Md. Rafiqul Islam, Ph.D M. A. Mottalib, Ph.DSecond Edition Data Structures Fundamentals Md. Rafiqul Islam Dept. of Computer Science & Engineering Khulna University Khulna Email: [email protected] Website: www.cseku.ac.bd M. A. Mottalib Dept. of Computer Science & Information Technology (CIT) Islamic University of Technology (IUT) Gazipur Email; [email protected] Website: www-iutoic-dhaka.edu Islamic University of Technology (IUT) Board Bazar, Gazipur-1704, Bangladeshsion, Advisory Services and Publications (REASP) Islamic U, sity of Technology (IUT) ‘A subsidiary organ of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (0Ic) Board Bazar, Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh Telephone; +8802-9291254~59 Ext. 3215, Fax: +8802- 9291260 E-mail: reaspy dhakacdu, [email protected] Website: www.iutoic-dhaka.edu Year of Publication (Ist Edition) : 2009 Year of Publication (2nd Edition) : 2011 © All rights are reserved by the authors and publisher. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by mimeograph or any other means without permission in writing from the publisher and authors. ISBN: 978-984-33-0384-4 Price; Tk. 300 US$ 12 Contact for Ordering: Librarian Islamic University of Technology (IUT) Board Bazar, Gazipur 1704, Bangladesh Telephone; +8802-9291254~59 Ext 3235, Fax: +8802- 9291260 Esmail —: [email protected], cit(@iut-dhaks.cdu Cover page & Graphies : A. K. M. Shahidur Rahman Sr. Assistant Secretary CIT Department, UT Printed by : Mis Nishan Computer & Printing 38, Bangla Bazar (2™ Floor) Sadar Ghat, Dhaka Dedicated to my father and father-in-law who died while I was doing my PhD. --- Md. Rafiqul Islam Dedicated to my beloved eldest son Zisan Mashroor Hrid, my father and father-in-law who have left this world for good, -—- Md, Abdul Moitalibee Message [am pleased to note that the first edition of the text book Data Structures Fundamentals has already been exhausted. It proves that the book had good demand among the students. | appreciate that realizing the demand of the book the authors have revised it, updated it and steps have been taken for bringing out a second edition. I congratulate the authors for their meaningful initiative. At this point, it is worth mentioning that TUT is very conscious about quality and it gives particular importance on the quality of education. Our efforts are always directed towards continuous updating of syllabi by including, new topics to familiarize the students with the contemporary knowledge. T am confident that the authors given due consideration to this idea, Although the book was reviewed before the publication of the first edition, there would always remain some scope for improving its quality both in terms of its contents and manner of expression. In my view, the best way to address such problems is to get comments from the users of the book. As such I hope that the authors have tried to get the comments of the users from. all possible sources and all constructive suggestions have been incorporated in this edition. Still there might be some points left, which could be: further developed. T would therefore, invite the future users to come up with their views and contribute for further improvement of the future editions. Finally, I sincerely hope that this edition will be more acceptable to the users than the last edition; it will be more useful to them and meet most of their demands. Under the situation, I will also feel that the cooperation extended by IUT in publishing the book has been worthwhile. BoP Prof. Dr. M, Imtiaz Hossain Vice-Chancellor, UTwe been described! and written in The alporidums writen hore are very easy and these wat he That means, students will get introductory idea on analysis oF algorithms from here, At the end of each ‘chapter the book is provides with questions, In this second sition we have done nccessury corrections of the first edition anu modifications have been done in chapeer 4 (linked fist), chapter 7 (tree) arsd chapter 10 Cashing Each chapter except one is provided with the problem seq for the practical (1ab) classes {a book is suitable forthe undergraduate student, who need to sindy data structures as a foundation course. The book is required {or the curricula of Bachelor of Computer Selence god Engineering (CSE). Diploma, Higher Diplomas arc Postgraduate Diploma. in Computer Science/Informiation Technology related courses The book in very useful to the Students who have the foundation on CAC The authors are indebeed to Mr. H. M, Meliedi Hasan and Pritish Kumar Ray, who help us lot to write and prepare some part of the guanuseript of this book, We wish to thank Mr. Md. Jahidul Islam, Kasif Nizana Khan and $. M. Mohidu! Islam (who were the students of Ne Science & I (CI) Dept, TUT for thele help ta Preparing the e 6 ard Appsndix B an CH respectively. We an alo teeny © rare fewer of the manuscript ofthe book, for their sopaestnna ct fanproving the ‘material and organization of the hook, Dr. Md. Rafiqui stam Dr. M.A. Mortality TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER ONE: BACKGROUND LI Data Structure 1.2 Operations on Data Structure 13 Algorithm 14 Program 15 Importance of Data Structure 1.6 Complexity of Algorithm ‘CHAPTER TWO: ARRAY 2.1 Definition 2.2 One Dimensional Array © 2.2.1 Definition 2.2.2 Store an element into an array 2.2.3 Read (retrieve) a value (element) from an array 2.24 Code in C/C++ for storing data in an array 2.3 Two Dimensional Array J 23.1 Definition 2.3.2 Store and retrieve values in and from array 233° Two dimensional array representation in memory 23.4 Location of an clement of a two- dimensional array CHAPTER THREE: RECORD 3.1 Definition 3.2 Difference between an array and a record ‘CHAPTER FOUR: LINKED LIST 4.1 Definition 4.1 Node declaration and stare data in a node (in C/C++) 4.1.2 Create a new node Rune wee Sea al 31 3242 43 44 45 46 41.6 Doubly Linked List 4.21 4.22 4.23 424 4.25 42.6 ‘Create a linked list Locate or search a node of a linked list Insert a node into a list Deletion of a particular node Definition Declare a node of a doubly linked list Create a node Create a doubly linked list Insertion of a node into a doubly linked list Deletion of a node from a doubly link list XOR link list Circular linked list 441 Create a cireular linked list Difference between array and linked list Comparison of operations using array and linked list CHAPTER FIVE: STACK Definition Array based stack Sa 42 33 54 S21 5.22 Push Operation Pop Operation Link based stack S31 53.2 5.33 ‘Create a link based stack Add an clement (o the stack (Push ‘aperation) Deletion of an item (Pop operation) Applications of Stack 5.4.1 5.4.2 54.3 Checking the validity of an arithmetic expression Converting an infix arithmetic expression ta its postfix form Evaluating a postfix expression S&888e88 a7 47 49 S2eeanu 65 69 dag 74 CHAPTER SIX: QUEUE 61 62 Array based queue 6.1.1 Addition of an clement in an array based queue 6.1.2 Deletion of an clement from a queue 6.13 Draw back of array implementation of queue ‘Link based queue 6.2.1 Create a link based queue 6.2.2 Add anew nade to linked queue 62.3 Delete a node from a linked queue CHAPTER SEVEN: TREE. Wd W2 Binary Tree 7.11 Parent-Child Relationship 7.12 Traversal technique of a binary tree 7.1.2.1 Pre-order traversal method 7.12.2 In-order traversal method. 