differential
and integral calculus that are essential for the physical, life and economic sciences. Most
of the time you will be dealing with functions. Basically, a function is a generalised input-
output process that defines the mapping of a set of input values to a set of output values.
It is often defined as a rule for obtaining a numerical value from another given numerical
value. You are also going to have to develop a very large repertoire of methods for depicting
functions graphically/geometrically.

This course is built around your prescribed book. The purpose of this study guide is to
guide you through those parts of the prescribed book that you must study for this module,
and to provide you with many additional worked examples. The prescribed book is:

James Stewart Calculus

Metric Version 8 Edition
Early Transcendentals
Cengage Learning
ISBN 13:978-1-305-27237-8

MAT1512 1
 1.1 How to Use the Study Guide

From now on we will refer to the prescribed book as “Stewart”. The study guide must
always be used in conjunction with the prescribed textbook, because it is not a complete set
of notes on the book. Chapters 1 to 4 of this study guide contain many additional worked
problems, taken from past examination papers and assignments. Before going through
them, study the relevant parts in Stewart, and do the examples and some of the exercises
in Stewart. Also, before going through our solution to a problem in the study guide, try
solving it yourself. Remember that reading maths often means reading the same
thing over and over again.

We have included numerous worked examples for you. These are designed to stimulate
your thinking in such a way that you will come to appreciate and master the delicate
beauty and intricacies of the subject. All you have to do is keep going! Follow all the
instructions given. Try to write down all the answers to the activities in full. This is
extremely important, as a major part of learning mathematics is thinking and writing
down what you think. By writing everything down, you will develop the essential skill
of communicating mathematics effectively. The other reason for writing down your
answers, is to prevent you from losing your train of thought about a concept or mathemat-
ical idea. If this happens, it takes a while to get your reasoning back to the same point.
If you have everything written down, you can also go back the next day and check your
reasoning. Learning mathematics is an activity, and you will only learn by doing. Because
you will be thinking about the problems, you will, in most cases, be able to determine by
yourself whether your reasoning is right, or not.

Your assignments are included in Tutorial Letter 101. Attempt these once you have com-
pleted all the related activities in your study guide. Spend a part of your time each day
doing some of the questions, and a part studying new material. Being able to do an as-
signment is proof that you have mastered the work of that particular section. In Tutorial
Letter 101 we have indicated which assignments you should submit for evaluation.

Also remember that statements, theorems and definitions are the building blocks of your
mathematical language – you cannot learn anything without knowing the basic facts. Begin
by reading the preface of your prescribed book. This should give you a good idea of the
importance of the subject you are about to study.

2
 Study Unit 1: Functions and Models

1.2 Keys to Success in Studying Mathematics

Plan Plan each week according to what will happening in your life
that week. Decide how many study hours you need, and where
you are going to fit those hours in. Write down what you plan
to do in each session. This way you can look forward to the
work you have set for yourself and measure your success.
Evaluate Evaluate each study session. Did you enjoy your studies? If
not, why not? What can you change to make things better?
Did you achieve what you set out to achieve? Did you use your
time constructively? What can you do to improve your time
management?
Understand Understand the way you learn. One can only learn maths
through repetition and practice. DO IT, even if you think you
know the answer. Understanding comes through repetition,
and this understanding eventually brings the JOY of master-
ing mathematics.
Structure Structure each study session for best results. A suggestion is
to divide your time into four parts: (1) Do five to ten min-
utes’ revision and read through the important points: (2) Go
through all the questions of the previous activities. (3) Study
new material by following the instructions in the study guide.
(4) Attempt the questions in your assignments about the sec-
tions you have completed.
Get or- (1) Make notes of the facts you have to remember. (2) Write
ganised down the answers to all your activities. (3) Complete all the
ASSIGNMENTS!
Pace your- Work out how fast you will have to work. Some sections will
self take longer than others, but assign about one month for each
chapter. This will give you two to four days for each section in
each chapter. Bear in mind that this is not the only module
you have registered for.

1.3 Preparing for the Examination

You are studying to improve yourself and NOT only to pass the examination. The exam-
ination is there to REWARD you for what you have done and to CONFIRM that you
have done your work properly. If you have followed all the instructions above, you will
already be prepared for the examination and have nothing to worry about. Many students
spend their time thinking that they cannot master mathematics. This is not true. If you
put your mind to it and work hard, you will eventually master this subject.

GOOD LUCK!
MAT1512 3
 Study Unit 2

Functions and Models

2.1 Background

This chapter of the study guide deals with Chapter 1 in Stewart. It forms a link between
school mathematics and calculus. Topics in algebra, trigonometry, analytic geometry and
functions which are needed for calculus, are reviewed. Graphs of functions are studied,
since they enable us to see and understand the behaviour of functions. In studying this
chapter, you should brush up on and revise your school mathematics – especially those
parts that are needed for an effective study of calculus. This chapter contains background
material. At the same time, some topics which are important to understand calculus are
introduced. Therefore, the chapter will contain a few topics which you may have touched
on only briefly, or not at all, at school.

2.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• algebraically manipulate real numbers, solve equations and work comfortably with
mathematical concepts such as variables, inequalities and absolute values

• recognize, demonstrate your knowledge of and work with the different types of func-
tions (polynomial, rational, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic), their prop-
erties and their representations

In calculus, the basic mathematical tool at the root of all we do is the function. That
is why, in this functions and models chapter, you have to familiarize yourself with math-
ematical ideas related to functions, such as the different types of functions, their graphs
and representations of how they behave. First read the functions and models as given on
page 9 in Stewart. You should study the whole chapter. Remember that problem solving
plays a crucial role in the process of studying calculus.

4
 Study Unit 2: Functions and Models

Note: The way to master calculus is to solve lots of calculus problems!

2.3 Principles of Problem Solving

There are no exact rules for solving problems. However, it is possible to outline some
general steps, or to give some hints or principles that may be useful in solving certain
problems.

The following steps and principles, which have been adapted from George Polya’s book
How to solve it, are in fact just common sense made explicit.

Step 1: Understand the problem. Read the problem and make sure that you
understand what it is about. Ask yourself the following questions: What is the unknown?
What are the given quantities? What conditions are given? In many cases it is useful to
draw a “given” diagram and identify the given quantities in the diagram. It is usually
necessary to introduce suitable notation. In choosing symbols for the unknown quantities,
we use letters such as a, b, c . . . x and y, and it also helps to use abbreviations or symbols
such as V (volume) and t (time).

Step 2: Think of a plan. Try to find the connection between the data and the
unknown. You may have to relate a problem to others you have seen before. Have you seen
the same problem in a slightly different form? Do you know a similar/related problem? Do
you know a theorem, rule, method or result that could be useful? Could you reformulate
the problem? Could you re-state it differently? Go back to your definitions.

If you cannot solve the proposed problem, try to solve some related problem first. Some-
times you will be able to find a similar problem, while in other instances you may have
to use components, sections, and methods of other problems to solve a new one. Every
problem you encounter becomes a potential method for solving other problems.

Step 3: Carry out the plan. In order to carry out your plan, you have to check
each step. Can you see clearly that the step is correct? Can you prove that it is correct?

Step 4: Look back. Examine the solution you have obtained. Can you check the
result? Can you check the argument? Can you derive the solution differently? Can you
see it at a glance? Can you use result of, or the method to use for, some other problem?

MAT1512 5
 2.4 Summary

Table 2.1 shows a summary of the mathematical ideas you need to master, with references
to the relevant examples in your textbook. Try to do as many review exercises as you can.

Topic(s) Sections in Stewart Examples in

Stewart
I. Four ways to represent a function Section 1.1 1–11

II. Mathematical models Section 1.2 1–6

III. New function from old function Section 1.3 1–9

IV. Exponential functions Section 1.4 1–4

V. Inverse functions and logarithms Section 1.5 1–13

Table 2.1: Sections in Stewart.

Note: Each section (in Stewart) contains examples numbered from 1.

2.5 The Way Forward

The topics in the rest of the study guide are:

Chapter 2: Limits and Derivatives

Chapter 3: Differentiation Rules

Chapter 4: Integrals

Chapter 5: Differential Equations, Growth and Decay, and Partial Derivatives/Chains

Rule

6
 Study Unit 3

Limits and Derivatives

3.1 Background

The idea of a limit underlies the various branches of calculus. In fact, without limits,
calculus simply would not exist. Every single notion of calculus is a limit in one sense or
another and the idea of a limit plays a fundamental role in concepts such as instantaneous
velocity, the slope of a curve, the length of a curve, the sum of infinite series, etc. The
role played by limits in both differential and integral calculus is crucial. In this chapter,
three main ideas will be introduced. They are: (a) the basic rules (definitions) of limits
and their applications in evaluating limits of algebraic and trigonometric functions; (b) the
application of limits to the continuity of functions; and (c) the use of the Squeeze Theorem
in determining certain limits. Begin by reading through the preview of this chapter on
page 77 in Stewart. You will notice that a mathematical model is used to predict how a
function will behave. Graphs are also used to represent function behaviour and will later
be used to solve problems.

3.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• demonstrate an understanding of the concepts relating to limits and how these are
applied in evaluating limits of the form lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x), lim f (x)
x→c x→c+ x→c− x→+∞
and lim f (x), where c is a real number and f is an algebraic or trigonometric
x→−∞
function

• use the limit definition of continuity

• solve problems based on the Squeeze Theorem

MAT1512 7
 3.3 Prescribed Reading

The prescribed reading in Stewart is Chapter 2, Sections 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5. Also
see Appendix F: A39 (Limit laws) and A42 (The Squeeze Theorem).

Note: The way to master calculus is to solve a lot of calculus problems!

3.4 Limit

3.4.1 Introduction to the Limit Concept

Read carefully through Section 2.1 in Stewart. You will notice that we have two problems
– one dealing with finding the slope of a curve at a specific point and the other dealing
with finding the length of a curve. In the first problem, the closer the second point gets
to a certain point, the closer the computed value gets to the actual value we are looking
for. This calculus problem involves a process called the limit. You can estimate the slope
of the curve using a sequence of approximations. The limit allows you to compute the
slope exactly. Similarly, in the second problem – in trying to compute the distance along a
curved path – you would have to go through better approximations successively until you
reach the actual value. The actual arc length is obtained by using the limit. The limit
value is the height or the y-value of a function.

A left-hand limit is the y-value you obtain by approaching x from the left side.

A right-hand limit is the y-value you obtain by approaching x from the right side.

x2 − 4
Let us use two functions to explore the limit concept. The first function, f (x) = ,
x−2
is undefined at x = 2, but its behaviour can be examined in the area close to x = 2. From
the value in the tables, you can see that the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 from the left
or right is 4.

x2 − 4
x f (x) =
x−2
1.9 3.9
1.99 3.99
1.999 3.999
1.9999 3.9999

x2 − 4
x f (x) =
x−2
2.1 4.1
lim f (x) = 4
2.01 4.01 x→2−
2.001 4.001
2.0001 4.0001

8
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

x2 − 4
Figure 3.1: Graph of f (x) =
x−2

lim f (x) = 4
x→2+
This can be written mathematically as follows:

lim f (x) = 4.
x→2

x2 − 5 x2 − 5
Consider another function g (x) = or y = .
x−2 x−2

x2 − 5
x g (x) =
x−2
1.9 13.9
1.99 103.99
1.999 1003.999
1.9999 10,003.9999

x2 − 5
x y=
x−2
2.1 -5.1
2.01 -95.99
2.001 -995.999
2.0001 -9,995.9999

MAT1512 9
 x2 − 5
Figure 3.2: Graph of f (x) =
x−2

Note: As x approaches 2 (from the left or from the right), the value of g(x) gets bigger
in absolute value but with opposite signs on opposite sides of 2. The limit of g(x) as x
approaches 2 from the left, and the limit of g(x) as x approaches 2 from the right are not
equal. Mathematically, this can be written as follows: lim g (x) 6= lim g (x) and this
x→2− x→2+
statement means that
lim g (x) does not exist.
x→2

3.4.2 Definition of a Limit: Left- and Right-hand Limits

We say a limit exists if and only if the corresponding one-sided limits are equal. That is, if

lim f (x) = lim f (x). In general, lim f (x) = L for some number L if, and only if,
x→a− x→a+ x→a

lim f (x) = lim f (x) = L.

x→a− x→a+

Let us now consider some worked examples.

3.5 Worked Examples

Our collection of worked examples of the work covered in this study guide can be divided
into eight sets (with some overlap), namely:

I. Limits as x → c, c ∈ R (cancellations)

II. Limits as x → ±∞

10
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

III. Limits involving absolute values

IV. Left-hand and right-hand limits

V. Limits involving trigonometric functions

VI. The Squeeze Theorem

VII. The ε − δ definition of a limit

VIII. Continuity

Table 3.1 shows which sections of Stewart, and which worked examples in the study guide
you must consult.

Topic(s) Sections in Stewart Examples in

study guide
I. Limits as x → c, c ∈ R Sections 2.1, 2.2 & 2.3 1–12

II. Limits as x → ±∞ Section 2.6 (examples 1–5 & 10–11) 13–27

III. Limits involving absolute values Section 2.3 (examples 7–9) 22–27

IV. Left-hand and right-hand limits Section 2.2 (examples 6, 7 & 9) 28–40

V. Limits involving trigonometric Section 2.2 (examples 3–5 & 10) 41–52
functions

VI. The Squeeze Theorem Section 2.3 page 101 (example 11 ) 53–57

VII. The -δ definition of a limit Section 2.4 (read only) 58–63

VIII. Continuity Section 2.5 (examples 1–9) 64–70

Table 3.1: Sections in Stewart.

In the following sections, we present a number of worked examples based on the mathemat-
ical concepts and ideas in each section of this chapter, together with appropriate teaching
texts and references to Stewart. The solutions to the problems appear immediately after
each set of examples. Unlike the exercises in Stewart, the examples in the study guide are
not arranged in order of difficulty. Only attempt them once you have studied the relevant
parts and done some of the exercises in Stewart.

MAT1512 11
 3.5.1 Limits as x → c (c ∈ R)

Determine the following limits:

x3 + 1 x+3
1. lim 2. lim
x→−1 −x2 + x + 2 x→−3 x2 + 4x + 3

x2 − 2x + 1 5x3 + 8x2
3. lim 4. lim
x→1 x3 − 2x2 + x x→0 3x4 − 16x2

x2 − 2x − 3 x2 − 9
5. lim 6. lim
x→−1 x2 − 1 x→3 x3 − 27

x4 − 1 x3 − 27
7. lim 8. lim
x→−1 x + 1 x→3 x2 − 3x

q √
x−1 (x + h)2 + 1 − x2 + 1
9. lim √ 10. lim
x→1 x2
+ 24 − 5 h→0 h

1 1
x2 − 2x 3 − 2 (x − 2) 3 − 2
11. lim 12. lim
x→−2 x2 − 2x − 8 x→10 x − 10

12
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

Solutions:

x3 + 1 x+3
1. lim 2. lim
x→−1 −x2 + x + 2 x→−3 x2+ 4x + 3
(x + 1) x2 − x + 1


x+3
= lim = lim
x→−1 (x + 1) (2 − x) x→−3 (x + 3) (x + 1)
x2 − x + 1 1
= lim = lim
x→−1 2−x x→−3 x + 1
3 1
= 3 = 1. = = − 12 .
−3 + 1

x2 − 2x + 1 5x3 + 8x2
3. = lim 4. lim
x→1 x3 − 2x2 + x x→0 3x4 − 16x2
(x − 1)2 x2 (5x + 8)
= lim = lim 2
x→1 x (x − 1)2 x→0 x (3x2 − 16)
1 5x + 8
= lim = 1. = lim 2
x→1 x x→0 3x − 16
8
= = − 16 = − 12 .

x2 − 2x − 3 x2 − 9
5. lim 6. lim
x→−1 x2 − 1 x→3 x3 − 27
(x + 1) (x − 3) (x − 3) (x + 3)
= lim = lim
x→−1 (x + 1) (x − 1) x→3 (x − 3) (x2 + 3x + 9)
x−3 x+3
= lim = lim 2
x→−1 x − 1 x→3 x + 3x + 9
−4 6
= = 2. = 27 = 29 .
−2

x4 − 1 x3 − 27
7. lim 8. = lim
x→−1 x + 1
x→3 x2 − 3x
x2 − 1 x2 + 1 (x − 3) x2 + 3x + 9



= lim = lim
x→−1 x+1 x→3 x (x − 3)
(x − 1) (x + 1) x2 + 1


2
x + 3x + 9
= lim = lim
x→−1 x + 1
x→3 x
= lim (x − 1) x2 + 1 = 9.
x→−1
h i
= (−1 − 1) (−1)2 + 1
= −4.

In the following two solutions we make use of (i) the identity and (ii) rationalising:

(i) A2 − B 2 = (A − B) (A + B)

(ii) Rationalising the denominator, eg

√ √
1 1 x x
√ =√ ·√ =
x x x x

(A − B)(A + B) = A2 − B 2 .

MAT1512 13
 9.
√ !
x−1 x−1 x2 + 24 + 5
lim √ = lim √ ·√
x→1 2
x + 24 − 5 x→1 x2 + 24 − 5 x2 + 24 + 5
√ 
(x − 1) x2 + 24 + 5
= lim
x→1 x2+ 24 − 25
√ 
(x − 1) x2 + 24 + 5
= lim 2
x√ − 1
x→1

(x − 1) x2 + 24 + 5
= lim
x→1 (x − 1) (x + 1)
√
x2 + 24 + 5
= lim = 5.
x→1 x+1

10.
q √
(x + h)2 + 1 − x2 + 1
lim
h→0 h
√ √
q  q 
2 2
(x + h) + 1 − +1 x2 2
(x + h) + 1 + x + 1
= lim q
√

h→0 2
h 2
(x + h) + 1 + x + 1

(x + h)2 + 1 − x2 + 1


= lim q √

h→0 2
h 2
(x + h) + 1 + x + 1

x2 + 2xh + h2 + 1 − x2 − 1
= lim q
√

h→0 2
h 2
(x + h) + 1 + x + 1

2x + h x
= lim q √ =√ .
h→0 2
x +1
(x + h)2 + 1 + x2 + 1

In the following two solutions we make use of the identity

(A − B)(A2 + AB + B 2 ) = A3 − B 3 .

11.

1 
1
2
1 
x2− 2x − 2
3 2 2 2
x − 2x − 2 x − 2x + 2 x − 2x + 4
3 3 3
lim 2
= lim  2 · 2 1

x→−2 x − 2x − 8 x→−2 x − 2x − 8 2 2
(x − 2x) + 2 (x − 2x) + 4
3 3

x2 − 2x − 8
= lim h 2 1
i
x→−2
(x2 − 2x − 8) (x2 − 2x) 3 + 2 (x2 − 2x) 3 + 4
1
= lim 2 1
x→−2
(x2
− 2x) + 2 (x2 − 2x) 3 + 4
3

1 1
= = .
4+4+4 12

14
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

1
(Here we put A = (x2 − 2x) 3 and B = 2, and multiplied both numerator and
denominator by A2 + AB + B 2 .)

12.
1
(x − 2) 3 − 2
lim
x→10 x − 10
1 2 1
!
(x − 2) 3 − 2 (x − 2) 3 + 2 (x − 2) 3 + 4
= lim · 2 1
x→10 x − 10 (x − 2) 3 + 2 (x − 2) 3 + 4
(x − 2) − 8
= lim  2 1

x→10
(x − 10) (x − 2) 3 + 2 (x − 2) 3 + 4
1
= lim 2 1
x→10
(x − 2) + 2 (x − 2) 3 + 4
3

1 1
= = .
4+4+4 12

3.5.2 Limits as x → ±∞

In this case, if you are required to find the limit of a function which is a polynomial
divided by another polynomial, find the highest power of the variable in the denominator
and divide each term in both numerator and denominator by that power.

Note:

lim 1 = 0.
x→±∞ x

Example:

6x2 − 1
Find the following limit: lim
x→∞ 2x2 + 7x

Solution:

6x2 1 Notice that the highest power in the denominator is x2 ,

6x2 − 1 2 − x2
lim = lim x divide each term in both numerator and denominator
x→∞ 2x2 + 7x x→∞ 2x2 + 7x
x2 x2 by x2 .
1
6− x2
= lim 7
x→∞ 2+ x2
6−0
=
2+0
6
= = 3.
2

Now determine the following limits:

MAT1512 15
 x4 + x3 7x3 + 1
13. lim 14. lim
x→∞ 12x3 + 128 x→∞ x2 + x

7x3 + 1 9x4 + x
15. lim 16. lim
x→−∞ x2 + x x→∞ 2x4 + 5x2 − x + 6

√
x2 + 4x − 2x 4x + 8
17. lim 18. lim √
x→−∞ 2x x→−∞ x2 + 7x − 2x
√  1
19. lim x2 + 2x + x 20. lim √
x→−∞ x→−∞ x2 + 5x + x
h
1 i
21. lim x3 + x2 3
−x
x→∞

Solutions:

13.
x4 + x3
lim
x→∞ 12x3 + 128
x+1
= lim
x→∞ 12 + (128/x3 )
= ∞.

14.
7x3 + 1
lim
x→∞ x2 + x
7x + 1/x2
= lim
x→∞ 1 + 1/x
= ∞.

15.
7x3 + 1
lim
x→−∞ x2 + x
7x + x12
= lim
x→−∞ 1 + 1
x
= −∞.

16.
9x4 + x
lim
x→∞ 2x4 + 5x2 − x + 6
9 + 1/x3


= lim
x→∞ 2 + (5/x2 ) − (1/x3 ) + (6/x4 )
9+0
=
2+0−0+0
9
= .
2

16
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

17.
√
x2 + 4x − 2x
lim
x→−∞ 2x
p
x2 (1 + 4/x) − 2x
= lim
x→−∞ 2x
p
|x| 1 + 4/x − 2x
= lim
x→−∞ 2x
p
−x 1 + 4/x − 2x
= lim (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ 2x
p 
−x 1 + 4/x + 2
= lim
x→−∞ 2x
p 
− 1 + 4/x + 2 3
= lim =− .
x→−∞ 2 2

18.
4x + 8
lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 7x − 2x
4x + 8
= lim p
x→−∞ x2 (1 + (7/x)) − 2x
4x + 8 √
= lim p ( x2 = |x|)
x→−∞ |x| 1 + (7/x) − 2x
4x + 8
= lim p (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ −x 1 + (7/x) − 2x

4 + (8/x)
= lim p
x→−∞ − 1 + (7/x) − 2

4+0 4
= √ =− .
− 1+0−2 3

19.
p 
lim x2 + 2x + x
x→−∞
√  √ 
x2 + 2x + x x2 + 2x − x
= lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 2x − x
x + 2x − x2
2
= lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 2x − x
2x
= lim p
x→−∞ |x| 1 + 2/x − x
2x
= lim p (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ −x 1 + 2/x − x

2
= lim p = −1.
x→−∞ − 1 + 2/x − 1

MAT1512 17
 20.
1
lim √
x→−∞ x2 + 5x + x
√ !
1 x2 + 5x − x
= lim √ ·√
x→−∞ x2 + 5x + x x2 + 5x − x
√
x2 + 5x − x
= lim
x→−∞ 5x
p
2
x (1 + 5/x) − x
= lim
x→−∞ 5x
|x| 1 + 5/x − x √ 2
p 
= lim x = |x|
x→−∞ 5x
p
−x 1 + 5/x − x
= lim (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ 5x
p
− 1 + 5/x − 1
= lim
x→−∞ 5
√
− 1+0−1 2
= =− .
5 5

21.
h
1 i
lim x3 + x2 3
−x
x→∞
h
1 ih
2
1 i
x3 + x2 3
−x x3 + x2 3 + x x3 + x2 3 + x2
= lim 2 1
x→∞
(x3 + x2 ) 3 + x (x3 + x2 ) 3 + x2
x3 + x2 − x3
= lim 2 1
x→∞
(x3 + x2 ) 3 + x (x3 + x2 ) 3 + x2
x2
= lim 2 1
x→∞
x2 (1 + 1/x) 3 + x2 (1 + 1/x) 3 + x2
1 1
= lim 2 1 = .
x→∞
(1 + 1/x) 3 + (1 + 1/x) 3 + 1 3

3.5.3 Limits Involving Absolute Values

Remember from high school that


x if x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x if x < 0

The definition of absolute value gives a function in two sections (parts) with corresponding
intervals,

ie if y = |x| then 
x if x ≥ 0
y=
−x if x < 0

Another example:

18
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

If f (x) = |3 − 2x|, then we can write


3 − 2x if 3 − 2x ≥ 0
f (x) =
− (3 − 2x) if 3 − 2x < 0

But 3 − 2x ≥ 0 ⇔ 3 ≥ 2x ⇔ 32 ≥ x ⇔ x ≥ 32
Similarly, 3 − 2x < 0 ⇔ 3 < 2x ⇔ 23 < x ⇔ x > 3
2

Thus,
3

 3 − 2x if x ≤ 2
f (x) =
3
−3 + 2x if x >

2

Let us look at one example:

Find the following limit:

x−5
lim
x→∞ |3 − 2x|

Solution:
x
− x5
 
x−5 x−5 x 3
lim = lim = lim −3 |3 − 2x| = − (3 − 2x) since x >
x→∞ |3 − 2x| x→∞ −3 + 2x x→∞
x + 2xx
2
1 − x5
= lim
x→∞ −3 + 2
x
1−0
=
−0 + 2
1
= .
2

3
Note: Since we have x → ∞, x > 2 and this is why we have |3 − 2x| = −3 + 2x in our
example above.

Now determine the rest of the limits below.

3x + 1 |x|
22. lim 23. lim
x→∞ |2 − x| x→−∞ |x| + 1

x |x + 1|
24. lim 25. lim
x→−∞ |x| x→−∞ x+1

|x + 1| 2 + |2x + 1|
26. lim 27. lim
x→−∞ 2x + 3 x→−∞ 2x + 1

MAT1512 19
 Solutions:

22.

