Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

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Precambrian Research
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres

A review of the stratigraphy and geological setting of the Palaeoproterozoic

Magondi Supergroup, Zimbabwe – Type locality for the Lomagundi carbon
isotope excursion
Sharad Master a,∗ , Andrey Bekker b , Axel Hofmann c
a
EGRI, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 1 Jan Smuts Avenue, P. Bag 3, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
b
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
c
Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park 2006, South Africa

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The Palaeoproterozoic Magondi Supergroup lies unconformably on the Archaean granitoid-greenstone
Received 29 April 2010 terrain of the Zimbabwe Craton and experienced deformation and metamorphism at 2.06–1.96 Ga to form
Received in revised form 31 July 2010 the Magondi Mobile Belt. The Magondi Supergroup comprises three lithostratigraphic units. Volcano-
Accepted 13 August 2010
sedimentary rift deposits (Deweras Group) are unconformably overlain by passive margin, back-arc,
and foreland basin sedimentary successions, including shallow-marine sedimentary rocks (Lomagundi
Group) in the east, and deeper-water shelf to continental slope deposits in the west (Piriwiri Group). Based
Keywords:
on the upward-coarsening trend and presence of volcanic rocks at the top of the Piriwiri and Lomagundi
Carbon isotopes
Lomagundi anomaly
groups, the Piriwiri Group is considered to be a distal, deeper-water time-equivalent of the Lomagundi
Palaeoproterozoic Group. The Magondi Supergroup experienced low-grade metamorphism in the southeastern zone, but the
Magondi grade increases to upper greenschist and amphibolite facies grade to the north along strike and, more dra-
matically, across strike to the west, reaching upper amphibolite to granulite facies in the Piriwiri Group.
Carbonates form prominent horizons in the lower Lomagundi Group, occur in the Deweras Group as
thick packages in the northern part of the basin, but form only thin discontinuous beds elsewhere, and
are rare in the Piriwiri Group. Beds of anhydrite and sulphate pseudomorphs are relatively common
in the Deweras Group, and also occur in the Lomagundi Group. Schidlowski et al. (1975, 1976) found
extreme enrichment in 13 C in carbonates of the Lomagundi Group, with an average ␦13 C value of +8.2‰
VPDB. Subsequent work in the Magondi Basin has shown that high ␦13 C carbonates are also present in
the continental rocks of the underlying Deweras Group.
The initiation of the Deweras rift is not well constrained geochronologically, but it may have started as
early as 2.26 Ga, and was followed by deposition of the lower part of the Lomagundi Group on a passive
continental margin. Assuming that the deepening trend in the upper Lomagundi Group and upward-
coarsening trend in the Piriwiri Group reflect subsidence in a back-arc and subsequent foreland basin
setting, with sediment derivation from an approaching volcanic arc, the age of the onset of Magondi
deformation at ca. 2.0 Ga provides an upper age limit for sedimentation.
Combining all available data for the Magondi Basin, the Limpopo Belt between the Zimbabwe and
Kaapvaal cratons, and the Kheis Belt on the southwestern margin of the Kaapvaal craton, a new tectonic
model is presented for the assembly of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe cratons at ca. 2.1–2.0 Ga. These
cratons along with the Archaean cratons in West Africa and South America record an assembly of a large
continent at the time when Archaean cratons in North America and Fennoscandia experienced extension
and breakup. Carbonates of the Magondi Basin, the Kheis Belt, and the northern margin of the Kaapvaal
craton therefore reflect the carbon isotope composition of the open ocean at 2.2–2.1 Ga and provide
further evidence that the ␦13 C values reaching to +10‰ VPDB and higher record a seawater signal rather
than local diagenetic or closed basin conditions. The emerging picture is that Earth experienced dramatic
tectonic reorganization between 2.1–2.0 Ga, which likely influenced ocean circulation and redox state
and potentially ended the conditions that promoted high burial of organic matter with sediments during
the Lomagundi excursion.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +27 117176545; fax: +27 117176579.

E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Master), [email protected] (A. Bekker), [email protected] (A. Hofmann).

0301-9268/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.precamres.2010.08.013
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 255

1. Introduction (Fig. 1) are also part of the Magondi Supergroup. Formerly grouped
under the “Lomagundi System”, rocks of the Magondi Supergroup
Arguably one of the most dramatic changes in Earth’s history crop out in the northwestern part of Zimbabwe, and are bounded
was the rise of atmospheric oxygen in the early Palaeoprotero- to the north by the Zambezi rift valley, in the east by the Archaean
zoic (2.45–2.32 Ga ago; Farquhar et al., 2000; Bekker et al., 2004; granite-greenstone terrain of the Zimbabwe craton, and in the west
Partridge et al., 2008). In association with and immediately after by a series of Palaeoproterozoic gneisses. In the south they disap-
this event there was a prominent positive carbon isotope excursion pear under Mesozoic and Cenozoic cover until they reappear to the
in seawater composition, called the “Lomagundi carbon isotope southwest in the Dete-Kamativi Inlier. Magondi-aged rocks also
excursion” or “Lomagundi Event” and named after the Loma- crop out and have been intersected in boreholes in NE Botswana
gundi Group of the Palaeoproterozoic Magondi Belt in northwest (Carney and Dowsett, 1991; Majaule et al., 2001), where they may
Zimbabwe where it was first recognised in the carbonate record link with temporally similar rocks in the Limpopo Belt (Buick et al.,
(Schidlowski et al., 1975, 1976). The Lomagundi Event was con- 2003).
firmed by studies on carbonate rocks from all other continents The Magondi Supergroup was deformed into a fold-and-thrust
with the exception of Antarctica, indicating the worldwide extent belt and metamorphosed at grades ranging from greenschist to
of this excursion between ca. 2.32 and 2.06 Ga (e.g., Karhu and granulite facies during the ca. 2.0–1.9 Ga Magondi Orogeny. While
Holland, 1996; Bekker et al., 2001a). Since the seminal papers by all the lithologies in the Magondi Supergroup have undergone vary-
Schidlowski et al. (1975, 1976), very little has been published on ing degrees of metamorphism, and are strictly metamorphic rocks,
the sedimentology and chemostratigraphy of the Magondi Belt. The we will refer to the metasedimentary rocks in terms of their sedi-
original work was done on samples collected during regional geo- mentary protoliths.
logical mapping by the Geological Survey of Rhodesia, which did The “Lomagundi System” was originally defined by Molyneux
not allow examination of stratigraphic variations in carbon isotope (1919). The subsequent evolution of stratigraphic nomenclature
values. New studies on chemostratigraphy of the Magondi strati- has been quite complex, with new schemes being proposed by
graphic units were initiated in the 1990s (Master et al., 1990, 1993, virtually everyone who has mapped the “Lomagundi System”.
1999; Master and Verhagen, 1998; Bekker et al., 2001b), and led The various stratigraphic subdivisions of previous authors have
to the discovery of 13 C-enriched carbonate rocks of the Deweras been discussed by Master (1991a,b). Following the recommenda-
Group which underlies the Lomagundi Group. In this paper, follow- tions of Bliss (1968), the former Geological Survey of Rhodesia
ing Master (1991a,b), we review previous work on the stratigraphy, adopted a lithostratigraphic approach to stratigraphic subdivi-
sedimentology, structure, metamorphism, geochronology and tec- sion of the former “Lomagundi System”, which was divided into
tonic setting of the Magondi Supergroup. The paper is intended to the Deweras, Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups (Stagman, 1978,
provide an insight into the tectonic and palaeoenvironmental set- 1981). The term “Magondi Supergroup” was introduced by Treloar
ting of this important sedimentary basin, which is the type locality (1988) and Leyshon and Tennick (1988) to encompass the three
for one of the most dramatic isotopic excursions to affect the global above-mentioned groups. In addition, the Malaputese, Inyantue,
carbon cycle during Earth’s history. Kamativi and Tshontanda formations (Table 2) of the Dete-Kamativi
The Magondi Supergroup is a mainly metasedimentary succes- Inlier are also regarded as being part of the Magondi Supergroup
sion and is found in the early Palaeoproterozoic Magondi Mobile (Master, 1991a,b). The basin in which the rocks of the Magondi
Belt of western Zimbabwe (Figs. 1 and 2). It is subdivided into Supergroup were deposited has long been informally referred
the Deweras, Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups (Table 1). In addi- to as the “Lomagundi basin”, and is now called the “Magondi
tion, lithologies of the Dete-Kamativi Inlier of western Zimbabwe basin” to correspond with the name of the supergroup (Master,
1991a,b).
The rocks of the Magondi Supergroup are host to a large
variety of economically important mineral deposits, including
base metals, precious metals, industrial minerals, and gemstones
(Fig. 2), which were formed at various times during a complex
geological history. The Deweras and Lomagundi groups are host
to several stratabound copper–silver deposits of the Magondi
Copperbelt, which have been exploited in the past (Jacobsen,
1964a,b, 1965a,b; Maiden et al., 1984; Newham, 1986; Master,
1991a). The Piriwiri Group hosts metallic mineralization (mas-
sive Zn–Cu–Pb–Ag sulphides, manganese, and gold–copper) as
well as deposits of industrial minerals (e.g., graphite, kyanite)
(Master, 1991a,b, 1996). Significant stratabound copper sulphide
mineralization in the Malaputese Group of the Dete-Kamativi
Inlier is restricted to interflow sedimentary rocks intercalated with
metabasalts (Lockett, 1979; Bahnemann and Lockett, 1979; Master,
1991a).

