ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom is made up of a tiny but massive nucleus at the centre and a cloud
of electrons that move in wave-like orbits or shells around the massive nucleus (see
Fig. 1). Dense electron cloud

Nucleus

Less dense electron cloud

Thin shell
Fig. 1: Electron – cloud model.

The nucleus is made up of a proton and neutron. The protons carry positive
charges while the neutrons carry no charge. Both the proton and the neutron
constitute the nucleon. All the mass of an atom is concentrated in the central
nucleus. The protons, neutrons and electrons are referred to as fundamental
subatomic particles of an atom.

The electron is the lightest particle of an atom, with a mass (Me) of 9.1 x
10−31 kg and an electronic charge (e−) of 1.6 x 10−19 C. The ratio of charge of an
electron to its mass is known as the specific charge. I.e. s. c = e/m. An experiment
that is used to determine the charge of an electron is called Millikan’s experiment.

The proton has a mass of 1.67 x 10−27kg which is over 1836 times heavier
than the mass of an electron. It carries a positive charge (e+) of 1.6 x 10−19 C. That
is e+ = e− = 1.6 x 10−19 C. Therefore, an atom is said to be electrically neutral
because the number of protons equals the number of electrons. This is known as
the fundamental law of conservation of charges.

The neutron has the same mass as the proton but carries no charge. The
neutron and proton mass constitute a massive nucleus.
 The number of protons or electrons in an atom of an element is called the
atomic number (Z). Whereas, the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom
of an element (X) is called the mass number or nucleon number (A). This implies
that the number of neutrons in the atom of an element equals the difference
between the mass number and the atomic number. That is number of neutrons = A
− Z. In general, an atom of an element X is denoted by ZA X . For example, carbon
atom is denoted by 126 C . Comparing 126 C with ZA X gives A = 12, Z = 6, the number of
neutron = A – Z = 12 – 6 = 6. Thus, carbon has 6 protons, 6 neutrons and 6
electrons since number of protons equal number of electrons.

Atoms of the same element can have the same atomic number, but different
mass number and are known as isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of the same element
which have the same atomic number but different mass number. Thus, they are
atoms with the same number of protons or electrons, but different number of
neutrons. Isotopes have similar chemical properties because they have the same
number of electrons round the nucleus. Chemical combination is due to an
exchange of outer or valence electrons between elements. Examples of isotopes in
nature are chlorine 35
17 Cl (17 protons, 17 electrons, 18 neutrons), 37
17 Cl (17 protons,

17 electrons, 20 neutrons), carbon 126 C (6 protons, 6 electrons, 6 neutrons), 13

6 C (6

protons, 6 electrons, 7 neutrons).

Cathode ray oscilloscope is an instrument used to produce waveform. It

consists of a cathode ray tube, which is used to produce beam of electrons. It is
used to measure current, voltage, amplitude and frequency.

Important information concerning the structure and properties of atoms

could be obtained by studying the optical spectra from substances. Every element
has a unique spectrum. Analysis of mixture and compounds through a study of
their spectra is known as spectroscopy. We have three types of optical spectrum
namely; continuous, band and line spectra.

Continuous spectra are those in which all wavelengths of radiation are

present. They are produced by incandescent solids, liquids or gases under high
pressure. The amount of energy radiated at each wavelength depends on the
temperature of the material and to some extent on its nature.

Band spectra consist of several bands each having a sharp edge called a head
and shading off gradually towards the other end. Each band is made up of many
fine lines that come very close toward the head of the band. They are produced by
molecules e.g. nitrogen and oxygen.

Line spectra comprise discrete bright lines on a dark background. Each line
is light of practically one wavelength. They are produced by atoms hence they are
referred to as atomic spectra.

In solids, liquids and gases at high pressure, atoms are so close that
interaction is inevitable. The combined effects of several atoms result in the
continuous spectrum. In molecule, the atoms comprising the molecules interact
with each other and give rise to band spectra. In a gas, the atoms are comparatively
far apart and each atom has no influence on the other. The gas thus emits radiation
of wavelengths that are characteristics of the individual atoms in it.