2−x if 2 − x ≥ 0
|2 − x| =
− (2 − x) if 2 − x < 0

2 − x if x ≤ 2
=
x − 2 if x > 2

Hence
3x + 1
lim
x→∞|2 − x|
3x + 1
= lim ( |2 − x| = x − 2 since x > 2)
x→∞ x − 2
3 + 1/x
= lim
x→∞ 1 − 2/x
3+0
= = 3.
1−0

23.
|x|
lim
x→−∞ |x| + 1
−x
= lim (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ −x + 1
−1
= lim = 1.
x→−∞ −1 + 1
x

24.
x
lim
x→−∞ |x|
x
= lim (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→−∞ −x
= lim (−1) = −1.
x→−∞

25.
|x + 1|
lim
x→−∞ x+1
− (x + 1)
= lim (|x + 1| = − (x + 1) since x < −1)
x→−∞ x+1
= lim (−1) = −1.
x→−∞

26.
|x + 1|
lim
x→−∞ 2x + 3
− (x + 1)
= lim (since x < −1)
x→−∞ 2x + 3
−1 − 1/x 1
= lim =− .
x→−∞ 2 + 3/x 2

20
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

27.
2 + |2x + 1|
lim
x→−∞ 2x + 1
2 − (2x + 1) 1
= lim (|2x + 1| = − (2x + 1) since x < − )
x→−∞ 2x + 1 2
1 − 2x
= lim
x→−∞ 2x + 1
1
−2
= lim x 1 = −1.
x→−∞ 2 +
x

3.5.4 Left-hand and Right-hand Limits

A left-hand limit is the y-value you obtain by approaching x from the left side.

A right-hand limit is the y-value you obtain by approaching x from the right side.

Let us try out one example:

Suppose 
 x if x < 0
h (x) = x2 if 0 < x ≤ 2
8 − x if x > 2.


Evaluate the following limits:

28. lim h (x)

x→0−

29. lim h (x)

x→0+

30. lim h (x)

x→2−

31. lim h (x)

x→2+

32. lim h (x)

x→2

Solutions:

28. lim h (x) = lim x = 0.

x→0− x→0−

29. lim h (x) = lim x2 = 02 = 0.

x→0+ x→0+

30. lim h (x) = lim x2 = 22 = 4.

x→2− x→2−

MAT1512 21
 31. lim h (x) = lim (8 − x) = 8 − 2 = 6.
x→2+ x→2+

32. lim h (x) does not exist, since lim h (x) 6= lim h (x) .
x→2 x→2− x→2+

Now determine the following limits:

1
33. lim
x→2− x−2

34. lim f (x), where

x→2− 
 x + 2 if x > 2
f (x) = x2 if x < 2
0 if x = 2


1
35. lim
x→0− |x|

x
36. lim
x→0− |x|

37. Let 
2 if x > 1
f (x) =
1 − x2 if x < 1

(a) Draw the graph of f.

(b) Determine lim f (x) and lim f (x).

x→1− x→1+

(c) Does lim f (x) exist? Give a reason for your answer.
x→1

38. Let  2
 x + 1 if x > 2
f (x) = 0 if x = 2 or x = 0
1
6 0
if x < 2 and x =

x

Determine lim f (x) , lim f (x) , lim f (x), lim f (x) and lim f (x), if these
x→2+ x→2− x→2 x→∞ x→−∞
limits exist.

39. Let 
 3 − x if x < 2
f (x) = 2 if x = 2
 x
2 if x > 2

Find lim f (x) and lim f (x). Does lim f (x) exist? If so, what is it?
x→2+ x→2− x→2

Solutions:

22
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

1 1
33. lim (because x − 2 → 0 and x−2 < 0)
x→2− x−2

= −∞.

34. lim f (x) = lim x2 (since x < 2)

x→2− x→2−

= 4.

1
35. lim
x→0− |x|

1
= lim (|x| = −x since x < 0)
x→0− −x
=∞.

36. If x tends to 0− , then x is negative. According to the definition of the absolute value,
we then have that |x| = −x.

Consequently,
x
lim
x→0− |x|

x
= lim = lim (−1) = −1.
x→0− −x x→0−

37. (a)

Figure 3.3: Graph of f (x)

(b) lim f (x) = lim (1 − x2 ) = 1 − 1 = 0.

x→1− x→1−

lim f (x) = lim (2) = 2.

x→1+ x→1+

MAT1512 23
 (c) lim f (x) does not exist, because
x→1

lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).

x→1+ x→1−

38. lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 1) = 5.

x→2+ x→2+

 
1 1
lim f (x) = lim = .
x→2 − x→2 − x 2

lim f (x) does not exist, since lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).
x→2 x→2+ x→2−

lim f (x) = lim (x2 + 1) = ∞.

x→∞ x→∞

 
1
lim f (x) = lim = 0.
x→−∞ x→−∞ x

x 2
39. lim f (x) = lim = =1
x→2+ x→2+ 2 2

while

lim f (x) = lim (3 − x) = 3 − 2 = 1.

x→2− x→2−

lim f (x) exists, since lim f (x) = lim f (x).

x→2 x→2+ x→2−

We have lim f (x) = 1.

x→2

3.5.5 Limits Involving Trigonometric Functions

In order to compute the derivatives of the trigonometric functions (for example, by using
the first principle of differentiation), we first have to know how to evaluate the limits of
trigonometric functions.

Below are some of the theorems you need to know:

(i) lim sin x = 0,

x→0

(ii) lim cos x = 1,

x→0

sin x x
(iii) lim = lim = 1,
x→0 x x→0 sin x

24
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

cos x − 1 1 − cos x
(iv) lim = lim = 0.
x→0 x x→0 x

Examples:

Find the following limit:

sin (5θ)
lim
θ→0 3θ

Solution:

In order to apply theorem (iii) above, we first have to re-write the function as follows:

 
sin 5θ sin 5θ 5 5 sin 5θ 5 sin 5θ
= . = =
3θ 3θ 5 3.5θ 3 5θ

Notice that as θ → 0 we have 5θ → 0. So by theorem (iii) above, with x = 5θ,

sin 5θ sin (5θ)

we have lim = lim = 1.
θ→0 5θ 5θ→0 5θ

Therefore,
 
sin 5θ 5 sin (5θ)
lim = lim
θ→0 3θ θ→0 3 5θ
5 sin 5θ
= lim
3 θ→0 5θ
5
= .1
3
5
= .
3

Also find the following limit

lim x cot x.
x→0

MAT1512 25
 Solution:
cos x
lim x cot x = lim x
x→0 x→0 sin x
cos x
= lim
x→0 sin x
x
lim cos x
x→0
= sin x
lim x
x→0

1
= = 1.
1

Also, determine the following limits:

x
40. lim
x→0− tan x

θ2 sin (5θ)
41. lim 42. lim
θ→0 tan θ θ→0 2θ

x + sin x tan (2t)

43. lim 44. lim
x→0 x t→0 t

sin (5θ)
45. lim 46. lim (tan (2x) · csc (4x))
θ→0 sin (2θ) x→0

sin (2θ − 10) 1 − cos θ

47. lim 48. lim
θ→5 sin (θ − 5) θ→0 θ

x sin x1 lim x sin x1

49. lim 50.
x→−∞ x→∞

1 − cos θ
x2 sin x1


51. lim 52. lim
x→−∞ θ→0 1 − cos (3θ)

Solutions:

x x


40. lim tan x = lim sin x · cos x
x→0− x→0−

x
= lim sin x · lim cos x
x→0− x→0−

1
= lim sin x · lim cos x
x x→0−
x→0−

1
= 1 · 1 = 1.

26
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

θ2 2 sin (5θ)
41. lim = lim θ cos θ 42. lim
tan θ θ→0 sin θ
θ→0  θ→0 2θ
θ 5 sin (5θ)
= lim θ cos θ = lim
θ→0 sin θ θ→0 2.5θ
θ 5
= lim · lim (θ cos θ) = × 1 = 25 .
θ→0 sin θ θ→0 2
= lim sinθ θ · lim θ · lim cos θ
θ→0 θ→0 θ→0
= 1 × 0 × 1 = 0.

x + sin x tan (2t)

43. lim 44. lim
x→0  x  t→0 t
sin x sin (2t)
= lim 1 + = lim
x→0 x t · cos (2t)
t→0  
sin x sin (2t) 2
= lim 1 + lim = lim ·
x→0 x→0 x t→0 2t cos (2t)
2
= 1 + 1 = 2. = 1 × = 2.
1
sin (5θ)
45. lim 46. lim (tan (2x) · csc (4x))
sin (2θ)
θ→0   x→0
sin (5θ) 5θ 2θ sin (2x)
= lim · · = lim
θ→0 5θ 2θ sin (2θ) cos (2x)
x→0  · sin (4x) 
sin (5θ) 5 2θ sin (2x) 1
= lim × × lim = lim ·
θ→0 5θ 2 θ→0 sin (2θ) x→0  cos (2x) 2 sin  (2x) cos (2x)
5 5 1 1 1
= 1× ×1= . = lim · 2
= .
2 2 x→0 2 cos (2x) 2

47. Put x = θ − 5. Then 2θ − 10 = 2x and x → 0 ⇔ θ → 5. Now,

sin (2θ − 10) sin (2x)

lim = lim
θ→5 sin (θ − 5) x→0 sin x
 
sin (2x) 2x x
= lim · ·
x→0 2x x sin x
= 1 × 2 × 1 = 2.

48.
1 − cos θ (1 − cos θ) (1 + cos θ)
lim = lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 θ (1 + cos θ)
1 − cos θ 2
= lim
θ→0 θ (1 + cos θ)

sin2 θ
= lim
θ→0 θ (1 + cos θ)
sin θ sin θ
= lim · lim
θ→0 θ θ→0 1 + cos θ
= 1.0 = 0.

We have used property (iv) on page 28.

MAT1512 27
 1 1
49. Put θ = . Then x = and x → −∞ ⇔ θ → 0− . Hence,
x θ
 
1
lim x sin
x→−∞ x
 
sin θ
= lim
θ→0− θ
= 1.

50.
 
1
lim x sin
x→∞ x
 
sin θ 1
= lim (where θ = )
θ→0+ θ x
= 1.

51. Put θ = x1 . Then x → −∞ ⇔ θ → 0− . Thus,

 
2 1
lim x sin
x→−∞ x
 
sin θ 1
= lim ·
θ→0− θ θ
= −∞.

52.
1 − cos θ
lim
θ→0 1 − cos (3θ)
 
1 − cos θ 1 + cos θ 1 + cos (3θ)
= lim · ·
θ→0 1 − cos (3θ) 1 + cos θ 1 + cos (3θ)
" #
1 − cos2 θ (1 + cos (3θ))


= lim
θ→0 (1 − cos2 (3θ)) (1 + cos θ)

sin2 θ · (1 + cos (3θ))

= lim
θ→0 sin2 (3θ) · (1 + cos θ)
" #
sin θ 2 θ2
  2
3θ 1 + cos (3θ)
= lim · 2· ·
θ→0 θ 9θ sin (3θ) 1 + cos θ
1 2 2 1
= 12 · ·1 · = .
9 2 9

3.5.6 The Squeeze Theorem

Note: The Squeeze Theorem is also known as the Sandwich Theorem or Pinching Theorem.

The Squeeze Theorem is used to evaluate the limit values of a complicated function, or the
limit values of an unknown function. The Squeeze Theorem is stated as follows:

28
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

If f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) for all x in an open interval that contains a (except possibly at a)

and lim f (x) = lim h (x) = L, then lim g (x) = L.

x→a x→a x→a

The Sandwich Theorem is illustrated by the sketches below.

Imagine you have a sandwich as shown in Figure 3.4:

Figure 3.4: Illustrating Squeeze Theorem

The theorem says that if g(x) is squeezed or pinched between f (x) and h(x) near a, and
if f and h have the same limit value L at a, then g is forced to have the same limit value
L at a.

Suppose you have to find the following limit:

1
lim x2 sin
x→0 x

This is a complicated function, in other words, it is difficult to determine the limit of the
function. In such a case we can use the Squeeze (Sandwich) Theorem.

Squeeze Theorem Squeeze Theorem

B:Trigonometric functions only
A:Functions only eg polynomials We apply
If we have f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x) −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1
and for some value L, OR
−1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1
lim f (x) = L and lim h (x) = L, f (x) ≤ g (x) ≤ h (x)
x→c x→c
and for some value L,
then, by the Sandwich (Squeeze) Theorem lim f (x) = L and lim h (x) = L,
x→c x→c
then, by the Sandwich (Squeeze) Theorem
lim g (x) = L lim g (x) = L
x→c x→c

Now let us find the limit of

MAT1512 29
 lim x2 sin x1 . (This is an example of a complicated function.)
x→0

Solution:

To use the Squeeze Theorem, we first have to find functions f and h such that

1
f (x) ≤ x2 sin ≤ h (x)
x

where
lim f (x) = lim h(x).
x→0 x→0

Recall that  
1
−1 ≤ sin ≤1 for all x 6= 0.
x

Now we multiply by x2 (note that for x 6= 0, x2 > 0).

This means that the inequality signs will not change in direction, and we get

1 1
x2 (−1) ≤ x2 . sin ≤ x2 .1, which means that −x2 ≤ x2 . sin ≤ x2 for all x 6= 0.



x x

Then lim −x2 = 0 and lim x2 = 0.

x→0 x→0

1
So from the Sandwich Theorem, it follows that lim x2 . sin


x = 0.
x→0

Go through the given worked examples below.

53. Find lim f (x) if

x→∞
2x2 2x2 + 5
< f (x) <
x2 + 1 x2

54. Suppose that

x2 x sin x
1− < <1
6 2 − 2 cos x

for x close to zero. Determine

x sin x
lim
x→0 2 − 2 cos x

55. Use the Squeeze Theorem to determine

sin x
lim
x→−∞ x

30
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

56. Use the Squeeze Theorem to determine

lim (bxc /x) and lim (bxc /x)

x→∞ x→−∞

57. Use the Squeeze Theorem to determine

1 − cos x2
lim
x→∞ 1 + x3

Solutions:

2x2 2
53. lim = lim = 2 and
x→∞ x2 + 1 x→∞ 1 + 1/x2

2x2 + 5 2 + 5/x2
lim 2
= lim = 2.
x→∞ x x→∞ 1

By the Squeeze Theorem, it follows that lim f (x) = 2.

x→∞

x2
 
0
54. lim 1− =1− = 1,
x→0 6 6

while
lim 1 = 1,
x→0

so, by the Squeeze Theorem

x sin x
lim = 1.
x→0 2 − 2 cos x

55. For all x it holds that

−1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1.

If x < 0, we can divide by x to obtain

1 sin x 1 −1 sin x 1
≥ ≥− ⇒ ≤ ≤
x x x x x x

 
1 1 1
Now lim = 0, and lim − = − lim = 0. It follows by the Squeeze
x→−∞ x x→−∞ x x→−∞ x
Theorem that
sin x
lim = 0.
x→−∞ x

MAT1512 31
 56. For all x it holds that
x − 1 < bxc ≤ x. (3.1)
Where bxc is known as the floor function. If x > 0 then
x−1
< bxc /x ≤ 1.
x

Now
1
x−1 1− x
lim = lim = 1,
x→∞ x x→∞ 1

while lim 1 = 1. From the Squeeze Theorem it follows that

x→∞

lim (bxc /x) = 1.

x→∞

If x < 0, then we can divide (3.1) by x to obtain

x−1
> bxc /x ≥ 1.
x

Similarly, as above, it follows that

lim (bxc /x) = 1.

x→−∞

57. For all x it holds that

−1 ≤ − cos x2 ≤ 1

Add 1:
0 ≤ 1 − cos x2 ≤ 2

For x > 0 (because x → ∞), we divide by 1 + x3 > 0 to obtain

0 1 − cos x2 2
3
≤ 3
≤ .
1+x 1+x 1 + x3

2
Now lim 0 = 0 and lim = 0. It follows by the Squeeze Theorem that
x→∞ x→∞ 1 + x3

1 − cos x2
lim = 0.
x→∞ 1 + x3

32
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

3.5.7 The ε-δ Definition of a Limit (Read only for other modules eg MAT2615)

This section is not for examination purposes, therefore you should not spend too much
time on it. However, those of you who intend to continue with pure mathematics should
be familiar with the contents of this section.

58. Determine δ > 0 so that

   
 1  1  1
0 < x − < δ ⇒  − 1 < .
4  4x 20

59. Prove from the ε-δ definition that lim (7x − 1) = 13.
x→2

60. Prove from the ε-δ definition that lim f (x) = 10, where f (x) = −3x + 7.
x→−1

x2 − 4
61. Prove from the ε-δ definition that lim = 4.
x→2 x − 2

x2 − 1
62. Prove from the ε-δ definition that lim = 2.
x→1 x − 1

x2 − 9
63. Prove from the ε-δ definition that lim = −6.
x→−3 x + 3

Solutions:
 
1  1
58. 
 − 1 <
4x 20

1 1 1
⇔− < −1<
20 4x 20
1 1 1
⇔1− < −1+1< +1
20 4x 20
19 1 21
⇔ < <
20 4x 20
20 20
⇔ > 4x >
19 21
5 5
⇔ <x<
21 19
5 1 1 5 1
⇔ − <x− < −
21 4 4 19 4
1 1 1
⇔− <x− < .
84 4 76

MAT1512 33
 1
If we choose δ = , we should have that
84
   
 1  1  1
0 < x −  < δ ⇒ 
  − 1 < .
4 4x 20

59. According to the definition of a limit, let f (x) = 7x − 1, xo = 2 and L = 13. Given
 > 0, we need to find δ > 0 so that for all x

0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − 13| < .

Now

|f (x) − 13| = |7x − 1 − 13|

= |7x − 14|
= 7 |x − 2|


So let δ = . Then
7
0 < |x − 2| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − 13| = 7 |x − 2| (from above)
< 7δ

= 7· = .
7

60. We have that

|f (x) − 10| = |−3x + 7 − 10| = |−3x − 3| = |−3(x + 1)|

= 3|x + 1|
= 3 |x − (−1)| .


If  > 0 is given, put δ = . Then
3
0 < |x − (−1)| < δ ⇒ |f (x) − 10| = 3 |x − (−1)|

< 3δ = 3 · = .
3

This shows that

lim f (x) = 10.
x→−1

61. Let  > 0 be given. We have that

 2 
x − 4 
 x − 2 − 4
 
 
 (x + 2) (x − 2) 
= 
 − 4
x−2
= |x + 2 − 4| (if x 6= 2)
= |x − 2|.

34
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

Put δ = . Then, if 0 < |x − 2| < δ, it follows that x 6= 2, and so

 2 
x − 4 
 x − 2 − 4 = |x − 2| < δ = .
 

62. Let  > 0 be given. Then

 2   
x − 1   (x − 1) (x + 1) 
 x − 1 − 2 =  − 2
  
x−1
= |x + 1 − 2| (if x 6= 1)
= |x − 1|.

Put δ = . Then  2 
x − 1 
0 < |x − 1| < δ ⇒ 
 − 2 < .
x−1

Hence,
x2 − 1
lim = 2.
x→1 x − 1

63. In the definition of a limit, we put f (x) = (x2 − 9)/(x + 3), xo = −3 and L = −6.
Let  > 0 be given. Then
 2   
x − 9   (x + 3) (x − 3) 
 x + 3 − (−6) = + 6
  
 x+3
= |x − 3 + 6| (if x 6= −3)
= |x + 3|
= |x − (−3)|.

Let δ = . If
0 < |x − (−3)| < δ

then x 6= −3, and then it follows from the above that

 2 
x − 9 

 x+3 − (−6) = |x − (−3)| < .


Hence,
x2 − 9
lim = −6.
x→−3 x + 3

3.5.8 Continuity

In the previous topics, notice that the limit of a function as x approaches a can sometimes
be found by just calculating the value of the function (y) at x = a. The functions with
this property are said to be continuous at a. A continuous process is one that takes
place gradually, without interruption or abrupt changes.

MAT1512 35
 Definition 1

A function f is continuous at a number a if lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

Definition 2

A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if lim f (x) = f (a)

x→a+
and f is continuous from the left at a number a if lim f (x) = f (a).
x→a−

If f is not continuous at a, we say that f is discontinuous at a, or that f has

a discontinuity at a. When we consider the two definitions above, we notice
that three things (or conditions) are required for f to be continuous at a.

A function f is continuous at x = a when the following conditions are satisfied:

(i) if f (a) is defined (that is, a is in the domain of f )

(ii) if lim f (x) exists [that is, f must be defined in an open interval that contains a] and
x→a
lim f (x) = lim f (x)
x→a− x→a+

(iii) if lim f (x) = f (a).

x→a

If one or more of the three conditions above are not satisfied, then f is said to be discon-
tinuous at x = a. [Try to think of the process of finding a limit as making a prediction as
to what the y-value will be when x finally gets to a.]

In figures (a), (b), (c) and (d) below, three main types of discontinuities – removable,
jump and non-removable are shown. Are you able to explain why the function f is
discontinuous at x = a in all four diagrams?

Let us now work through some examples.

Example 1:

1 − x, if x≤2
(a) Determine whether the function f (x) = is continuous
x2 − 2x, if x>2
or discontinuous at a = 2, and explain why.

(b) Sketch the graph of the function.

36
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Solution:

(a)
lim f (x) = lim (1 − x) = 1 − 2 = −1
x→2− x→2−
lim x2 − 2x = (2)2 − 2 (2) = 4 − 4 = 0


lim f (x) =
x→2+ x→2+

Since
lim f (x) 6= lim f (x)
x→2− x→2+

lim f (x) does not exist [that is, condition (ii) has not been met].
x→2

Therefore the function is discontinuous at x = 2.

(b) The key points on the graph are:

(i) the vertical intercept(s) (where x = 0)

(ii) the horizontal intercept(s) (where f (x) = 0)

(iii) the turning points

f (x) = 1 − x is a straight line with intercepts at (0, 1) and (1, 0) for the interval
where x ≤ 2.

f (x) = x2 − 2x is a curve with intercepts where x(x − 2) = 0 that is (0, 0) and

(2, 0) are the x-intercepts, but they do not fall in the interval x > 2.

Example 2:

MAT1512 37
 Figure 3.5: Graph of f (x) = x2 − 2x and f (x) = 1 − x

If (
x2 −x−2
x−2 if x 6= 2
f (x) =
1, if x = 2,

determine if the function f (x) is continuous at x = 2.

Solution:

For lim f (x) to exist, we must first find lim f (x) and lim f (x) . Since
x→2 x→2− x→2+

x2 − x − 2
lim f (x) = lim f (x) = lim
x→2− x→2+ x→2 x−2
(x − 2) (x + 1)
= lim = lim (x + 1) = 3,
x→2 x−2 x→2

the limit exists.

But f (2) = 1 is also defined and lim f (x) 6= f (2).

x→2

So f (x) is not continuous at x = 2 (this is the “removable” type of discontinuity).

Example 3:

Find the value of the constant c that would make the function f continuous at x = 3,
where: 
cx + 1, if x ≤ 3
f (x) =
cx2 − 1, if x > 3.

38
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

Solution:

We determine the left- and right-hand limits as follows:

lim f (x) = lim (cx + 1) = 3c + 1

x→3− x→3−

and
cx2 − 1 = 9c − 1.


lim f (x) = lim
x→3+ x→3+

The condition for f to be continuous at x = 3 is that lim f (x) = lim f (x) ,

x→3− x→3+

that is
3c + 1 = 9c − 1
⇔ 9c − 3c = 1+1
⇔ 6c = 2
1
⇔ c = 3.

Thus f (x) is continuous at x = 3, for

1
c= .
3

You can now work through the last examples in this chapter.

64. Let 
x if x ≤ 1
f (x) = 2
(x − 1) if x > 1.

(a) Draw the graph of f (x) .

(b) Determine lim f (x) and lim f (x). Does lim f (x) exist? Give a reason for
x→1+ x→1− x→1
your answer.

(c) Is f (x) continuous at x = 1? Give a reason for your answer.

65. Let
4 − x2 if x > 1

f (x) =
3x2 if x < 1.

(a) Draw the graph of f (x).

(b) Calculate lim f (x) and lim f (x).

x→1+ x→1−

(c) What value, if any, must be assigned to f (1) to make f (x) continuous at x = 1?
Give reasons for your answer.

MAT1512 39
 66. (a) At which points (if any) is the function
x+a
f (x) =
x2 + (a + b) x + ab

discontinuous? (a and b are constants.)

(b) At which points (if any) can

x+a
f (x) =
x2 + (a + b) x + ab

be made continuous by assigning a certain value to f (x), and what is the value?

67. Let (
x2 +2x−15
x−3 if x 6= 3
g(x) =
k if x = 3.

What value (if any) must k be for g to be continuous at x = 3? Give reasons for your
answer.

68. Let
bx2 if x ≥ 12

g(x) =
x3 if x < 21 .

What value must b be for g to be continuous at x = 21 ? Give reasons for your answer.

69. Let 
 x3 + 4 if x ≤ 0
g(x) = b+1
 if x > 0.
x+2

What value must b be for g to be continuous at x = 0? Give reasons for your answer.

70. Let
αx2

if x ≥ 2
g(x) =
x + 1 if x < 2.

What value must α be for g to be continuous at x = 2? Give reasons for your answer.

40
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

Solutions:

64. (a)

Figure 3.6: Graph of f (x)

b(i) lim f (x) = lim (x − 1)2 = 0.

x→1+ x→1+

b(ii) lim f (x) = lim (x) = 1.

x→1− x→1−

b(iii) lim f (x) does not exist, because lim f (x) 6= lim f (x).
x→1 x→1+ x→1−

(c) The function f (x) is thus not continuous at x = 1, because lim f (x) does not
x→1
exist.

65. (a)

Figure 3.7: Graph of f (x)

(b) lim f (x) = lim (4 − x2 ) = 4 − 1 = 3,

x→1+ x→1+

MAT1512 41
 lim f (x) = lim (3x2 ) = 3.
x→1− x→1−

(c) Let f (1) = 3, since lim f (x) = 3.

x→1

x+a
66. (a) f (x) =
x2 + (a + b) x + ab

x+a
= .
(x + a) (x + b)

f (x) is discontinuous where

(x + a)(x + b) = 0

that is at x = −a and x = −b.

b(i) The case a 6= b

We calculate the limits of f (x) when x tends to −a and to −b.

x+a
lim
x→−b+ (x + a) (x + b)
1
= lim
x→−b x + b
+

= ∞.

The discontinuity at x = −b cannot be removed. Now,

x+a
lim
(x + a) (x + b)
x→−a
1
= lim
x→−a x + b
1
= .
b−a

The discontinuity at x = −a can be removed. We can make f (x) continuous at

x = −a by putting
1
f (−a) = .
b−a

b(ii) The case a = b

In this case there is a non-removable discontinuity at x = −b. Note: Removable

discontinuity is when a discontinuity can be removed by redefining the function at
that point. In the case of a non-removable discontinuity, the limits do not exist, so

42
 Study Unit 3: Limits and Derivatives

there is no way to redefine the function at that point of discontinuity. See pages
115–116 of Stewart.

x2 + 2x − 15
67. lim
x→3 x−3

(x − 3) (x + 5)
= lim
x→3 x−3

= lim (x + 5)
x→3

= 8.

From the definition of continuity it follows that k must be equal to 8 to make g

continuous at x = 3.
 