2. Deweras Group

The Deweras Group is a mainly arenaceous redbed succession

with subordinate mafic volcanic rocks and was first defined by
Fig. 1. General geological map of Zimbabwe, showing the Magondi Mobile Belt in Phaup and Dobell (1938) in the Mupfure (former Umfuli) River area.
relation to the Archaean Zimbabwe craton and the Limpopo mobile belt. Note the There are two main areas of outcrop of the Deweras Group, a south-
fracture system in the Zimbabwe craton, occupied by the Neoarchaean Great Dyke,
ern outcrop belt around the Munyati and Mupfure rivers and the
its satellite intrusions, and the Palaeoproterozoic Chimbadzi Hill Intrusion (CHI),
which is parallel to the trend of the autochthonous Deweras Group in the Magondi
Mafungabusi Plateau at the southernmost extent of the Magondi
Belt. In = Insuza Borehole. basin, and a northern outcrop area stretching from south of Alaska
256 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Fig. 2. Detailed map of the northern part of the Magondi Mobile Belt, showing the main lithostratigraphic units and the location of the principal mines and mineral deposits
hosted by rocks of the Magondi Supergroup. DW = Doma West; Kw = Kamwa Anticline; Ky = kyanite; MnV = Munyati River Valley; MP = Mafungabusi Plateau; MpV = Mupfure
River Valley; Mz = Mazongororo Anticline; SC = Sheffield Claims.

Table 1
Generalised stratigraphy, lithology and depositional environments of the Magondi Supergroup (after Master, 1991a,b).

Group Lithology Environment

Piriwiri Graphitic schists, cherts, phyllites, greywackes, dolomites, Deep marine, distal shelf, continental slope,
Mn beds, massive sulphides, andesitic to felsic lavas, tuffs submarine fan
and agglomerates
Lomagundi Conglomerates, arkosic arenites, quartz arenites, Marginal marine (peritidal) and shallow
stromatolitic dolomites, banded iron formation, striped storm-dominated shelf
and graphitic slates, wackes, felsic volcanic and
volcaniclastic rocks
Unconformity
Deweras Conglomerates, arkosic arenites, mudstones, dolomites, Alluvial fan, braided stream, aeolian dune,
evaporites, basaltic lavas and pyroclastics playa
Unconformity
Basement Complex (Archaean granitoid-greenstone terrain)
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 257

Table 2
Stratigraphy of the Dete-Kamativi Inlier, NW Zimbabwe. Geochronological data are Rb–Sr whole rock analyses of Priem et al. (1972).

Formation Lithology Correlation

Post-kinematic granites (2.00 ± 0.08 Ga)

Kamativi Muscovite and biotite schists, minor psammites Piriwiri Group
Tshontanda Garnet-mica schists, sillimanite gneisses, impure quartzites Piriwiri Group
Inyantue Garnetiferous gneisses, arenites, calcareous and graphitic rocks Lomagundi and Deweras groups
Malaputese Pink arkosic psammites, calc- silicates, metapelites, mafic metavolcanics, quartzites Lomagundi and Deweras groups
Granodioritic orthogneisses (2.159 ± 0.1 Ga)

to Shamrocke mine (Fig. 2). The northern outcrop belt is subdivided 2.1. Southern outcrop belt
into the Central, Mhangura, and Doma West areas. In addition, there
is an outlier of Deweras Group rocks in the Silverside area 15 km The Deweras Group in its southern outcrop belt was formerly
ESE of Mhangura (Fig. 2). Stratabound copper–silver deposits in the subdivided into the “Lower Arenite”, “Volcanic” and “Upper Aren-
Deweras Group, which have been exploited in the past, occur in two ite” formations (Bliss, 1970; Sutton, 1979). In order to conform
main areas (Fig. 2), around Mhangura (Mangula, Norah and Silver- to internationally acceptable codes of stratigraphic nomenclature,
side mines) and around Alaska (Shackleton/Avondale, Angwa and the “Lower Arenite” and “Volcanic” formations have been renamed
Hans mines). (after their type localities) the Njerere and Munyati formations

Fig. 3. a. Key for interpreting Figures 3b, 8, 15 and 17. b. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the southern part of the Deweras Group.
258 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Fig. 5. Mudstone with dissolution cavities after sulphate nodules overlying Deweras
lavas of the Munyati Formation, Njerere River. A thin palaeosol is developed on top
of the basalt.

southern outcrop belt represent a facies change to more distal fan

Fig. 4. Njerere Formation basal conglomerate (Deweras Group) overlying Archaean and playa-type environments (Sutton, 1979).
basement granitoid, Njerere River. The Copper Pot Formation in the area west of Kadoma (Bliss,
1970) consists of an impersistent conglomerate horizon that is
respectively, and the “Upper Arenite Formation” has been broken overlain by, and changes laterally to, greywackes and arkoses, and
up into three separate formations, the Copper Pot, Nyachechene ferruginous purple-red arkoses. The main conglomerate of the Cop-
and Nyamachena formations (Master, 1991a; see Fig. 3). per Pot Formation in the Mupfure River area is matrix-supported
and consists of cobble- and pebble-sized clasts of Archaean base-
2.1.1. Njerere Formation ment lithologies and Deweras lava (Tennick and Phaup, 1976).
The Njerere Formation in the Mafungabusi Plateau area (Fig. 3)
consists of an impersistent redbed sequence of conglomerates, 2.1.4. Nyachechene Formation
arkosic arenites, grits and interbedded silty mudstones, up to 20 m The Nyachechene Formation in the east-central Mafungabusi
thick, which overlie tonalites and andesitic lavas of the Archaean Plateau area consists of a varied succession of mudstones
granitoid-greenstone basement (Fig. 4). The conglomerate contains interbedded with siltstones and sandstones showing complex soft-
pebbles and cobbles of vein quartz and rare banded jaspilite in a sediment deformation structures (Sutton, 1979), possibly due to
siliceous grit matrix (Sutton, 1979). wetting-drying cycles. Some sandstones contain quartz pseudo-
morphs after sulphate evaporites, up to 2 cm across (Fig. 7). In one
2.1.2. Munyati Formation area there are thin to medium beds of pink dolomite interbedded
The Munyati Formation is 300–600 m thick and consists of dif- with mudstones and cross-bedded greywackes. These dolomites
ferentiated lava flows separated by interflow sedimentary rocks are highly enriched in 13 C (Schidlowski et al., 1976; Master et al.,
and a sporadically developed agglomerate at the top (Phaup and 1993, 1999), and might be facies equivalents of the dolomites of
Dobell, 1938; Bliss, 1970; Tennick and Phaup, 1976; Sutton, 1979). the Norah Formation in the northern outcrop belt (see descrip-
The composition of the lavas is that of subalkaline basalts (Master,
1991a,b; Hahn, 2002).

2.1.3. Copper Pot Formation

The basal beds of the Copper Pot Formation in the Mafungabusi
Plateau type area consist of purple mudstones overlying an exten-
sive palaeosol (Fig. 5), up to 3 m thick, developed on top of the
underlying Munyati Formation (Sutton, 1979; Master, 1991a). Are-
naceous rocks are sporadically developed in the basal beds, and
consist of well-bedded gritty wackes. The main part of the Cop-
per Pot Formation consists of graded beds of purplish greywacke
interbedded with mudstones, which contain casts after sulphate
evaporites (Fig. 6).
In the northern part of the southern outcrop belt, the Copper Pot
Formation consists of basement- and Deweras lava-derived boul-
der and cobble conglomerates interstratified with cross-bedded
grits, up to 150 m thick. The conglomerates are overlain by pebbly
greywackes and occasional thin conglomerate lenses towards the
base. The conglomerates and overlying greywackes were deposited
in proximal alluvial fan and braided stream environments, while Fig. 6. Red mudstone with moulds after sulphate evaporites, Copper Pot Formation,
the mudstones and greywackes of the east-central part of the Deweras Group, Njerere River.
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 259

Fig. 7. Sandstone with quartz pseudomorphs after sulphate evaporites, Nyachech-

ene Formation, Deweras Group, south of Lodestar Ranch homestead.

tion below). The Nyachechene Formation represents playa-lake

deposits in the centre of a basin bounded by alluvial fans (Sutton,
1979).

2.1.5. Nyamachena Formation

The Nyamachena Formation of the east-central portion of the
southern outcrop belt consists of arkoses with interstratified mud-
stones in the middle part and an upper conglomerate unit of
cross-bedded arkosic grits with pebbly and cobbly horizons. The
Nyamachena Formation is interpreted to have been deposited in
braided stream and alluvial fan environments (Sutton, 1979).
Bliss (1970, 1971) suggested that the Copper Pot Formation con-
glomerate originated as a result of flash floods depositing unsorted
material in an alluvial fan. The succeeding shales and arkoses of
the Nyachechene and Nyamachena formations were deposited in
an ephemeral fluvial environment. The Copper Pot and overly-
ing Nyachechene and Nyamachena formations exhibit an upward
increase in ‘granitic’ components, with better sorted, more mature
arkoses and a decrease in abundance of mafic fragments, espe-
cially those of Deweras lava. This is interpreted to reflect removal
of a cover of Deweras volcanic rocks by sustained uplift and ero-
sion of the granitic basement to the east, resulting in an ‘inverted
stratigraphy’ in the Deweras Group (Sutton, 1979).