7.12.3 Pest-order traversal method Binary Search Tree (BST) 7.2.1 Searching a particular node value of BST 7.2.2 Add a node toa BST 7.2.3 Delete a node from BST Heap 7.3.1 Heap Creation 7.3.2 Deletion of maximum from a max-heap 73.3 Heap sort 7.3.4 Priority Queue 81 82 8s 228 iiiCHAPTER EIGHT: GRAPH B1 82 8.3 ae Basics of Graph Graph Traversal (Search) Methods 8.2.1 Breadth First Search (BFS) 8.2.2 Depth First Search (DFS) 8.23 Implementation of DFS & BFS using different data structure of graph Minimum cost spanning tree 8.3.1 Prim’s Algorithm 8.3.2 Kruskal’s Algorithm Single source shortest paths prablem CHAPTER NINE: SEARCHING AND SORTING On 92 93 Searching 9.1.1 Linear Searching 9.1.1.1 Complexity for linear searching 9.1.2 Binary Searching 9.1.2.1 Process 9.1.2.2 Number of comparison to search the target clement Sorting, 9.2.1 Internal sorting 9.2.2 External sorting 9.2.3 Classes of internal sorting 9.24 Selection sort 9.2.4.1 Complexity af seleetion sort 9.2.5 Insertion sort 9.2.5.1 Complexity of insertion sart 9.2.6 Bubble sort 9.2.6.1 Complexity of bubble sort 9.2.7 Merge Sort 9.2.7.1 Analysis of merge sort 9.2.8 Quick Sort 9.2.8.1 Analysis of quick sort External Sorting 145 145 146 147 147 148 150 150 150 150 151 152 CHAPTER TEN: HASHING 10.1 Hashing 10.2 Hash function 10.3 10.2.1 Division method 10.2.2 Mid-square method 10.23 Folding methods Hash collision 10.3.1 Linear probing method 10.3.2 Quadratic probing method 10.3.3. Random probing method 10.3.4 Double hashing method 10.3.5 Rehashing method 10.3.6 Chaining method APPENDIX-A: DATA STRUCTURES IN JAVA Id 11,2 3 4 115 11.6 Array ALLL Creating an array 11.1.2 Accessing array elements Stacks 11.2.1 Java code for a stack ‘Queues 11.3.1 Acircnlar queue 11.3.2. Wrapping around 11.3.3 Java code for a queue A Simple linked list 11.4.1 The Link class 114.2 The LinkList class Recursion: Finding factorials Binary trees 11.6.1 The Node class 11.6.2 The TreeApp class 11.6.3 Searching for a node 11.64 Inserting a node 11.6.5 Traversing the tree 11.6.6 Deleting a node 172 172 1733 173 174 174 175 181 189APPENDIX-B: DATY 121 Arrays 12.1.1 One dimensional array 12.1.2 Two dimensional array 12.1.3 Multi dimensional array 12.14 Jagged Array 12.15 BitArray 12.1.6: ArrayList 12.2 Pointers 12.3 Linked list 124 Stacks 125 Queue 12.6 Hashing 12.7 Sorting 12.7.1 Bubble sort 12.7.2, Quick sort 12.7.3. Merge sort 12.7.4 Insertion sort 12.7.8 Sorted list 12.8 Searching 12.8.1 Binary searching 12.9 Ser 1240 Trees 1201 Graph STRUCTURE IN C SHARP (Ca) AEPPSDIX-C; PRACTICAL ISSUES Mt ARRAY 142 WINKED LIST IMAI Creation of linked list W422 Search a node from a linked list 124 Delete a particular node from a linked list 1924 Arrange data of a linked list tea oi ian | LINKED LIST ion of a double tinked list 222 245 249 252 256 267 273 273 276 278 282 285 239 289 13.4 STACK 13.4.1 Creation of a linked based stack 13.5 QUEUE 13.5.1 Creation of a linked based queue 13.6 TREE 13.6.1 Creation of a trec (Binary Search Tree) 13.7 GRAPH 13.8 SORTING 13.9 SEARCHING 13.10 HASHING BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX 294 3CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND OBJECTIVES: | Identify data structure Identify algorithm: Idemify program: Deseribe the importance of data structure Identify complexity of algorithm V¥¥¥Y¥ 1.1 Data Structure Jn "Data Structure" there are two words, one is data and another is structure, Data means raw facts or information that can be processed to get results or products. Elementary items constitute @ unit and that unit may be considered as a structure. As for example, some clementary items like hand, leg, eye, ear, nose, bone and some others constitute a human body. So, human body is a structure. Similarly some elementary items like pieces of wood, iron, raxine ete may constitute a chair, which is also a structure, A structure may be ‘treated as a frame or proforma where we organize some clementary items in different ways. Like structures in our environment, data structure is also ‘constituted with some elementary data items. Data structure is a structure or unit where we organize elementary data items in different ways and there exists structural relationship among the items. ‘That means, a data structure is a mtcans of structural relationships of elementary data items for storing and retrieving data in computer's memory. ‘Usually elementary data items are the efemencs of a data structure. However, a data structure may be an element of another data structure. In other words a data stricture may contain another data structure. Example of Data Structures: Array, Linked List, Stack, Queue, Tree, Graph, Hash Table etc. 5 ‘Types of elementary data item: Character, Integer, Floating point numbers etc.Data Structires Fundamentals Expressions of below: mentary data in C/C++ programming language are shown Elementary data item sion in C/C++ Character char Integer int Floating paint number float 1.2 Operations on Data Structure We can also perform some operations on data structure such as insertion {addition}, deletion (access), searching (locate), sorting, merging ete. 1.3 Algorithm It is a set or sequence of instructions (steps) that can be followed to perform a task (problem), To write an algorithm we do not strictly follow grammar of any particular programming language. However its language may be near to a programming language. Each and every algorithm can be divided into three sections, First section is input section, where we show which data elements arc to be given. The second section is very important one, which is operational or processing section. Here we have to do all necessary operations, such as computation, taking decision, calling other procedure (algorithm) etc. The third section is ouput, where we display the result found from the second section. 1.4 Program A program is a set or sequence of instructions of any programming language that can be followed to perform a particular task. For a particular problem, at first we may write an algorithm then the algorithm may be converted into a program, In a program usually we use a lange amount of data, Most of the cascs these data are not elementary items, where exists structural relationship between elementary data items. So, the program uses data structure(s). Lil an algorithm, a program can be divided into three sections such as input section, processing section and output section, Chap.-1 Background 3 1.5 Importance of Data Structure ‘Computer science and computer engineering deal with two jargons which are software and hardware. Without software, hardware (electrical, mechanical, electronic parts of computer that we sce and touch) is useless. So, study of software is very important in computer science, and software consists of programs, which use different types of data. In a program we not only use elementary data items but also use different types of organized data. In other words we use data structure in a program. As we know we write programs to solve problems. That means to solve problems we have to use data structures. The different data structures give us different types of facilities. If we need to store data in such a way that we have to retrieve data directly irrespective of their storage location, we can get this facility using one type of data structure such as array gives us such facility. In some cases, instead of direct access, we may need efficient use of memory and this can be performed using /inked list. In our daily life we handle list of data such as list of students, list of customers, list of employees etc. However cach of these entities (student, customer, employec etc.) may have different attributes. As for example, a student has roll number, name, marks attributes and these are different in types. But, how to organize them so that we can handle different types of data as a unit. We can get this facility from record or structure, Thus importance of data structures is many folds in storing, accessing, arranging data. By achieving the knowledge of data structure we can use different types of data in programs that are used to solve various problems required in our life. Without knowledge of data structures we are not be able to solve problems where we must use them. In programming language there are provisions to use different types of data structures, so that we can organize data in different ways and solve the problem properly, In fact, we can optimize the amount of memory by using proper data types. In other words, without knowledge of data structures we will not be able to write program properly, hence we will not be able to solve problem. Therefore, for the students