1 1
68. For g (x) to be continuous at x = , lim g(x) must exist (and be equal to g ).
2 x→ 2
1 2
For this limit to exist, lim g(x) and lim g(x) must exist and be equal. Now
+ −
x→ 12 x→ 12

b
lim g(x) = lim (bx2 ) =
x→ 21
+
x→ 21
+ 4

and
1
lim g(x) = lim (x3 ) = .
x→ 1−
x→ 1− 8
2 2

Thus we must have that

b 1
=
4 8

or
1
b= .
2

69. The function g (x) will be continuous at x = 0 if

g (0) = lim g(x).

x→0

Also, lim g(x) will exist provided that lim g(x) and lim g(x) exist and are equal.
x→0 x→0− x→0+
Hence we must determine the latter two limits, set them equal, and solve for b. Now

lim g(x) = lim (x3 + 4) = 0 + 4 = 4,

x→0− x→0−

while  
b+1 b+1 b+1
lim g(x) = lim = = .
x→0+ x→0+ x+2 0+2 2

MAT1512 43
 Let
b+1
= 4.
2

Then
b = 7.

Hence if b = 7, then g (x) is continuous at x = 0.

70. If g (x) is to be continuous at x = 2, then it must hold that

g(2) = lim g(x),

x→2

that is

4α = lim g(x). (3.2)

x→2+

Now lim g(x) will exist provided lim g(x) and lim g(x) exist, and
x→2 x→2+ x→2−

lim g(x) = lim g(x). (3.3)

x→2+ x→2−

We have that
lim g(x) = lim (αx2 ) = 4α,
x→2+ x→2+

while
lim g(x) = lim (x + 1) = 3.
x→2− x→2−

Hence both (3.2) and (3.3) will be satisfied if 4α = 3. Thus if α = 43 , then g (x) is
continuous at x = 2.

Key points

You should now be comfortable with the notion of the limit of a function and its use. This
includes one-sided limits, infinite limits (limits resulting in infinity) and limits at infinity
(limits of functions as x approaches infinity).

At this stage you should be able to

• evaluate limits of the form lim f (x), lim f (x) , lim f (x) and lim f (x) , where
x→c x→c− x→c+ x→±∞
c is a real number and f (x) is an algebraic or trigonometric function

• provide a formal definition of the limit, using the correct mathematical notation

44
 Study Unit 3: Differentiation Rules

• apply the laws governing limits

• determine and evaluate the limits of sums, products, quotients and compositions of
functions

• evaluate the limits of functions analytically, graphically and numerically

• use the limit definition of continuity to determine whether a function is continuous

or discontinuous at a point

• use the Squeeze Theorem to determine certain limits

Continue practising solving problems until you have mastered the basic techniques! Go
through the section “For your review”at the end of each chapter to consolidate what you
have learnt and also use other calculus textbooks.

MAT1512 45
 Study Unit 4

Differentiation Rules

4.1 Background

Differentiation is widely applied in engineering, chemistry, physics, biology and many other
disciplines in science and technology. It is basically a concept that deals with rates of
change. Among other things, it is used to define the slopes of curves, to calculate the
velocities and accelerations of moving objects, to find the firing angle that gives a cannon its
greatest range, and to predict the times when planets will be closest to each other or farthest
apart. In this chapter we begin the study of differential calculus. The central concept
of differential calculus is the derivative. After learning how to calculate derivatives, you
will use them to solve problems involving rates of change. This chapter is devoted to (a)
the definition of the derivative, or differentiation from first principles; (b) the rules used to
find derivatives of algebraic and trigonometric functions; (c) problems involving tangent
and normal lines; (d) techniques such as logarithmic and implicit differentiation; and (e)
the application of the Mean Value Theorem and Rolle’s Theorem.

4.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• demonstrate an understanding of the first principles of differentiation

• apply basic differential formulas such as the power rule, product rule, quotient rule,
chain rule, and combinations of these rules to differentiate between a variety of
algebraic and trigonometric functions

• compute the derivatives of trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric func-

tions, and of exponential and logarithmic functions

• use the methods of logarithmic and implicit differentiation to find derivatives

• solve problems involving tangent and normal lines and the Mean Value Theorem

46
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Note: The way to master calculus is to solve lots of calculus problems!

4.3 Prescribed Reading

The prescribed readings in Stewart are:

• Chapter 2 sections 2.1–2.3 and 2.5–2.7.

• Chapter 3 sections 3.1–3.7 and

• Chapter 4 section 4.2 only.

4.4 The Derivative

4.4.1 Introducing the Derivative

The definition of the derivative can be approached in two different ways. One is geomet-
rical (as the slope of a curve) and the other is physical (as a rate of change). Both of
these definitions can be used, but the emphasis should be on using the derivative as a
tool for solving calculus problems.

Remember, in high school you used the first principle of differentiation to find the slope
of a tangent line at a particular point.

Definition: The slope mtan of the tangent line y = f (x) at x = a is:

f (a + h) − f (a)
mtan = lim
h→0 h

Example:

Find the slope of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 + 1 at x = 1.

MAT1512 47
 Solution:

Figure 4.1: Graph of y = x2 + 1 and x = 1

f (1 + h) − f (1)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
h i
2
(1 + h) + 1 − (1 + 1)
= lim
h→0 h
2
1 + 2h + h + 1 − 2
= lim
h→0 h
2h + h 2 h (2 + h)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim (2 + h) = 2
h→0

Thus at x = 1, mtan = 2.

You should also be familiar with the approach used in mechanics when dealing with prob-
lems involving average and instantaneous velocity (rate of change).

Average velocity:
total distance
vave =
total time

Instantaneous velocity:
f (t + h) − f (t)
v = lim
h→0 h

Example:

48
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Consider an object that is dropped from a height of 64 m. Its position is given as f (t) =
64 − 16t2 . Find its average velocity between

(a) t = 1 and t = 2

(b) t = 1.5 and t = 2

(c) t = 1.9 and t = 2

(d) Also find its instantaneous velocity at t = 2.

Solution:

64 − 16 (2)2 − 64 − 16(1)2
 
f (2) − f (1)
(a) vave = = = −48 m/s.
2−1 1

64 − 16 (2)2 − 64 − 16(1.5)2
 
f (2) − f (1.5)
(b) vave = = = −56 m/s.
2 − 1.5 0.5

64 − 16 (2)2 − 64 − 16(1.9)2
 
f (2) − f (1.9)
(c) vave = = = −62.4 m/s.
2 − 1.9 0.1

(d) The instantaneous velocity is given by:

f (2 + h) − f (2)
vinstantaneous = lim
h→0 (2 + h) − 2
h i h i
64 − 16 (2 + h)2 − 64 − −16 (2)2
= lim
h→0 h h i
64 − 16 4 + 4h + h2 − 64 − −16 (2)2


= lim
h→0 h
−64h − 16h2
−16h (h + 4)
= lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim −16 (h + 4) = −64 m/s.
h→0

4.4.2 Definition of the Derivative

The derivative of the function f (x) (at a particular point where x = a) is defined as

f (a + h) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim ,
h→0 h

provided that the limit exists. We say that f is differentiable at x = a when the above
limit exists.

MAT1512 49
 In general, the derivative of f (x) is the function f 0 (x) given by

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h

provided that this limit exists. Finding the first derivative by using the above method is
called the First Principle of Differentiation.

Note: If we write x = a + h, then h = x − a and h will approach 0 if and only if x

approaches a. Therefore another way of defining the derivative is as follows:

f (x) − f (a)
f 0 (a) = lim .
x→a x−a

Let us try an example:

Use the definition of the derivative to find g 0 (x) if g (x) = x4 .

g (x + h) − g (x) (x + h)4 − x4
g 0 (x) = lim = lim
h→0
h h ih
h→0 hi
(x + h)2 − x2 (x + h)2 + x2
= lim
h→0
h h i
h [2x + h] (x + h)2 + x2
= lim
h h
h→0
i
= lim [2x + h] (x + h)2 + x2
h→0
= (2x) x2 + x2

= 4x3 .

4.5 Worked Examples

In some instances, we do compute derivatives directly from the definition. However, such
computations are tedious and very time-consuming. Fortunately, several differential rules
or basic differentiation formulas have been developed to find derivatives without using the
definition directly. In order to introduce you to the basic differentiation techniques, these
rules are presented together with worked examples. You should go and read about these
rules in Stewart and work through the examples, following each rule. You will find the
rules on the following pages in Stewart:

Our collection of worked examples relating to Chapters 2, 3 and 4 of Stewart divides

naturally into eight sets, with some overlap, namely:

I. Differentiation from first principles (derivative as a function)

50
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Derivative of a constant p. 172

The power rule for positive integer powers of x p. 172
The constant multiple rule p. 175
The sum and difference rule p. 176
The power rule for negative integer powers of x p. 174
The product rule p. 183
The quotient rule p. 185
The chain rule p. 197

Table 4.1: Pages in Stewart for different rules of differentiation.

II. Basic differentiation formulas (use of the power rule, product rule, quotient rule, chain
rule, and combinations of these rules to differentiate between a variety of functions)

III. Derivatives of trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric functions

IV. Derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions

V. Logarithmic differentiation

VI. Implicit differentiation

VII. Tangent and normal lines

VIII. The Mean Value Theorem

Attempt the problems appearing immediately after each section, once you have studied
the relevant parts of Stewart and done some of the exercises there.

Table 4.2 shows how these worked examples and their solutions are organised.

4.5.1 Differentiation from First Principles (derivative as a Function)

1. Find the derivative of 3x2 + 2x − 1 at x = 1.

2. If f (x) = 1
x (x 6= 0) , find f 0 (x).
√
3. If f (x) = x for (x ≥ 0) , find f 0 (x).

MAT1512 51
 Topic(s) Section(s) in Examples
in study
Stewart guide
I. Differentiation from first princi- Section 2.8 (examples in 1–5
ple
(derivative as a function) 2.1–2.7
II. Basic rules of differentiation 6–31
Power rule Section 3.1
Product rule Section 3.2
Quotient rule Section 3.4
Chain rule Section 3.2
Combinations of rules Section 3.4
(derivative of varieties of )
functions)
III. Derivatives of trigonometric Section 3.3 page 190 32–49
functions and inverse trigono- 50–52
metric functions
IV. Derivatives of exponential Section 3.1 page 172 53–63
functions
V. Derivative of logarithmic func- Section 3.6 page 218 64–74
tions
VI. Implicit differentiation Section 3.5: page 208 75–82
VII. Tangent and normal lines Sections 3.1 page 172 and 2.7 83–92
page 140
VIII. The Mean Value Theorem Section 4.2 page 287 93–95

Table 4.2: Sections in Stewart.

Solutions:

1.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
3 (x + h)2 + 2 (x + h) − 1 − 3x2 + 2x − 1


= lim
h→0 h
3x2 + 6xh + h2 + 2x + 2h − 1 − 3x2 − 2x + 1
= lim
h→0 h
6xh + h2 + 2h
= lim
h→0 h
h (6x + h + 2)
= lim
h→0 h
= lim 6x + h + 2 = 6x + 2.
h→0

At x = 1, f 0 (1) = 6 (1) + 2 = 8.

52
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

2.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
 h
h→0

1 1
x+h −
x − (x + h) 1
x
= lim ·
= lim
h→0 h h→0 x (x + h) h
−h 1 −1 1
= lim 2 · = lim 2 = − 2.
h→0 x + xh h h→0 x + xh x

3.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
√ √
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
x+h−x
= lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
h
= lim √ √

h→0 h x+h+ x
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+h+ x
1
= √ .
2 x

4. Use the definition of the derivative to prove that g 0 (0) = 0 if g (x) = x2 |x|.

Solution:

By definition,
g (0 + h) − g (0)
g 0 (0) = lim ,
h→0 h

provided this limit exists. Now

g (0 + h) − h (0)
lim
h→0 h
h2 |h| − 0
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (h |h|)
h→0
= 0.

5. Use the definition of the derivative to show that f 0 (2) does not exist when f (x) =
|x − 2|.

MAT1512 53
 (a)

f (2 + h) − f (2) |(2 + h) − 2| − |2 − 2|
lim = lim
h→0+ h h→0+ h
|h|
= lim
h→0+ h
h
= lim (|h| = h since h > 0)
h→0 h
+

= 1,

(b) while similarly

f (2 + h) − f (2) |h|
lim = lim
h→0− h h→0−h
−h
= lim (|h| = −h since h < 0)
h→0 h
= −1.

Since the left-hand and right-hand limits are not equal, it follows that

f (2 + h) − f (2)
lim
h→0 h

does not exist, that is, f is not differentiable at 2.

4.5.2 Basic Differentiation Formulas

(a) The Power Rule

If y = xn , then

d
(xn ) = nxn−1
dx
dy
i.e. = nxn−1 f or n∈R
dx

Examples:

Find the derivatives of the following:

d √ 1 1
8. m (x) = x 2 + 3x− 2
3
6. f (x) = x8 7. x2
dx

54
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Solutions:

d √ d 2 2 2 2 1 2
x 3 = x 3 −1 = x− 3 =
3
6. f 0 (x) = 8x8−1 = 8x7 . 7. x2 = 1 .
dx dx 3 3 3x 3

1 1 1 3
8. m (x) = x 2 + 3x− 2 ⇒ m0 (x) = 1 − 3 .
2x 2 2x 2

Examples involving absolute values:

Find the derivatives of the following:

1
9. k (a) = 10. k (s) = |s|
|a|

Solutions:

1
9. k(a) =
|a|
 1

 a
 if a>0
=
 −1


if a < 0.
a

Hence,
 1
 − a2 if a>0


k 0 (a) =

 1
 if a < 0.
a2
1
In fact, k 0 (a) can be written as a single expression, namely k 0 (a) = − .
a |a|

10.

k (s) = |s|

1 if s > 0
⇒ k 0 (s) =
−1 if s < 0.

Note: k (s) = |s| is not differentiable at s = 0.

MAT1512 55
 (b) The Product Rule

d
If y = f.g, then y 0 = f 0 .g + f.g 0 or [f (x) g (x)] = f 0 (x) g (x) + f (x) g 0 (x)
dx

Examples:

√
 
2
f 0 (x) 2x4 2


11. Find if f (x) = − 3x + 5 x − x +
x

Solution:
 2 √ √
   
0 d  4 2 4

d 2 2
f (x) = 2x − 3x + 5 x − x + + 2x − 3x + 5 x − x+
dx x dx x
√
 
2 1 2
8x3 − 3 x2 − x + + 2x4 − 3x + 5 (2x − √ − 2 ).



=
x 2 x x

12. Differentiate the following function:

y = (x + 1)10 (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12

Solution:

y = (x + 1)10 (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12

dy d d
⇒ = (x + 1)10 (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12 + (x + 1)10 (4 − x)12 (2x + 3)11
dx dx dx
d
+ (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12 (x + 1)10
dx
d
= (x + 1) (2x + 3) · 12(4 − x)11 (4 − x) +
10 11
dx
d
+(x + 1)10 (4 − x)12 · 11(2x + 3)10 · (2x + 3)
dx
+ (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12 .10(x + 1)9
= −12(x + 1)10 (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)11 + 22(x + 1)10 (2x + 3)10 (4 − x)12
+ 10(x + 1)9 (2x + 3)11 (4 − x)12 .

(c) The Quotient Rule:

f f 0 .g − f.g 0
If y = , then = y0
g g2

f 0 (x) g (x) − f (x) g 0 (x)

 
d f (x)
or =
dx g (x) [g (x)]2

56
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

x2 − 2
13. Compute the derivative of .
x2 + 1

Solution:
d

 d
x2 − 2 x2 + 1 − x2 − 2 dx x2 + 1




f 0 (x) = dx
(x2 + 1)2
2x x2 + 1 − x2 − 2 (2x)



=
(x2 + 1)2
6x
= .
(x2 + 1)2

More examples:

Differentiate the following functions:

√
2t + 1 x+1
14. g (t) = √ 15. g (x) = 16.
2t + 1 + 1 (x + 2)10
2x + 5
y=
3x − 2

Solutions:

14.
√ 1
2t + 1 (2t + 1) 2
g(t) = √ = 1
2t + 1 + 1 (2t + 1) 2 + 1

1 1
 1

⇒ g 0 (t) = (2t + 1)− 2 · 2 · (2t + 1) 2 + 1 −
2
 
1 1 − 12 1
2 1
(2t + 1) · (2t + 1) · 2 / (2t + 1) 2 + 1 = √
2
√
2 .
2 2t + 1 2t + 1 + 1

15.
x+1
g (x) =
(x + 2)10
1. (x + 2)10 − (x + 1) (x + 2)9 .10.1 −9x − 8
⇒ g 0 (x) = 20 = .
(x + 2) (x + 2)11

16.
2x + 5
y =
3x − 2
dy (3x − 2) 2 − (2x + 5) 3 −19
⇒ = 2 = .
dx (3x − 2) (3x − 2)2

MAT1512 57
 (d) The Chain Rule

If y = f ◦ g, then y 0 = f 0 (g) .g 0

d
or [f (g (x))] = f 0 (g (x)) g 0 (x)
dx

Examples:

5 d √
Differentiate y = x3 + x + 1


17. 18. Find 100 + 8t
dt

dy
19. Find if y = (4 − 3x)9
dx

Solutions:

17. Let u = x3 + x + 1, then y = u5 , and

dy dy du d
du
= = u5
dx du dx du dx
4 d

4
x + x + 1 = 5 x3 + x + 1 (3x2 + 1).
3


= 5u
dx

√ 1 1
18. Let u = 100 + 8t, then 100 + 8t = (100 + 8t) 2 = u 2 , and

d 1 1 1 du 1 d 4
(u) 2 = u− 2 = √ (100 + 8t) = √ .
du 2 dt 2 100 + 8t dt 100 + 8t

dy
19. y = (4 − 3x)9 ⇒ = 9 (4 − 3x)8 (−3).
dx

(e) Combinations of rules

In the following worked examples, combinations of rules are used to determine the required
derivatives.

Find the first derivatives of the following. Do not simplify.

58
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

2 1
20. f (x) = (5x + 11)20 (4 − x)30 21. f (w) = (3w2 + 2) 3 (9w − 1)− 3
r 100
√

1−x 1
22. f (x) = 23. f (x) = x+ √
1 + x2 x

1 3
24. θ(y) = (2y 2 + 5y) 2 25. f (x) = (2x3 + 3)10 (3x2 + 2)20
3
 5
1 1 x 1
26. h(θ) = (θ 3 + 7)100 (2θ− 3 + 7)200 27. y = +
5 5x
2
28. y = (1 − 6x) 3

Solutions:

20. f (x) = (5x + 11)20 (4 − x)30

⇒ f 0 (x) = 20(5x + 11)19 5(4 − x)30 + (5x + 11)20 30(4 − x)29 (−1).

2 1
21. f (w) = (3w2 + 2) 3 (9w − 1)− 3
1 1 2 4
⇒ f 0 (w) = 23 (3w2 + 2)− 3 (6w)(9w − 1)− 3 + (3w2 + 2) 3 − 13 (9w − 1)− 3 9.

r  1
1−x 1−x 2
22. f (x) = =
1 + x2 1 + x2
− 1
(−1) 1 + x2 − (1 − x) · 2x


1 1−x 2
⇒ f 0 (x) = · .
2 1 + x2 (1 + x2 )2

100
√

1
23. f (x) = x+ √
x
99 
√
 
1 1 1
⇒ f 0 (x) = 100 x+ √ · √ − .
x 2 x 2x 32

1 3
24. θ(y) = (2y 2 + 5y) 2
3
1 3 1
⇒ θ0 (y) = · (2y 2 + 5y) 2 (4y + 5).
3 2

25. f (x) = (2x3 + 3)10 (3x2 + 2)20

⇒ f 0 (x) = 10(2x3 + 3)9 · 6x2 · (3x2 + 2)20 + 20(3x2 + 2)19 · 6x · (2x3 + 3)10 .

MAT1512 59
 1 1
26. h(θ) = (θ 3 + 7)100 (2θ− 3 + 7)200

1 1 2 1 1 1 2 4
⇒ h0 (θ) = 100(θ 3 +7)99 · θ− 3 ·(2θ− 3 +7)200 +(θ 3 +7)100 ·200(2θ− 3 +7)199 ·(− θ− 3 ).
3 3

 5
x 1
27. y = +
5 5x
 4  
dy x 1 1 1 −2
⇒ =5 + − x .
dx 5 5x 5 5

2
28. y = (1 − 6x) 3

dy 2 1
⇒ = (−6).
dx 3 (1 − 6x) 31

Also do the following exercises:

29. Show that y 0 = 2 |x| if y = x|x|.

30. Let g (x) , h (x) and k (x) be differentiable functions such that

f (x) = g (x) h (x) k (x)

for all x. Use the product rule for the derivative of the product of two functions to
write down the derivative of f in terms of g (x) , h (x) and k (x) and their derivatives.

31. Use the chain rule and product rule to derive the quotient rule for derivatives.

Solutions:

29. Case I Suppose x > 0. Then |x| = x, so

y = x2

and
y 0 = 2x = 2|x|.

Case II Suppose x < 0. Then |x| = −x, so

y = −x2

and
y 0 = −2x = 2 (−x) = 2|x|.

60
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Case III Suppose x = 0. If f (x) = x|x|, then

f (0 + h) − f (0) h |h| − 0
lim = lim
h→0 h h→0 h
= lim |h|
h→0
= 0 = 2|0|.

Hence, for all values of x we have that

y 0 = 2|x|.

30. Let
f (x) = `(x)k(x),

where
`(x) = g(x)h(x).

Then

f 0 (x) = `0 (x)k(x) + `(x)k 0 (x)

= (g 0 (x)h(x) + g(x)h0 (x))k(x) + `(x)k 0 (x)
= g 0 (x)h(x)k(x) + g(x)h0 (x)k(x) + g(x)h(x)k 0 (x).

g (x)
31. Let f (x) = , where g and h are differentiable functions. Now
h (x)

f (x) = g(x) · (h(x))−1

so
 
0 0 −1 1 0
f (x) = g (x) · (h(x)) + g(x) · − 2 · h (x)
(h (x))
(by the product and chain rules)
g 0 (x) g (x) · h0 (x)
= −
h (x) (h (x))2
h (x) g 0 (x) − g (x) h0 (x)
= .
(h (x))2

4.5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions and Inverse Trigonometric Functions

(a) Derivatives of trigonometric functions

Below are limits which will help you find some of the trigonometric derivatives.

MAT1512 61
 1 − cos θ cos θ − 1
lim cos θ = 1, lim = lim =0
θ→0 θ→0 θ θ→0 θ

sin θ θ
lim sin θ = 0, lim = lim =1
θ→0 θ→0 θ θ→0 sin θ

A very important table

You should know these derivative formulae by heart!

Note: These derivative formulae can also be derived from first principles.

d d
(sin x) = cos x (cot x) = − csc2 x
dx dx

d d
(cos x) = − sin x (sec x) = sec x tan x
dx dx

d d
(tan x) = sec2 x (csc x) = − csc x cot x
dx dx

Here is an example worked out from first principles:

d
Prove that sin x = cos x.
dx

Solution:

If f (x) = sin x, then

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
sin (x + h) − sin (x)
= lim
h→0 h
sin x cos h + cos x sin h − sin x
= lim
h→0
  h   
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x + cos x
h→0 h h
cos h − 1 sin h
= lim sin x. lim + lim cos x. lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= sin x.0 + cos x.1
= cos x.

Now determine the derivatives of the following functions:

 
2x
32. f (x) = x5 cos x 33. f (x) = sin
x+1

62
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Solutions:

32.
 
0 d 5 d 5 d
cos x + x5



f (x) = x cos x = x (cos x) {product rule}
dx dx dx
= 5x4 cos x − x5 sin x.

 
2x
33. The derivative of f (x) = sin is
x+1
   
0 2x d 2x
f (x) = cos {chain rule}
x + 1 dx x + 1
 
2x 2 (x + 1) − 2x (1)
= cos {quotient rule}
x+1 (x + 1)2
 
2x 2
= cos .
x + 1 (x + 1)2

Now go through the rest of the worked examples. Find the first derivative. Do not simplify.

34. h(t) = sec t + tan t 35. y = x csc x

sin θ sin t
36. g (θ) = 37. h(t) =
θ tan t + 1
√
3t + cos t cos x
38. f (t) = 39. y =
t+3 1 + sin x

40. h (w) = sin3 (cot w) 41. k (x) = cot2 (3x)

√
42. g(x) = cos cx + cos cα, where α is a constant

3
43. g(θ) = sec 2 (1 − θ) 44. g(x) = tan4 (tan x)

1 2x + 5
45. h(t) = (t− 3 + 1). tan t 46. y =
3x − 2

47. y = cos(3πx/2) 48. y = cos3 x

5
49. y = [sin(x + 5)] 4

Solutions:

34. h(t) = sec t + tan t

⇒ h0 (t) = (sec t)(tan t) + sec2 t.

MAT1512 63
 35. y = x csc x

⇒ y 0 = x.(− csc x cot x) + (csc x).1.

sin θ
36. g(θ) =
θ

θ cos θ − (sin θ) (1)

⇒ g 0 (θ) = .
θ2

sin t
37. h(t) =
tan t + 1

cos t (tan t + 1) − sin t sec2 t

⇒ h0 (t) = .
(tan t + 1)2

√
3t + cos t
38. f (t) =
t+3
√
√ 1 (3 − sin t) (t + 3) − 3t + cos t · 1
2 3t+cos t
⇒ f 0 (t) = .
(t + 3)2

cos x
39. y =
1 + sin x

(1 + sin x) (− sin x) − cos x (0 + cos x)

⇒ y0 = .
(1 + sin x)2

40. h(w) = sin3 (cot w)

⇒ h0 (w) = 3 sin2 (cot w). cos(cot w).(− csc2 w).

41. k(x) = cot2 (3x)

⇒ k 0 (x) = 2 cot(3x).(− csc2 (3x)).3.

√
42. g(x) = cos cx + cos cα where α is a constant

1
⇒ g 0 (x) = √ · (− csc x. cot x).
2 csc x + csc α

3
43. g(θ) = sec 2 (1 − θ)

3 1
⇒ g 0 (θ) = sec 2 (1 − θ) · sec(1 − θ) · tan(1 − θ) · (−1).
2

64
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

44. g(x) = tan4 (tan x)

⇒ g 0 (x) = 4 tan3 (tan x). sec2 (tan x). sec2 x.

1
45. h(t) = (t− 3 + 1) · tan t

1 4 1
⇒ h0 (t) = − t− 3 · tan t + (t− 3 + 1) · sec2 t.
3

46. g(θ) = cos2 (θ2 )

⇒ g 0 (θ) = 2 cos(θ2 ) · (− sin(θ2 )) · 2θ.