2.2. Northern Outcrop Belt

2.2.1. Central Area

The Central Area of the Deweras Group outcrop comprises
the inliers exposed in the Mazongororo and Kamwa anticlinoria
(Tennick and Phaup, 1976; Fig. 2). The Kamwa anticlinorium con-
tains most of the exposure, and stretches towards Mhangura for a
length of about 62 km (Stagman, 1961). The Shackleton/Avondale,
Angwa and Hans mines, and various other copper prospects, are Fig. 8. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the northern part of the Deweras Group.
located within the Deweras Group rocks exposed in the Kamwa
anticlinorium (Figs. 2 and 14). The Deweras Group in this area 2.2.2. Mhangura Area
consists of metasedimentary rocks with intercalated volcanics. A The Deweras Group in the Mhangura area was first differen-
lower sequence of planar to trough cross-bedded arkosic aren- tiated by Stagman (1959). Master (1984) grouped the lithologies
ites together with subordinate conglomerates and minor argillites at Mhangura into the Mangula and Norah formations. Master
and dolomitic beds are the equivalents of the Mangula and Norah (1991a,b) recognised two additional formations in the Mhangura
formations in the Mhangura area. Overlying volcanic rocks con- area, the volcanic Suiwerspruit Formation and the sedimentary
sist of sheared, carbonated, and silicified greenstones and minor Chimsenga Formation (Fig. 8).
agglomerate. An upper arenaceous sequence consists of arkoses,
conglomerates, phyllites and dolomites that are the equivalents of 2.2.2.1. Mangula Formation. The Mangula Formation uncon-
the Suiwerspruit and Chimsenga formations, respectively (Tennick formably overlies the Mangula Granite. It is a clastic sedimentary
and Phaup, 1976). sequence, which consists mainly of trough cross-bedded (Fig. 9)
260 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Fig. 11. Deformed anhydrite-bearing dolomite (light coloured) with thin argillite
interbeds (dark) of a playa flat environment, Norah Formation, Deweras Group,
Norah Mine.
Fig. 9. Trough cross-bedded arkose representing braided stream deposits, Mangula
Formation, Deweras Group, Mhangura.
group, with ␦13 C ranging from +13.1 to +16.6‰ VPDB (Bekker et al.,
2001b).
and plane-bedded arkosic arenites, together with conglomerates,
wackes, calcareous argillites and diamictites. The lithologies are 2.2.2.3. Suiwerspruit and Chimsenga Formations. The Suiwerspruit
arranged into two upward-fining sequences. The Mangula For- Formation (Master, 1991a,b) consists of a series of mafic lava flows
mation is the correlative of the arkosic rocks of the Nyamachena separated by interflow sedimentary rocks. The lavas overlie a mafic
Formation in the southern outcrop belt of the basin. The carbonate pyroclastic sequence of tuffs and agglomerates (Fig. 13) and are
rocks in the Mangula Formation are 13 C-enriched (Master et al., overlain by arkoses and argillites of the Chimsenga Formation.
1990, 1993), with ␦13 C values in the range 7.0–14.6‰ VPDB. This unit forms the uppermost part of the Deweras Group in the
Mhangura area.
2.2.2.2. Norah Formation. The Norah Formation (Master, 1991a,b)
consists mainly of thinly bedded anhydrite-bearing dolomites and 2.2.2.4. Mafic Intrusions. Mafic dykes and sills are common in the
argillites with interbeds of ripple-marked arkoses. The imper- Deweras Group at Mhangura and consist of dolerites that have been
sistent Norah Orebody Subformation, found intercalated with affected by greenschist-facies metamorphism. These dykes and sills
the dolomitic argillites, consists of trough cross-bedded and may have been feeders to the volcanic Suiwerspruit Formation.
plane-bedded arkosic grits overlain by chloritic quartz wackes
with thin interbedded evaporitic beds consisting of anhydrite, 2.2.3. Silverside area
barite, celestite, chlorite, tourmaline and copper sulphides (Master, 2.2.3.1. Silverside Volcanic Formation. The Silverside Volcanic For-
1991b; Figs. 10 and 11). In the Shackleton and Angwa Mine areas, mation occurs at the base of the Deweras Group in this area and
large-scale cross-bedded sandstones (Fig. 12) are found beneath consists of sheared tholeiitic lavas, which rest unconformably on
mudcracked argillites and carbonates. The rocks of the Norah For- Archaean greenstone lithologies (Stagman, 1959). There are several
mation were deposited in playa and aeolian dune environments, lava flows separated by impersistent interflow sediments consist-
and may be the correlatives of the Nyachechene Formation in the ing of pyritic quartz-sericite schists (Hahn and Steiner, 2001). The
southern part of the basin (Master, 1991a,b). The evaporitic car- lavas are subalkaline basalts, with a similar chemistry to the Dew-
bonate rocks of the Norah Formation have the most 13 C-enriched eras Group lavas from the southern outcrop belt (Hahn, 2002).
values in the Deweras Group, and in the entire Magondi Super-
2.2.3.2. Diamictite. At Silverside, a diamictite containing boulders
and cobbles of various greenstone lithologies is developed above
an unconformity on the Silverside Volcanic Formation. The highly
deformed diamictite is matrix-supported, with a chlorite- and
quartz-rich matrix. Master (1991a) considered it to be a debris-flow
deposit formed in an alluvial fan environment.

2.2.3.3. Dolomitic metasediments. Thinly bedded dolomites and

argillites, some of which are organic matter-rich, comprise the bulk
of the sedimentary rocks in the Deweras Group at Silverside. The
rocks closely resemble the playa deposits of the Norah Formation,
with which they are correlated. The dolomitic rocks were inter-
preted by Hahn and Steiner (2001) and Hahn (2002) to belong to the
basal Lomagundi Group, on the basis of the presence of purported
stromatolites. However, it was shown by Master (2003) that the
stromatolite-like structures are folds in thinly bedded dolomites.

2.2.4. Doma West area

Fig. 10. Thinly bedded arkoses and siltstones, with light-coloured anhydrite-
bearing dolomite interbeds, representing playa flat deposits, Norah Formation, The northernmost Deweras Group outcrops are in the Doma
Deweras Group, from borehole drilled at Norah Mine. West area (Bartholomew, 1999), which extends from the Doma
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 261

Fig. 12. Large-scale planar cross-bedded arkosic aeolian arenite from the Deweras Group, Angwa River, near Angwa Mine.

area just north of Mhangura, to the Shamrocke Mine (Figs. 2 and 14). larities with the sources of Enriched-type Mid-Ocean Ridge Basalt
Here the Deweras Group comprises a 2.2 km thick sequence (E-MORB) of Le Roex et al., 1983 (Master, 1991a,b).
of arkoses, arkosic grits and thin conglomerates with minor
quartzites, mica schists, and dolomites (Thole, 1974; Bartholomew, 3. Lomagundi Group
1999). Bartholomew (1999) placed these lithologies into the Kapiri
Formation. The Lomagundi Group overlies the Deweras Group uncon-
formably, and in places also transgresses onto the Archaean
2.3. Volcanic Geochemistry and Petrogenesis basement (Stagman, 1961; Tennick and Phaup, 1976; Stowe, 1978;
Hahn, 2002). In some areas the contact between the two groups
The volcanic rocks of the Deweras Group have undergone is along a thrust (Sutton, 1979; Treloar, 1988). The Lomagundi
greenschist-facies metamorphism. On the basis of immobile Group consists of the Mcheka, Nyagari and Sakurgwe formations
trace element ratios, the volcanic rocks are mainly subalkaline (Fig. 15). The Lomagundi Group contains two economic sediment-
basalts with minor andesites (Master, 1991a; Hahn, 2002). Master hosted copper deposits (Alaska and Shamrocke mines), and minor
(1991a,b) inferred significant crustal contamination based on light gold mineralization, which have been exploited in the past (Master,
rare earth element (LREE) enrichment. Compositional variations 1991a).
in incompatible, immobile trace element contents indicate signif-
icant differences between the volcanic rocks of the Southern and 3.1. Mcheka Formation
Northern facies of the Deweras Group. The source characteristics
of the volcanic rocks of the Munyati and Mupfure areas (Southern The Mcheka Formation was defined by Tennick and Phaup
Facies) show similarities with the sources of Transitional-type Mid- (1976) and is the lowermost unit of the Lomagundi Group. It over-
Ocean Ridge Basalt (T-MORB), while those of the volcanic rocks lies the Deweras Group unconformably, and in places it lies with
of the Alaska and Norah lavas of the Northern Facies show simi- a structural (thrust) contact on Archaean basement rocks. It com-
prises basal pebbly grits (Basal Conglomerate Member) overlain
by the Lower Dolomite, Phyllite, Quartzite, Upper Dolomite, and
Sandy Argillite members. A basal conglomerate grades laterally into
a grit and contains clasts of Deweras Group and Archaean green-
stone belt lithologies (Stagman, 1961; Tennick and Phaup, 1976;
Stowe, 1978). Thin bands of dolomite interbedded with the grits are
indistinguishable from the main dolomite intervals in the Mcheka
Formation, and indicate an interfingering of facies in the gradation
to the overlying Lower Dolomite (Stagman, 1961). The dolomites
of the Mcheka Formation were originally analysed for carbon iso-
tope ratios by Schidlowski et al. (1975, 1976) and were found to be
highly enriched in 13 C, with an average ␦13 C value of +8.2‰ VPDB
(n = 64). In these pioneering studies, however, the dolomites were
not differentiated into the Lower and Upper Dolomite members.
Fig. 13. Pyroclastic rocks (agglomerates and lapilli tuffs) from the Suiwerspruit Dolomites underlying the Karoo Supergroup have been inter-
Formation, Deweras Group, south of Angwa Mine. sected in the Insuza borehole NW of Bulawayo (Thompson, 1975;
262 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Fig. 15. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the Lomagundi Group.