and teachers of computer science and enginecring the knowledge of data structure is very much essential. Forma-2Data Structures Fundamentals 4 1.6 Complexity of Algorithm There are (wo types of complexities: One is time complexity and another is space complexity. Time complexity: This complexity is related to execution time of the algorithm or a program. It depends on the number of element (item) comparisons and number of element movement (movement of data from one place to another). However, the complexity of the most of the algorithms described here related to the number of element comparisons, So, the complexity of the algorithm is computed with respect to the total number of clement (item) comparisons needed for the algorithm. Space complexity: This complexity is related to space (memory) needs in the main memory for the data used to implement the algorithm for solving any problem. If there m data items used in an algorithm, the space complexity of the algorithm will be proportional to n. The complexity of an algorithm (either time complexity or space complexity) is represented using asymptotic notations, One of the asymptotic notations is O (big-oh) notation. In general we write ‘T(n) = O(g(n)) if there are positive constants C and n. Such that T(n) Scg(n) for all nn 2 ng. In words the value of T(n) always lies on or below eg(n) forn > ne, In this book we have represented the complexity using O notation. Big-oh (O) notation is also called upper bound of the complexity. If we get the total number of element comparisons is 4° — ‘4 n, then we can write it as O (7), Since (M4 n° - 4 n) < ni, Similarly 10n? + 4n + 2 = © (n?). Since 10n?+ 4n+2 <1 In’, Table-1: Shows the advantages and disadvantages of the various data structures: |___Advantages__ [Disadvantages Quick insertion, very fast [Slow search, slow access if index known deletion, fixed size ‘Slow search Provides last-in, first-out | Slow access to other LIFO) access items: Provides first-in, —_first- | Slow access to other oul(FIFO) access items Chap.-1 Back, Data Structure Quick search, insertion, | Deletion deletion (if tree remains | complex balanced) slow if key not known, inefficient memory Fast insertion, deletion Slow access to other eae models real-world situations | Some algorithms are slow and complex Summary: Data structure is a structure or unit where we organize date items in different ways and there exists structural relationships of them (data items). ; Algorithm is a set. or sequence of instructions (steps) that can be followed to perform a particular task (problem). ; Program is a set or sequence of instructions of a particular programming language that can be followed to perform a particular task. Data structure is the most important building block of a program. It facilitates organized storage and easy retrieval of data. There are two types of complexity-the time complexity and the Space complexity. Time complexity is related with the number of clement comparisons and element movement. Space complexity is used to determine the memory space usage and requirements for a particular problem. known, Fast insertionET Data Structures Fundamentals ‘ CHAPTER TWO os ARRAY ‘What do you mean by data structure? L 2. What are the objectives of learning data structure? AX What are elementary data types? BIECTI 4. What do you mean by space complexity? oy Re 3” Define data structure. Give examples, year ds 6. State two complementary goals of the study of data structure. » — ee nee — ies 7. Data structure is & structure that may contain another data structure. : Rae in Explain the statement with example, ; Sao aac ® Show data storing and accessing processes using two- Define elementary data type and data structure. ‘What do you mean by a data structure? Explain the basic operations that arc normally performed ona particular data structure, 10. Differentiate between atomic data type and structured data type. IL. "What is the difference between an algorithm and a program? y= dimensional array Describe the process of representation of two-dimensional array in computer's memory » Write algorithms using two-dimensional array ¥ ARRAY 2.1 Definition An array is a finite set of same type of data items. In other words, it is a collection of homogencous data items (elements). The elements of an array are stored in successive memory locations. Any clement of an array is referred by array name and index number (subscript). There may have many dimensional arrays. But usually two types of array are widely used; such as one dimensional (linear) array and two dimensional array. 2.2 One Dimensional Array 2.2.1 Definition An array that can be represented by only one dimension such as row or column and that holds finite number of same type of data items is called one dimensional (linear) array. diesieeS'- Ee ao: ie i aco] 9 | w [| ofl ales * Figure-2.1: Graphical representation of one dimensional array.Data Structures Fundamentals & Here 1, 2,3, ........., 10 are index number, and 0, 10, 12,... ... .... 39 are data items or elements of the array and B is the array name. Symbolically an element of the array is expressed as B, or B[i], which denotes ith element of the array, B. ‘Thus B[4], B[9] denotes respectively the 4" element and the 9” clement of the array, B. The name of the array usually is a name constituted by one or more characters. Thus array name may be A, 5, Stock, Array! cic. The clement of an array may be number (integer or floating point number) or character. Expression of one dimensional array in C/C™: For integer array: int a[10)}; For character array: char b[30}; For floating point array: float c[10]; Figure-2.2: Declaration of Array in C/C™. 2.2.2 Store an clement into an array 5[4)= 19; it means 19 will be stored in the cell number 4 of the array of B in the Figure-2.1. If there is any (previous) value that will be overwritten. 2.2.3 Read (retrieve) a value (element) from an array x= B[6), it means the value of x will be 20, since the cell number 6 of the aray, # contains 20 (see Figure-2.1). The above expressions are as like as C/C++, 9 Chap-2 Array 2.2.4 Code in C/C++ for storing data in an array int s[10]; for (= 0;8<10; ++2) scanf (“%d", &x[i]); ‘We can store integer type of data to the array, x using above segment of codes. Code in C/C++ for reading data from an array and the data will be displayed ‘on the monitor's screen: for (f=0; 1 <20; ++/) printf (“%d", x{f)); ZA: a ‘of elements, write an algorithm to store the list of elements (qumbers) in an array and find out the largest element of the list. Algorithm 2.1: Algorithm to search the largest clement of a list 1. Input: af 1...) 2. for(@é= 1,1 sn; i=i +1) store data to x[/); 3, large = x{1); 4. for (i= 2; sn; i= 7 +1) if [i] > large), large = xf]; that means if any element larger than the previous upgrade large 5, Output: the largest number (print the value of large) ‘Comments: x is the array to store data and a is the size of the list. The above code is as like as C/C++, but not exactly writen in C/C++. We shall follow this style for other algorithms.Data Structures Fundamentals Problem 2.2: Given a linear array with data, find out a particular (specific) element of x from the array. We do not know the index (cell) number where the element has been stored. Algorithm 2.2: Algorithm to search a particular element from a list |. Input: A set of data in amay a, and variable x ie, the tanget clement ee 2. found =0 3. for (i= 1; 4 Sa; ( if(@f] ==) location = i, found = 1, break; t 4. Output: if (found = = 1), print *FOUND" ‘message and location, else print “NOT FOUND” message. =i+1) Problem 2.3; Given a list of integers stored in a linear array. Find out the summations of odd numbers and even numbers separately, Solution: Given a list of integers, we have to find cut the odd numbers and then we shall add those odd numbers, Similarly, we shall find out the even numbers in the list and adding those numbers we shall get the summation of even. To store the results, we require two variables; sui_even and sum_odd. Initially, values of these variables will be zero (0) and every time we find an even number we shall add it to the swm_even and we find an odd number, we shall add it to the sun 1_odd. If a number is divisible by 2 it is even, otherwise odd. ‘ Chop.