47. y = cos(3πx/2)

dy d
⇒ = − sin(3πx/2) (3πx/2)
dx dx

= −(3π/2) sin(3πx/2).

48. y = cos3 x

dy
⇒ = 3(cos2 x)(− sin x).
dx

5
49. y = [sin(x + 5)] 4

dy 5 1
⇒ = [sin(x + 5)] 4 [cos(x + 5)].
dx 4

(b) Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

These are useful in applications and are essential for solving problems. The rules or defi-
nitions are as follows:

MAT1512 65
 d 1
sin−1 x = √ , for −1 < x < 1
dx 1 − x2

d −1
cos−1 x = √ , for −1 < x < 1
dx 1 − x2

d 1
tan−1 x =
dx 1 + x2

d −1
cot−1 x =
dx 1 + x2

d 1
sec−1 x = √ , for |x| > 1
dx |x| x2 − 1

d −1
csc−1 x = √ , for |x| > 1
dx |x| x2 − 1

Examples:

Compute the derivatives of the following functions:

2
50. cos−1 3x2 sec−1 x tan−1 x3



51. 52.

Solutions:

d −1 d −6x
cos−1 3x2 = q 3x2 = √



50. .
dx 2 2 dx 1 − 9x 4
1 − (3x )

d
2
d 1
sec−1 x = 2 sec−1 x sec−1 x = 2 sec−1 x


51. √ .
dx dx |x| x2 − 1

d 1 d 3 3x2
tan−1 x3 =


52. x = .
dx 1 + (x3 )2 dx 1 + x6

4.5.4 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

(a) The exponential function

Definition:

The inverse function of the function ln x is known as the expo–

nential function and is indicated by exp x (or ex ).

66
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Properties of the exponential function

(i) The graph of ex is the mirror image of the graph of ln x in the line y = x. Therefore
the graph looks like this: Figure 4.2

Figure 4.2: Graph of y = ex and y = ln x

(ii) exp x is defined for all x ∈ R, in other words

Dom (exp x) = R.

(iii) Im (exp x) = {y|y > 0}.

d x
(iv) (e ) = ex .
dx

(v) ex+y = ex · ey .

(vi) ex−y = ex /ey .

(vii) erx = (ex )r .

(viii) If x → ∞, then ex → ∞.

(ix) If x → −∞, then ex → 0.

(b) The logarithmic function

Definition:

The natural logarithmic function y = ln x is the inverse

function of the exponential function.

MAT1512 67
 Properties of the ln function

(i) The graph of ln x looks like this:

Figure 4.3: Graph of y = x and y = ln x

(ii) ln x is defined for all x > 0, in other words

Dom (ln x) = { x| x > 0} .

(iii) Im (ln x) = R.

(iv) ln x < 0 if 0 < x < 1,

ln 1 = 0,

ln x > 0 if x > 1.

d 1
(v) (ln x) = .
dx x

(vi) ln(xy) = ln x + ln y, if x, y > 0.

x
(vii) ln = ln x − ln y, if x, y > 0.
y

(viii) ln xr = r ln x, if x > 0, r rational

logc a
(ix) logb a =
logc b

(x) If x → ∞, then ln x → ∞.

(xi) If x → 0+ , then ln x → −∞.

Remark:

68
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

The following mistake is often made when applying rule (h):

ln (xr ) = r ln x (this is correct)

but
(ln x)r 6= r ln x (incorrect).

The index r must be an index of x, but not of ln x.

The inverse of the exponential function ex is called the natural logarithmic function y =
ln x. In this section, we study the natural logarithm both as a differentiable function and
as a device for simplifying calculations.

(c) Examples of the exponential function

Find the derivatives of the following:

√
53. f (x) = e x

54. y = ex cos x

55. y = tan e3x−2

e3x
56. y =
1 + ex
x
57. y = ex+e

Solutions:

√
53. f (x) = e x

√
√
− 21 e x
f 0 (x) = e x · 12 x = √ .
2 x

54. y = ex cos x

y 0 = ex cos x (1. cos x + x (− sin x)) = ex cos x (cos x − x sin x) .

55. y = tan e3x−2

y 0 = sec2 e3x−2 e3x−2 .3 = 3e3x−2 sec2 e3x−2 .

MAT1512 69
 e3x
56. y =
1 + ex

e3x 0 (1 + ex ) e3x .3 − e3x (0 + ex (1))

3e3x + 3e4x − e4x 3e3x + 2e4x
y0 =( ) = = = .
1 + ex (1 + ex )2 (1 + ex )2 (1 + ex )2
x
57. y = ex+e

x x
y 0 = ex+e (1 + ex (1)) = ex+e (1 + ex ) .

(d) Examples of the logarithmic function

Find the derivatives of the following:

58. f (x) = x2 ln 1 − x2

59. f (x) = log3 x2 − 4

 
x
60. f (x) = log10
x−1
 √ 
61. y = ln x 1 − x2 sin x

62. y = xsin x

63. y = (sin x)x

Solutions:

58. f (x) = x2 ln 1 − x2

1 3
f 0 (x) = 2x ln 1 − x2 + x2 · 2 − 2x



(0 − 2x) = 2x ln 1 − x .
1 − x2 1 − x2

59. f (x) = log3 x2 − 4

ln x
Note that (or recall that) loga x = ,
ln a

ln x2 − 4


2
so f (x) = log3 x − 4 =
ln 3
   
0 1 1 1 2x 2x
∴ f (x) = 2
(2x − 0) = 2
= 2 .
ln 3 x − 4 ln 3 x − 4 (x − 4) ln 3

70
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

 
x
60. f (x) = log10
x−1

ln x
Recall: loga x = ,
ln a
 
x
  ln   
x x−1 1 x 1
so f (x) = log10 = = ln = [ln x − ln (x − 1)]
x−1 ln 10 ln 10 x−1 ln 10
   
1 1 (x − 1) − 1.x 1 x−1−x −1
∴ f 0 (x) = = =
ln 10 x (x − 1) ln 10 x (x − 1) x (x − 1) ln 10

 √ 
61. y = ln x 1 − x2 sin x

1
ln 1 − x2 + ln sin x


y = ln x +
2
 
0 1 1 1 1
so y = + 2
(0 − 2x) + (cos x (1))
x 2 1−x sin x
 
1 1 −2x cos x
that is y0 = + +
x 2 1 − x2 sin x

1 −x
= + + cot x.
x 1 − x2

62. y = xsin x

You should take natural logs on both sides first and get:

ln y = ln xsin x

ln y = sin x ln x

Now take the derivatives of both sides:

1 0 1
y = cos x. ln x + sin x.
y x
   
sin x sin x
y0 = y cos x ln x + =x sin x cos x. ln x + .
x x

63. y = (sin x)x

Take logs on both sides and get:

ln y = x ln (sin x)

MAT1512 71
 1 0 1
and y = 1. ln (sin x) + x( . cos x),
y sin x
h cos x i
so y 0 = y ln (sin x) + x.
sin x

= (sin x)x [ln (sin x) + x. cot x] .

4.5.5 Logarithmic Functions

(a) The simplification of functions

As a result of its properties, a function involving the logarithmic function can be simplified
before it is differentiated, as becomes clear in the following example:

Example:

q 
Determine f 0 (x) if f (x) = ln 3 x−1
x2
.

Solution:

Now using properties (f), (g) and (h) of logarithmic functions described earlier on
 1/3
x−1
f (x) = ln
x2
1
ln (x − 1) − ln x2


=
3
1 2
= ln(x − 1) − ln x.
3 3

Therefore
   
1 1 2 1
f 0 (x) = −
3 (x − 1) 3 x
−x + 2
= .
3x (x − 1)

Even if the logarithmic function itself does not occur in the expression, it can be used for
the simplification of functions. We apply the logarithmic function to both sides of the
equation and then differentiate (see below).

72
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Remark:

d
Always remember that when applying the chain rule to dx (ln f (x)) , it becomes

d 1
(ln f (x)) = f 0 (x) .
dx f (x)

For example:
d
(ln sin x)
dx
1
= · cos x.
sin x

Examples:

64. Determine y 0 if y = x2 e2x cos x3 .

2
x(1−x2 )
65. Determine f 0 (x) if f (x) = √
1+x2
.
√
x2 +4
66. Determine f 0 (x) if f (x) = log3 3 .
(x−1) 2

Solutions:

64. We have that

y = x2 e2x cos x3

By applying the logarithmic function on both sides, we find that

ln y = ln x2 e2x cos x3

= 2 ln x + 2x + ln cos x3 .

By differentiating we obtain
1 0 2 1 3
· 3x2 .


·y = +2+ · − sin x
y x cos x3

Therefore
 
2
y0 = y + 2 − 3x2 tan x3
x
 
2 2x 3 2 2 3
= x e cos x + 2 − 3x tan x .
x

65.
2
x 1 − x2
f (x) = √
1 + x2

MAT1512 73
 Once again we apply the logarithmic function on both sides and thus obtain

2
x 1 − x2
ln f (x) = ln √
1 + x2
1
= ln x + 2 ln(1 − x2 ) − ln(1 + x2 ).
2

By differentiation we therefore obtain that

1 1 −4x x
· f 0 (x) = + 2
− .
f (x) x 1−x 1 + x2

Therefore

2 
x 1 − x2

0 1 4x x
f (x) = √ − −
1 + x2 x 1 − x2 1 + x2

2
2
1 − x2 4x2 1 − x2 x2 1 − x2


= √ − √ − 3
1 + x2 1 + x2 (1 + x2 ) 2

2
2
1 − x2 1 + x2 − 4x2 1 − x2 1 + x2 − x2 1 − x2




= 3
(1 + x2 ) 2
2 2 1 + x2 − 4x2 1 + x2 − x2 1 − x2






1−x 1−x
= 3
(1 + x2 ) 2
1 − 5x2 − 4x4 2



1−x
= 3 .
(1 + x2 ) 2

66.
√
x2 + 4
f (x) = log3 3
(x − 1) 2
1 3
= log3 (x2 + 4) − log3 (x − 1)
2 2

Now using the fact that

logb x
loga x = [Formula 10 on page 62 in Stewart]
logb a

we find that
1 loge x2 + 4


3 loge (x − 1)
f (x) = −
2 loge 3 2 loge 3
2


1 ln x + 4 3 ln (x − 1)
= − .
2 ln 3 2 ln 3

If we keep in mind that ln 3 is a constant, it follows that

1 1 3 1
f 0 (x) = · · 2x − ·
2 ln 3 x2 + 4 2 ln 3 x − 1
x 3
= 2
− .
(x + 4) ln 3 2 (x − 1) ln 3

74
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

(b) Functions of the form f (x) = g(x)h(x)

We employ logarithmic differentiation to differentiate functions of the form

f (x) = g(x)h(x)

Just as in (a), we do this by applying the logarithmic function on both sides and then
making use of the properties of the logarithmic function.

Then
ln f (x) = ln g(x)h(x) .

Therefore
ln f (x) = h(x). ln g(x).

Example:

√ √
x
Determine f 0 (x) if f (x) = x .

Solution:

By applying the logarithmic function on both sides, we obtain

√ √x
ln f (x) = ln x
√ √
= x · ln x

By differentiating, we obtain from the chain rule and the product rule that

1 √ 1 1 1 √ 1 1
f 0 (x) = x · √ · x− 2 + ln x · x− 2
f (x) x 2 2
1 1 √
= √ + √ ln x.
2 x 2 x

Therefore
√
 
0 1 1
f (x) = f (x) √ + √ ln x
2 x 2 x
√ √x √

 
1
= x √ 1 + ln x
2 x
√ √x
x √
= √ (1 + ln x).
2 x

MAT1512 75
 [See the remark earlier on under (a) The simplification of functions]. Now attempt the fol-
lowing yourself. (The answers are given at the end, so that you can make sure that you
understand this important section well.)

Determine f 0 (x) below:

 √ 
67. f (x) = ln x + x2 + 1 (be careful with this exercise!)

√
68. f (x) = (ln x) x

r
3 x2 − 1
69. f (x) = ln
x2 + 1

2
70. f (x) = xln x + 7x 3

1
x (x − 1) 3
71. f (x) = 2
(x + 1) 3

2
72. f (x) = a3x

−x2
73. f (x) = xe

74. f (x) = log10 (log10 x)

Solutions:

1
67. √ . (Use the chain rule on the right-hand side and simplify.)
x2 +1

√
x  
(ln x) 1 ln ln x
68. √ + .
x ln x 2

4x
69. .
3 (x4 − 1)

2 ln x 2 ln 7 2
70. × xln x + 1 × 7x 3 .
x 3x 3

76
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

2x2 + 3x − 3
71. 2 5 .
3 (x − 1) 3 (x + 1) 3

2
72. 6x a3x ln a.

−x2 2
73. xe · e−x ( x1 − 2x ln x).

1
74. .
x ln x ln 10

4.5.6 Implicit Differentiation

This technique is used when the function contains variables that cannot be separated from
each other. This process of differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to x and
then solving for y 0 (x) is called implicit differentiation.

Example:

Find y 0 (x) for x2 + y 3 − 2y = 3. Then find the slope of the tangent line at the point (2, 1).

Solutions:

d d
x2 + y 3 − 2y =


Differentiate both sides (3)
dx dx
with respect to x : 2x + 3y 2 y 0 (x) − 2y 0 (x) = 0

3y 2 y 0 (x) − 2y 0 (x) = −2x

Solve for y 0 (x) :
−2x
y 0 (x) =
3y 2 − 2

Find the slope of the

−4
tangent line at (2, 1) : y 0 (2) = = −4
3−2

Therefore the equation of the tangent line is

y − 1 = −4(x − 2).

MAT1512 77
 Now try the following exercises:

75. Find y 0 (x) for x2 y 2 − 2x = 4 − 4y. Then find the slope of the tangent line at the
point (2, −2) .

76. Determine the derivative of tan−1 x.

 
5
77. Van der Waal’s equation for a specific gas is P+ 2 (V − 0.03) = 9.7.
V

Using the volume V as a function of pressure, use implicit differentiation to find the
dV
derivative at the point (2, −2).
dP

dy
tan xy 2 + 3y = 2xy.


78. Find if
dx

dy
79. Find if y 2 x2 + y + cos (xy) = 0.
dx

dy
80. Find if sin (x + y) = y 2 cos x.
dx

Solutions:

75.
d d
x2 y 2 − 2x


= (4 − 4y)
dx  dx
2 2 dy dy
⇒ 2xy + x 2y −2 = 0−4
dx dx

dy
⇒ 2x2 y + 4 = 2 − 2xy 2
dx
dy 2 − 2xy 2
⇒ =
dx 2x2 y + 4
2 − 2 (2) (−2)2

dy  −14 7
∴ = mt = 2 = =
dx (2,−2) 2 (−2) (2) + 4 −12 6
where mt represents slope of the tangent line.

The equation of the tangent line is

7
y − (−2) = (x − 2)
6
7 14
that is y+2 = x−
6 6
7 14
that is y = x− −2
6 6
7 14 12
= x− −
6 6 6
7 26
= x−
6 6
7 13
= x− .
6 3

76. The derivative of tan−1 x:

78
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

Note: Since tan x is differentiable, tan−1 x is also differentiable. To find its

derivative, let y = tan−1 x. Then
−1


tan y = tan tan x ⇒ tan y = x.

Differentiate this equation implicitly with respect to x to get:

dy
sec2 y = 1.
dx

dy 1 1 1
Then = 2
= 2 = .
dx sec y 1 + tan y 1 + x2

d 1
tan−1 x =


Therefore .
dx 1 + x2

77.
5


P+ V2
(V − 0.03) = 9.7

5 0.15
⇒ P V − 0.03P + V − = 9.7
V2
d
P V − 0.03P + 5V −1 − 0.15V −2 = 0


⇒
dP
 
dV dV dV
⇒ 1V + P − 0.03 + 5 (−1) V −2 + 2 · (0.15) V −3 =0
 dP  dP dP
5 0.3 dV
⇒ P− 2+ 3 = 0.03 − V
V V dP
dV 0.03 − V
⇒ =
dP 5 0.3
P− 2+ 3
V V


dV  0.03 − (−2)
∴ =
dP (2,−2) 5 0.3
2− 2 +
(−2) (−2)3
0.03 + 2
=
5 0.3
2− −
4 8
203/100 812
= = .
57/80 150

78. tan xy 2 + 3y = 2xy

Differentiate on both sides:

dy dy dy
sec2 (xy 2 )[y 2 + 2xy ]+3 = 2y + 2x dx
dx dx
 dy
2xy sec2 (xy 2 ) − 2x + 3 2y − y 2 sec2 (xy 2 )

⇒ =
dx
dy 2y − y 2 sec2 (xy 2 )
⇒ = .
dx 2xy sec2 (xy 2 ) − 2x + 3

MAT1512 79
 79. y 2 x2 + y + cos (xy) = 0

Differentiate on both sides:

 
dy 2 2 dy dy
2y x + 2xy + − sin(xy) y + x = 0
dx dx dx
 dy
2yx2 + 1 − x sin(xy) −2xy 2 + y sin(xy)

⇒ =
dx
dy y sin(xy) − 2xy 2
⇒ = .
dx 2x2 y + 1 − x sin(xy)

80. sin (x + y) = y 2 cos x

Differentiate on both sides:

dy
dy
cos(x + y) · 1 + = 2y dx cos x + y 2 (− sin x)
dx
dy dy
⇒ cos(x + y) + cos(x + y) = 2y dx cos x − y 2 sin x
dx
dy 
−y 2 sin x − cos(x + y)

⇒ cos(x + y) − 2y cos x =
dx
dy −y 2 sin x − cos(x + y)
⇒ = .
dx cos(x + y) − 2y cos x

4.5.7 Tangents and Normal Lines

From your high-school mathematics, you should know that differentiating the equa-
tion of a curve gives you a formula for the gradient (m) of the curve. The gradient of
a curve at a point is equal to the gradient of the tangent at that point. For example,
in order to find the equation of the tangent to the curve y = x3 at the point (2, 8),
you first have to determine the derivative: m = y 0 = 3x2 .

The gradient of the tangent at the point (2, 8) when x = 2 is 3 (2)2 = 12

 
∆y 8−y
The equation for the tangent line is: y = 12x − 16 since = = 12 .
∆x 2−x

The normal to the curve is the line which is perpendicular (at right angles) to the
tangent to the curve at that point. If two lines are perpendicular, then the product
of their gradients is −1. So if the gradient of the tangent at the point (2, 8) of the
1 1
curve y = x3 is 12, then the gradient of the normal is − , since − × 12 = −1.
12 12
Now try to work through the following problems involving tangents and normal lines.
Note, we have used the fact that mt mn = −1 where mt and mn are the
slopes of tangent and normal lines respectively.

Examples:

80
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

81. Two curves are said to be orthogonal at a point where the curves intersect if
their tangents are perpendicular to each other at the point of intersection. Show
that the curves y = sin(2x) and y = − sin( x2 ) are orthogonal at the origin.

82. Find the x- and y-intercepts of the line that is tangent to the curve y = x3 at
the point (−2, −8).

83. Does the graph of the function

y = 2x + sin x

have any horizontal tangents in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π? If so, where? If not,
why not?

84. Find equations for the lines that are tangent and normal to the curve f (x) =
1 + cos x at the point (π/2, 1).

85. (a) Find the equation for the tangent to the graph of
4
h(x) =
(1 + x)2

which makes an angle of 45◦ with the x-axis.

[NB: Assume that the scales along the x- and y-axes are the same. Angles
are measured counterclockwise from the positive x-axis.]

(b) What is the equation of the normal to the curve of h at the point of tangency
for the tangent considered in (a) above?

86. Find the points on the curve y = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 20 where the tangent is
parallel to the x-axis. What are the equations for these tangents?

87. Determine the equation for the normal to the curve of

1
f (x) = 2
x +1

at the point x = 1.

88. Determine the equations for the tangents to the curve of y = x3 − 6x + 2 which
are parallel to the line y = 6x − 2.

89. The line normal to the curve y = x2 + 2x − 3 at (1, 0) intersects the curve at
what other point?

90. What are the equations for the tangents to the curve f (x) = x2 + 5x + 9 which
passes through the origin?

91. Find the equations of the tangent and the normal lines to the curve of
 π
2xy + π sin y = 2π at the point 1, .
2

MAT1512 81
 92. Find the equations for the tangent and the normal lines to the curve of
x sin (2y) = y cos (2x)

π π


at the point 4, 2 .

Solutions:

81.
y = sin(2x)
dy d
⇒ = (cos(2x)) (2x)
dx dx
= 2 cos(2x),

so 
dy 
= 2 × 1 = 2.
dx x=0

Also,
x
y = − sin( )
2
dy x d x
⇒ = − cos( )
dx 2 dx 2
1 x
= − cos( ).
2 2
so 
dy  1 1
=− ×1=− .
dx x=0
 2 2

 
1
Since − (2) = −1, the given curves are orthogonal at the origin.
2

82. Let
f (x) = x3 .

Then
f 0 (x) = 3x2 ,

so the gradient at the point (−2, −8) is f 0 (−2) , that is 12. The equation of the
tangent at the point (−2, −8) is therefore given by
y − (−8) = 12(x − (−2))

or
y = 12x + 16
= 4(3x + 4).

4
The x-intercept of this tangent is − and its y-intercept is 16.
3

82
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

83. Let
f (x) = 2x + sin x.

Then
f 0 (x) = 2 + cos x.

Now the gradient of a horizontal line is 0, so if the graph of f is to have a horizontal

tangent at the point (x, f (x)), then the value of f 0 (x) must be 0. We must therefore
solve the equation
f 0 (x) = 0

for all values of x occurring in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. But if

2 + cos x = 0

then
cos x = −2,

which is impossible. Hence the graph of f has no horizontal tangents.

84.

f (x) = 1 + cos x
⇒ f 0 (x) = − sin x
mt = −1

π  π 
Hence the gradient at the point , 1 is f 0 that is −1. The equation of the
π  2 2
tangent at the point , 1 is therefore
2
y − y1 = mt (x − x1 )
 π
y − 1 = −1 x −
2
π
y = −x + + 1.
2

−1
Since mt mn = −1 ⇒ mn = m t
= −1
−1 = 1. The gradient of the normal at the point
π  π 
, 1 is 1. The equation for the normal at the point , 1 is therefore
2 2
y − y1 = mn (x − x1 )
 π
y−1 = 1 x−
2
π
y = x − + 1.
2

85. (a) The tangent which makes an angle of 45◦ with the x-axis has a gradient of 1. To
find the x-coordinate of the corresponding point of tangency, we let m = tan θ
be the slope

h0 (x) = 1

MAT1512 83
 and solve for x. Now

h(x) = 4(1 + x)−2

⇒ h0 (x) = −8(1 + x)−3 ,

and
8
− = 1
(1 + x)3
⇔ x = −3.

We have that
4
h(−3) = = 1.
(1 − 3)2

The tangent thus passes through the point (−3, 1) and has a gradient of 1. Its
equation is
y = 1.(x + 3) + 1

that is
y = x + 4.

(b) We obtain the equation for the required normal:

y = −1.(x + 3) + 1

that is
y = −x − 2.

86.

y = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 20

⇒ y 0 = 6x2 − 6x − 12.

Now

6x2 − 6x − 12 = 0
⇒ 6(x2 − x − 2) = 0
⇒ 6(x − 2)(x + 1) = 0
⇒ x = 2 or x = −1.

If x = 2 then y = 2 × 8 − 3 × 4 − 24 + 20 = 0.

If x = −1 then y = −2 − 3 + 12 + 20 = 27.

The required points are (2, 0) and (−1, 27). The equations for the tangents are y = 0
and y = 27 respectively.

84
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

87.
1 2

−1
f (x) = = x + 1
x2 + 1
⇒ f (x) = −(x2 + 1)−2 · 2x
0

1
∴ f 0 (1) = − ,
2

so the gradient of the normal at x = 1 is 2. Now

1
f (1) = ,
2

so the equation for the normal at x = 1 is

1
y− = 2(x − 1).
2

dy
88. The slope of the tangent to the curve of y = x3 − 6x + 2 is given by y 0 = . Now
dx
y 0 = 3x2 − 6.

Since the tangent must be parallel to y = 6x − 2, we must have that y 0 is equal to

the slope of y = 6x − 2, that is

y0 = 6
⇔ 3x2 −6 = 6
⇔ 3x2 − 12 = 0
⇔ x2 − 4 = 0
⇔ x = ±2.

The corresponding y-values are

y = (−2)3 − 6(−2) + 2
= −8 + 12 + 2 = 6

for x = −2, and

y = (2)3 − 6(2) + 2
= 8 − 12 + 2 = −2

for x = 2.

Therefore the tangent points are (−2, 6) and (2, −2).

The equation for a line with slope m which passes through (xo , yo ) is given by

y − yo = m(x − xo ).

MAT1512 85
 The tangent through (−2, 6) therefore has the equation

y − 6 = 6(x − (−2))
= 6x + 12

that is
y = 6x + 18.

The tangent through (2, −2) has the equation

y − (−2) = 6(x − 2)

that is
y + 2 = 6x − 12

that is
y = 6x − 14.

89. The normal to the curve y = x2 + 2x − 3 at the point (1, 0) is perpendicular to the
tangent at that point. Hence, if we know the gradient of the tangent we can calculate
the gradient of the normal. Now if

f (x) = x2 + 2x − 3

then
f 0 (x) = 2x + 2.

Thus
f 0 (1) = 4,

1
which is the gradient of the tangent. Hence the gradient of the normal is − . Since
4
the normal passes through the point (1, 0), its equation is
1
y − 0 = − (x − 1)
4

that is
1 1
y =− x+ .
4 4

1 1
To find the points of intersection of the curve y = x2 +2x−3 and the line y = − x+ ,
4 4
let
1 1
x2 + 2x − 3 = − x + .
4 4

Then
4x2 + 8x − 12 = −x + 1

86
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

so
4x2 + 9x − 13 = 0,

that is
(x − 1)(4x + 13) = 0.

13 13
Hence x = 1 or x = − . If x = − then
4 4
1 1 13 1 17
− x+ = + = .
4 4 16 4 16

 
13 17
The other point of intersection of the normal and the curve is therefore − , .
4 16

90. The equation of the tangent at a point (α, f (α)) is

y − f (α) = f 0 (α)(x − α),

that is
y = f 0 (α) · x − α · f 0 (α) + f (α).

The tangent will pass through the origin only if the y-intercept is 0, that is
f (α) − α · f 0 (α) = 0,

and then the equation of the tangent becomes

y = f 0 (α) · x. (4.1)

Hence the solutions of the equation

f (x) − x · f 0 (x) = 0

will give the x-coordinates α of the points of contact between the tangents and the
curve, and then the equations of the corresponding tangents can be determined from
(∗).