Fig. 1). A sample from these dolomites had a high ␦13 C value of
+5.4‰ VPDB, within the range of the Lomagundi Group carbonates
reported by Schidlowski et al. (1976), and these dolomites have
been correlated with the Mcheka Formation (Thompson, 1975).

3.1.1. Lower Dolomite Member

The Lower Dolomite consists of whitish-pink mottled dolomite,
with thin argillaceous and arenaceous interbeds and is impersis-
tent along strike. Small domical stromatolites were noted by Stowe
(1978). Master and Verhagen (1998) and Master et al. (1999) found
cm-sized sparry calcite nodules, and fan-shaped carbonate pseu-
domorphs, possibly after sulphate evaporites. They noted that ␦13 C
values in 5.5 m section of the Lower Dolomite were in the range +8.5
to +11.9‰ VPDB, but most samples had a constant value +10.8‰
VPDB, with the nodules 2–3‰ lighter, while the pseudomorphs
were considerably lighter (+3.4‰ VPDB), consistent with their ori-
gin by replacement of evaporites.

Fig. 14. Middle and northern part of Magondi Belt, from Alaska to Shamrocke,
3.1.2. Sandy Phyllite Member
depicting the distribution of Palaeoproterozoic mafic volcanic rocks and intru-
sions (black) and sediment-hosted copper deposits (modified after Hahn, 2002). The Sandy Phyllite Member consists of sericitic siltstones with
RS = Rusere Syncline. The circle represents the outline of the 20 km-diameter High- small wave ripple marks and massive arkosic arenites. Pebble con-
bury Impact Structure (Master et al., 1995). glomerates form narrow lenses within the sandy phyllites. Rare
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 263

area (Tennick and Phaup, 1976). Carbon isotope variations though

the Upper Dolomite have been studied by Bekker et al. (2001b). The
␦13 C values range from +8.5 to +11.9‰ VPDB.

3.1.5. Sandy Argillite Member

The Sandy Argillites are laminated or massive rocks with occa-
sional interbeds of arkosic grits and, locally, banded iron formation
(BIF). Outcrops of BIF are present in the northern part of the
Magondi basin (Simpson, 1988; Bartholomew, 1999), in the Sham-
rocke area and on the NW limb of the Rusere syncline area
(Fig. 14). The Shamrocke example is an oxide-facies BIF interca-
lated with argillites above the dolomites. It is up to 2 m thick,
extending for 1.5 km along strike and consisting of alternating
quartz- and magnetite-rich layers. Simpson (1988) recognised
several facies within this iron formation: quartz–magnetite,
grunerite–magnetite, ankerite–magnetite, and grunerite–ankerite.
The Rusere example is a silicate-facies iron formation, up to 50 m
thick and traceable for at least 750 m along strike. It consists of
grunerite, garnet, magnetite, quartz, and possibly other iron sili-
cates, and lies immediately above a biotitic siltstone adjacent to the
dolomites (Bartholomew, 1999). The iron formation may extend at
least as far south as Chirombodzi just west of Mhangura, where it
may be responsible for a strong linear magnetic anomaly associ-
ated with the pockmarked quartzites, which are thrust over it in
this area.

3.2. Nyagari Formation

The Nyagari Formation consists of argillaceous sediments

(Striped Slates) and the interbedded Mountain Sandstone and
arkosic grits, overlain by a volcanic sequence consisting of andesitic
lavas and pyroclastic rocks.

3.2.1. Striped Slates

The Striped Slates include slates and graphitic shales with sub-
ordinate horizons of normally graded sandy argillite. The striped
Fig. 16. Deformed columnar stromatolites, Upper Dolomite, Mcheka Formation,
appearance of the slates is due to slight differences in colour, tex-
Lomagundi Group, in dolomite quarry on Lomagundi College Road. ture, and composition. More sandy varieties contain sole marks,
such as flute casts. Graphitic shales contain graded sandy lami-
haematite-stained lava is interbedded with the sandy phyllites nae and often contain pyrite. Thin carbonate beds occur in the
(Tennick and Phaup, 1976). lower part of the Striped Slates. Tennick and Phaup (1976) and
Bartholomew (1999) suggested that the argillaceous sediments of
3.1.3. Quartzite Member the Nyagari Formation were laid down in a barred depository, such
This unit consists of lower and upper undifferentiated quartzites as a lagoon with reducing conditions. The presence of graded sandy
separated by a pockmarked quartzite. All three quartzite vari- beds within this predominantly fine-grained succession suggests
eties display similar types of sedimentary structures, including repeated storm influence.
large-scale cross-bedding (interpreted as aeolian dunes by Stowe,
1978) and ripple marks. The pockmarked quartzite contains pink 3.2.2. Mountain Sandstone
to grey-coloured pockmarks, 2–12 mm in diameter, which are con- The Mountain Sandstone is a dark grey, massive, medium-
centrated along bedding planes. The cavities generally contain grained quartz-rich sandstone which often contains pyrite and clay
quartz grains which are loosely cemented by ferruginous material. pellets (Tennick and Phaup, 1976). Two prominent beds of the
Tennick and Phaup (1976) suggested that they may result from the Mountain Sandstone are developed in the northern part of the
weathering of original anhydrite crystals or cement. On the other Lomagundi Group outcrop area and occur only as small discontin-
hand, it has been suggested by Macgregor (1947) that they result uous lenses in the south. Cubic casts with hopper morphologies,
from removal of rhombic carbonate grains, an idea supported by a interpreted as halite casts (Master, 1996), suggest a shallow-
strain analysis on the pockmarks by Stowe (1978). water depositional environment and support the interpretation of
Bartholomew (1999), who regarded the Mountain Sandstone as
3.1.4. Upper Dolomite Member being a well-sorted barrier sand deposit fringing a lagoon in which
The Upper Dolomite shows great variation in texture, crys- the Striped Slates were deposited.
tallinity and colour, and contains bands of biotite-rich phyllite and
sericitic and feldspathic grits and chloritic quartzite. It contains two 3.2.3. Volcanic rocks
bands of stromatolites, which include both domical and columnar In the uppermost part of the Nyagari Formation, porphyritic
varieties (Jacobsen, 1962; Bond, 1973; Tennick and Phaup, 1976; andesitic lavas are associated with pyroclastic rocks. Several vari-
Stowe, 1978; Fig. 16). An oolitic horizon is present in the upper eties of agglomerates and tuffs, some of which may be epiclastic,
dolomite (Stowe, 1978), and has also been found in the Mawiru Hills are described by Tennick and Phaup (1976). The pyroclastic rocks
264 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

indicate the proximity of a volcanic source during deposition of the

Nyagari Formation.

3.3. Sakurgwe Formation

The Sakurgwe Formation consists of a monotonous succession

of poorly bedded, medium- to fine-grained, compositionally and
texturally immature greywackes. Intercalations of shale and sand-
stone are locally present (Leyshon, 1969; Bliss, 1970; Tennick and
Phaup, 1976).

4. Piriwiri Group

The Piriwiri Group consists of phyllites, greywackes, graphitic

and ferruginous slates, quartz-rich sandstones and subordinate
volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. The stratigraphic position of the
Piriwiri Group has been the result of much debate and contro-
versy. Stagman (1959, 1961) and Kirkpatrick (1976) regarded the
Piriwiri Group as being older than the Deweras and Lomagundi
groups, but their reasons are inconclusive. On the basis of detailed
mapping, Tennick and Phaup (1976) concluded that the Piriwiri
Group overlies the Lomagundi Group conformably. Leyshon (1969)
and Leyshon and Tennick (1988) suggested that because of exten-
sive facies changes both along and across strike, the Lomagundi
and Piriwiri groups may be roughly contemporaneous. Leyshon
(1969) and Tennick and Phaup (1976) subdivided the Piriwiri
Group into the Umfuli, Chenjiri and Copper Queen formations
(Fig. 17).
The Piriwiri Group is the host to metallic mineralization (mas-
sive base-metal sulphides, manganese, and gold–copper) as well
as deposits of industrial minerals (graphite, kyanite, muscovite,
and beryl) and gem minerals (tourmaline, aquamarine, and topaz)
(Master, 1991a,b, 1996). The most important deposits are undoubt-
edly the massive sulphide Zn–Cu–Pb–Ag deposits of the Sanyati
area (Oberthür, 1999). These deposits have been exploited recently
for Cu and Zn by open-pit excavations (Frei, 2005).