-2 Array ud We have to start from the first number of the list. If it is even, it will be added with the sum_even and if it is odd, it will be added with the sum_odd. Similarly, we shall access whole list one by one and add them with either sum_even (if'a number is even) or sum_odd (if'a number is odd). Algorithm 2.3: Algorithm to find the: summations of even and odd muumbers 1. Input: An array and variables (to store the results of summations) All .ati}, sum_odd = 0, sum_even = 0; 2, for(i= Ii suizitl) { ‘ if (4[J%2 == 0), sum_even = sum_even + A[i); else sum_odd = sum_odd + A{i); 3. ae Summation of odd numbers (print sum_odd) and summation of even nunibers (print sum_evert} Comments: Here A is an array that holds a list of integers and w is the size of the list. swm_odd, sum_even are two variables to store the summation of ‘odd numbers and the summation of even numbers respectively. Problem 2.4: Given a list of integers stored in a linear array, find out the summations of numbers in odd indices and even indices separately. Solution: This problem is similar to the problem 2.3, Here the difference is that, we have to check whether the index is odd or even. Algorithm 2.4: Algorithm to find the summations of even and odd indexed numbers: : 1. Input: An array and variables (to store the results of summations) Afl..n}, sum_odd = 0, sum_even = 0; 2 for (i= 1;i Sayi=i +1) t if (%2 = = 0), sum_even = sum_even + Ali];Data Structures Fundamentals 12 a else sum_odd = sum_odd + Ui}, } ‘ 3. Output: Summation of numbers in odd indices (print sum_odd) and summation of numbers in even indices (print suim_even) ‘Comments: Here A is an array that holds a list of integers and a is the size of the list, swm_odd, sum_even are two variables to store the summation of fumbers at odd positions and the summation of humbers at even positions respectively, Problem 2.5: Given a list of integers stored ina linear array and a data element, insert the element into the array at a given position. Algorithm 2.5: Algorithm to insert an element into an array, 1 Input: An array 4{1...n), the position of insertion m and the data x. 2. Increase the size of the array, A[1... + 1] 3. for(i =m, 12m; i= 1-1) 3 Afi + 1) = Afi); 4. Alm] = x; 5. Output: The array, A with size w+ 1, Comments: Here it is assumed that all the cells of the array, A contains data. So the data from the positions m to n of A are copied (transferred) to the Positions m+! to m+/ of the amay A. Now the Position m of the array A is empty and the element to be inserted in placed at the position. Problem 2.6: Given a list of integers stored in a linear array, delete a data from a given position of the array. Algorithm 2.6: Algorithm to delete an element from an array. 1. Input: An array Af 1...0], and the position of deletion, m. 2. for (i= m; i< nz i= i+ 1) 4l)=aliriy 3. Output: The updated array, A, Chop.-2 Array 3 Comments: Here the data of the positions m to n-f are overwritten by the data of the positions m + J to n of the array, 4, Now the position n of the array is empty. Problem 2.7: ’ Given twa lincar arrays of integers, merge the two arrays into a single array. Algorithm 2.7; Algorithm to merge two arrays. 1, Input: Two arrays A (1...) and A[1...n] 2. Take an array Mf[1... m +7] : 3. for (i= 1; i <= m;}= i +1) Mii) = Ali) 4. for(i = 1, i<=n,0=i+ 1) Mli+m) = B[i); 5. Output: The merged array, Af ‘Comments: Here the output array is M. For merging the data of the array, 4 are copicd to the positions J to m of Mf and the data of the array, # are copied to the positions m + / tom +m of M, 2.3 Two Dimensional Array 23.1 Definition Two dimensional array is an array that has two dimensions, such as row and column, Total number of clements in a two dimensional array can be calculated by multiplication of the number of rows and the number of columns. If there are m rows and # columns, then the total number of elements is m * », and m Xn is called the size of the array. Of course, the data clements of the array will be same (ype. In mathematics, the two dimensional array is called a matrix and in business it is called table. A two dimensional array can be expressed as follows: Ay or Ai, f] for 1 Si Sm and 1 marks{i){j]), min_mrk = marks{i,j}; } # end of the second loop 4. Compute the average marks of best three class tests. avg_mirk{i}= (sum —min_mrk)/3; } - lend of the first loop 5. Qutput: Average of best three class test marks, avg_mri{40]; ‘Comments: Here marks{40, 4] is a two-dimensional aay that holds four olass test marks for each of the 40 students-and avg_mrk{40) is an array to ‘store the computed average marks of best three class tests. sum is 1 variable {0 store the summation of all (4) class test marks and min_mrk is a variable {10 store the lowest mark of four class tests for each student. 44 first loop startsData Structures Fundamentals 18 Solution: First, we have to identify the boundary elements. In a two dimensional array, elements of first column and the last column and the first row and last row are the boundary elements as shown in the Figure-2.8, Here the index, / represents the row number and represents the column: number. When # is 1, the row is the first row and when # is m (where m fepresents the number of rows in the array), the row is the last row. Similarly, when j= 1, the column is the first column and the index of the last column is j =». So, a number in a two-dimensional array is @ boundary element if #= 1, i= m,j=lorj=n. We shall start from the first number of the array. If it isa boundary element, the number will be added to the sum (which is a variable to store the result and initially it is set zero). We shall check every number whether it is a boundary element or not, if the number is a boundary clement it will be added to sum. Otherwise, we shall proceed with the next number of the list (array) and continue the process to the end of the list. Algorithm 2.8: Algorithm to find the summation of boundary elements . 1. Input: a two-dimensional array ACL om, Lesa] sum = 0; 2. Find cach boundary element for (f= 1; i Sm; #=i +1) for = 1yj sm; f= f+) if G@= 1) F= 1 f= m [f= n), sum = sum + AGI) (Boundary elements are those elements whose index /= 1 or j = 1, and those whose index / = mi orj =) and add it with sum (previous result)] 3. Output: Print sum as the result of summation of boundary elements. . 19 Chap.-2 Array Array B[m][o] Index, i= 1 n=6 m=5 Index, j= 0 t Index, {= 1 ladex, i= _ Boundary elements of ¢ two-dimensional array in a pictorial view ‘Problem 2.9: Given a two-dimensional array find out the summation of the diagonal its of the array. joluion: First, we have to identify the diagonal elements, A diagonal ¢lement is one, whose either row index and column index are equal or the ‘summation of row index and column index is equal to m-+/ where n is the ‘qumber of rows or columns (here, number of columns and number of rows “are equal). In the Figure-2.9, shaded elements are diagonal clements. The column indices of all clements of the first diagonal (from the upper left comer to the right comer) are equal to their corresponding row indices. On the other in second diagonal (from the upper right comer to the lower left ner} the summation of the row index and the column index ism + f forall elements. ‘We shall start from the first number of the array and check, whether it is a nal element or not. If it is a diagonal element, it will be added to the ‘gum, which is a variable initially set zero to store the result of summation of diagonal elements. We shall advance to the next element and one by onc ‘we shall go through the whole list. Af the value of n is an odd number, then the middle number of each of the two diagonals will be common to both diagonals. So, this number will be "added twice. So, this number should be subtracted from final summation Forma-3 , 7Data Structures Fundamentals n Faint atc i) Note: For each time, to calculate the summation of all class test marks and to identify the lowest class test mark of a particular student the variables sum. and mtin_oirk are initialized within the loops, Summary: Array is a collection of homogeneous data items, The amay, which is represented by only one dimension (row or column) called one dimensional array, whereas an array represented by two dimensions such as row and column is known as twe dimensional array, Questions: 1, What is linear array? Explain with example, 2. Write an algorithm to find out a particular item from a given list of items stored in a linear array. 