Now
f (x) = x2 + 5x + 9
⇒ f 0 (x) = 2x + 5,

and
f (x) − x · f 0 (x) = 0
⇒ x2 + 5x + 9 − x(2x + 5) = 9 − x2 = 0
⇒ x = 3 or x = −3.

MAT1512 87
 We have that f 0 (3) = 11 and f 0 (−3) = −1. Hence the required tangents have the
formulae y = 11x and y = −x.

91. 2xy + π sin y = 2π

Differentiate both sides:

dy dy
2y + 2x dx + π cos y = 0
dx
dy
⇒ (2x + π cos y) = −2y
dx
dy −2y
⇒ = .
dx 2x + π cos y

At (1, π2 ):
dy −2 · π2 π
= π =− .
dx 2 + π cos 2 2

Equation of the tangent line:

π
y− 2 = − π2 (x − 1) ⇒ y = − π2 x + π.

Equation of the normal line:

π
y− 2 = π2 (x − 1) ⇒ y = π2 x − 2
π + π2 .

92. x sin (2y) = y cos (2x)

Differentiate both sides:

dy dy
sin 2y + x cos 2y = cos 2x − 2y sin 2x
dx dx
dy  
⇒ 2x cos 2y − cos 2x = −2y sin 2x − sin 2y
dx
dy 2y sin 2x + sin 2y
⇒ = .
dx cos 2x − 2x cos 2y

At the point ( π4 , π2 ) the slope is:

dy π sin( π2 ) + sin π π
= π 2π = 2π = 2.
dx cos( 2 ) − 4 cos π 4

Therefore the equation of the tangent at the point ( π4 , π2 ) is:

π π
y− = 2(x − )
2 4
⇒ y = 2x,

88
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

and the equation of the normal line is:

1 5π
y =− x+ .
2 8

4.5.8 The Mean Value Theorem

In this section we discuss the Mean Value Theorem. Please read carefully through Sections
4.2 of Chapter 4 in Stewart. We would advise you to work through the examples in order
to become familiar with how the Mean Value Theorem is applied. In section 4.2 you have
to understand theorems 1 and 3. You have to be able to apply these theorems. Please
work through examples 3 to 5 in this section.

The Mean Value Theorem is one of the most important tools in calculus. It states that if
f (x) is defined and continuous on the interval [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b), then there
is at least one number c in the interval (a, b) (that is a < c < b) such that
f (b) − f (a)
f 0 (c) = .
b−a

The special case when f (a) = f (b) is known as Rolle’s Theorem. In that case, we have
f 0 (c) = 0. In other words, there exists a point in the interval (a, b) which has a horizontal
tangent. In fact, the Mean Value Theorem can be stated in terms of slopes.

The number
f (b) − f (a)
b−a

is the slope of the line passing through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)), see Figure 4.4.

Example:

1
Let f (x) = , a = −1 and b = 1. We have
x

f (b) − f (a) 1−(−1) 2

= 1−(−1) = = 1.
b−a 2

1
On the other hand, for any c ∈ [−1, 1] , not equal to 0, we have f 0 (c) = − 6= 1.
c2

f (b) − f (a)
So the equation f 0 (c) = does not have a solution for c. This does not
b−a
contradict the Mean Value Theorem, since f (x) is not continuous on [−1, 1].

Note: The derivative of a constant function is 0. You may wonder whether a function
with a derivative of zero is constant – the answer is yes. To show this, we let f (x) be a

MAT1512 89
 Figure 4.4: Illustration of the Mean Value Theorem

differentiable function on an interval I, with f 0 (x) = 0, for every x ∈ I. Then for a and b
f (b) − f (a)
in I, the Mean Value Theorem implies that = f 0 (c) for some point c between
b−a
a and b. So our assumption implies that f (b) − f (a) = 0. (b − a). Thus f (b) = f (a) for
any a and b in I, which means that f (x) is a constant function.

Worked Examples:

For the following functions, find a value of c which complies with the Mean Value Theorem.

93. f (x) = x2 + 1, on the interval [−2, 2].

94. f (x) = x3 + x2 , on the interval [0, 1].

95. f (x) = sin x, on the interval [0, π2 ].

Solutions:

93. Since f (x) = x2 + 1 is a polynomial, f (x) is continuous on [−2, 2] and differentiable

on (−2, 2). According to the Mean Value Theorem, this means that there is a number
c in (−2, 2) for which


2 + 1 − (−2)2 + 1

f (2) − f (−2) 2 5−5 0
f 0 (c) = = = = = 0.
2 − (−2) 4 4 4

90
 Study Unit 4: Differentiation Rules

To find this number c, we obtain f 0 (c) and then set f 0 (c) = 0.

f 0 (c) = 2c and 2c = 0, so c = 0

Notice that c = 0 ∈ (−2, 2) ∴ c = 0.

94. f (x) = x3 + x2 is a polynomial, continuous on [0, 1] and differentiable on (0, 1).

According to the Mean Value Theorem, there is a number c in (0, 1) for which

f (1) − f (0) 2−0

f 0 (c) = = = 2.
1 − (0) 1

But f 0 (c) = 3c2 + 2c.

So, f 0 (c) = 3c2 + 2c = 2 ⇒ 3c2 + 2c − 2 = 0.

Using the quadratic formula we get

p √ √
−2 ± 22 − 4 (3) (−2) −2 ± 28 −2 ± 2 7
c = = =
2 (3) 6 6
√ √ √
−1 ± 7 −1 − 7 −1 + 7
c = ⇒c= or c =
3 3 3
⇒ c ≈ −1.22 or c ≈ 0.55.

But since c ≈ −1.22 ∈

/ [0, 1] , we only accept the alternative c ≈ 0.55 that is
√
−1 + 7
c= .
3

95. f (x) = sin x, on the interval 0, π2 .

 

function, it means that f (x) is continuous on 0, π2

 
As f (x) = sin x is a trigonometric
and differentiable on 0,
π2 . The conditions for the Mean Value Theorem hold, and

so there exists c ∈ 0, π2 such that

f π2 − f (0) sin π2 sin (0)

0 1−0 1 2
f (c) = π = π = π = π = .
2 −0 2 2 2 π

But f 0 (x) = cos x, f 0 (c) = cos c and c has to be in the first quadrant. Thus
 
2  π
c= cos−1 ≈ 0.88, and so c = 0.88 ∈ 0, . Therefore the number c we are
π   2
2
looking for is c = cos−1 ≈ 0.88.
π

MAT1512 91
 Key points

You should by now have an understanding of the notion of differentiability and should also
be able to compute the derivatives of different functions using basic differential formulas
such as the power, product, quotient and chain rules. Think of differentiation as a pro-
cess during which a function is “processed” to produce another function - the derivative.
This process (differentiation) is carried out using different formulas and rules. We have
introduced the basic ones in this chapter. We have also demonstrated some techniques
you can use to compute the derivatives of different algebraic and trigonometric functions.
In addition to this, we have demonstrated how some theorems, such as the Mean Value
Theorem, can be applied.

At this stage you should be able to

• compute the derivative of a function from first principles (using the definition of the
derivative)

• distinguish between the continuity and differentiability of a function

• use the basic differentiation formulas to compute derivatives of algebraic and trigono-
metric functions

• compute the derivatives of trigonometric functions and inverse trigonometric func-

tions, as well as exponential and logarithmic functions

• use the methods of logarithmic differentiation and implicit differentiation to find

derivatives

• solve problems involving tangents and normal lines and apply the Mean Value The-
orem

Continue practising solving problems until you have mastered the basic techniques! Go
through the section “For your review”at the end of each chapter to consolidate what you
have learnt and also use other calculus textbooks.

92
 Study Unit 5

Integrals

5.1 Background

In principle, calculus deals with two geometric problems: the one is to find the tangent
line to a curve and the other is to find the area of a region under a curve. Both these
problems are limiting processes. The first is called differentiation and the second process
is integration. In this chapter we turn to the latter process.

To find the area of the region under the graph of a positive continuous function f defined
on an interval [a, b] we subdivide the interval [a, b] into a finite number of subintervals,
say
Pn n, the k-th subinterval having length ∆xk , and then we consider the sum of the form
k=1 f (tk )∆xk , where tk is some point in the k-th subinterval. This sum is an approxi-
mation of the area that is arrived at by adding up n rectangles. Making the subdivisions
R b we let n → ∞ and, roughly speaking, this
finer and finer, this sum will tend to a limit as
limit is the definition of the definite integral a f (x)dx (Riemann’s definition).

The two concepts, “derivative” and “integral”, arise in entirely different ways and it is a
remarkable fact indeed that the two are intimately connected. We will show that differen-
tiation and integration are, in a sense, inverse operations.

There is a connection between differential calculus and integral calculus. This connection
is called the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus and we shall see in this chapter that it
greatly simplifies the solving of many problems.

5.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• show that you understand the notion of the antiderivative by finding the antideriva-
tive of basic algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions

MAT1512 93
 • use the Fundamental
R g(x) Theorem of Calculus to find the derivatives of functions of the
form F (x) = a f (t) dt

• evaluate definite integrals and use them to determine the area between a curve and
the x-axis, and the area between curves

• use substitution or term-by-term integration techniques to integrate basic algebraic,

trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions

• solve problems involving the Mean Value Theorem for definite integrals

Note: The way to master calculus is to solve lots of calculus problems!

5.3 Prescribed Reading

The prescribed sections of Stewart are 4.9, 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5 and in Chapter 6 only
Section 6.1.

5.4 Worked Examples

Our collection of worked examples pertains to the work covered in Section 4.9, Chapter 5
and Section 6.1 of Chapter 6 of Stewart. It can be divided into 11 sets (with some overlap),
namely:

I. Antiderivative

II. The definite integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part II

III. The definite integral and the area between the curve and the x-axis

IV. The definite integral and the area under the curve

V. The Mean Value Theorem for definite integrals

VI. The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part I

VII. Integration in general

VIII. Indefinite integrals

IX. The substitution rule

X. Integration of exponential and logarithmic functions

94
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

XI. Review of formulas and techniques of integration

Attempt the problems appearing immediately after each set once you have studied the
relevant parts of Stewart and done some of the exercises there.

Table 5.1 shows how these worked examples and their solutions are organised.

Topic(s) Sections in Study guide

Stewart examples
I. Antiderivatives Section 4.9 1–10
II. The definite integral and the Section 5.3 11–14
Fundamental Theorem of pages 396–399
Calculus – Part II
III. The definite integral and the area Sections 5.2 and 6.1 15–17
between the curve and the x-axis
IV. The definite integral and the Section 6.1 18–21
area under the curve
V. The Mean Value Theorem for Section 6.5 22 & 23
definite integrals page 461–462
VI. The Fundamental Theorem of Section 5.3 24–30
Calculus – Part I pages 394–398
VII. Integration in general Chapters 5 & 6, Section 4.9 11–52
VIII. Indefinite integrals Section 5.4 pages 402–405 31–34
IX. The substitution rule Section 5.5 pages 412–418 35–37
X. Integration of exponential and Appendix G 38–39, 43, 45 and 51
logarithmic functions A50–A53
XI. Review of formulas and 40–50
techniques of integration page 471

Table 5.1: Sections in Stewart.

5.4.1 Antiderivatives

If we have been given a function, we can find its derivative. But many mathematical
problems and their applications require us to solve the inverse (the reverse) of the derivative
problem. This means that, given a function f , you may be required to find a function F
of which the derivative is f . If such a function F exists, it is called an antiderivative of f .

The process of undoing differentiation (in other words, the reverse of differentiation) is
known as integration. The antiderivative is known as an integral.

MAT1512 95
 Find the general antiderivative of the following functions:

1. x−3 + x2

1
2. √
26x

2 1
3. x 3 + 2x− 3

4. θ + sec θ tan θ
 
3 2 3θ
5. − csc
2 2

6. cos πx
2 + π cos x

Find the function f if f 0 is given as follows:

√
5
7. f 0 (x) = sin x − x2

8. f 0 (x) = 3 cos x + 5 sin x

√
9. f 0 (t) = sin 4t − 2 t
√
7
10. f 0 (t) = t4 + t−6

Solutions:

1. x−3 + x2

General antiderivative:
1 x3
− x−2 + +c
2 3
by the power rule (see Stewart pages 173, 175, 200 and 221).
1
2. 1
√
26x
= 12 x− 6

General antiderivative:
1 6 5
· x 6 + c (power rule)
2 5
3 5
= x 6 + c.
5

2 1
3. x 3 + 2x− 3

General antiderivative:
3 5 3 2
x 3 + 2. x 3 + c (power rule)
5 2
3 5 2
= x 3 + 3x 3 + c.
5

96
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

4. θ + sec θ tan θ

General antiderivative:
1 2
θ + sec θ + c.
2

3 3
5. − csc2 θ
2 2

General antiderivative:
3
cot θ + c.
2

6. cos π2 x + π cos x

General antiderivative:
2 π
sin x + π sin x + c.
π 2

7.
√
5
f 0 (x) = sin x − x2
2
= sin x − x 5

5 7
⇒ f (x) = − cos x − x 5 + c.
7

8.

f 0 (x) = 3 cos x + 5 sin x

⇒ f (x) = 3 sin x − 5 cos x + c.

9.
√ 1
f 0 (t) = sin 4t − 2 t = sin 4t − 2t 2
1 2 3
⇒ f (t) = − cos 4t − 2 · t 2 + c
4 3
1 4 3
= − cos 4t − t 2 + c.
4 3

10.
√
7 4
f 0 (t) = t4 + t−6 = t 7 + t−6
7 11 1 −5
⇒ f (t) = t 7 − t + c.
11 5

MAT1512 97
 5.4.2 The Definite Integral and the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part II

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part II is stated as follows:

If f is continuous on [a, b] and F (x) is any antiderivative of f (x) , then

Rb
a f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a)

Examples:

Compute the following integrals using the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus:

11.
Z 2 2 
2 1 3
2 

x − 2x dx = x −x 
0 3 0
 
8 4
= −4 =− .
3 3

12.
Z 4 √  Z 4
1 1
x− 2 dx = x 2 − x−2 dx
1 x 1
 4    
2 3 −1 
 2 3
−1 2 −1
= x +x
2
 = 3 (4) + 4
2 − +1
3 1 3
16 1 2 47
= + − −1= .
3 4 3 12

13.
Z 4
e−2x dx
0
1 −2x 4
   
1 8 1 0
= − e  = −2e − −2e
2 0
1 −8 1
= − e + .
2 2

Note that in the example above, the integral of an exponential function is just the
exponential function with its index divided by the derivative of its index.

14.
Z −1
2
dx
−3 x
= 2 ln |x|−1
−3 = 2 (ln |−1| − ln |−3|)
= 2 (ln 1 − ln 3) = −2 ln 3.

98
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

5.4.3 The Definite Integral and the Area Between the Curve and the x-axis

It is important to understand that the definite integral of a continuous function f evaluates

the area between the graph of this function f and the x-axis. See the following examples.

Examples:

15. Find the area under the curve of f (x) = sin x on the interval [0, π] , always true for
x ∈ [0, π] .

Solution: Z π
Area = sin xdx = (− cos π) + (cos 0) = (1) − (−1) = 2.
0

16. [The connection between area and calculus]

R5
Calculate the value of 2 (2x − 4) dx geometrically by using a suitable sketch. Then
test your answer with the aid of integration.

MAT1512 99
 Solution:

(a) Geometrically:

The graph of y = 2x − 4 looks like this:

Figure 5.1: Graph of y = 2x − 4

Therefore
Z 5
(2x − 4)dx = area of triangle A
2
= 1/2 × base × height
= 1/2 × 3 × 6
= 9.

(b) Test with the aid of integration:

F (x) = x2 − 4x is an antiderivative of y = 2x − 4 and hence

Z 5
(2x − 4)dx = F (5) − F (2)
2
= (25 − 20) − (4 − 8)
= 9,

which is the same as in (a) above.

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 Study Unit 5: Integrals

17. Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of f (x) = 2x + x2 −
x3 , −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Solution:

Figure 5.2: Graph of f (x) = 2x + x2 − x3

First find the zeros of f . Since

f (x) = 2x + x2 − x3 = −x(−2 − x + x2 ) = −x(x + 1)(x − 2),

the zeros are x = 0, −1, and 2. It is clear that the zeros partition the interval [−1, 2] into
two subintervals:[−1, 0] and [0, 2] with f (x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ [−1, 0] and f (x) ≥ 0 for all
x ∈ [0, 2]. We integrate over each subinterval and add the absolute values of the calculated
values.

Integral over [−1, 0]:

0
x3 x4 i0
Z h
(2x + x2 − x3 )dx = x2 + −
−1 3 4 −1
h (−1)3 (−1)4 i
= 0 − (−1)2 + −
3 4
5
= − .
12

MAT1512 101
 Integral over [0, 2]:
2
x3 x4 i2
Z h
(2x + x2 − x3 )dx = x2 +
−
0 3 4 0
h (2) 3 (2)4 i
= (2)2 + − −0
3 4
8
= [4 + − 4]
3
8
= .
3
Enclosed area:

Total enclosed area =  −5

  8 37
12 + 3 = 12 .
  

5.4.4 The Definite Integral and Area Under the Curve

If f and g are continuous functions with f (x) ≥ g (x) throughout [a, b], then the area of
the region between the curves of f and g from a to b is the integral of [f − g] from a to b.
The area bounded by the two curves y = f (x) and y = g (x) on the interval [a, b] where f
and g are continuous, is written as follows:
Z b
A= [f (x) − g (x)] dx.
a

This is shown in the sketch below:

Steps To Find The Area Under a Curve

(i) Sketch the graphs of the given functions.

(ii) Determine the boundaries of integration, which are the points of intersection of the
graphs by equating both functions.

102
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

(iii) Apply the formula for determining the area under a curve
Z b
A= [f (x) − g (x)] dx.
a

where f (x) bounds or is above g(x), ie f (x) ≥ g (x) on [a, b], a and b are the
boundaries of integration determined in (ii) above.

(iv) Then integrate to evaluate the area.

Examples:

18. Evaluate the area between the curves f (x) = 5 − x2 and g (x) = |x + 1|.

Solution:

Figure 5.3: Graph of f (x) = 5 − x2 and g(x) = |x + 1|

Points of intersection:

−(x + 1) = 5 − x2
⇒ x2 − x − 6 = 0
⇒ (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 ⇒ x = 3 or x = −2,

and

x + 1 = 5 − x2
⇒ x2 + x − 4 = 0
√
−1 ± 17
⇒ x = .
2
It is clear that the limits of integration√ are the x-values of the points of intersection of
the two curves: a = −2 and b = −1+2 17 . Now we evaluate the area of the region by
integrating:

MAT1512 103
 √
Z −1+ 17
2
A = [5 − x2 − |x + 1|]dx
−2
√
−1+ 17
Z −1 Z
2
= [5 − x2 − (−x − 1)]dx + [5 − x2 − (x + 1)]dx
−2 −1
√
−1+ 17
Z −1 Z
2
= [−x2 + x + 6]dx + [−x2 − x + 4]dx
−2 −1
√
x3 x2 −1  x3 x2  −1+ 17
= − + + 6x −2 + − − + 4x −1 2
3 2 3 2
√
3 √
2
− −1 + 17 − −1 + 17
 
1 1 8
= + −6− + 2 − 12 + +
3 2 3 24 8
√
! 
− −1 + 17

1 1
+4 − − −4
2 3 2
√ √
−8 (−1 + 17)3 (−1 + 17)2 √
= +9− − + 2(−1 + 17)
3 24 8

We would like to encourage you to leave your answers unsimplified, as you are
not allowed to use a calculator in your examinations!

19. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = 3 − x and y = x2 − 9.

Solution:

Find the points of intersection by equating the two functions:

3 − x = x2 − 9
⇒ 0 = x2 + x − 12 = (x − 3) (x + 4)
that is x = 3 or x = −4.

The two curves intersect at x = 3 and x = −4 (see Figure 5.4).

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 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Figure 5.4: Graph of y = 3 − x and y = x2 − 9

The height of the bounded area is h (x) = (3 − x) − x2 − 9 .

Therefore
Z 3
(3 − x) − x2 − 9


A = dx
−4
Z 3 3
x3 x2

2


= −x − x + 12 dx = − − + 12x
−4 3 2 −4
 3 2
 " 3 2
#
3 3 (−4) (−4)
= − − + 12 (3) − − − + 12 (−4)
3 2 3 2
343
= .
6

20. Find the area bounded by the graphs of y = x2 and y = 2 − x2 for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.

MAT1512 105
 Solution:

Figure 5.5: Graph of y = x2 and y = 2 − x2

Since the curves intersect in the middle of the interval, you have to compute two integrals,
namely for 2 − x2 ≥ x2 and for x2 ≥ 2 − x2 .

To find the point of intersection, solve for x :

x2 = 2 − x2 ⇒ 2x2 = 2 ⇒ x = ±1.

Note that only x = +1 is relevant since x = −1 is outside the given interval.

Z 1 Z 2
2 − x2 − x2 dx +
 2
x − 2 − x2 dx



A =
0 1
Z 1 Z 2
2 − 2x2 dx + 2x2 − 2 dx



=
0 1
1 2
2x3 3
       
2x 2 16 2
= 2x − + − 2x = 2− − (0 − 0) + −4 − −2
3 0 3 1 3 3 3
4 4 4
= + + = 4.
3 3 3

21. Find the area bounded by the graphs of x = y 2 and x = 2 − y 2 .

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 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Figure 5.6: Graph of x = y 2 and x = 2 − y 2

Solution:

It is easier to compute this area by integrating with respect to y. Therefore we find the
points of intersection by solving for y.

y 2 = 2 − y 2 ⇒ y 2 = 1 ⇒ y = ±1.

In the interval [−1, 1] ,

Z 1 Z 1
2 − y 2 − y 2 dy = 2 − 2y 2 dy



A =
−1 −1
 1    
2 2 2 8
= 2y − y 3 = 2− − −2 + = .
3 −1 3 3 3

5.5 The Mean Value Theorem for Definite Integrals

Now we state the Mean Value Theorem for definite integrals

If f is continuous on the interval [a, b] there is at

least one number c between a and b such that
Rb
the area under the curve between a and b = a f (x) dx = (b − a) f (c)

1
Rb
or f (c) = b−a a f (x) dx.

22. [Finding c using the Mean Value Theorem for integrals]

MAT1512 107
 Find a value c guaranteed by the Mean Value Theorem for integrals for f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3
on [0, 2].

Solution:
Z 2 2
2 1 3
x + 2x + 3 dx = x + x2 + 3x
0 3 0
8
= +4+6
3
8 + 12 + 18
=
3
38
= .
3

The region bounded by the graph of f and the x-axis on [0, 2] is shaded in Figure 5.7.

Figure 5.7: Graph of f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3 and x − axis on [0, 2]

The Mean Value Theorem for integrals asserts the existence of a number c on [0, 2] such
that f (c) (b − a) = 38
3 . We solve this equation to find c:

38
f (c) (b − a) =
3
38
c2 + 2c + 3 (2 − 0) =


⇒
3
2 38
⇒ 2c + 4c + 6 =
3
2
⇒ 6c + 12c − 20 = 0
∴ 3c2 + 6c − 10 = 0

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 Study Unit 5: Integrals

p
−6 ±36 + 4 (3) (10)
∴ c =
√ 6
−6 ± 156
=
6√
39
= −1 ± .
3

√
Since only one of these points, that is c = −1 + 339 ≈ 1, 08, lies within the interval [0, 2],
this value of c satisfies the Mean Value Theorem for integrals.

The following is the definition of the average value of a function:

If f is integrable on [a, b] , then the average value

or mean value of f on [a, b] denoted by av (f ) is
1
Rb
av (f ) = b−a a f (x) dx

23. [Finding the average value of a function on an interval]

Find the average value of f (x) = 2x on the interval [1, 5].

Solution:

The average value is

Z 5 5
1 1 2

av (f ) = 2xdx = x
5−1 1 4 1
1
= (25 − 1)
4
= 6.

Obviously this average value occurs when f (x) = 6 and when x = 3.

5.6 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus – Part I

Rx
If f is continuous on [a, b] and F (x) = a f (t) dt, then F 0 (x) = f (x) on [a, b].

Rx
In other words, if F (x) = a f (t) dt where a is any real number, then
Z x
d d
(F (x)) = f (t) dt
dx dx a

that is F 0 (x) = f (x) dx

d
(x) = f (x) (1); therefore F 0 (x) = f (x).

MAT1512 109
 To apply Part I of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, just leave the function f (t) as
it is, but replace the variable t with the variable x times the derivative of x.

Let us write down the two parts of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus again:

Part II

If G(x) is any antiderivative of f (x) on [a, b] so that G0 (x) = f (x), then

Z b
f (x) dx = G (b) − G(a).
a

Part I (The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus stated in another way)

Suppose that the function f is continuous on the interval [a, b].

Rx
Let the function F be defined on [a, b] by F (x) = a f (t) dt.

Then F is differentiable on [a, b] and F 0 (x) = f (x), which means that F is an antiderivative
of f on [a, b].

Expressed in symbols: Z x
d
f (t) dt = f (x) = F 0 (x).
dx a

Remarks:

(1) You should remember that both conclusions of the Fundamental Theorem are useful.
Part I concerns the derivative of an integral – it tells you how to differentiate a definite
integral with respect to its upper limit. Part II concerns the integral of a derivative
– it tells you how to evaluate a definite integral if you can find an antiderivative of
the integrand.

(2) Remember that differentiation and integration are inverse operations and cancel each
other to a certain extent.

(3) Notice that the lower limit of the integral may be any constant in the interval [a, b]
and it does not affect the answer after differentiation. Thus
Z x Z x Z x
d d d
f (t)dt = f (t)dt = f (t)dt
dx 0 dx −10 dx 513

etc. This is so because the derivative of a constant is always zero.

110
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

(4) Note that the upper limit must be the same as the variable with respect to which we
d
differentiate, in other words, if we determine (the integral) then the upper limit
dx
must be x (or a function of x).

(5) The dt in the integral shows you that integration is done with respect to the variable
t. Hence you must change all ts in the given function f (t) to xs to obtain f (x), or
dF/dx.

(6) If the upper limit of the integral (which you must differentiate) does not consist of
the variable of interest only, but is in fact a function, then you must remember to
use the chain rule for differentiation. Thus:
Z g(x)
d
f (t)dt = f (g(x)).g 0 (x).
dx a

In this case you replace all ts by g(x) and then multiply by the derivative of g(x)
(look at examples 25 and 26 below).