4.1. Umfuli Formation

The basal part of the Umfuli Formation consists of graphitic

slates and breccias and pyritiferous slates with narrow bands of Fig. 17. Generalized lithostratigraphy of the Piriwiri Group.
cherts. The greater part of the Umfuli Formation consists of argillites
and phyllites with minor interbedded greywackes (Tennick and
Phaup, 1976).
The graphitic shales are finely laminated, highly carbona-
ceous rocks that are locally brecciated and contain stilpnomelane of 250 m, enclosed within graphitic and pyritic slates (Master,
(Tennick and Phaup, 1976), indicating volcanic activity during their 1991a,b). The cherts are locally associated with lenses of thinly bed-
deposition. Cherts are microcrystalline quartzose rocks interbed- ded, phosphate-bearing shale. The phosphate is collophanite which
ded with pyritiferous, siliceous slates. The dark colour of some consists of fluorapatite and quartz (Tennick and Phaup, 1976).
cherts is due either to manganese oxides or to iron oxides and Narrow discontinuous bands of schistose, matrix-supported con-
graphite. The chemical composition, areal extent, and interbedding glomerate are found interbedded with the cherts and pyritiferous
with graphitic and pyritic slates indicate that the cherts are likely slates and show a strong lithological resemblance to, and may rep-
exhalite deposits that precipitated from hydrothermally modified resent a lateral facies equivalent interfingering with, similar rock
seawater in a deep-water part of the restricted basin (Tennick and types of the Nyagari Formation of the Lomagundi Group.
Phaup, 1976). Tennick and Phaup (1976) also suggested the pos- The bulk of the Umfuli Formation comprises a sequence
sibility that some of the cherts might be altered tuffs, because of of argillites, phyllites and slates, with intercalated horizons of
their fragmental appearance, colloform structures, shards of devit- fine-grained greywacke and calcareous and feldspathic sand-
rified glass, and ovoid perlitic or spherulitic textures. Some of the stones (Tennick and Phaup, 1976). Sedimentary structures in the
cherts interbedded with graphitic schists are extremely enriched greywackes include load-casts, flame structures and sand dykes,
in manganese, and have been exploited in a few places (Tennick which are all indicative of rapid sediment deposition (Tennick and
and Phaup, 1976; Kirkpatrick, 1976). Macgregor (1937) mapped a Phaup, 1976).
0.15–6.0 m-thick bed of dark grey, pyrolusite-bearing banded chert
in graphitic shales, which extended over a strike length of about 4.2. Chenjiri Formation
16 km. Manganese ores of the Sheffield Claims (Fig. 2) occur as dis-
continuous lenses of dark grey, compact pyrolusite and manganite The Chenjiri Formation consists of phyllite and greywacke, with
in a 20 m-wide silicified and ferruginous zone over a strike length minor quartz-rich sandstone, chert, and felsic tuffs and agglom-
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 265

Fig. 19. Cu–Zn–Pb–Fe massive sulphide from Copper Queen Formation, Piriwiri
Fig. 18. Agglomerates of the Nyamakari volcanic centre of the Chenjiri Formation,
Group, Copper Queen Mine.
Piriwiri Group.

Member forms the uppermost stratigraphic unit in the Piriwiri

erates. It is separated from the underlying Umfuli Formation Group.
by a thin bed of pyritiferous slate (Tennick and Phaup, 1976).
Leyshon (1969) subdivided the lithologies of the Chenjiri For- 4.3. Copper Queen Formation
mation into the Argillaceous, Arenaceous and Volcanic members.
The Argillaceous Member, which is widespread in the Chenjiri The Copper Queen Formation consists of a monotonous
Formation, is composed of phyllites and massive to schistose sequence of phyllites and coarse-grained, micaceous, feldspathic
graphitic rocks. The Arenaceous Member comprises cherts, felds- arenites, with a ferruginous marble near the base that is associated
pathic arenites and grits which are interbedded with phyllites with massive sulphide Zn–Pb–Cu–Ag mineralization in the Sanyati
and graphitic rocks. The cherts are black (graphitic and sul- area (Fig. 19). The marble, which is exposed around the Copper
fidic) or banded black and white rocks that form continuous (for Queen and Copper King domes, is composed of cummingtonite,
up to 20 km) horizons and thin, discontinuous bands (Leyshon, chlorite, talc, tremolite, actinolite, and ankerite, in addition to
1969). dolomite and calcite (Leyshon, 1969; Burgath, 1999). It is enriched
The Volcanic Member consists of agglomerates, felsites and in 13 C, with ␦13 C values of +5.0 and +5.2‰ VPDB (Master et al.,
tuffs. Outcrops of these rock types are found in several places 1993).
in a linear belt over a strike length of 85 km, making up the
5. Dete-Kamativi Inlier
“Piriwiri Mineral Belt” (Fig. 2). They have been referred to as
“volcanic centres” by Leyshon (1969), Tennick and Phaup (1976) The Dete-Kamativi Inlier is a sequence of metamorphic rocks
and Kirkpatrick (1976). These “volcanic centres” are the Hova, which are exposed through Phanerozoic cover in western Zim-
Godzi, Piriwiri, Montana, Crescent, Kameno and Nyamakari centres, babwe. The rocks consist of granodioritic orthogneisses, granites,
all of which have very similar lithologies. Preliminary geochem- and highly deformed and metamorphosed supracrustal sequences
ical studies of the volcanic rocks have shown intense carbonate which have been subdivided into the Malaputese, Inyantue, Kama-
and boron alteration (Munyanyiwa et al., 1999). Although the tivi, and Tshontanda formations (Lockett, 1979; see also Fig. 1 and
agglomerates were thought to be vent breccias (Leyshon, 1969; Table 2). The metasedimentary rocks have undergone amphibolite
Kirkpatrick, 1976), no unequivocal evidence has been given by to granulite facies grade metamorphism.
the above authors. On the contrary, from their descriptions, the
agglomerates appear to be pyroclastic rocks interbedded with 5.1. Malaputese Formation
tuffs. Outcrops of the Volcanic Member appear to be confined
to a closed, boat-shaped, doubly plunging syncline (Tennick and The Malaputese Formation consists of pink paragneiss with
Phaup, 1976; Kirkpatrick, 1976), and the various “centres” can be minor intercalated calc-silicate and pyroxene leucogneisses,
regarded as merely the exposed portions of what may be a fairly metapelites with minor graphitic, calcareous and mafic rocks,
continuous unit of volcanic and pyroclastic rocks. The “centres” and quartzites. The pink paragneisses are interpreted as meta-
seem to be located at the intersections of the regional, north- morphosed arkosic arenites. The quartzites represent quartz-rich
easterly striking bedding trends with northwesterly striking F3 arenites that may represent shallow-marine shelf deposits, with
fold hinges (Leyshon, 1969). The volcaniclastic rocks are con- metapelites corresponding with shallow-marine or lagoonal
formably enclosed by the country rocks, and have been deformed deposits. Intercalated graphitic schists have been regarded as
with them. The Nyamakari centre (Fig. 18) is apparently enclosed metamorphosed black shales (Lockett, 1979). The mafic rocks are
by Striped Slates of the Mcheka Formation (Lomagundi Group), hornblende-andesine amphibolites and are chemically classified as
though these rocks are difficult to distinguish from lithologies subalkaline basalts (Lockett, 1979).
of the Piriwiri Group (Kirkpatrick, 1976). The pyroclastic rocks
of the Volcanic Member thus appear to transgress facies bound- 5.2. Inyantue Formation
aries between the Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups. The structural
and stratigraphic relationships at the Crescent, Hova and Nya- The Inyantue Formation is composed of garnetiferous gneisses
makari centres (Wills, 1987) suggest that part of the stratigraphy and schists with intercalations of calcareous, graphitic, magnesian
there is inverted due to tight folding and that the Volcanic and arenitic rocks (Lockett, 1979). On the basis of their modal com-
266 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Mhangura is of greenschist facies with biotite indicating peak

metamorphic conditions. Just south of Mhangura, a 20-km circu-
lar structure discovered on satellite imagery (Fig. 14) is regarded
as a deeply eroded impact structure, about 1130 Ma old (Master et
al., 1995). Anomalous tremolite and wollastonite-bearing marbles
within the structure, previously attributed to contact metamor-
phism around an intrusive granophyre (Jacobsen, 1962), were
probably metamorphosed as a result of the impact (Master et al.,
1995). Some of the high ␦13 C carbonate rocks within this structure
(Schidlowski et al., 1976) have been re-assigned to the Deweras
Group (Master et al., 1999). Northwards from Mhangura, the meta-
morphic grade increases to amphibolite facies (Workman, 1966)
and even reaches granulite facies for the Piriwiri Group rocks in
the most northern and northwestern parts of the Magondi basin
(Wiles, 1961, 1964; Harper, 1973; Broderick, 1976; Treloar, 1988;
Treloar and Kramers, 1989; Munyanyiwa et al., 1993; Munyanyiwa
and Maaskant, 1998).
Fig. 20. Paragneiss, Kamativi Formation at Kamativi Tin Mine, Dete-Kamativi Inlier.
6.1. Dete-Kamativi Inlier
positions, the protoliths of the garnetiferous gneisses and schists
Rocks of the Dete-Kamativi Inlier have been strongly deformed
are considered to have been argillaceous sediments with interca-
and metamorphosed to amphibolite and granulite facies. Rocks of
lations of carbonaceous shale, lenticular beds of impure limestone,
the Malaputese Formation were affected by three folding events,
dolomitic marls, calcareous sandstones, greywackes, and quartz
recognised from small-scale and regional structures, while the
arenites (Lockett, 1979).
rocks of the Kamativi and Tshontanda formations have been
intensely deformed and attenuated into thin, linear or slightly arcu-
5.3. Kamativi and Tshontanda formations ate belts (Lockett, 1979).