3. Write an algorithm to insert an item in a particular position of an array, 4. Given a list of elements stored in an array, write an algorithm to find out the largest clement from the array. 5. You are given an array of sorted data in ascending order. Write an algorithm to rearrange the elements of the array in descending order without using any sorting algorithm and extra data structure. 6. What is a linear array? Write an algorithm to delete an item from a linear array. : 7. Define two-dimensional array. 8. Describe how a two-dimensional array can be stored in computer memory. - 9. How address of a particular element of a two dimensional array can be computed? Explain, ” 10. Write an algorithm to find out the summation of the diagonal elements ‘of a two dimensional array. 11. Given an array of size 35 x 40. The base’ address of the array is 1000. Find the address of A[18)(32]. Write down the formula first, then calculate, 12. Suppose there is an array A of size 40*30) The base address of the array is 100. Calculate the address of A[23][15). (Chap.-2 Array: B 13. Given a two dimensional array with m * n size. Write an algorithm to find out summation of the boundary elements, where no clement will be added twice. apa Dewcsib, wlseg 26 tw-liemetelona)-ereny a ~ceequiced to ago programming or Algorithm. 15. Write an Algorithm to print out the following triangle. 1 id 45 6 7 8 3 Q he tad 3 4 5 16. What is string? Write a procedure to count the number of a given substring occurs in a given string. Problems for Practical (Lab) Class Array related problems . . , Problem 2-1: Write 2 program to enter 10 integers in a one dimensional array and display (print) the data on the screen. i i i find Problem 2-2: Write a program to store 10 integers using an array and fire ‘out the summation and average of the numbers. Display the numbers, their sum and average (with points) separatcly. fa given Problem 2-3: Write a program to find out the largest and smallest o! list of numbers in an array. Display the oumbers, their largest and smallest separately. it mbers Problem 2-4: Write @ program to find out the summation of even nu and edd numbers from a given list of numbers in an array. Display the numbers, the summation of even numbers and odd numbers separately, _ ‘ Problem 2-5; Write a program to find out the summations of the numbers stored in even indices and odd indices of an array. Display the numbers, the two summations separately.Data Structurcs Fundamentals eT — qe Problem 2-6: Write a program to merge two arrays (merge two arrays and make single one), Display the data of the three arrays. Problem 2-7; Given an array with data in all positions. Write a Program to insert an item in a pai lar position of an array in such a way that no data will be lost and data will be in previous order. Hints: insert an element, x in tth position where i Differentiate the array and the record RECORD 1 Definition It isa collection of non-homogenous (different types of) related data items. “Each item of a rccord is called a field of attribute. Related data items of person may constitute a record. The following data items may constitute a Data Tiems [ Types poe Peson'sID | Numeric igits Person's Name Character string 40 ghpencness ‘Telephone No. Numeric aage Due Numeric 6 digits in C/C++ is called structure. A structure can be defined as follows: struct { int roll_no; char “name; int marks; }Student; “name” is a pointer variable that points a character type variable (data tem), If the length of “name” field is 40, memory requirement forte above re (record) = 2 +40 + 2 = 44 bytes; as each integer occupies 2 bytes ‘And cach character is of 1 byte.Data Structures Fundamentals 2 An array may be a member (field) of a structure (record). A structure (record) may be an element (data item) of an array. Example: Nh struct { int roll_no; char Name[40); int marks; Stud; // Here, Name[40] is an array which is a member of the structure, Stud. 2. struct t int roll_no; char Name[40); int marks; Student [30]; Here, Student is an array of structures where members are rall_no, Name{ ] and marks, and Namef ] is an array. ‘We can assign value to the members of the structure (Stud) as follows: Stud.roll_no = 5011; Stud.name[ ] = “HM. Mehedi Hasan”; Stud.marks = 50; If there is an array of structures, we can assign values to the members of the structure (Stvden/) as follows: Student [2].roll_no = S011; Student [2].name[ }=“H.M. Mehedi Hasan”; Student (2).marks = 50; Chap.-3 Record 2 Memory requirement for the structure, Student (in example 2): (2 +40 + 2) * 30 bytes = 44 * 3 bytes = 1320 bytes If we want to store data to a record (structure) SE ee ei student or customer, then we have to declare (define) array of structures. disadvantage is that, for these types of array a huge amount of memory space may be misused or wasted. Problem 3.1: Define a record (structure) with three ficlds for a student and store data for 30 students. Solution: struct t- int roll_no; char name[40]; int marks; } stud[30}; for (i= 0, i< 30; ++i) { store data in stud{i].roll_no; for (j= 0; 5 <40; +) store data in stud{i).name[j); store data in stud[i].marks, : } For storing data we can use scanf () function of C/C++ A data structure may be the member of another data structure also. Code for problem 3.1 in C/C++ is as follows: struct { int roll_no;scant ("ad", &estud [i].roll_no; fflash(stdin); Bets(stud[i).name); scanf("ad", &stud[i]-marks); 1 To display data we can write code using printi{); Pointer to the structure: We can store data using pointer 0 @ structure (record). An example using C+ code is as follows: 4 struct stud t int roll; int marks; ! P sper struct stud * spir; Ssptr = new(stud); vin>> sptr —>roll; ‘coul>>spir —> marks: vout< roll; Cout<< sptr—> marks; In the above code sptr is the pointer to the stricter named stud and mew is a keyword for allocation memory (space) for the structure, roll marks 3.2 Difference between an array and a record 1. Am array is a finite set of same type of data elements. In other ‘words, it is a collection of homogeneous data items (elements). Whereas a record is a collection of non-homogenous (different types of) related data items. FJ ~ Chap-3 Record s 2 ‘The data items of an array are of same type, But in a record, data elements are usually of different types. i mei is a collection of non-homogencous related data items, It e* Then bee aad i a. ‘get of same types of data but a record is a set of different types of data, i Defing record (structure) with example: ; ‘What is the difference between array and record! ‘Define array and record. ; u ‘Assume an integer needs four byte, a real number needs cight byte struct Ku { r Se char name[10]; int rell; } eve[30]; : If the starting address of ece is 100, what is the address of eco[ 15]? Consider the following C program segment: struct x{ int sub (3); char name [10]; long int roll; b struct y{ struct x person; char addres[20], } m[20); If the address of the m[0].person.subf2] is 500, then what willl be the address. of m|10].person.sub[2]?Data Structures Fundamentals 30 ——_—_—— Problems for Pi Structure or record related problems Problem 3-1; Given three attributes of