Keeping the above-mentioned in mind, consider the following examples:

Examples:

Determine the derivatives of F (x) in each of the following:

Rx 1
24. F (x) = a dt
1 + sin2 t
R x3 1
25. F (x) = a dt
1 + sin2 t
R cos x
26. F (x) = sin x t(5 − t)dt

Solutions:

Rx 1
24. F (x) = a dt
1 + sin2 t

It follows from Fundamental Theorem of Calculus Part I that

1
F 0 (x) = .
1 + sin2 x

R x3 1
25. F (x) = a dt
1 + sin2 t

MAT1512 111
 In this case we must apply the chain rule, because the upper limit is a function of x.
1 3
Let f (t) = 1+sin2 t and g(x) = x . Then

F 0 (x) = f (g (x)) · g 0 (x)

d 3
= f x3 · x
dx
1
= · 3x2 .
1 + sin2 (x3 )

1 3
(In other words, substitute t in the function f (t) = 1+sin2 t with x , but also remem-
3
ber to multiply the derivative of x with this answer.)

26. In this example see that both the upper and lower limit are functions of x, so that it
follows from remark 3 above that we may introduce any constant in this case. We
call it a.
Z cos x
F (x) = t(5 − t)dt
Zsin
a
x
Z cos x
= t (5 − t) dt + t(5 − t)dt
sin x a
Z sin x Z cos x
= − t (5 − t) dt + t(5 − t)dt.
a a

By again applying the chain rule as in example 25, we obtain

d d
F 0 (x) = − sin x (5 − sin x) · sin x + cos x (5 − cos x) · cos x
dx dx
= − sin x cos x (5 − sin x) − cos x sin x(5 − cos x).

Now attempt the following yourself.

Find the derivatives of F in each of the following cases:

 
R 10 1
27. F (x) = x t+ dt
t
R x3
28. F (x) = 2x cos t dt

R x3
29. F (x) = 3 sin3 t dt
R sin x √
30. F (x) = 0 1 − t2 dt

112
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Solution:

1
27. −x − .
x
R 10
(This
R x is plainly Part II of the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus with x f (x) dx =
− 10 f (x) dx.)

28. 3x2 cos x3 − 2 cos 2x.

R0 R x3
(Again we must introduce constants for the lower limits, for example 2x . . .+ 0 ... =
R 2x R x3
− 0 . . . + 0 . . ..)

29. 3x2 sin3 x3 .

(Use the chain rule, in other words first substitute t with x3 and then multiply the
answer with the derivative of x3 .)

30. |cos x| cos x.

5.7 Integration in General

The process of computing an integral (integration) is written as follows:

If F 0 (x) = f (x) , then F 0 (x) dx =

R R
f (x) dx,
R
that is F (x) = f (x) dx.

f (x) is the integrand and the term dx identifies x as the variable of integration.

Given a function f , find, if possible, a function F such that:

F 0 (x) = f (x)

A function F defined on an interval which has the property that F 0 (x) = f (x) is called
an indefinite integral or antiderivative of f on the same interval for all x, and we write:

Z
F (x) = f (x) dx (for indefinite integrals)
Z b
or F (x) = f (x) dx (for definite integrals)
a

The term “dx” is part of the notation. It represents the statement “We integrate with
respect to x”.

MAT1512 113
 5.8 Indefinite Integrals

For indefinite integrals, if F and G are both antiderivatives of f on the interval I, then
G (x) = F (x) + c for some constant c.

If FR is any antiderivative of f , the indefinite integral of f (x) with respect to x is defined

by f (x) dx = F (x) + c (where c is the constant of integration).

Example:

t5 dt.
R
27. Evaluate

Solution:

 
d d 1 6 1
We know that t6 = 6t5 , so = t5 . Therefore t5 dt = t6 + c.
R
t
dt dt 6 6

xn+1
 
d 1
xn dx n+1 + c = xn .
R
= + c since x
n+1 dx n + 1

xn+1 d xn+1
 
xn dx + 5 = xn .
R
However, we could also have = + 5, because
n+1 dx n + 1

xn+1
xn dx =
R
So, in general, + c, where c is the constant of integration.
n+1

Note: This rule does not work for n = −1 since it would produce a division by 0.

Examples of indefinite integrals:

31.
Z
x17 dx

x17+1 x18
= +c= + c.
17 + 1 18

32.
Z
1
√
3
dx
x
1
x− 3 +1
Z
− 13
= x dx = 1 +c
−3 + 1
2
x3 3 2
= 2 + c = x 3 + c.
3
2

114
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

33.
Z
3 cos x + 4x8 dx

Z Z
= 3 cos xdx + 4 x8 dx

x9 4
= 3 sin x + 4 + c = 3 sin x + x9 + c.
9 9

34.
Z  
2
3ex − dx
1 + x2
Z Z
x 1
= 3 e dx − 2 dx
1 + x2
= 3ex − 2 tan−1 x + c.

5.9 The Substitution Rule

(a) Indefinite integrals

The method we are going to discuss now is the principal method by which integrals are
evaluated.

When the integrand is not in standard form, first of all determine whether the integrand
does not consist of two factors, one of which is the derivative of the other. The method of
substitution is the integration version of the chain rule.

4
Remember that, according to the chain rule, the derivative of 3x2 − 5x + 2 is

d
4
3
3x2 − 5x + 2 = 4 3x2 − 5x + 2 (6x − 5).
dx

On the right-hand side we now have two expressions, namely

3x2 − 5x + 2 and 6x − 5, which are such that

d
3x2 − 5x + 2 = 6x − 5.


dx

Since we know that differentiation and integration are inverse operations, we see that
Z h i

3
4
4 3x2 − 5x + 2 · (6x − 5) dx = 3x2 − 5x + 2 + c.

MAT1512 115
 Example:

Integration of an indefinite integral using substitution

Find Z

6
7 x2 + 3x + 5 (2x + 3) dx.

Solution:

Look at the problem and make the observation as shown in the boxes:
Z

6
7 x2 + 3x + 5 (2x + 3) dx

The derivative of the function in the left-hand box

which is (2x + 3) dx is sitting in the right-hand box.

So let u = x2 + 3x + 5.

(NB: Note that the function u appears without the index 6.)

du
Then = 2x + 3, that is (2x + 3) dx = du.
dx

(This is the form in the right-hand box.)

Now substitute everything under the integral sign to express the integral in terms of u.
We have Z  
6 1 7
7 u du = 7 u + c = u7 + c.
7

Then back-substitute to express u in terms of x:

Z

7
7 u6 du = x2 + 3x + 5 + c.

Remarks:

1. Sometimes the two functions under the integral sign are linked, but a constant might
be missing.

If, however, you follow the procedure of substitution correctly, the end product will
be correct.

116
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Example:

Find Z

4
x2 + 2x + 5 (x + 1) dx

Solution:

Let
u = x2 + 2x + 5.

Then
du
= 2x + 2 = 2 (x + 1) .
dx

du
Thus (x + 1) dx = .
2

Substitution then gives

Z Z
4 du 1
u = u4 du
2 2
1 5
= u +c
10
1
5
= x2 + 2x + 5 + c.
10

If you differentiate this using the chain rule, you will obtain the function under the
integral sign.

2. After you have done your substitution and simplified, there should be no left-over
x-values in the integrand.

Example:

[Substitution with leftover x-values]

Find Z
x (3x − 5)3 dx

Solution:

In this case it is so that the derivative of the function with index 3, that is (3x − 5),
is not linked to the other function in the ordinary way. However, we follow the same
method.

MAT1512 117
 du
Let u = 3x − 5, so du = 3dx and dx = 3 .

Now substitute: Z Z Z
3 3 du 1
x (3x − 5) dx = xu = xu3 du
3 3

It is clear that there is a left-over x-value.

We now follow the next procedure to eliminate the left-over x-term:

Because u = 3x − 5, we can solve for x :

u+5
x= ,
3

so
Z Z  
1 3 1 u+5
xu du = u3 du
3 3 3
Z
1
u4 + 5u3 du


=
9
1 u5 5 4
 
= + u +c
9 5 4
1 5
= (3x − 5)5 + (3x − 5)4 + c.
45 36

Examples:

Determine the following integrals:

R √
35. 3x 1 − 2x2 dx

cos3 x sin5 x dx
R
36.

R dx
37.
.
1 3
x2 1 + x

Solutions:

35. We see that x is the derivative (except for a constant factor) of 1 − 2x2 . Therefore
set
u = 1 − 2x2 .

Then
du = −4x dx.

In other words
1
− du = x dx.
4

118
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Now
Z p Z p
3x 1 − 2x2 dx = 3 1 − 2x2 x dx
√
Z  
1
= 3 u − du
4
Z
3 1
= − u 2 du
4
3
3 u2
= − +c
4 3/2
1 3
= − u2 + c
2
1
3
= − 1 − 2x2 2 + c.
2

Note: You must not give your answer in terms of u. You must give your answer in
terms of x, since that was the original variable!

36. In this case we use trigonometric identities. We do this with two different methods.

Method 1
cos3 x sin5 x dx
R

cos x cos2 x sin5 x

R
= dx.

The part in the block, without its power, has the derivative cos x.

Now we must also rewrite the other extra term in terms of sin x, that is cos2 x =
1 − sin2 x.

The integral then becomes

Z
cos x 1 − sin2 x sin5 x dx

Z Z
= cos x sin x dx − cos x sin7 x dx.
5

Since cos x is the derivative of sin x we let u = sin x.

Then
du = cos x dx

and so it follows that

Z Z
cos3 x sin5 x dx = u5 − u7 du

u6 u8
= − +c
6 8
sin6 x sin8 x
= − + c.
6 8

MAT1512 119
 Method 2
cos3 x sin5 x dx
R

(cos x)3 sin4 x sin x dx.

R
=

The part in the block, without the power, has the derivative (− sin x) (thus the
constant (−1) is missing). Now rewrite sin4 x in terms of cos x:

2
sin4 x = 1 − cos2 x = 1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x.

Thus
Z Z
cos3 x sin5 x dx = (cos x)3 1 − 2 cos2 x + cos4 x sin x dx

Z Z Z
= cos3 x sin x dx − 2 cos5 x sin x dx + cos7 x sin x dx.

Put u = cos x, so that du = (− sin x) dx.

Then
Z Z Z Z
3 5 3 5
cos x sin x dx = − u du + 2 u du − u7 du
1 2 1
= − u4 + u6 − u8 + c
4 6 8
1 1 1
= − (cos x)4 + (cos x)6 − (cos x)8 + c.
4 3 8

37. In this case we see that − x12 is the derivative of 1 + 1

x and hence we set

1
u=1+ ,
x

and therefore
1
du = − dx
x2

and
Z Z
dx du
= −
1 3 u3


x2 1 + x
u−2
= − +c
−2
1 1
=
+c
2 1+ 1 2
x
 2
1 x
= + c.
2 x+1

120
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

(b) Definite integrals

The section on changing the limits of integration on pages 416–418 in Stewart is very
important and students tend to have problems with this. We shall discuss it in detail and
show you three different methods you may use. Work thoroughly through all three and
make very sure that you understand each step.

Example:

Calculate
1
x3
Z
3 dx.
0 (x2 + 1) 2

Solution:

Method 1

When you have done substitution with the variable u, also change the limits of integration
in terms of the variable u, and do not change back to the variable x.
Z 1
x3
3 dx
0 (x2 + 1) 2

Let
1
u = (x2 + 1) 2 .

Then
u2 = x2 + 1

and
2udu = 2xdx, that is u du = x dx.

Now we also change the limits of integration:

If
1
x = 0 then u = (02 + 1) 2 = 1

and if √
1
x = 1 then u = (12 + 1) 2 = 2.

MAT1512 121
 Hence,
1 1
x3 x2 x dx
Z Z
3 dx = 3
0 (x2 + 1) 2 0 (x2 + 1) 2
Z √2 2

u −1
= u du
1 u3
√
Z 2 
1
= 1 − 2 du
1 u
√2
1
= u+ .
u 1

Now substitute the values of the limits directly and do not change the variable back to x:
Z 1
x3 √ 1
3 dx = 2 + √ − (1 + 1)
0 (x2 + 1) 2 2
√
√ 2
= 2+ −2
2
3√
= 2 − 2.
2

Method 2

With this method we first determine the indefinite integral, change the answer back to
the variable x after substitution, and then put in the values of the limits of integration in
terms of the variable x.

We first determine
x3
Z
3 dx.
(x2 + 1) 2

1
As before, we let u = (x2 + 1) 2 . Then u du = x dx and

x3
Z
1
3 dx = u+ +c
(x2 + 1) 2 u

1 1
= x2 + 1 2 + 1 + c.
(x2 + 1) 2

Now we calculate the definite integral in terms of x:

#1
1
x3
Z

1 1
3 dx = x2 + 1 2
+ 1
0 (x2 + 1) 2 (x2 + 1) 2 0
√ 1
= 2 + √ − (1 + 1)
2
3√
= 2 − 2.
2

122
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Method 3

With this method we do not change the limits when we make the substitution, but we
show clearly in terms of which variable the limits are given:
Z 1
x3
3 dx.
0 (x2 + 1) 2

1
As before, we let u = (x2 + 1) 2 . Then u du = x dx and
Z 1 Z x=1 2

x3 u −1
3 dx = u du
0 (x2 + 1) 2 x=0 u3
1 x=1

= u+
u x=0
#1

1 1
= x2 + 1 2
+ 1
(x2 + 1) 2 0
3√
= 2 − 2.
2

Remarks:

1. You must decide for yourself which of these three methods you want to use. Please
note the error of writing the following:
Z 1 Z 1
x3

1
3 dx = 1 − 2 du
0 (x2 + 1) 2 0 u

This is wrong, because the limits are not given in terms of the variable u.

The answer you obtain may be correct, but the method is totally wrong. In the
examinations or an assignment you will get no marks for an answer like this.

2. There are only two general methods of integration: integration by parts (which is not
part of this module) and integration by substitution. All other methods boil down
to algebraic manipulation, followed by the application of one of the above-mentioned
two methods. Keeping this in mind, you will realise the importance of this section.

(c) Steps for integration by substitution

1. Choose a new variable u (usually the innermost part of the integrand).

du
2. Compute .
dx

3. Replace all terms in the original integrand with an expression involving u and du.

MAT1512 123
 4. Evaluate the resulting (u) integral. (You may have to try a different u if the first one
does not work.)

5. Replace each occurrence of u in the antiderivative with the corresponding expression

in x.

5.10 Integration of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

We state the following integration formulas again:

R x
1. e dx = ex + c
R x ax
2. a dx = +c
ln a
R 1
3. dx = ln |x| + c
x

which have the following forms when we work with functions f (x).

Following normal substitution, we have

10
R f (x) 0
e f (x) dx = ef (x) + c
af (x)
20 af (x) f 0 (x) dx
R
= +c
ln a
R 1
30 f 0 (x) dx = ln |f (x)| + c.
f (x)

Now we shall do one more example of integration by substitution to show you how the
logarithmic function is used in this case:

Example:

Determine the following integral:

x2
Z
dx.
1 − 2x3

Note that this is of the form (30 ) above, where f (x) = 1 − 2x3 and f 0 (x) = −6x2 .
(Remember that the constant (−6) will only make a difference to the answer as seen in
Remark 1 on page 124 of the study guide.)

124
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

Solution:

In this case we let

u = 1 − 2x3 .

Then
du = −6x2 dx.

In other words
1
− du = x2 dx.
6

Then
x2
Z Z
1 du
3
dx = −
1 − 2x 6 u
1
= − ln |u| + c
6
1
= − ln |1 − 2x3 | + c.
6

Find the following integrals:

R sec2 x
38. dx = ln |tan x| + c.
tan x
 
2x  2  d
x2 + 1 = 2x
R

39. dx = ln x + 1 + c. Note that:
x2 + 1 dx

5.11 Review of Formulas and Techniques of Integration

Go through the rest of the examples carefully. Evaluate:

R
40. 3 cos 4xdx
R
41. sec 2x tan 2xdx

e3−2x dx
R
42.

R 4
43. 1
 2
 dx
x 3 1 + x3

√
R sin x
44. √ dx
x
Rπ
45. 0 cos xesin x dx

MAT1512 125
 R0 sin x
46. − π4 dx
cos2 x
R 3
47. dx
16 + x2
R x
48. √ dx
1 − x4
R 1+x
49. dx
1 + x2

50. (
2 x
x≤1
Z
x2 +1
if
f (x)dx, where f (x) = x
0 x2 +1
if x>1

51. ( 2
xex if x<0
f (x) = 3
x2 e x if x>0

√
R 2+ x
52. √ dx
3− x

Solutions:

R 1 3
40. 3 cos 4xdx = 3 sin 4x + c = sin 4x + c.
4 4
R 1 1
41. sec 2x tan 2xdx = sec 2x + c = sec 2x + c.
2 2
 
R 3−2x 3−2x 1 1
42. e dx = e − + c = − e3−2x + c.
2 2

R 4
43. 1
 2
 dx :
x 3 1 + x3

1
2 12 2 3x 3
Let u = 1 + x then du = x− 3 dx =
3
1 dx ⇒ dx = du.
3 3x 3 2
1  
R 4 R 1 3x 3 3 R 1
So 1
 2
 dx = 4 1 . du = 4 du
x3 1 + x3 x 3 .u 2 2 u

 2

= 6 ln |u| + c = 6 ln 1 + x 3  + c.


√
R sin x
44. √ dx :
x

√ 1 √
Let u = x then du = √ dx ⇒ 2 xdu = 2udu = dx.
2 x

126
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

√
R sin x R sin u R
So √ dx = 2udu = 2 sin udu
x u
√
= 2 (− cos u) + c = −2 cos x + c.
Rπ
45. 0 cos xesin x dx :

du
Let u = sin x then du = cos xdx ⇒ dx = .
cos x

We have to change the limits, that is, if x = 0, u = sin 0 = 0 and if x = π,

u = sin π = 0.

Rπ R0 du R0
So cos xesin x dx = cos xeu . = eu du = [eu ]00
0 0 cos x 0

= e0 − e0 = 1 − 1 = 0.
R0 sin x
46. − π4 dx
cos2 x
#0
R0
= sec (0) − sec − π4


= sec x tan xdx = sec x
− π4
− π4

!
1 1 1 1 √
= − π

= − =1− 2.
cos (0) cos − 4 1 √1
2

R 3 R 1
47. 2
dx = 3 dx :
16 + x 16 + x2
R 1 1 −1 x + c
 
Recall: dx = tan
a2 + x2 a a
R 1 1 −1 x + c
 
∴ 3 dx = 3. tan
42 + x2 4 4

3 x
= tan−1 + c.
4 4
R x R x
48. √ dx = q dx :
1 − x4 2
1 − (x )2

du
Let u = x2 then du = 2xdx ⇒ dx = .
2x
R x du 1R x du 1R du
So √ . = √ = √
1−u2 2x 2 1−u2 x 2 1 − u2

1 1
sin−1 (u) + c = sin−1 x2 + c.


=
2 2
R 1+x R 1 R x
49. dx = dx + dx
1 + x2 1 + x2 1 + x2

MAT1512 127
 R f 0 (x)
 
R 1 R x 2
= dx+ . dx Recall that dx = ln |f (x)| + c
1 + x2 1 + x2 2 f (x)

R 1 1 R 2x
= 2
dx + dx
1+x 2 1 + x2

1 
= tan−1 x +

ln 1 + x2  + c.
2
(
x
R2 x2 +1
if x≤1
50. 0 f (x)dx, where f (x)dx = x2
x2 +1
if x>1

R2 R1 x R2 x2
f (x) dx = dx + dx.
0 0 x2 + 1 2
1 x +1

2
Note: Rationalise the first integral by and use long division on the second integral
2
to obtain:

1 R1 2x R2
 
1
dx + 1− 2 dx
2 0 x2 + 1 1 x +1

1 R1 2x R2 R2 1
= dx + 1dx − dx
2 0 x2 + 1 1
2
1 x +1

1 1
= ln x2 + 1) 0 + x]21 − arctan x]21
2
1 π
= ln 2 + 1 + − arctan 2.
2 4

( 2
xex if x<0
51. f (x) = 3 .
x2 e x if x>0

R2 R0 2 R2 3
f (x) dx = xex dx + x2 ex dx.
−2 −2 0

R0 x2 dx
For the first integral, −2 xe :

Let u1 = x2 . Then

du1 = 2xdx and

du1
dx = .
2x
R2 3
For the second integral, 0 x2 ex dx :

Let u2 = x3 .

Then du2 = 3x2 dx and

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 Study Unit 5: Integrals

du2
dx = .
3x2

So we have
2 3
xex dx + x2 ex dx
R R

du1 du2 1 R u1 1 R u2
xeu1 · x2 eu2 ·
R R
= 2x + 3x2
= e du1 + e du2
2 3
1 1
= eu1 + c1 + eu2 + c2 .
2 3

When considering the given definite integral, we ignore the constants c1 and c2 and
get:
R0 x2 dx
R2 3
−2 xe + 0 x2 ex dx

3
0 2
ex  ex3 
=  +
 
2 3 


−2 0

1 x2 0 1 x3 2 1 0 1 (−2)2 1 (2)3 1 (0)3

 
= e  + e  = e − e + e − e
2 −2 3 0 2 2 3 3

1 1 1 1 1 e4 e8 1
= (1) − e4 + e8 − e0 = − + − (1)
2 2 3 3 2 2 3 3

1 − e4 e8 − 1
= + .
2 3
√
R 2+ x
52. √ dx
3− x
√ √
R 2+ x R x+2
√ dx = √ dx.
3− x − x+3

This expression is an improper fraction, so we apply long division first.

 
−1
 −√x + 3 √
x+2 
 √ 
 + x−3 
5
√  
R 2+ x R 5
So √ dx = −1 + √ dx
3− x − x+3

R R 1
= −1dx + 5 √ dx
− x+3

R 1
Now find √ dx :
− x+3

MAT1512 129
 √ √
Let u = − x + 3 ⇒ x = 3 − u.

du 1
Then = − √ and
dx 2 x

−1 √
du = √ dx
2 x
⇒ dx = −2 xdu.

So dx = −2 (3 − u) du,

that is dx = (−6 + 2u) du.

R 1 R 1
So √ dx = (−6 + 2u) du
− x+3 u

R 1 R 2u
= −6 du + du
u u
R 1 R
= −6 du + 2du
u

= −6 ln |u| + 2u + c.

Therefore,
√
R x+2 R R 1
√ dx = −1dx + 5 √ dx
− x+3 − x+3

= −x + 5 (−6 ln |u| + 2u + c)

= −x − 30 ln |u| + 10u + 5c
√ √
= −x − 30 ln |(3 − x)| + 10 (3 − x) + k, where C = 5c = k
√ √
= x + 10 (3 − x) − 30 ln |(3 − x)| + k.

Key points

You should by now have an understanding of the notion of integration as the reverse of
differentiation. You should particularly be able to link it to determining areas between
different curves and the x-axis, and the area between curves. You should now be comfort-
able with calculating the integrals of several basic algebraic, trigonometric, exponential
and logarithmic functions.

At this stage you should be able to

• show that you understand the notion of the antiderivative by finding the antideriva-
tive of basic algebraic, trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions

• use the Fundamental Theorem of Calculus to find the derivatives of functions of the
g(x)
R
form F (x) = f (t) dt
a

130
 Study Unit 5: Integrals

• evaluate definite integrals and use them to determine the areas between a curve and
the x-axis, and the area between curves

• use substitution or term-by-term integration techniques to integrate basic algebraic,

trigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions

• solve problems involving the Mean Value Theorem for integrals

Continue practising solving problems until you have mastered the basic techniques! Go
through the section “For your review”at the end of each chapter to consolidate what you
have learnt and also use other calculus textbooks.

MAT1512 131
 Study Unit 6

Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and

Partial Derivatives/Chain Rule

6.1 Background

In this chapter we start by looking at first-order differential equations and then we move
on to growth and decay problems, followed by partial derivatives. It has applications in
chemistry, physics, biology, economics and engineering. In real life, physical quantities
usually depend on two or more variables, so we shall also turn our attention to functions
with several variables and extend the basic ideas of differential calculus to these functions.

6.2 Learning Outcomes

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to

• solve first-order differential equations with initial values

• solve basic real-life problems involving exponential growth and decay

• determine the partial derivatives of functions with several variables

Note: The way to master calculus is to solve lots of calculus problems!

132
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

6.3 Prescribed Reading

In Chapter 9 we cover Sections 9.1, 2.3, 9.4 and Chapter 14 Sections 14.3 and 14.5. Please
also study some Sections in Chapter 3 (Section 3.8).

6.4 Worked Examples

The greater part of the collection of worked examples is taken from Chapters 3, 9 and 14
of the prescribed textbook by Stewart. They can be divided into three sets (with some
overlap), namely,

I. differential equations

II. growth and decay

III. partial derivatives/chain rule

Attempt the problems appearing immediately after each set, once you have studied the
relevant parts of Stewart and done some of the exercises there. Table 6.1 shows how these
worked examples and their solutions are organised.

Topic(s) Sections in Study guide

Stewart examples
I. Differential equations 9.1 & 9.3 1–9
II. Growth and decay 3.8 & 9.4 10–20
III. Partial derivatives/chain rule 14.1, 14.3 & 14.5 21–40

Table 6.1: Sections in Stewart.

6.4.1 Differential Equations

An equation that contains an unknown function and some of its derivatives is called a
differential equation (DE). Differential equations are of the type:

dy
= f (x)
dx
dy
or = y.
dx

A first-order differential equation is an equation involving the first derivative.

MAT1512 133
 The general first-order differential equation is of the type:
dy
= g (x, y) ,
dx

where g (x, y) is a function with two variables. We refer to “first-order” because of the
presence of the first derivative only. In general, a differential equation is one that contains
an unknown function and one or more of its derivatives. The order of the differential
equation is the order of the highest derivative that occurs in the equation.

(a) The solution of differential equations

A function f is called a solution for a differential equation if the equation is satisfied when
y = f (x) and its derivatives are substituted into the equation. When solving a differential
equation, we are expected to find all possible solutions for the equation.

Example:

x2 + 7x + 3
1. Solve the differential equation y 0 = .
y2

Solution:

(i) Separate the variables: y 2 y 0 = x2 + 7x + 3.

(ii) Integrate both sides with respect to x:

Z Z
2 0
x2 + 7x + 3 dx


y y (x) dx = or
Z Z
2
x2 + 7x + 3 dx.


y dy =

y3 x3 x2
Result of integration: = + 7 + 3x + c.
3 3 2

q
21 2
(iii) Solve for y: y= 3
x3 + 2 x + 9x + 3c.