The spectra of heavy elements consist of many hundreds of lines and are
generally very complicated. However, the spectrum of hydrogen is relatively
simple, because hydrogen is the simplest atom with only one electron in it. The
hydrogen spectrum is shown in Fig. 2.
 Hγ
Hb H d Hε
H¥
n=3 4 5 6 7 ¥

Continuous spectrum

l (Å) 6562.8 4861.3 4340.5 4101.7 3970.1 UV

Red Blue violet violet
3645.6

Fig. 2: Diagram of Balmer series of hydrogen atom.

An examination of this spectrum shows that the spacing in wavelength

between adjacent lines of the spectrum continuously decreases with decreasing
wavelength of the lines. In the visible region, this spectrum has four main lines, red
(6562.8Å), blue (4861.3Å) and in violet (4340.5 and 4101.7Å), with the series of
lines converging at its series limit of wavelength at 3645.6Å in the ultraviolent
region. Experimentally, the short wavelength lines, including the series limit are
difficult to observe because they are in the ultraviolet region and are closely
spaced.

A regularity of the spectral lines is thus depicted in the hydrogen spectrum.

It is apparent that there exists some relationship between these lines. Balmer
(1885) obtained a simple relationship for the lines and is given as

l (A o ) =
3645 .6 n 2
, (1)
n2 - 4
where n = 3 for Hα, n = 4 for Hβ, n = 5 for Hγ etc could predict the wavelength of
the first nine lines of the series to better than one part in 1000. Later, Rydberg
(1889) found a formular that could apply to heavier elements and is expressed as

- 1 æ 1 1 ö
f = = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ , n = 3, 4, 5, … (2)
l è2 n ø

where f is a wave number (i.e. the number of wavelength in unit length), RH is the
Rydberg constant for hydrogen equals 10967757.6 ± 1.2 m−1, n is a running
integer greater than 2. By substituting for n in equation (2) (the successive values
3, 4, 5 …), the wave numbers of lines in the Balmer series can be obtained. From
equation (2), it is clear that as n tends to infinity, the spectral lines of hydrogen
cluster together and approach the series limit.

Other series of the hydrogen spectrum were observed in the ultraviolet and
infrared regions. The wave number of each can be computed using equation similar
to (2) with 22 replaced by 12, 32, or 42 etc. The Lyman series are found in the
ultraviolet from this equation,

- 1 æ1 1 ö
f = = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ , n = 2, 3, 4, (3)
l è1 n ø

The Paschen series belong to infrared region and can be obtained from this
equation;

- 1 æ 1 1 ö
f = = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ , n = 4, 5, 6, … (4)
l è3 n ø

In general, the series of line in the hydrogen spectrum are obtained using this
formular;
 - 1 æ 1 1 ö
f = = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ (5)
l èm n ø

where m = 1, 2, 3, 4, … and n = 2, 3, 4, 5, …, respectively. Hydrogen spectrum

series of lines are given in Table 1.

Table 1: The hydrogen spectrum series

Name Spectral region Formulae Value of n

-
æ1 1 ö
Lyman Ultraviolet f = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ 2, 3, 4,
è1 n ø

-
æ 1 1 ö
Balmer Near UV and visible f = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ 3, 4, 5,
è2 n ø

-
æ 1 1 ö
Paschen Infrared f = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ 4, 5, 6,
è3 n ø

-
æ 1 1 ö
Brackett Infrared f = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ 5, 6, 7,
è4 n ø

-
æ 1 1 ö
Pfund Infrared f = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ 6, 7, 8,
è5 n ø

Example: Calculate the wavelength of a Balmer series of a hydrogen spectrum

with n = 3 and 4.

Solution

- 1 æ 1 1 ö æ 1 1 ö
For n = 3: f = = RH ç 2 - 2 ÷ = 10967757 .6 ç 2 - 2 ÷
l è2 n ø è2 3 ø
 = 10967757.6 æç - ö÷
1 1 1
l è4 9ø

9- 4ö
= 10967757.6 æç
1
÷
l è 36 ø

l
1
( )
= 10967757.6 5 36

l = 6.56469 ´ 10 -7 m = 6564.7 A o

For n = 4: l = ? (do it yourself)

Ex: Calculate the wavelength of a Lyman series of an element with n = 2.