student record such as roll, name and marks, Write a program using structure to store data for five students and display the data on the screen, Problem 3-2: use the program for the problem 3-1 and modify it to calculate grade for each student and display roll, name, marks ang grade using one row for each student. Use grade calculation rules of your university, Sample output: Roll Name Marks l Abdur Rahim 86 A- 2 Shameem Rahman 9s At Problem 3-3: Given three attributes ‘of employee record such as 1D, name and basic pay. Write a Program using structure to store data for 5 Persons (employees), calculate some benefits as follows: i) House rent: 1) House rent = 45 % of basic pay (for basi¢ pay equals to 10000 or less) b) House rent = 40 % of basic pay (for basic pay more than 10000 or less than equals to 20000) ¢) House rent = 35 % of basic pay (for basic pay more than 20000) ii) Transport allowance = 5 % of basic pay iii) Medical allowance = 2000/- (fixed) iv) PF deduction = 10% of basic pay. ¥) Gross pay = Basic pay + house rent + Transport allowance + Medical allowance vi) Net pay = Gross pay — basic pay Display the data as follaws: 1D Name Basic pay Gross pay Deduction Net pay 0908 =M Karim 12000 190400 1200 18200 0910 A Mazid 23000 435350 2300 33080 Problem 3-4: Declare a structure with two attributes (fields) such as roll, name and marks. Declare a pointer variable of structure type (pointer to the structure) and store and display the data using the pointer and attributes, ‘Hints: see pointer to the structure (page 28). CHAPTER FOUR LINKED LIST OBJECTIVES: ae > Identify Linked listand Doubly Linked List > Describe the creation process of a linear linked List and Doubly linked list sankey: > Write an algorithm to create a linked list and Doubly linked list > Write an algorithm to locate a node of linked list and Doubly linked list ; } Describe the insertion process of a node into a linked list and Doubly linked list ; > Write an algorithm to insert a node into a linked list and Doubly linked list aa > Describe the deletion process of node from @ linked list and Doubly linked list , : % Write an algorithm to delete a node from a linked list and Doubly linked list / > Write an algorithm to arrange data of linked list and Doubly linked list > Differentiate the array and the linked list date, LINKED LIST wohem, Sr Sp eer Definition al made. A isa list or collection of data Kaper Gratate be ored Seicpnared locations {positions) in memory: To store data in scattered locations in memory we to make link between one data item to another. So, a =< or t must have two parts: one is data part and another is link (pointer) ‘purt. Each data item of a linked list is called a node, ee (holds) actual data A ame ase a le te the lis. To locate the list an external pointer is used that points the _ cer ee ek et ole be ae lee be mull, This type of list is called linear (one way) linked list or simply li list.| Pigure- 4.1(6): Graphical represeotation of a linear linked bist 4.1.1 Node declaration and store data in a node (in C/C++) 1. Node Declaration: sruetGote int data; Thode *next; h 2. Data store: node *nptr; declare nptr as node type: npt—datz = 20; — //store 20 in data part nptr—*next = NULL; //void the pointer part Chap. Linked List 33 eee ao 4.1.2 Create a new node 1. Node declaration: struct node { int data; node *next; Ki 2. Declare variables (pointer type) that point to the node: node "np, 3. Allocate memory for new node: nptr= new (node); 4, Insert node value: nptr—-data = 55; nptir—next = NULL; 4.1.3 Create a linked list ees linked ba ee RL we heed ws eas a la i me, “the extemal pointer to the list will point no node or the extemal pointer will “be null. After that, we have to create a new node. The data part of the new ‘node will contain data (information) and the pointer par will contain mull, “This temporary pointer will help us to include the next new node to the list. ‘Now we shall include this new node to the existing linked list. A temporary pointer will be used to point (trace) the new node, Thus we establish a link between the existing linked list and the new node. At this point there is only node in the linked list. We shall create another new node and include the to the linked list. We shall repeat the process to include any other nade. we can create a linked list, 1 We can create a linked list according to the following process given in points. 1. Create an empty linked list. (The extemal pointer will be mul). 2. Create a new node with necessary data.Data Structures Fundamentals 4 (The data part of the new node will contain data (information and the pointer part will contain muff). ay 3. The extemal pointer will point the new node. {At this moment there is only one node in the list) 4, Create another new node and include the node to the linked list. 5. Repeat and process to include any other node. Linked list creation process using pseudo code: 1, Create an empty list, the pointer list will poimt to mull: list=Null; ila 2) Create a new node with data: npt = new (node); | nptr-> data = item; f nptr->next = NULL; | (Here the value of item is 40). "P™ Figure-4.2: Addition of nodes toa linked list (pictorial view), 3) Include the first node to the list i list Algorithm 4.1: Algorithm (pseudo code) to create « linked list ©) Declare node and pointers (list; tpt, nptr): r list = mptr me Ye at i. struct node (pr = apr, { sl intdata; ‘ node “next, ‘Here tptr is temporary pointer used to make link between existing list and new node. 4) Create another node with data and include the node to thelist: “ETH list nptr—next = NULL; 4, Make link between the linked list and the new node: if (ist= = NULL) oe er attr { ao tptr > next = nptr; ‘tpo=nptr,Data Structures Fundamentals. 36 i list= npt; tptr= np; } ele tptr—next = nptr, (ptr = nptr; } 5. Output linked list Nate: Step 3 and 4 will be repeated again and again if two or more nodes are to be added in the list. Comments; Here, nptr is a pointer that points to anew node. The tptr is the - Pointer that points the last node, which has been already added. item is a variable using which we shall enter data to the new node. Program to create a linked list: Although we have written linked list creation process in detail, however, there are some students they face problem to write a program to create a linked list. So, here we write a program to create a linked list (header files are not included). After creating a lined list we have to read the data of the linked list and display them on the monitor. Otherwise we cannot understand whether the list is created properly. At the end of the program we include code to display data of the list. void main{) struct node 1 int data; node “next; EH int i,n,item; node *nptr, *tptr, *list; // Necessary pointers list= NULL; // Create an empty list cout<<"Enter number of nodes:"; Af (list==NULL) //List is empty { list = nptr; //Include first node tptr= mpi; } There is/are mode(s)Data Structures Fundamentals 38 4.1.4 Locate or search a node of a linked list Here, we have to find out a node whose value is known, Lint ind out the item $1 from above linked list, All items in the in ascending order. Problem 4. list were stored Solution: To locate the node we have to traverse the list using « pointer. Here, we shall use a temporary pointer using which we shall find the node. Weccan write in points: 8) We have to use a temporary pointer to traverse the list 'b) At cach node we compare and check whether we have found the node or not, list. . -Chap.4 Linked List 39 Algorithm 4.2: Algorithm (pseudo code) to search a node from a linked list 1, Declare node and tptr 2. Input the value to be located: item = 51; 3. Search the item: tptr = list; while (tptr—data != item or tptr! = NULL) p ie tpir= tptr—next; } ; Y bn: 4. Output: r if ((pt—+data= item) print “FOUND” else print “NOT FOUND” “Note: Here, list is an extemal pointer that points to the first node of the "fist and tptr is a temporary pointer and item is a variable