The Kamativi and Tshontanda formations are found in two 6.2. Magondi Orogeny
elongated belts. The Kamativi Formation consists of tightly folded
muscovite schists, subordinate fine-grained biotite schists, and The Magondi Orogeny was defined by Leyshon (1969) based
minor arkosic psammites (Fig. 20), while the Tshontanda Forma- on structural work in the Copper Queen area. The term was
tion is composed of garnetiferous mica schists and subordinate applied to the tectono-metamorphic event that was responsible
sillimanite gneisses, with local lenticular intercalations of impure for the intense deformation and metamorphism of the Piriwiri
quartzite (Lockett, 1979). The modal compositions and layering of and Lomagundi Group rocks of the Magondi belt. In the south,
the rocks of the Kamativi and Tshontanda formations suggest that the belt is a typical fold-and-thrust belt, with imbricate stacks
their protoliths consisted of micaceous shales interlaminated with of Magondi Supergroup rocks thrust southeastwards onto the
subordinate silty shales and siltstones, with thin intercalations of Archaean Zimbabwe craton, while in the north the structural style
arkose and feldspathic arenite. The lack of associated arenites and is of a more thick-skinned type, with basement gneisses imbricated
calcareous rocks suggests a deeper-water depositional setting than within the sedimentary sequence (Leyshon and Tennick, 1988;
for the Inyantue Formation. Treloar, 1988). The associated increase in metamorphic grade to
the north reaching granulite facies was explained by thermal relax-
6. Structure and Metamorphism ation following overthrusting of hot “early Proterozoic” gneisses
(Hurungwe gneisses; Treloar, 1988; Treloar and Kramers, 1989).
The Magondi Supergroup has been affected by at least three
phases of deformation during the Palaeoproterozoic Magondi 6.3. Extension of the Magondi Belt
and Pan-African Zambezi orogenies (Leyshon, 1969; Stowe, 1978;
Treloar, 1988). The most recent (Zambezi) deformation only The Magondi Belt does not correlate with any terrains that are
affected the northern part of the basin (Thole, 1976; Thole and currently to the north of it. Instead, it is separated from the South-
Robinson, 1976; Fey and Broderick, 1990; Hahn et al., 1991), result- ern Irumide Belt (part of the Congo-Tanzania-Bangweulu craton)
ing in the E-W trending Rusere Syncline (Fig. 14), and has not been by an eclogite-bearing suture zone formed during the Pan-African
recognised further south. In the Mafungabusi Plateau area in the Damaran-Lufilian-Zambezi Orogeny (Hanson et al., 1998; Dirks and
south, Sutton (1979) found an early set of folds with an axial planar Sithole, 1999; Johnson et al., 2005).
cleavage, which were affected by crossfolds. In the Mcheka ranges, The southward continuation of the Magondi belt is obscured by
north of the Mupfure River (Fig. 2), the Lomagundi Group has been Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits of the Kalahari basin in Botswana.
repeated three times through thrust duplication in a thin-skinned A borehole drilled in the Gweta region of NE Botswana intersected
thrust system (Tennick and Phaup, 1976; Leyshon and Tennick, high-grade garnet-orthoclase-sillimanite gneisses that have been
1988; Treloar, 1988). In the central part of the Deweras Group out- correlated with lithologies of the Dete-Kamativi Inlier (Fig. 1) which
crop area, around Alaska, two folding events were also recognised. lies 200 km to the NW (Carney and Dowsett, 1991). High linear
Further north, in the Mhangura area, Master (1984) found three gravity anomalies continue southwards of the Magondi belt along
phases of folding affecting the Deweras Group rocks, the third phase the ‘Kalahari Line’ (Hutchins and Reeves, 1980) and emerge as the
being E-W Zambezi crossfolding, which reversed the plunges of Kheis terrane of the Northern Cape Province (Hartnady et al., 1985;
earlier N-S Magondian folds. Stowe, 1989, 1990).
The metamorphic grade in the southern part of the basin The Kheis terrane includes sedimentary and volcanic rocks of the
is lower greenschist (quartz–muscovite–chlorite–albite subfacies) Transvaal Supergroup. The Elim Group, lying unconformably above
to prehnite–pumpellyite facies. The metamorphic grade around the Beaumont and Ongeluk formations at the top of the Transvaal
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 267

Geophysical and geological evidence suggests that the Magondi

Belt curves to the SE to join with the Limpopo Belt in eastern
Botswana (Ranganai et al., 2002). Within the Central Zone of the
Limpopo Belt in South Africa, the Gumbi Group deposited on the
southwestern margin of the Zimbabwe craton contains marbles
with ␦13 C values ranging from +4.6 to +7.0‰ and Palaeoproterozoic
detrital zircons (Buick et al., 2003). These marbles are interpreted
as Palaeoproterozoic sediments deposited during the Lomagundi
carbon isotope excursion, and are correlated with the Lomagundi
and Pretoria groups (Buick et al., 2003).

7. Geochronology

The general geochronological framework of the Magondi Super-

group has been discussed by Vail et al. (1968), Cahen et al. (1984),
Leyshon and Tennick (1988), Treloar and Kramers (1989) and
Master (1991a,b). Most of the ages obtained thus far are Rb–Sr and
K–Ar ages with large errors, and Pb model ages; there are very few
robust zircon U–Pb ages, and no modern Ar–Ar ages.
The only direct dating from the Deweras Group is a whole-
rock Rb–Sr isochron age obtained on Deweras lavas. This age was
initially reported as between 2170 ± 100 Ma and 2150 ± 100 Ma
(Treloar, 1988; Leyshon and Tennick, 1988; Master, 1991a). How-
ever, after rejecting certain anomalous points from altered lavas,
a new regression of the data has yielded an age of 2050 ± 100 Ma
(Höhndorf et al., 1989; Hahn, 2002), which is the currently accepted
minimum age of the Deweras Group. Galenas from the Copper
Queen massive sulphide deposit in the Piriwiri Group have a model
age of 2122 ± 14 Ma (Höhndorf and Vetter, 1999), which is taken
as the age of sedimentation. The Lomagundi Group dolomites
have been dated using the 207 Pb/206 Pb technique at 2150 ± 50 Ma
(Schidlowski and Todt, 1998). Since the Piriwiri Group is regarded
as the facies equivalent of the Lomagundi Group, which overlies
the Deweras Group unconformably (Leyshon and Tennick, 1988),
it implies that the Deweras Group is at least 2.15–2.12 Ga old.
Manyeruke et al. (2004) dated the Chimbadzi Hill layered com-
plex, which intrudes the Archaean Chinhoyi greenstone belt (Fig. 1),
at 2262 ± 2 Ma, and suggested that it represented the earliest
Fig. 21. 13 C-enriched Palaeoproterozoic carbonate successions in southern Africa.
manifestation of Palaeoproterozoic magmatism on the Zimbabwe
G = Gweta borehole; KI = Kubu Island Granite; In = Insuza borehole; M = Mahalapye
Granite. Craton. Because the intrusive complex is nowhere in contact with
the Deweras Group, its relationship to the Deweras Group and
Magondi basin is unclear, but the elongation of the complex par-
Supergroup, has been divided into the Mapedi and Lucknow forma- allel to the strike of the faulted Deweras Group rift margin may
tions (van Niekerk, 2006). The Mapedi Formation contains poorly suggest a relationship with early Deweras extension. The ca. 2.6 Ga
developed chert pebble conglomerate at the base overlain by shales ages of the basement rocks of the granite-greenstone terrains of the
and arenites with massive and amygdaloidal basaltic lavas, whereas Zimbabwe Craton (Jelsma and Dirks, 2002) constrain the maximum
the overlying Lucknow consists of arenite with shales, lavas, and age of the Deweras Group which was deposited unconformably on
carbonates (van Niekerk, 2006). The Elim Group is unconformably these rocks.
overlain by conglomerates of the Neylan Formation that grade Charno-enderbites (orthopyroxene-bearing granodiorites)
upwards into mafic volcanic and volcaniclastic deposits of the intrusive into the quartzo-feldspathic 2360 ± 90 Ma Chipisa
1928 ± 4 Ma Hartley Basalt Formation (Cornell et al., 1998; van Gneiss, which forms a basement to the Magondi Supergroup in the
Niekerk, 2006). The Hartley Basalt Formation is therefore ∼70 Ma northwestern part of the Magondi Belt (Loney, 1969), were dated
younger than the 1997.5 ± 2.6 Ma Hurungwe granite, which is a at 1959 ± 3 Ma and 1933 ± 4 Ma, using single zircon 207 Pb/206 Pb
syntectonic intrusion into the Magondi Belt, displaying intrusive and conventional U–Pb techniques (Munyanyiwa et al., 1995).
relationships with the Piriwiri Group, but having a strong NE- Some charno-enderbites also intrude garnet–sillimanite gneisses
trending foliation parallel to regional structures (McCourt et al., of the Piriwiri Group (Broderick, 1976); hence the Piriwiri Group
2001). Carbonates of the Lucknow Formation are enriched in 13 C was constrained to be older than 1960 Ma (Munyanyiwa et al.,
(Master et al., 1993; Bekker et al., 2001a; Schröder et al., 2008), 1995). The Magondi Belt in the central part of the Magondi Belt
and were deposited during the Lomagundi Event; hence the Elim is also intruded by the Hurungwe Granite (Clifford et al., 1967),
Group is likely correlative in age to the Magondi Supergroup. These which has a SHRIMP U–Pb zircon age of 1997.5 ± 2.6 Ma (McCourt
carbonate units with high ␦13 C values also correlate with similarly et al., 2001). The geochronology of the Magondi Supergroup is
13 C-enriched carbonate rocks of the Silverton and Sengoma forma- summarised in Table 3.
tions of the Pretoria Group in South Africa and Botswana deposited The only geochronological work in the Dete-Kamativi inlier
along the northern margin of the Kaapvaal craton (Buick et al., 1998; was done by Priem et al. (1972). They obtained Rb–Sr whole-rock
Bekker et al., 2008; Fig. 21). ages on granodioritic gneisses and unfoliated intrusive granites of
268 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Table 3
Summary of the geochronology of the Magondi Belt. The references are as follows: (1) Priem et al. (1972); (2) Mapeo et al. (2001); (3) Majaule et al. (2001); (4) McCourt et
al. (2001); (5) Treloar and Kramers (1988); (6) Munyanyiwa et al. (1995); (7) Vail et al. (1968); (8) Höhndorf and Vetter (1999); (9) Schidlowski and Todt (1998); (10) Master
and Kramers (2000); (11) Master (1991b); (12) Master et al. (1999); (13) Höhndorf et al. (1989), Hahn (2002); (14) Manyeruke et al. (2004).