(b) Separable differential equations

A differential equation is separable if you are able to group the ys with dy and xs with
dx. For example, y 0 = xy 2 − 2xy is a separable DE because you can rewrite it as y 0 =
dy
x y 2 − 2y or = x y 2 − 2y .



dx

Divide both sides by y 2 − 2y and multiply both sides by dx and obtain:

1
dy = xdx.
y 2 − 2y

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

On the other hand, an equation like y 0 = xy 2 − 2x2 y is not separable.

dy
A separable equation is a first-order differential equation in which the expression for
dx
can be factored as a function of x times a function of y. That is, it can be written in the
form
dy
= g (x) f (y).
dx

The term separable comes from the fact that the expression on the right side can be
“separated” into a function of x and a function of y. If f (y) 6= 0, we could re-write the
equation as
dy g (x) g (x)
= = (6.1)
dx h (y) h (y (x))

1
where h (y) = .
f (y)

dy g (x)
To solve the equation = , we rewrite it in the differential form as
dx h (y)

h (y) dy = g (x) dx,

so that all ys are on one side of the equation with dy and all xs are on the other side of
the equation with dx. Then we integrate both sides of the equation:
Z Z
h (y) dy = g (x) dx.

This equation defines y as a function of x. In some cases we may be able to solve for y in
terms of x.

R R
Note: The justification for the equation above, h (y) dy = g (x) dx, comes from the
substitution rule, as follows:
Z Z
dy
L.H.S. = h (y) dy = h (y (x)) dx
dx
Z
g (x)
= h (y (x)) dx (substituting (1))
h (y (x))
Z
= g (x) dx = R.H.S.

In general, the first-order differential equation is

dy
= h(x, y).
dx

We consider the special case in which h (x, y) = f (y) g(x), the product of a function of y
alone and a function of x alone.

MAT1512 135
 Examples are:
dy
= x2 y 3 ,
dx
dy
= ex cos y,
dx
dy y
and = √ .
dx 1 + x2

The examples below are not included in this special case:

dy dy dy p
=x+y : = sin (xy) , = 1 + x2 + y 2
dx dx dx

since in each of these equations the right-hand side is not of the form f (y) g (x).

dy
We solve = f (y) g (x) by first separating the variables, putting all the ys on one side
dx
and all the xs on the other side.

Write
dy
= f (y) g (x)
dx

as
dy
= g (x) dx.
f (y)

Then integrate both sides (if you can) to get:

F (y) = G (x) + c,

1
where F (y) is an antiderivative of and G (x) is an antiderivative of g (x) .
f (y)

If this equation can be solved for y in terms of x, the resulting function is a solution of the
differential equation.

Note that in separating the variables, you must assume that f (y) 6= 0.

If f (y) = 0 for y = y0 , it can be checked that the constant function y (x) = y0 is a solution
for the equation.

Examples of general solutions:

136
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

dy
2. Solve = xy.
dx

Solution:

It can be noted that y (x) = 0 is a solution. Now assume y (x) 6= 0 and separate the
variables:
dy
= x dx
y
Z Z
dy
⇒ = x dx
y
1 2
⇒ ln |y| = x +c
2
x2
⇒ eln|y| = e 2
+c
x2
⇒ |y| = e 2 · ec
x2
or |y| = ke 2 where k = ec is a positive constant.

x2
If y ≥ 0, then |y| = y = ke 2 .

x2
If y < 0, then |y| = −y = +ke 2 .

Therefore,
x2
(
ke 2 if y ≥ 0,
y= x2
−ke 2 if y < 0.

This is equivalent to:

x2
y = ae 2

where a is any constant.

Note that the solution y (x) = 0 is included.

To check if the answer obtained is the solution to the original differential equation,
just differentiate this answer and you should obtain the original differential equation,
namely:
x2
y = ae 2
 2
dy d x x2 1
⇒ = ae 2 = ae 2 · · 2x
dx dx 2
x2
= axe 2
x2
= x · ae 2

= xy (proved).

dy 2x (y − 1)
3. Solve = .
dx x2 + 1

MAT1512 137
 Solution:

Note that y (x) = 1 is a solution.

Now assume that y (x) 6= 1 and separate the variables:

dy 2x
= 2
dx
y−1 x +1
Z Z
1 2x
⇒ dy = 2
dx
y−1 x +1
ln |y − 1| = ln x2 + 1 + c


⇒
2
⇒ eln|y−1| = eln(x +1)+c
|y − 1| = x2 + 1 ec = k x2 + 1 , where k = ec .



⇒

Therefore
y − 1 = ±k x2 + 1

where k is a positive constant.

The answer may be written as:

y = 1 + a x2 + 1 = 1 + ax2 + a = ax2 + (a + 1)

where a is an arbitrary constant and a = ±k. This answer includes the special
solution y (x) = 1.

Check:
dy
= 2ax + 0
dx  
dy y−1 y−1
⇒ = 2x where a = since y = 1 + a(x2 + 1).
dx x2 + 1 x2 + 1

(c) Initial-value problems (IVPs)

In many physical (real-world) problems, we need to find the particular solution that satisfies
a condition of the form y (t0 ) = y0 . This is called the initial condition. The problem of
finding a solution for the differential equation that satisfies the initial condition is called
the initial-value problem. In such problems, you are asked to find the solution y = y (x)
or y = f (x) for the differential equation
dy
= g(x, y),
dx

the graph of which passes through a given point (a, b), that is, which satisfies the initial
condition
y (a) = b.

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

Steps For Solving IVPs

(i) Separate the given differential equation into its components.

(ii) Integrate both sides of (i) above.

(iii) Solve for c (integration constant) by substituting the initial conditions.

(iv) Re-write your final answer by substituting the value for c.

Examples:

dy
4. Find a solution for the initial-value problem = x2 , with initial condition y (−3) =
dx
+1.

Solution:

There are two steps to follow:

(i) Solve the differential equation by integrating both sides:

dy
= x2
dx
⇒ dy = x2 dx
Z Z
⇒ dy = x2 dx
1 3
⇒ y = x +c
3
1 3
or y (x) = x + c. This is the general solution for the DE.
3

(ii) We find the constant c by substituting the initial condition y(−3) = 1 :

1
1 = (−3)3 + c
3
⇒ 1 = −9 + c
⇒ c = 10.

Therefore, the particular solution to the given initial-value problem is

1
y (x) = x3 + 10.
3

dy
5. Find a solution for the differential equation = 8x3 + 1 with initial condition
dx
y (1) = −1.

MAT1512 139
 Solution:

(i)
dy
= 8x3 + 1 (separate dx from dy and integrate)
dx
dy = 8x3 + 1 dx


⇒
Z Z
8x3 + 1 dx


⇒ dy =

8x4
⇒ y = +x+c
4
or y (x) = 2x4 + x + c·

(ii) Evaluate the value of c:

y (x) = 2x4 + x + c
⇒ −1 = 2 (1)4 + 1 + c (initial condition y (1) = −1)
⇒ −1 = 2 + 1 + c
⇒ c = −1 − 2 − 1
⇒ c = −4.

The particular solution to the given initial-value problem is

y = 2x4 + x − 4.

Other initial-value problems:

6. Solve the initial-value problem

dy 2x
= , y (1) = 0.
dx 3y − 1

Solution:
Z Z
(3y − 1) dy = 2x dx

3 2 2x2
⇒ y −y = + c.
2 2

Now substitute the given initial values and obtain:

3
(0)2 − 0 = (1)2 + c
2
⇒ 0 = 1+c
∴ c = −1.
3 2
Thus y − y = x2 − 1
2
or 3y 2 − 2y = 2x2 − 2 is the particular solution.

140
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

7. Solve the initial-value problem

dy
= x2 y 2 , y (0) = b.
dx

Solution:

Note that y (x) = 0 is the solution if b = 0.

Assume y 6= 0 and separate the variables:

dy
= x2 y 2 , y (0) = b
dx
dy
⇒ = x2 dx
y2
⇒ y −2 dy = x2 dx
Z Z
−2
⇒ y dy = x2 dx

y −1 x3
⇒ = +c
−1 3
1 1 3
⇒ − = x + c.
y 3

Substitute the initial values:

1 1 3
− = x +c
y 3
1 1
⇒ − = (0)3 + c
b 3
1
⇒ − = 0+c
b
1
∴ c = − .
b

Therefore
1 x3 1
− = −
y 3 b
1 3
bx − 3
⇒ − =
y 3b
−1 (3b) = y bx3 − 3


⇒
3b = −y bx3 − 3 = y −bx3 + 3



⇒
3b
∴ y= .
3 − bx3

The solution includes y (x) = 0.

Note: In initial-value problems (IVPs), you are given initial conditions (in other words,
the x and y values), and you use them in order to evaluate a particular value of a constant
c.

MAT1512 141
 More examples:

8. Solving a logistic growth problem: Given a maximum sustainable population of

M = 1 000 and a growth rate of k = 0.007, find an expression for the popula-
tion at any time t, given an initial population of y(0) = 350 and assuming logistic
growth.

Solution:

Using the solution for a logistic equation, we have kM = 7 and


 A = constant
AM ekM t

M = carrying capacity

y= kM t
, where
1 + Ae 
 k = growth rate and
t = time


1 000A
From the initial conditions, we have 350 = y (0) =
1+A

35
and solving for A, we obtain A =
65

35 000e7t
which gives the solution of the IVP as y = .
65 + 35e7t

9. Investment strategies for making a million: Money is invested at 8% interest, com-

pounded continuously. If deposits are made at a rate of R2 000 per year, find the
size of the initial investment needed to reach R1 million in 20 years.

Solution:

It would be easier to recall the general solution (or the equation) first. The constant of
integration c is obtained by setting t = 0 and taking A (0) = x,

that is 12.5 ln |0.08x + 2000| = c

so that 12.5 ln |0.08A + 2000| = t + 12.5 ln |0.08x + 2000| .

Now find the value of x such that A (20) = 1 000 000.

12.5 ln |0.08 (1 000 000) + 2000| = 20 + 12.5 ln |0.08x + 2000|

12.5 ln |82 000| − 20

or = ln |0.08x + 2000|
12.5

Solve for x by taking the exponential of both sides:

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

e(12.5 ln 82 000−20)/12.5 = 0.08x + 2000

eln 82000−1.6 − 2000

⇒ x= ≈ 181, 943.93.
0.08

6.4.2 Growth and Decay

dy
y (t) = Aekt is the general solution for the differential equation y 0 (t) = = ky(t).
dt

For k > 0 the equation reflects an exponential growth law and for k < 0, the equation
reflects an exponential decay law.

(a) (b)

Figure 6.1: (a) k > 0 is the growth curve (b) k < 0 is the decay curve

Exponential growth or decay means that:

dy
y 0 (t) = = ky (t) (6.2)
dt

Since equation ( 6.2) involves the derivative of an unknown function, we call it a differential
equation (DE). The aim is to solve this DE, that is, to find the function y(t).

Recall how to solve separable differential equations. We have

dy
= ky (t) (6.3)
dt
This is a separable DE, that is

dy
= kdt. (6.4)
y (t)

Integrating both sides of equation ( 6.4) with respect to t, we obtain

Z Z
1
dy = kdt
y (t)

MAT1512 143
 ⇒ ln |y| + c1 = kt + c2
or ln |y| = kt + C (where C = c2 − c1 ).
Since y (t) > 0, we have ln y (t) = kt + C

and taking exponentials of both sides , we get eln y(t) = ekt+C ,

that is, y (t) = ekt .eC .

Therefore y (t) = Aekt (where A = eC ).

Examples:

10. A bacterial culture contains 100 cells at a certain point in time. Sixty minutes later,
there are 450 cells. Assuming exponential growth, determine the number of cells
present at time t and find the doubling time.

Solution:

Exponential growth means that y 0 (t) = ky (t) and after solving this equation, we have
y (t) = Aekt .

At t = 0, y (0) = 100 (initial conditions), we have 100 = y (0) = Ae0 = A.

Then y (t) = 100ekt .

At t = 60 minutes, we have 450 = y (60) = 100e60k .

Solve for k by taking natural logarithms of both sides and obtain

ln 4.5 = ln e60k = 60k,

ln 4.5
so that k = .
60

 
ln 4.5
Therefore, at any time t we have y (t) = 100ekt = 100 exp t .
60

At doubling time, y (t) = 2y (0) = 200,

 
ln 4.5
so that 200 = y (t) = 100 exp t .
60

ln 4.5
Solve for it and get ln 2 = t.
60

11. A cup of coffee is 180◦ F when poured. After 2 minutes in a room at 70◦ F, the coffee
has cooled to 165◦ F. Find the temperature at time t and find the time at which the
coffee will have cooled to 120◦ F.

144
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

Solution:

The differential equation is y 0 (t) = k [y (t) + 70] .

Solving this differential equation, we obtain y (t) = Aekt + 70.

Initial conditions are : 180 = y (0) = Ae0 + 70 = A + 70.

This gives y (0) = 180,

so that A = 110 and y (t) = 110ekt + 70.

We use the second measured temperature (165◦ F) to solve for k :

165 = y (2) = 110e2k + 70.

Solve for k by subtracting 70 from both sides and dividing by 110 to obtain
165 − 70 95
e2k = = .
110 110

 
95
Taking natural logarithms of both sides, we get 2k = ln and, therefore k =
  110
1 95
2 ln 110 .

When the temperature T = 120, we have 120 = y (t) = 110ekt + 70.

1 5
Solve for t and obtain t = ln .
k 11

12. Compound interest and an example of decay. Suppose the value of a R10 000 asset
decreases continuously at a constant rate of 24% per year. Find its worth after

(a) 10 years

(b) 20 years

Solution:

The value v(t) of any quantity that is changing at a constant rate r satisfies the equation:
v 0 = rv.

Here r = −0.24, so that v (t) = Ae−0.24t

Since the initial asset value is R10 000, we have v (t) = 10 000e−0.24t .

We now have 10 000 = v (0) = Ae0 = A.

MAT1512 145
 At time t = 10, the asset value is R10 000e−0.24(10) ≈ R907.18 and

at time t = 20, the asset value is R10 000e−0.24(20) ≈ R82.30.

More Worked Examples:

13. A bacterial culture starts with 1 000 bacteria and after 2 hours there are 2 500
bacteria. Assuming that the culture grows at a rate proportional to its size, find the
population after 6 hours.

14. The earth’s atmospheric pressure p is often modeled by assuming that the rate dp/dh
at which p changes with altitude h above sea level is proportional to p. Suppose that
the pressure at sea level is 1 013 millibars (about 14.7 pounds per square inch) and
that the pressure at an altitude of 20 km is 90 millibars.

(a) Solve the initial value problem –

Differential equation: dp/dh = kp (k is a constant).

Initial condition: p = p0 when h = 0,

Express p in terms of h. Determine the values of p0 and k from the given

altitude and pressure data.

(b) What is the atmospheric pressure at h = 50 km?

(c) At what altitude does the pressure equal 900 millibars?

15. In some chemical reactions, the rate at which the amount of a substance changes
with time is proportional to the amount present. For the change of δ-gluconolactone
into gluconic acid, for example,
dy
= −0.6y
dt

when t is measured in hours. If there are 100 grams of δ-gluconolactone present

when t = 0, how many grams will be left after the first hour?

16. The intensity L (x) of light x feet beneath the surface of the ocean satisfies the
differential equation
dL
= −kL.
dx

As a diver, you know from experience that diving to 18 ft in the Caribbean Sea cuts
the intensity in half. You cannot work without artificial light when the intensity falls
below one-tenth of the surface value. Up to about how deep can you expect to work
without artificial light?

17. If R1 000 is invested for 4 years at 12% interest compounded continuously, what is
the value of the investment at the end of the 4 years?

146
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

18. You have just placed A0 rand in a bank account that pays 14% interest, compounded
continuously.

(a) How much money will you have in the account in 6 years’ time?

(b) How long will it take for your money to double and to triple?

19. Suppose an object takes 40 min to cool down from 30◦ C to 24◦ C in a room that is
kept at 20◦ C.

(a) What would the temperature of the object be 15 min after it has been 30◦ C?

(b) How long will it take for the object to cool down to 21◦ C?

20. Suppose that a cup of soup cooled down from 90◦ C to 60◦ C within 10 minutes in a
room of which the temperature was 20◦ C. Use Newton’s Law of Cooling to answer
the following questions.

(a) How much longer would it take for the soup to cool to 35◦ C?

(b) Instead of being left to stand in the room, the cup of 90◦ C soup is put in a
freezer in which the temperature is −15◦ C. How long will it take for the soup
to cool down from 90◦ C to 35◦ C?

Solutions:

13. Let y (t) be the number of bacteria after t hours. Then y0 = y (0) = 1000 and
dy
y (2) = 2500. Since we are assuming = ky (Law of Exponential Growth on page
dt
237 in Stewart),

y (t) = y0 ekt = 1000ekt

⇒ y (2) = 1000e2k = 2500.

Therefore e2k = 2.5 and 2k = ln 2.5.

ln 2.5
Thus k = .
2
1
Substituting the value of k = 2 ln 2.5 back into the expression for y (t), we have
ln 2, 5
t
y (t) = 1000e 2
 t
2
= 1000 eln 2.5
t
= 1000 (2.5) 2 (since eln 2.5 = 2.5).

Therefore the population after 6 hours is

y (6) = 1000 (2.5)3 = 15 625.

MAT1512 147
 dp
14. (a) Differential equation: = kp (k is a constant).
dh

Initial condition: p = p0 when h = 0.

We separate the variables by dividing the differential equation by p to have

1 dp
= k
p dh
⇒ ln |p| = kh + c (by integrating the R.H.S. with respect to h)
⇒ |p| = ekh + c (by exponentiating)
⇒ |p| = ec ekh
⇒ p = ±ec ekh
⇒ p = Aekh where A = ±ec .

But the initial condition p = p0 when h = 0. Therefore p0 = Aek0 = A and

thus
p = p0 ekh

Then
p (0) = p0 = 1013 and p (20) = 90 = 1013e20k .

Thus
90
e20k =
1013
90
⇒ 20k = ln
1013
1 90
⇒k = ln .
20 1013

Therefore p (h) is given by

   h
90 h 90 20
p (h) = 1013e ln = 1013 .
1013 20 1013

(b) If h = 50 km, then

90 5
p (50) = 1013eln( 1013 )· 2
 90
5
= 1013 eln( 1013 )
2

 5
90 2 90 90
= 1013 (since eln( 1013 ) = )
1013 1013
902.5
= .
10131.5

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

(c) If p = 900, then

 h
90 20
900 = 1013
1013
 h
90 20 900
⇒ =
1013 1013
   
h 90 900
⇒ ln = ln
20 1013 1013
 
1 900
⇒ h = 20 · 90

· ln .
ln 1013 1013

15. We have the following initial-value problem:

dy
Differential equation: = −0.6y
dt

Initial condition: y0 = 100 when t = 0.

We use the Radioactive decay equation on page 239 in Stewart:

y = y0 e−kt .

Since y0 = 100 and k = −0.6 we have

y = 100e−0.6t .

After the first hour the number of grams will be

y = 100e(−0,6)(1)
= 100e−0,6 .

16. We have the following initial-value problem:

dL
Differential equation: = −kL
dx

Initial condition: L = L0 when x = 0. We are given that L = 21 L0 when x = 18.

1
We want to find x when L = 10 L0 .

L (x) = L0 e−kx

where

L (x) = y(t),
L0 = A.

MAT1512 149
 Thus
1
L0 = L0 e−18k
2
1
∴ e−18k =
2
18k
⇒e = 2
⇒ 18k = ln 2
1
⇒k = ln 2.
18

1
When L = 10 L0 we have
1
L0 = L0 e−kx
10
1
⇒ e−kx =
10 
1
⇒ −kx = ln
10
⇒ −kx = − ln 10
1
⇒x = ln 10
k
18 1
= ln 10 (since k = ln 2).
ln 2 18

17. We use the Continuously compound interest formula on page 242 in Stewart:

A (t) = A0 ert .

It is given that A0 =R1000 and r = 12% = 0.12. So the value of the investment in
4 years will be
A (4) = 1000e(0.12)4
= 1000e0.48 .

18. We use the continuous compound interest formula:

A (t) = A0 ert .

(a) We are given that r = 14% = 0.14. In 6 years the money will be
A (6) = A0 e(0.14)6
= A0 e0.84 .

(b) We want to find t when A = 2A0 , and when A = 3A0 . We have A (t) = A0 e0.14t .

When A = 2A0 we have

2A0 = A0 e0.14t
⇒ e0.14t = 2
⇒ 0.14t = ln 2
ln 2 100
⇒t = = ln 2.
0.14 14

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

When A = 3A0 we have

3A0 = A0 e0.14t
⇒ e0.14t = 3
⇒ 0.14t = ln 3
ln 3 100
⇒t = = ln 3.
0.14 14

19. We use Newton’s Law of Cooling on page 240 in Stewart:

T = Ts + (T0 − Ts ) e−kt
where T = y (t) , Ts = Tα
and T0 − Ts = A

where T is the temperature at any given time t, Ts is the surrounding temperature

and T0 is the initial temperature (in other words, T0 is the value of T at t = 0).

Now, we are given that Ts = 20◦ C and T0 = 30◦ C.

Then the object’s temperature after t minutes is

T = 20 + (30 − 20) e−kt

= 20 + 10e−kt .

(a) We first find k, by using the information that T = 24 when t = 40 :

24 = 20 + 10e−40k
⇒ 10e−40k = 4
4
⇒ e−40k =
10 
4
⇒ −40k = ln
10
 
1 4
⇒ k = − ln .
40 10

Now the object’s temperature after time t is

1 4
T = 20 + 10e 40 ln 10 ·t.

We now find T when t = 15 :

1 4
T = 20 + 10e 40 ln 10 ·15
 4
 15
40
= 20 + 10 eln 10
  15
4 40
= 20 + 10 .
10

MAT1512 151
 (b) We now find the time t when T = 21◦ C:
  t
4 40
ln
21 = 20 + 10 e 10

 t
4 40
⇒ 10 = 1
10
 t
4 40 1
⇒ =
10 10
   
t 4 1
⇒ ln = ln
40 10 10
 
40 1
⇒t = 4 · ln 10


ln 10
40 ln 10
= − .
ln (0, 4)

20. As in the solution of the question above,

T = Ts + (T0 − Ts ) e−kt .

It is given that Ts = 20◦ C and T0 = 90◦ C. The soup’s temperature after t minutes
is
T = 20 + (90 − 20) e−kt
= 20 + 70e−kt .

(a) We find k by using the information that T = 60◦ C when t = 10 minutes:

60 = 20 + 70e−10k
⇒ 40 = 70e−10k
4
⇒ e−10k =
7 
4
⇒ −10k = ln
7
 
1 4
⇒ k = − ln .
10 7

The soup’s temperature at time t is

1 4
T = 20 + 70e( 10 ln( 7 ))·t
We now find the time t when T = 35◦ C:
  t
4 10
ln
35 = 20 + 70 e 7

 t
4 10
⇒ 15 = 70
7
 t
4 10 15
⇒ =
7 70
   
t 4 15
⇒ ln = ln
10 7 70
1 15
⇒ t = 10 4 ln 70 .


ln 7

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

(b) With T = −15◦ C and T0 = 90◦ C, we have

T = −15 + (90 − (−15)) e−kt

= −15 + 105e−kt .

So we find t when T = 35◦ C:

 4 t
10
35 = −15 + 105 eln 7
 t
4 10
⇒ 50 = 105
7
 t
4 10 50
⇒ =
7 105
   
t 4 50
⇒ ln = ln
10 7 105
 
1 50
⇒ t = 10
ln .
ln 47 105

6.4.3 Partial Derivatives/Chain Rule

Functions with more than one variable appear more often in science than functions with
one variable. The reason for this is that in real life the mathematical application in
respect of any dynamic phenomenon depends on more than one variable. One example of
a dynamic phenomenon is a moving train, where the motion will depend on variables such
as time, distance, friction, mass and so forth. The applied mathematician uses functions
with several variables, their derivatives and their integrals to study continuum mechanics,
probability, statistics, fluid mechanics and electricity – to mention but a few examples.

If f is a function of two independent variables, we usually call the independent variables

x and y and picture the domain of f (x, y) as a region in the XY -plane. If f is a function
of three independent variables, we call the variables x, y, and z and picture the domain of
f (x, y, z) as a region in space.

Now, to talk about the derivative of f does not make sense if we do not specify with
respect to which independent variable the derivative is required. When we keep all but
one of the independent variables of a function constant and differentiate with respect to
that one variable, we get a partial derivative. We would like to encourage you to work
through examples 1–8 in Section 14.3 and to study Section 14.5 of Chapter 14 in Stewart
carefully, in conjunction with the examples in the study guide.

(a) The partial derivatives technique

This technique is used when functions have more than one variable.

MAT1512 153
 Consider a function f of two variables, x and y. Suppose we let only x vary, while keeping
y fixed and y = b where b is a constant.

Then this is a function of a single variable x : g (x) = f (x, b).

If g has a derivative at a, this is called the partial derivative of f with respect to x at (a, b),
denoted by
g (a + h) − g (a) f (a + h, b) − f (a, b)
fx (a, b) = g 0 (x) , that is g 0 (a) = lim or fx (a, b) = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

Similarly, the partial derivative of f with respect to y at (a, b), denoted by fy (a, b) is
obtained by keeping x fixed (that is x = a) and finding the derivative at b of the function
G (y) = f (a, y).

f (a + h, b) − f (a, b) f (a, b + h) − f (a, b)

So fx (a, b) = lim and fy (a, b) = lim .
h→0 h h→0 h

If we now let the point (a, b) vary, fx and fy become functions of two variables.

Definition
If f is a function of two variables, its partial derivatives are
the functions fx and fy defined as:
f (x + h, y) − f (x, y)
fx (x, y) = lim
h→0 h
and
f (x, y + h) − f (x, y)
fy (x, y) = lim
h→0 h

(b) Notations for partial derivatives

If z = f (x, y) , we write:

∂f ∂ ∂z
fx (x, y) = fx = = f (x, y) = = f1 = D1 f = Dx f
∂x ∂x ∂x

∂f ∂ ∂z
fy (x, y) = fy = = f (x, y) = = f2 = D2 f = Dy f
∂y ∂y ∂y

Note: f1 or D1 f indicates differentiation with respect to the first variable and f2 or D2 f

indicates differentiation with respect to the second variable.

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

(c) Rules for finding the partial derivatives of z = f (x, y)

1. To find fx , regard y as a constant and differentiate with respect to x.

2. To find fy , regard x as a constant and differentiate with respect to y.

Examples:

21. If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2 , find fx (2, 1) and fy (2, 1).

∂z ∂z
22. Find and if z is defined implicitly as a function of x and y by the equation
∂x ∂y
x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz = 1.