that contains the node value to be located. "4.1.5 Insert a node into a list Be ae ts Lemon ets aia ten iagcinaiees iste the last node and the data of the list are arranged in ascending order. To insert a (new) node into 2 linked list, we have to find out (locate) the position of the node after which the new node will be inserted. To find out the position ié'shall use a temporary pointer. As we know there is an extemal poinier to the linked list, which points the first node of the list. So, ‘we shall assign the value of the external pointer to the temporary pointer. At the first stage temporary pointer will point the first node of the linked list. ‘Now we shall compare the data of the second node of the list with the data of the new node. If the data of the second node of the list is greater than the data of the mew node, then we have found the pésition for insertion. So, the new node will be inserted after the first node (before the second node). If the data of the second node is smaller than the data ofthe new node, then we GT CTData Structures Fundamentals 40 advance the temporary pointer. That is, at this stage tie temporary pointer will point the second node of the list. Then we shall compare the data of the new node with the date of third node, If the data of the new node is smaller than the data of the third node, the new node will be inserted after the second node or before the third node, If mot, we have to advance further. Lint [Tele Hf [pls A [=n () An existing Linked Hat (©) Finding owt sppropeate position fo the sew node To insert a node in between two nodes we have to perform nwo major tasks: i) To locate (find out) the node after which the new node will be inserted. ii) To perform insertion of making necessary link. To locale the position for insertion we have to perform the following operations: i) Use a temporary pointer (tptr) to the first node of the list (tptr = list). ii) Compare the value of the next node with value of the new node iii) Traverse the temporary pointer until we find a greater node value than the value of the new node. (tptr = tptr> next), To insert the node by making link the steps are: 4) Point the next node by pointer of the mew mode (nptr > next = tptr->next) ii) Point the new mode by previous node of the new node. tptr--next= npir apt! O) Ance Nowe Chap -4 Linked List 4l Figure-4.3 gives a clear pictorial view of insertion of a new node in an existing linked list. (@) Updated Lis Figure-4.3: New node insertion in an existing list (pictorial view)Data Structures Fundamentals a ener Algorithm 4.3: Algorithm (pseudo code) to insert a node into a linked list (Here, we shall consider insertion after the first node or before the last node inan ascending list] 1. Declare node and pointers (list, tptr, nptr) 2. Input linked list (we have to use an existing list) 3. Create a new node; aptr = new (node); nptr—+data = item; nptr—next = NULL; 4. Locate the appropriate position for the new node: [for making link between linked list and the new node] tptr= list; d while (tptr—next—+dats < nptr—rdata) i + Ipir = tptr—next; J 5. Insert new node at appropriate position (by linking previous and next node): Nptr—next = tptr—rnext; tptr—next = nptr; 6. Updated linked list Comments; Here, fist is an external pointer that points to the first node of the list and mtr is a temporary pointer. nptr is the pointer to the new node. Addition of a node before the first node of a linked list is very easy. At first create a new node, Make link between the new node and the first node of the list. Now remove the external pointer and set it to the new node (the extemal pointer will point the new node). Similarly we can add a node at the end of a linked list. To perform this task we have to use a temporary point and traverse it to the last node (whose pointer part is null) of the list. Now make link between the last node of the list and the new node. ‘Chap.-4 Linked List a tye) aoe all ee Ou Bee] (a 7 Ls [Loe N if 7 (new node) ptr : A, nptr-> mextlist; 2. list'= nptr; i) Addition of a new before the first node (pictorial view). “fe (new node) ii) Addition of a new after the last node (pictorial view), 4.1.6 Deletion of a particular node To delete a particular node from a linked list, first we have to find out the node to be deleted. Then we shall delete the node by making link:between the previous nodes and the next nodes of the node (that will be deleted). To find out the node to be deleted, we start searching from the first node, Here ‘we need a temporary pointer (tptr) to point the current node. At the starting ‘of the searching, the temporary pointer will point the first'node (i.¢,, (ptr = list). " If the first node is the node we want to delete, then the searching process is completed. If we are not looking for the first node, we have to advance to the second node of the list and Compare it with the node value to be deleted, ‘Again if this node is our target node, then searching ‘will be terminated. ‘Otherwise, we have to advance more. In this way, we have to continue searching through the whole list until we find the target node. If the target node is not present in the list, we shall simply close our mission.Data Structures Fundamentals 44 am Sue mien In the second. phase, when we have already found the target node and the node is indicated by the temporary painter (tptr), we have to delete the node. But deleting this node we shall loose the rest part of the list (if there is any node after the node to be deleted). So we have to confirm that. The next nodes of the list will not be lost, if we make link between the previous node of the target node and the next node of the target node. To make this we require a second temporary pointer (pptr) that will point the previous node of target node. Now, we shall make link between the previous node and the next node of the target node (the node to be deleted). That is we have to assign the value of next pointer of the previous node to the value of the next pointer of the node to be deleted. Now the link is established and we are free to delete the target say * If the target node is the first node of the list, we have to advance the external pointer of the list to the next node (second node). Then we delete the tanget node (i.e., the first node). If the target node is the last node of the list, we have to assign NULL to the next pointer of the previous node of the target node. Then we delete the node. une, Le Tele Ges Th Tee 8 (0) Am existing Linked le . ‘Nove that isco be delete! List, Le Le els The Thee we od (4 Update Line Figure-4.4: Deletion of an item from a linked list (pictorial view) Chap. Linked List 45 ce eee Problem 4.2: Delete a particular node from a given linked list. Algorithm 4.4: Algorithm (pseudo code) to delete a node from a linked list (Here we shall not consider the deletion process of the first node and the last node of the list). 1. Declare node and pointers (list, tptr, pptr) 2. Input linked list and the item (that is to be deleted) 3. Search the item ta be deleted in the list: torr list; while (tptr—+data != item) {pptr=tptr, tptr = tptr—snext; } 4. Delete the node: [Make link between previous and next node of the node that is to be deleted and delete the target node) pptr—next = tpir—next; delete (tptr); §. Output: updated linked lists Comments: Here, list is a pointer to the linked list and tptr is a pointer that will point the node to be deleted. And pptr is a pointer that will point the previous node of the target node (the node is to be deleted) and item is the node value to be deleted. Problem 4.3: Given a linked list, where the data of the nodes are not arranged in an order. Arrange the data of the linked list in ascending order. Algorithm 4,5: Algorithm (pseudo code) to arrange data of linked list t 1. Input linked list. 2. Take extra pointers pptr, fptr. 3. pptr= list; 4, while (pptr = NULL) { : fpr = pptr—next;Data Structures Fundamentals 46 5. while (fptr != NULL) + { if (pptr—vdata > fptr—data) { interchange (pptr—+data, fptr—rdaia); } fptr= fpt-—next; } Mend of while of step-5 ptr = pptr—snext; : } Hend of while of step-4 6, Output: The amanged (sorted) list. Comments: /ist is the pointer to the first of the linked list. ppir and jptr are the pointers to first, and second nodes, and three pointers will be used to arrange (sort) data, 4.2 Doubly linked list 4.2.1 Definition A doubly or two way linked list is a list silat als has Kage pao ‘One is link or pointer to the previous (backward) node and one is data part to held the data and another is link or pointer to the following (forward) node. There is an external pointer to the first node of the list. Doubly linked list is also called two-way linked list. list, Ns [i EL Tet [4 Figure-4.5: Graphical representation of a doubly linked list ‘Chap.