Rock suite Age (Ma) Method Reference Interpretation

Dete-Kamativi Inlier
Granite 2000 ± 80 Rb–Sr WR 1 Postorogenic intrusion
Granodiorite 2159 ± 100 Rb–Sr WR 1 Arc-related intrusion
Gweta paragneiss 2125 U–Pb zircon 2 Detrital zircon (max. age)
Kubu Island Granite 2039.2 ± 1.4 U–Pb zircon 3 Syntectonic intrusion (min. age)
Hurungwe Granite 1997.5 ± 2.6 U–Pb zircon 4 Syntectonic intrusion (min. age)
Piriwiri Group
Granulite 1890 ± 260 Rb–Sr WR 5 Metamorphism
Granulite 1780 ± 280 Rb–Sr WR 5 Metamorphism
Granulite 1960–1940 Pb–Pb zircon evap 6 Metamorphism
Phyllite 1753 ± 65 K–Ar WR 7 Metamorphism
Phyllite 1659 ± 50 K–Ar WR 7 Metamorphism
Sanyati massive sulphide 2122 ± 14 Pb–Pb galena 8 Deposition
Lomagundi Group
Striped Slate 1905 ± 70;1974 ± 70 K–Ar WR 7 Metamorphism
Dolomite 2150 ± 50 Pb–Pb 9 Deposition
Deweras Group
Microcline vein 550 ± 110 Rb–Sr WR 10 Metamorphism
Galena in vein ca. 2000 Pb–Pb model age 11 Metamorphism
Dolomite ca. 2000 Pb–Pb 12 Metamorphism
Mafic lava 2050 ± 100 Rb–Sr WR 13 Deposition/metamorphism
Chimbadzi Hill Intrusive complex 2262 ± 2 U–Pb baddeleyite 14 Syn-Deweras extension

2159 ± 100 Ma and 2000 ± 80 Ma, respectively (recalculated using event, which was linked to the Magondi Orogeny and high-grade
87 Rb decay constant from Steiger and Jäger, 1977). These poorly metamorphic events in the Limpopo Belt (Mapeo and Wingate,
constrained ages reflect magmatic episodes on the western side of 2009).
the Magondi basin pre- or syn-kinematic (granodioritic gneisses),
as well as postkinematic (unfoliated granites), with respect to the 8. Tectonic setting of the Magondi Supergroup
Magondi Orogeny. The granodioritic gneisses probably represent
a calc-alkaline magmatic arc, while the granites represent post- 8.1. Deweras Group
collisional crustal melts following granulite-facies metamorphism
and migmatite formation. The stratigraphy and sedimentology of the Deweras Group indi-
U–Pb dating of detrital zircons from the paragneisses inter- cates its deposition in a continental rift basin (Cooper, 1978; Sutton,
sected in the Gweta borehole of NW Botswana (Carney and 1979), developed on the western margin of the Archaean Zimbabwe
Dowsett, 1991) showed that their protolith was deposited after craton (Maiden et al., 1984; Master, 1991b). The basin architecture
2125 ± 6 Ma (Mapeo et al., 2001). Granitoids exposed at Kubu Island was in the form of elongated, fault-bounded grabens. The differ-
in Botswana, some 80 km SE of the Gweta borehole, yielded a TIMS ence in stratigraphy between the Southern and Northern facies of
U–Pb zircon age of 2039.2 ± 1.4 Ma (Majaule et al., 2001), indi- the Deweras Group indicates that the basin was fragmented along
cating a southward extension of granitoids emplaced during the strike into tectonic sub-basins. The absence of basinwide strati-
Magondi Orogeny. In the Matsitama Belt of NE Botswana regarded graphic markers, and lack of reliable geochronology, coupled with
as an Archaean greenstone belt (Majaule et al., 1997), a deformed tectonic deformation and lack of complete stratigraphic sections in
supracrustal succession, including stromatolitic carbonates, with the structural inliers makes it impossible to correlate lithological
stratabound copper deposits at Thakadu (Roberts, 1965) led Master units between different parts of the basin. Compositional differ-
(1994) to suggest that these rocks might be a southward exten- ences make it unlikely that the volcanic rocks could be used as
sion of the Magondi Belt. Pb–Pb galena model isotope ages for the stratigraphic markers between different parts of the basin. The
mineralization at Thakadu of 2200 ± 150 Ma (Coomer et al., 1977), basin fill pattern was one of transverse alluvial fans grading into
and the presence of abundant haematitic redbeds, which must be braidplains, with central playa lakes. Evidence from changing clast
younger than 2.3 Ga (Bekker et al., 2004) support such a correla- composition suggests that the alluvial fans were sourced from
tion. North of Thakadu, at the shear zone-hosted Bushman deposit, basement rocks that were displaced northwards during sedimenta-
muscovite associated with Cu–Pb–Zn mineralization has an Rb–Sr tion in a sinistral strike-slip basin (Master, 1995). Consideration of
age of 1.93 Ga, which has been related to the Magondi Orogeny the trends of en-echelon synsedimentary folds also indicates that
(Barton et al., 1994). Further south, the Mahalapye Granite at the the Deweras basin was undergoing left-lateral wrench deforma-
western extremity of the central Limpopo belt gave a SHRIMP U–Pb tion during or shortly after sedimentation (Master, 1991a,b, 1995).
zircon crystallisation age of 2023 ± 7 Ma (McCourt and Armstrong, Modern analogues of such a strike-slip basin are the Salton Sea
1998). The same western Limpopo Belt region has undergone sig- Trough, California, and the Dead Sea basin, Israel–Jordan, although
nificant deformation at ca. 2.0 Ga, coinciding with the Magondi the Deweras Group was not deposited along a plate boundary, but
Orogeny (Holzer et al., 1999). Across the Limpopo Belt on the in a transtensional rift basin.
Kaapvaal craton, monzogranite, microgranite and meta-rhyolite of Basalts of the Deweras Group are subalkaline, which is typi-
the Okwa Inlier of Central Botswana all give ages indistinguish- cal of continental flood basalts, and they show considerable LREE
able from 2056 ± 2 Ma, indicating a possible link with the Bushveld enrichment, which indicates crustal contamination. The temporal
Complex (Mapeo et al., 2006). The 2054 ± 9 Ma Segwagwe-Masoke evolution of the Deweras volcanic rocks, from early T-MORB to
igneous complex in southeastern Botswana, which is also genet- later E-MORB (Master, 1991a,b) indicates the involvement of an
ically related to the Bushveld Complex, predates an F3 folding enriched mantle plume, probably due to asthenospheric upwelling
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 269

during progressive rifting (McKenzie, 1978; Bhattacharji and Koide, but if their presence is due to extension in a back-arc setting, then
1987). their age must be close to the age of the orogeny, i.e. ca. 2.0 Ga. The
overlying immature greywackes of the Sakurgwe Formation in the
8.2. Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups Lomagundi Group might reflect deposition in the back-arc basin
and, potentially, foreland basin that developed above the back-arc
The lower part of the Lomagundi Group, which overlies the Dew- as the Zimbabwe craton collided with an unknown crustal terrane
eras Group unconformably, has a lithological sequence which is to the west. The unknown terrane overrode the western part of the
characteristic of marginal marine and shallow shelf settings. The Magondi Basin and caused easterly-directed thrusting of the basin
dolomites were deposited in the intertidal to subtidal zones, as sequences onto the adjacent Zimbabwe craton (Treloar, 1988).
indicated by the presence of stromatolites and oolites. Quartz-rich
arenites were also deposited in intertidal and subtidal environ-
ments, as well as in supratidal aeolian sand dunes (Stowe, 1978). 9. Regional and global tectonic reconstructions and
Striped Slates and minor iron formations were deposited in deeper implications for the Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion
subtidal environments, while the turbiditic greywackes of the
Sakurgwe Formation were likely sourced from a magmatic arc The Neoarchaean position of the Zimbabwe craton with respect
to the west. The Piriwiri Group is likely the distal facies equiv- to the Kaapvaal and other cratons remains debatable. The con-
alent of the contemporaneous, more proximal Lomagundi Group troversy is partially based on ca. 2.7 and ca. 2.0 Ga metamorphic
(Leyshon and Tennick, 1988). Graphitic and pyritic argillites, cherts, ages for the Limpopo Belt that separates these two cratons (e.g.,
and greywackes of the Piriwiri Group were deposited in deep and, Holzer et al., 1999). Recent reconstructions based on ages of major
likely, anoxic waters, possibly in continental slope, submarine fan dykes on these cratons suggest that they did not share a common
and abyssal plain environments. Volcanogenic hydrothermal ema- history until ca. 2.0 Ga and that the Zimbabwe craton could have
nations on the sea floor, possibly in a back-arc setting, may have been positioned against the eastern margin of the Superior cra-
given rise to the deposition of cherts, manganese-rich beds, and ton in the Neoarchaean (Söderlund et al., in press). Interestingly, if
minor iron formations in the Piriwiri Group and the upper part the orientation of the 2512.3 ± 1.8 Ma Crystal Springs dyke in Zim-
of the Lomagundi Group. The manganese and phosphate-bearing babwe and the ca. 2510 Ma Mistassini dykes in Canada is matched
beds of the Umfuli Formation are similar to those in other Palaeo- (Söderlund et al., in press), the Magondi Belt is placed against and
proterozoic successions deposited during the Lomagundi Event (cf. strikes parallel to the Mistassini and Otish basins and the Labrador
Bekker et al., 2003). The Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups record a Trough in Quebec (Fig. 22a). These basins were likely initiated at
marine transgression over the continental sediments of the Dew- ca. 2210–2220 Ma, by rifting in the Labrador Trough, and certainly
eras Group. This implies subsidence of the rift fill below sea level. before intrusion of the ca. 2169 Ma Otish gabbro sills (Hamilton
Most rifts initiate with an upwelling of hot asthenospheric material, and Buchan, 2007). Both of these basins and the Labrador Trough
which then cools and contracts, leading to a phase of thermal subsi- contain carbonate successions with highly positive carbon isotope
dence (McKenzie, 1978; Sclater and Célérier, 1987). The lower parts values (Bekker et al., 2003). It seems therefore plausible that the
of the Lomagundi and Piriwiri groups thus represent the thermal Zimbabwe craton was placed against the eastern margin of the
subsidence phase of the developing Magondi rift basin. Superior craton in the Neoarchaean and until ca. 2.22–2.17 Ga.
Rift basins that undergo large amounts of extension eventually Recognition of passive margin successions along the western
become floored by oceanic crust, and the rift shoulders develop and southern margin of the Zimbabwe craton and along the west-
into passive margins (McKenzie, 1978; LePichon and Sibuet, 1981; ern and northern margins of the Kaapvaal craton that all contain
Sclater and Célérier, 1987). However, passive margins, in contrast 13 C-enriched carbonates and were affected by broadly synchronous