Solutions:

21. If f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2 ,

then holding y constant and differentiating with respect to x, we get

fx (x, y) = 3x2 + 2xy 3 − 0

= 3x2 + 2xy 3

and

fx (2, 1) = 3 (2)2 + 2 (2) 13

= 12 + 4
= 16.

Holding x constant and differentiating with respect to y, we get

fy (x, y) = 0 + 3x2 y 2 − 4y
= 3x2 y 2 − 4y

and

fy (2, 1) = 3 22 12 − 4 (1)

= 12 − 4
= 8.

22. Given that x3 + y 3 + z 3 + 6xyz = 1.

Then, holding y constant and differentiating implicitly with respect to x, we get

∂z ∂z
3x2 + 0 + 3z 2 + 6yz + 6xy = 0.
∂x ∂x

MAT1512 155
 ∂z
Solving this equation for , we get
∂x
−3 x2 + 2yz


∂z −3x2 − 6yz
= =
∂x 3z 2 + 6xy 3 (z 2 + 2xy)
x2 + 2yz
= − 2 .
z + 2yz

Similarly, holding x constant and differentiating implicitly with respect to y gives

∂z ∂z
0 + 3y 2 + 3z 2 + 6xz + 6xy = 0
∂y ∂y
∂z
3z 2 + 6xy = −3y 2 − 6xz


⇒
∂y
∂z −3y 2 − 6xz
⇒ =
∂y 3z 2 + 6xy
−3 y 2 + 2xz


=
3 (z 2 + 2xy)
y 2 + 2xz
= − 2 .
z + 2xy

(d) Partial differentiation

If z = f (x, y) where f is a differentiable function of x and y where x = x (s, t) and

y = y(s, t), and both have partial derivatives, then the chain rule below holds:
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + and
∂s ∂x ∂s ∂y ∂s
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= + .
∂t ∂x ∂t ∂y ∂t

Example:

23. Suppose f (x, y) = exy , x (u, v) = 3u sin v and y (u, v) = 4v 2 u.

∂g ∂g
For g (u, v) = f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) , find the partial derivatives and .
∂u ∂v

Solution:

f (x, y) = exy , x (u, v) = 3u sin v, y (u, v) = 4uv 2 and

g (u, v) = f (x(u, v), y (u, v)).

Then
∂g ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= +
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u

156
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

and
∂g ∂f ∂x ∂f ∂y
= + .
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v

So
∂f
= exy · y = yexy ,
∂x
∂f
= exy · x = xexy ,
∂y
∂x
= 3 sin v,
∂u
∂y
= 4v 2 ,
∂u
∂x
= 3u (− cos u (1)) = −3u cos v and
∂v
∂y
= 8uv.
∂v

Therefore
∂g
= yexy (3 sin v) + xexy 4v 2


∂u
2 2
= 4uv 2 e3u sin v(4uv ) (3 sin v) + 3u sin ve3u sin v(4uv ) 4v 2


2 v2 2 u2
= 12uv 2 e12u sin v
sin v + 12uv 2 e12u sin v
sin v
2 12u2 v 2 sin v
= 24uv e sin v and

∂g
= yexy (3u cos v) + xexy (8uv) = 3yuexy cos v + 8xuvexy
∂v
2 2
= 3 4uv 2 ue3u sin v(4uv ) cos v + 8 (3u sin v) uve3u sin v(4uv )


2 v2 2 v2
= 12u2 v 2 e12u sin v
cos v + 24u2 ve12u sin v
sin v.

(e) Functions of more than two variables

Partial derivatives can also be defined for functions of three or more variables. For example,
if f is a function of three variables, x, y and z, then its partial derivative with respect to
x is defined as:
f (x + h, y, z) − f (x, y, z)
fx (x, y, z) = lim
h→0 h

and is found by, for example, regarding y and z as constants and differentiating f (x, y, z)
with respect to x.

Example:

24. Find fx , fy and fz if f (x, y, z) = exy ln z.

MAT1512 157
 Solution:

If f (x, y, z) = exy ln z,

then to compute the partial derivative with respect to x, we treat y and z as constants
and obtain
∂ xy
fx = (e ln z)
∂x
= exy (y) ln z
= yexy ln z.

To compute the partial derivative with respect to y, we treat x and z as constants and
obtain
∂ xy
fy = (e ln z)
∂y
= exy (x) ln z
= xexy ln z.

To compute the partial derivative with respect to z, we treat x and y as constants and
obtain
∂ xy
fz = (e ln z)
∂z
1
= exy · (1)
z
exy
= .
z

(f ) Higher-order derivatives

If f is a function of two variables, then its partial derivatives fx and fy are also functions
of two variables, so we can consider their partial derivatives (fx )x , (fx )y , (fy )x and (fy )y ,
which are called the second partial derivatives of f .

If z = f (x, y), we use the following notation:

∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fx )x = fxx = f11 = = 2
= ,
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x2
∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fx )y = fxy = f12 = = = ,
∂y ∂x ∂y∂x ∂y∂x
∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )x = fyx = f21 = = = and
∂x ∂y ∂x∂y ∂x∂y
∂2f ∂2z
 
∂ ∂f
(fy )y = fyy = f22 = = = .
∂y ∂y ∂y 2 ∂y 2

158
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule
 2 
∂ f
Note: The notation fxy or means we first differentiate with respect to x and
∂y∂x
then with respect to y, and in computing fyx , the order of differentiation is reversed.

Example:

25. Find the second partial derivatives of f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y 2 .

Solution:

Given f (x, y) = x3 + x2 y 3 − 2y.

In example 21 we found that

fx (x, y) = 3x2 + 2xy 3 and

fy (x, y) = 3x2 y 2 − 4y.

Therefore

∂
3x2 + 2xy 3 = 6x + 2y 3 ,


fxx (x, y) =
∂x

∂
3x2 + 2xy 3 = 0 + 6xy 2 = 6xy 2 ,


fxy (x, y) =
∂y

∂
3x2 y 2 − 4y = 6xy 2 − 0 = 6xy 2 and


fyx (x, y) =
∂x

∂
3x2 y 2 − 4y = 6x2 y − 4.


fyy (x, y) =
∂y

Now work through the rest of the examples provided.

Worked Examples:

26. Determine ∂f /∂x and ∂f /∂y if:

(a) f (x, y) = sin(x + y) and

x
(b) f (x, y) = .
x2 + y2

27. Use the chain rule for partial derivatives to determine the value of dw/dt when t = 0
if w = x2 + y 2 , x = cos t + sin t and y = cos t − sin t.

28. Use the chain rule for partial derivatives to find dw/dt when w = − sin(xy),

x = 1 + t and y = t2 .

MAT1512 159
 29. Suppose
1 1
w= + , x = t2 + 1 and y = t4 + 3.
xy y

Use the chain rule for partial derivatives to find dw/dt.

30. Assume that the equation

4 4
yx 3 + y 3 = 144

defines y as a differentiable function of x. Use partial derivatives to find the value of

dy/dx at the point (−8, 8).

31. Determine ∂z/∂u when u = 0 and v = 1, if z = sin(xy) + x sin y, x = u2 + v 2 and

y = uv.

32. Let g be a function of x and y, and suppose that x and y are both functions of u and
v. Which one of the following is ∂g/∂v?

∂g ∂u ∂g ∂u
(a) · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y

dg ∂x dg ∂y
(b) · + ·
dx ∂v dy ∂v

∂g ∂x ∂g ∂y
(c) · + ·
∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v

dg dx dg dy
(d) · + ·
dx dv dy dv

33. Determine ∂ 2 f /∂y 2 if f (x, y) = tan(xy) − cot x.

34. Suppose that the equation

y = sin(xy)

defines y as a differentiable function of x. Use partial derivatives to find dy/dx.

35. Suppose w = (−2x2 + 2y 2 − 2)2 , x = 2u − 2v + 2 and y = −u + 4v + 2. Find the

value of ∂w/∂v when u = 0 and v = −1.

36. Use the chain rule for partial derivatives to find dw/dt when w = − sin(xy), x = 1 + t
and y = t2 .

37. Assume that the equation

xy + y 2 − 3x − 3 = 0

defines y as a differentiable function of x. Find the value of dy/dx at the point (−1, 1)
by using partial derivatives.

38. Use the chain rule for partial derivatives to find ∂w/∂r when r = π and s = 0, if
w = sin(2x − y), x = r + sin s and y = rs.

160
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

39. Suppose that the equation

7y 4 + x3 y + x = 4

defines y as a differentiable function of x. Find the value of dy/dx at the point (4, 0).

40. The dimensions a, b and c of a rectangular solid vary with time (t). At the instant
in question
da dc
a = 13 cm, b = 9 cm, c = 5 cm, = = 2 cm/sec
dt dt
and
db
= −5 cm/sec.
dt

Figure 6.2: Rectangular solid

(a) How fast is the volume V changing at the given instant? Is V increasing or
decreasing?

(b) How fast is the surface area S changing at that moment? Is the area increasing
or decreasing?

(c) How fast is the length D of the diagonal changing at that instant? Does the
length increase or decrease?

Solutions:

26. (a)
f (x, y) = sin(x + y)
∂f ∂f
⇒ = cos(x + y) and = cos(x + y).
∂x ∂y

(b)
x
f (x, y) =
x2 + y2
1. x2 + y 2 − x (2x + 0)


∂f
⇒ =
∂x (x2 + y 2 )2
y 2 − x2
= .
(x2 + y 2 )2

MAT1512 161
 Also,
x
f (x, y) = = x(x2 + y 2 )−1
x2 + y 2
∂f
⇒ = x(−(x2 + y 2 )−2 ).(0 + 2y)
∂y
2xy
= − .
(x2 + y 2 )2

27.
w = x2 + y 2 , x = cos t + sin t and y = cos t − sin t
dw ∂w dx ∂w dy
⇒ = +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= (2x + 0)(− sin t + cos t) + (0 + 2y)(− sin t − cos t)
= 2x (cos t − sin t) − 2y (sin t + cos t)
by substituting for x and y
= 2(cos t + sin t)(cos t − sin t) − 2(cos t − sin t)(cos t + sin t)
= 0.

Hence, 
dw 
= 0.
dt t=0

28.
w = − sin (xy)

∂w
⇒ = − cos (xy) · y
∂x

and
∂w
= − cos (xy) · x.
∂y

Also,
x = 1+t
dx
⇒ = 1,
dt

and
y = t2
dy
⇒ = 2t.
dt

We have
dw ∂w dx ∂w dy
= · + ·
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= − cos (xy) · y (1) − cos (xy) · x · 2t
= − cos ((1 + y) (+2)) · y 2 − cos (1 + t) t2 (1 + t) · 2t.

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 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

29.
1 1
w = +
xy y
∂w 1
⇒ = − 2
∂x yx

and
∂w −1 1
= 2 − 2.
∂y xy y

Also,

x = t2 + 1

dx
⇒ = 2t
dt

and

y = t4 + 3

dy
⇒ = 4t3 .
dt

Hence,
dw ∂w dx ∂w dy
= · + ·
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
 
1 1 1
= − 2 · 2t + − 2 − 2 · 4t3
yx xy y
2t 4t3 4t3
= − 2 − 2 − .
(t4 + 3) (t2 + 1) (t2 + 1) (t4 + 3) (t4 + 3)2

30. Let
4 4
F (x, y) = yx 3 + y 3 − 144.

Then
dy Fx
= −
dx Fy
1
4
3 yx
3
= − 1 ,
x4/3 + 43 y 3

so
 4
dy  3 · 8 · (−2)
= −
dx (x,y)=(−8,8)
 16 + 43 · 2
8
= .
7

MAT1512 163
 31.
∂z ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y
= · + ·
∂u ∂x ∂u ∂y ∂u
= (y cos(xy) + sin y)2u + (x cos(xy) + x cos y)v.

If u = 0 and v = 1, then x = u2 + v 2 = 1 and y = uv = 0. Then

∂z
= (0 · cos 0 + sin 0) · 0 + (1 · cos 0 + 1 · cos 0) · 1
∂u
= 2.

32.
∂g ∂g ∂x ∂g ∂y
= · + · .
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v

33.

f (x, y) = tan(xy) − cot x

∂f
⇒ = sec2 (xy).x
∂y
∂2f
⇒ = 2 sec(xy). sec(xy) tan(xy).x.x
∂y 2
= 2x2 . sec2 (xy). tan(xy).

34.

y = sin(xy)
⇒ y − sin(xy) = 0.

Let
F (x, y) = y − sin(xy).

Then
dy Fx
= −
dx Fy
− cos (xy) · y
= −
1 − cos (xy) · x
y cos (xy)
= .
1 − x cos (xy)

35.
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y
= · + ·
∂v ∂x ∂v ∂y ∂v
= 2(−2x2 + 2y 2 − 2)(−4x)(−2) + 2(−2x2 + 2y 2 − 2)(4y)(4).

If u = 0 and v = −1, then

x=0+2+2=4

164
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

and
y = 0 − 4 + 2 = −2

so that
∂w
= 2 (−32 + 8 − 2) (−16) (−2) + 2 (−32 + 8 − 2) (−8) (4)
∂v
= 0.

36.

w = − sin(xy)
∂w
⇒ = − cos(xy).y
∂x

and
∂w
= − cos(xy).x.
∂y

Also,

x = 1+t
dx
⇒ = 1
dt

and

y = t2
dy
⇒ = 2t.
dt

We have
dw ∂w dx ∂w dy
= · + ·
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt
= − cos(xy) · y · 1 − cos(xy) · x · 2t
= − cos((1 + t)t2 ) · t2 − cos((1 + t)t2 ) · (1 + t)2t.

37. Put
F (x, y) = xy + y 2 − 3x − 3.

Then
dy Fx y−3
=− =− .
dx Fy x + 2y

Hence, 
dy  1−3
=− = 2.
dx (x,y)=(−1,1)
 −1 + 2

MAT1512 165
 38.
∂w ∂w ∂x ∂w ∂y
= · + ·
∂r ∂x ∂r ∂y ∂r
= 2 · cos(2x − y) · 1 + (− cos(2x − y)) · s.

If r = π and s = 0, then x = π and y = 0, so that

∂w
= 2 · cos(2π) · 1 − cos(2π).0 = 2.
∂r

39. Let
F (x, y) = 7y 4 + x3 y + x − 4.

Then
dy Fx
= −
dx Fy
3x2 y + 1
= − .
28y 3 + x3

Hence 
dy  1
=− .
dx (x,y)=(4,0) 64

40. (a) Denote derivatives with respect to time by a dot. If

V = abc,

then
∂V ∂V ∂V
V̇ = ȧ + ḃ + ċ
∂a ∂b ∂c
= ȧbc + aḃc + abċ.

Substitute the given values:

V̇ = (2)(9)(5) + (13)(−5)(5) + (13)(9)(2)

= 90 − 325 + 234
= −1.

Therefore the volume decreases at 1 cm3 /sec.

(b) Differentiate with respect to time. If

S = 2ac + 2bc + 2ab,

166
 Study Unit 6: Differential Equation, Growth and Decay and Partial Derivatives/Chain
Rule

then
∂S ∂S ∂S
Ṡ = ȧ + ḃ + ċ
∂a ∂b ∂c
= (2c + 2b)ȧ + (2c + 2a)ḃ + (2a + 2b)ċ.

Substitute the given values:

Ṡ = (2 × 5 + 2 × 9)(2) + (2 × 5 + 2 × 13)(−5) + (2 × 13 + 2 × 9)(2)

= −36.

The area decreases at a rate of 36 cm2 /sec.

(c) According to the Theorem of Pythagoras

1
D = (a2 + b2 + c2 ) 2 .

Differentiate with respect to time:

1 2 1
Ḋ = (a + b2 + c2 )− 2 (2aȧ + 2bḃ + 2cċ)
2
aȧ + bḃ + cċ
= √ .
a2 + b2 + c2
(13) (2) + (9) (−5) + (5) (2)
Thus Ḋ (13, 9, 5) = q (from the given values)
(13)2 + (9)2 + (5)2
26 − 45 + 10
= √
169 + 81 + 25
−9
= √
275
−9
= √ .
5 11

Therefore the diagonal decreases at √9 cm/sec.

5 11

Key points

In this chapter we have introduced you to specific solutions of simple, first-order differential
equations. You should now be comfortable with solving some basic growth and decay
problems. We have also introduced the notion of partial derivatives, where we have seen
how to approach scientific problems involving functions of several variables, by changing
one of the variables at a time, and keeping the remaining variable(s) fixed.

At this stage you should be able to:

• solve first-order differential equations with initial values

MAT1512 167
 • solve basic real-life problems involving exponential growth and decay

• determine the partial derivatives of the functions of several variables

Continue practising solving problems until you have mastered the basic techniques! Go
through the section “For your review”at the end of each chapter to consolidate what you
have learnt and also use other calculus textbooks.

168
 Appendix A

Sequence and Summation Notation

The purpose of the Appendix is to help you to make the transition from high school to the
more advanced first-year calculus module MAT1512.

A sequence is a list of numbers written in a specific order. Sequences have many appli-
cations.

To read: Stewart Appendix E A34–A37

Outcomes:

After studying this section you should

(a) know the definition of a sequence

(b) know what is meant by

• a recursive sequence

• a partial sum of a sequence

• sigma notation

(c) be able to

• find the terms of a sequence

• find the nth term of a sequence

• find a partial sum of a sequence

MAT1512 169
 • use sigma notation

Examples:

A. 1.1 Write the first four terms of the sequence given by the formula in each case.

 j−1
1
(a) cj = 3
10

Solution:
 1−1  0
1 1
c1 = 3 =3 = 3,
10 10
 2−1  1
1 1 3
c2 = 3 =3 = ,
10 10 10
 3−1  2
1 1 3
c3 = 3 =3 =
10 10 100
 4−1  3
1 1 3
c4 = 3 =3 = .
10 10 1000

(−1)n+1
(b) an =
n+3

Solution:
(−1)1+1 1 (−1)2+1 1
a1 = = , a2 = =−
1+3 4 2+3 5

(−1)3+1 1 (−1)4+1 1
a3 = = , a4 = =− .
3+3 6 4+3 7

k k+1
(c) xk = −
k+1 k

Solution:
1 1+1 1 3
x1 = − = −2=− ,
1+1 1 2 2
2 2+1 2 3 5
x2 = − = − =− ,
2+1 2 3 2 6
3 3+1 3 4 7
x3 = − = − =− ,
3+1 3 4 3 12
4 4+1 4 5 9
x4 = − = − =− .
4+1 4 5 4 20

170
 Study Unit A: Sequence and Summation Notation

2n + (−2)n
A. 1.2 Find the ninth and tenth terms of: 0, 4, 0, . . . , ,...
n

Solution:
2n + (−2)n
an =
n

29 + (−2)9 29 − 29 0
Then a9 = = = = 0 and
9 9 9

210 + (−2)10 210 + 210 2 · 210 2048 1024

a10 = = = = = .
10 10 10 10 5

3
A. 1.3 Find the first six terms of the sequence defined by: a1 = 6 and an = .
an−1

Solution:
3 3 1
a1 = 6, a2 = = = ,
a2−1 6 2
3 3 3
a3 = = = 1
= 6,
a3−1 a2 2
3 3 3 1
a4 = = = = ,
a4−1 a3 6 2
3 3 3
a5 = = = 1
= 6,
a5−1 a4 2
3 3 3 1
a6 = = = = .
a6−1 a5 6 2

A. 1.4 Find the sum of the first five terms of the sequence given by the formula in each
case.

1
(a) ak = (−1)k
k

Solution:
5
X
ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5
k=1

1 1 1 1 1
= (−1)1 + (−1)2 + (−1)3 + (−1)4 + (−1)5
1 2 3 4 5
1 1 1 1
= −1 + − + −
2 3 4 5
47
= − .
60

MAT1512 171
 (b) bi = i3

Solution:
5
X
i3 = b1 + b2 + b3 + b4 + b5
i=1
= 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + 53
= 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 + 125
= 225.

8
P 1
(c) Find xn where xn = .
n=0 2n

Solution:
8
X
xn = x0 + x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8
n=0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 0
+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+ 5+ 6+ 7+ 8
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + + + + +
2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256
511
= .
256

A. 1.5 Evaluate each of the following:

6
P
(a) (5k)
k=1

Solution:
6
X
(5k) = 5.1 + 5.2 + 5.3 + 5.4 + 5.5 + 5.6
k=1
= 5 + 10 + 15 + 20 + 25 + 30
= 105.

7
(−1)k
P
(b)
k=1

172
 Study Unit A: Mathematical Induction

Solution:
7
X
(−1)k = (−1)1 + (−1)2 + (−1)3 + (−1)4 + (−1)5 + (−1)6 + (−1)7
k=1
= −1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + 1 − 1
= −1.

3
 
P n+1 n
(c) −
n=1 n n+1

Solution:
3        
X n+1 n 1+1 1 2+1 2 3+1 3
− = − + − + −
n n+1 1 1+1 2 2+1 3 3+1
n=1

1 3 2 4 3
= 2− + − + −
2 2 3 3 4
35
= .
12

A. 1.6 Rewrite each series using sigma notation.

(a) 4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 20 + 24

Solution:

4 + 8 + 12 + 16 + 20 + 24 = 4 · 1 + 4 · 2 + 4 · 3 + 4 · 4 + 4 · 5 + 4 · 6

6
X
= (4k).
k=1

(b) −4 − 2 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8

Solution:

−4 − 2 + 0 + 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 = 2(−2) + 2(−1) + 2 · 0 + 2 · 1 + 2 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 2 · 4

4
X
= (2k).
k=−2

MAT1512 173
 Appendix B

Mathematical Induction

We consider here a special kind of proof method called mathematical induction.

To read: Stewart pages 72, 74 and Appendix E A36.

Outcomes:

After studying this section you should

(a) know what the principle of mathematical induction is

(b) be able to prove using mathematical induction that a statement P (n) is true for all
natural numbers n

Examples:

B. 2.1 Use mathematical induction to prove the following statement for all positive integers
n:
n(3n − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3n − 2) = . (B.1)
2

Solution:

Let P (n) be the statement

n(3n − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3n − 2) = (B.2)
2

for any positive integer n.

174
 Study Unit B: Mathematical Induction

We first show that P (1) is true.

LHS of (B.2) = 3 · 1 − 2
= 1.

1(3 · 1 − 1)
RHS of (B.2) =
2
2
=
2
= 1.

Thus P (1) is true.

Suppose that P (k) is true for any k, that is, we assume

k(3k − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3k − 2) = .
2

We want to prove that P (k + 1) is true, in other words:

1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3k − 2) + (3(k + 1) − 2)

(k + 1) (3(k + 1) − 1)
=
2
(k + 1)(3k + 2)
= .
2

Now

1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3k − 2) + (3(k + 1) − 2)

k(3k − 1)
= + (3k + 1)
2
1
= [k(3k − 1) + 2(3k + 1)]
2
1
3k 2 − k + 6k + 2


=
2
1
= (3k 2 + 5k + 2)
2
(k + 1)(3k + 2)
= .
2

Since both conditions of the principle of mathematical induction have been satisfied, it
follows that
n(3n − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + . . . + (3n − 2) =
2

MAT1512 175
 is true for all integers n ≥ 1.

B. 2.2 Prove that

n(n + 1)(n + 2)
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + . . . + n(n + 1) = for all n ∈ N.
3

Solution:

We must verify that the equation is true for n = 1.

The LHS is 1(1 + 1) = 2.

1(1 + 1)(1 + 2)
The RHS is = 2.
3

So the equation is true for n = 1.

Suppose that the equation is true for n = k, that is

k(k + 1)(k + 2)
1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + . . . + k(k + 1) = (∗)
3

We now use the assumption (∗) to deduce that the equation is true for n = k + 1, in other
words:

1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + . . . + k(k + 1) + (k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]

(k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1] [(k + 1) + 2]
= .
3

Now,

176
 Study Unit B: Mathematical Induction

LHS = 1 · 2 + 2 · 3 + 3 · 4 + . . . + k(k + 1) + (k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]

k(k + 1)(k + 2)
= + (k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1]
3
 
k(k + 2)
= (k + 1) + (k + 1) + 1
3
 2 
k + 2k + 3k + 6
= (k + 1)
3
 2 
k + 5k + 6
= (k + 1)
3
(k + 1)(k + 2)(k + 3)
=
3
(k + 1) [(k + 1) + 1] [(k + 1) + 2]
=
3

= RHS.

Since the equation is true for n = 1, and if it is true for n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1,
we conclude by mathematical induction that the equation is true for all integers n ≥ 1.

B. 2.3 Prove that

3n+1 − 3
3 + 3 2 + 33 + . . . + 3n = for all integers n ≥ 1.
2

Solution:

We must verify that the equation is true for n = 1.

The LHS is 31 = 3.

31+1 − 3
The RHS is =3
2

So the equation is true for n = 1.

Suppose that the equation is true for n = k, that is

3k+1 − 3
3 + 32 + 33 + . . . 3k = (B.3)
2

We now use the assumption (∗) to deduce that the equation is true for n = k + 1, in other
words:
3(k+1)+1 − 3
3 + 32 + 33 + . . . + 3k + 3k+1 = .
2

MAT1512 177
 Now,

LHS = 3 + 32 + 33 + . . . + 3k + 3k+1

3k+1 − 3
= + 3k+1
2

3k+1 − 3 + 2 · 3k+1
=
2

3k+1 (1 + 2) − 3
=
2

3k+1 · 3 − 3
=
2

3(k+1)+1 − 3
=
2

= RHS.

Since the equation is true for n = 1, and if it is true for n = k, then it is true for n = k + 1,
we conclude by mathematical induction that the equation is true for all integers n ≥ 1.

B. 2.4 Use mathematical induction to prove that

 n
3 3
< for n ≥ 2.
4 4

Solution:

Our starting point is n = 2, so we first verify that the inequality is true for n = 2.

 2
3 3 3 3 3
LHS is = · < = RHS since 0 < < 1.
4 4 4 4 4

So the inequality is true for n = 2.

Suppose that the inequality is true for n = k, that is

 k
3 3
< (B.4)
4 4

We now use the assumption (B.4) to deduce that the inequality is true for n = k + 1, in
other words  k+1
3 3
< .
4 4

178
 Study Unit 6: Mathematical Induction

Now,

 k+1
3
LHS =
4
 k
3 3
= ·
4 4
3 3
< · by (B.4)
4 4
3
< by the case n = 2
4

= RHS.

Therefore if the inequality is true for n = k, it is true for n = k + 1. By mathematical

induction we conclude that it is true for all positive integers n ≥ 2.

MAT1512 179