to active continental margins, do not contain felsic to intermediate tectonic events allows some constraints to be placed on the tectonic
volcanic rocks, which are normally associated with magmatic arcs evolution of these cratons between 2.2 and 2.0 Ga. Granulite grade
(Latin and White, 1990), although volcanic rifted margins result- metamorphism and dextral shearing occurred in the Limpopo Belt
ing from plume-related breakup, may contain large volumes of at ca. 2.0 Ga, and a metamorphic event of similar age and grade
bimodal mafic and felsic volcanics (e.g., Gladczenko et al., 1997). affected the northern part of the Magondi Belt. Although a meta-
The occurrence of volcanic rocks in the Nyagari and Chenjiri forma- morphic event of this age has not yet been documented in the Kheis
tions is of critical importance in determining the tectonic setting for Belt, there is a prominent angular unconformity above the Elim
the upper parts of the Lomagundi and coeval Piriwiri groups. The Group, which transgresses progressively over older strata to the
presence of pyroclastic rocks and andesites indicates that explo- south (van Niekerk, 2006). We propose the following plate tectonic
sive volcanism (felsic to intermediate type) was active during their scenario to explain these events. First, an unknown terrane (“Terra
sedimentation. The ca. 2.0 Ga granodioritic rocks from the Dete- Incognita”, Fig. 22b) obliquely approached the western margin of
Kamativi Inlier, as well as granitoids from the Kariba area, may the Kaapvaal craton, terminating deposition of the Elim Group in
have been emplaced contemporaneously with the final stage in the Kheis terrane. The Kaapvaal craton and the unknown terrane
sedimentation in the Magondi Basin, and, if this is the case, rep- rotated around the point of collision catching on both sides the
resent the root of a magmatic arc behind which the upper parts Zimbabwe Craton in a scissor-like fashion (Fig. 22b). The subse-
of the Piriwiri and Lomagundi groups were deposited (cf. Master, quent collision in the Limpopo Belt and the Magondi Basin was
1991a,b). The type of mineralization (e.g., massive base-metal synchronous and led to the escape of the Zimbabwe craton mani-
sulphide deposits, iron and manganese deposits) and volcanism fested by dextral shearing in the Limpopo Belt (Fig. 22c). Differences
associated with this stratigraphic level is also consistent with a in the degrees of deformation and metamorphism between the
back-arc basin tectonic setting. Magondi and Kheis belts may be accounted for by the irregular
The volcanic rocks in the upper parts of the Lomagundi and shape of the western margins of the Zimbabwe and Kaapvaal cra-
Piriwiri groups occur in association with an upward-coarsening tons, interacting with an irregularly shaped Terra Incognita with
succession containing immature greywackes. Deposition of the embayments between promontories (Fig. 22b). As the Terra Incog-
lower parts of both groups is consistent with a passive margin nita rotated towards the Zimbabwe craton, a magmatic arc was
setting. There may be a disconformity between the passive mar- superimposed on the former passive margin in the Magondi basin
gin (proximal and distal shelf) rocks and the overlying successions and led to subsequent back-arc extension (Fig. 22b). Following col-
containing volcanic rocks. The volcanic rocks have not been dated, lision, a foreland basin developed above the arc and back-arc basin.
270 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273

Fig. 22. Tectonic evolution of the Zimbabwe craton in the early Palaeoproterozoic. (a) Following Söderlund et al. (in press), the Zimbabwe craton is positioned along the
eastern margin of the Superior craton at ca. 2.2 Ga. Söderlund et al. (in press) based their reconstruction on ages and orientation of mafic dykes. Our reconstruction is based
on sedimentologic and chemostratigraphic similarities between the sedimentary fill of the Labrador Trough and Magondi Belt. (b) Oblique collision between the Kaapvaal
craton and an unknown terrane (“Terra Incognita”) resulted in their rotation, with subduction zones and back-arc basin initiated. (c) Assembly of the Kaapvaal and Zimbabwe
cratons, and unknown terrane Terra Incognita at ca. 2.0 Ga led to tectonic escape of the Zimbabwe craton and dextral shearing in the Limpopo Belt. Irregular shape of colliding
cratons with promotories and embayments led to the higher grade of deformation, metamorphism, and uplift in the northern part of the Magondi Belt and southern part of
the Kheis Belt.

Deformation in the embayment stretching from the northern part breakup, they swapped some of their component cratonic frag-
of the Magondi Basin to the northern part of the Kheis terrane was ments.
less extensive and, potentially, a remnant ocean was preserved in The Lomagundi carbon isotope excursion represents the most
this segment. extreme perturbation of the carbon cycle in Earth’s history. A num-
It has been inferred that two supercontinents existed in the ber of questions remain, the most relevant to this study being the
Neoarchaean to early Paleoproterozoic (Aspler and Chiarenzelli, tectonic setting of the basins (intracontinental vs. open-marine)
1998); one included the Zimbabwe, Kaapvaal, São Francisco, Indian, that record this event and whether the isotopic excursion reflected
and Pilbara cratons, whereas the other contained the Wyoming, the composition of seawater or diagenetic fluids. We have herein
Superior, Fennoscandia, Siberia, Rae, and Hearne cratons. The tec- documented the Lomagundi excursion in four broadly correlative
tonic evolution of these two supercontinents was out of phase; open-marine successions (Silverton, Sengoma Argillite and Luc-
while one was assembling, the other one experienced breakup. know formations, and Gumbi Group) and in one continental rift
Our study supports this interpretation in as far as the Limpopo succession (Deweras Group). Similar carbon isotope signals in these
and Magondi orogenies correspond in age with the rifting and successions deposited on the margins of two separate cratons argue
breakup on the Wyoming, Superior, and Fennoscandia cratons strongly that the Lomagundi excursion reflects an open-marine
(Bekker et al., 2003; Bekker and Eriksson, 2003). If the con- seawater signal rather than a diagenetic signal due to high organic
nection between the Zimbabwe and Superior cratons before ca. matter burial and extreme evaporation in closed intracratonic rift
2.2 Ga is confirmed, it would imply that as these two super- basins. Although extensive development of intracratonic basins
continents followed their own tectonic cycles of assembly and between 2.4 and 2.0 Ga could have factored into this perturbation of
 S. Master et al. / Precambrian Research 182 (2010) 254–273 271

the carbon cycle (e.g., Bekker et al., 2008), it was clearly of a global Bekker, A., Holmden, C., Beukes, N.J., Kenig, F., Eglington, B., Patterson, W.P., 2008.
extent and equally affected seawater composition. Although the Fractionation between inorganic and organic carbon during the Lomagundi
(2.22–2.1 Ga) carbon isotope excursion. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 271, 278–291.
explanation for this extreme carbon isotope excursion and its dura- Bekker, A., Karhu, J.A., Eriksson, K.A., Kaufman, A.J., 2003. Chemostratigraphy of Pale-
tion remains yet to be found, we emphasize here that the answer oproterozoic carbonate successions of the Wyoming Craton: tectonic forcing of
is unlikely to be a reflection of local conditions. biogeochemical change? Precambrian Res. 120, 279–325.
Bekker, A., Eriksson, K.A., 2003. Paleoproterozoic drowned carbonate platform on
the southeastern margin of the Wyoming Craton: a record of the Kenorland
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and representing the type locality for the Lomagundi carbon isotope J. Sci. 301, 261–285.
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Balt Verhagen for discussions and for help in the field and the dissertation. Technischen Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany, 270 pp.
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Department of the University of Zimbabwe. We have benefit- Hahn, L., 2002. On the stratigraphy of the Palaeoproterozoic Deweras and Lomagundi
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reviewers. AB acknowledges support from NSF grant EAR-05-
the Zimbabwe Craton, Limpopo Belt, Zambezi Mobile Belt and from basic dykes.
45484, NASA Astrobiology Institute Award NNA04CC09A, a NSERC Geol. Jahrb. A 127, 519–552.
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