-4 Linked List a” 4.2.2 Declare a node of a doubly linked list struct node { node *back; “int data; 3 Tht » mode "next; i kK 4.23 Create a node nptr = new (node); mptr—rback = NULL; to a npu—-data = item; aptr—»next = NULL; 42.4 Create a doubly linked list To create a doubly linked list, we have to create an empty linked list first. io ‘we shall create a new node with data and include the node to the list. “After that, ‘we shall create another new node with data and include this node the list. To include a new node we have to make link between the last node of the list and the new node. To make link, the mext pointer of the last will point the new node and the back pointer of the new node will point last node of the list. Thus we can create a doubly linked list. The pictorial view of this creation process is shown in Figure 4.6.i A: iumbauc ee eer: > Dell = Teil = 0 (©) Doubly linked list after making ink Figure-4.6: Creation of doubly linked list (pictorial view) Algorithm 4.6: Algorithm (pseudo code) to create a doubly linked list L. Declare node and pointers: a, struct node { node *back; int data; node “next; , b. node *list, *tptr; 4 . Make link between the last node of the list and the new node: rt node, searching ends. Now we have to insert the node before the first if (list = NULL) { list = nptr, ‘pir = mptr, } ee [ tptr—next = nptr; nptr—-back = tptr; (pir = nptr, } §, Output a doubly linked list. ete ee eee 5 Insertion of a node into a doubly inked list To insert a (new) node into a doubly linked list, we have to find out the on in the list where the new node will be inserted. To point this node ve need a temporary pointer (tptr). We have to start searching from the first . of the list. To performing searching we set the temporary pointer to the first: node. Let us consider that the data will be placed in an ding order, If the node value is smaller than or equal to the value of theData Structures Fundamentals isp If the new node value is greater than the first node, we. have to advance the temporary pointer (tptr) to the next node. Now, if the new node value is smaller than the current (second) node, the new node will be inserted before the current node. If new node value is still greater, advance the temporary pointer to the next mode. This process will continue until either we find the node after which we shall insert the new node or we reach the last node of the list. Now, when we have completed searching the position, we shall make link among the node after which the new node will be positioned (inseried), the nade before which the node will be inserted and the new node itself. That means, as the list is a two way linked list, generally insertion takes place between two nodes; previous node and the next node (of the new node to be added). First, we have to make link between the nolle after which the new node will be inserted and the mew node. Then we shall make link between the new node and the node before which the node will be inserted. After making links, insertion process terminates. If the node is to be inserted before the first node, we have to make link between the new node and the first node. New node will be placed at the very first of the list and then link has to be made between the new node and the first node of the list. Afler that, we have to set list painter (list) to point the new node. If the node is to be added at the end of the list, we have'to make link between the last node and new node in such 2 manner that the new node will be added at the end of the last node (after the last node). r list “ #0 @ es ‘hoe » Lnpu->next = (pir; 2. tptr->back = nptr; 3. list = aptr; i) Adattional of a new node before the first node (pictorial view) tptr, “CED 1.nptr->next = tptr; 2.tptr>back = optr; npr i) Addition of a new node after the last node (pictorial view). AL TL Teton Tet] Tet N (0) A dol nk i and anew non age PTs [pet] oe Tet] oe [et] N ea ) a link ReDeaD a (©) Doubly linked tit and new mode after making link Figure-4.7: Insertion of a node into a doubly linked list (pictorial view) Mist, Ns | Pornia-5Data Structures Fundamentals < 2 alist - Algorithm (pseudo code) to add a new node before the first 1. Input a doubly linked list * 2. Declare necessary pointer (list 3 Chaban se ere nptr = new(node); nptr->data = x; nptr->next = NULL; nptr->back = NULL; 4. tpir= list; 5, Make Necessary link: ptr->next = tptr; tptr->back = nptr; 6. Mave pointer (list) to the new node: list = nptr; 7. output updated linked list gorithm 4.8; Algorithm (pseudo cod: it b stioth (p' ic) to insert a node in between two 1. Input a doubly linked list. 2. Declare necessary pointers (list, ‘ptr, nptr) 3. Create a new node: : ptr = new (node); nptr->data = x; nptr->next = NULL; nptr->back = NULL; 4. Locate (search) the position the new node: tptr = list; while (Iptr->next->data < nptr->data) i . iptr= tptr->next } 5, Make necessary links: nptr->next = tptr->next; nptr->back = tptr; tpt->next = nptr; 7, Output updated linked list. —_ Chap. Linked List 3 ———eeeEeEEeE (Comments: to check whether the doubly linked list hes been updated properly or not. We have to print the data of the list in input order as well as Feverse order, Algorithm 4.9: Algorithm (pseudo code) to add a node at the end (afier the Jast node) of the list. ; 1, Input a doubly linked list 2. Declare necessary pointer (list, nptr, tptr) 3. Create a new node: nptr= new (node) nptr->data = x; nptr->next = NULL; __ nptr->back = NULL; 4, Locate the last node of the list: tptr= list; . while (lptr->next f= NULL) 6. Output updated linked list. After updating the doubly linked list, we have to print the data of the list in Input order as well as reverse order, if we find correct print out ‘of input ‘order and reverse order, we make sure that updated (addition) has been done ‘properly. 4,2.6 Deletion of a node from a doubly link list, To delete 2 node from a doubly linked list, at first we have to find out the node te be deleted. For this, we shall use a temporary pointer to point the ‘node. When the temporary pointer points the nodé to be deleted, before deleting the node we have to make link between the previous node and theData Structures Fundamentals 34 next node of the node (to be deleted). To do this, the mext pointer of the previous node will point the next node and the back pointer of the next node will point the previous node of the node. After establishing the link we shall delete the target node. The pictorial view of the deletion process is shown in Figure 4.8. list Miss [et] os {Toe Tisef] 0 [Het os cpu (2) Doubly tiked et at initial stage (¢) Boubly inked list after making kink and before deletion of the node list Nos [feet] os [ett] oe Tt] os (0) Updated doubly linked lise after deletion of target node Figure-4.8: Deletion of a node from a doubly linked list (pictorial view) Algorithm 4.10: Algorithm (pseudo code) to delete a node from a doubly linked list 1. Declare node and pointers (list; tptr); 2. Input a doubly link list and item (value of the node to be deleted): 3. Locate the nade to be deleted: tpte= list; while (tptr—next != NULL) { if (tptr—data = = item) break; tpir= tptr—snext; ' Chap.-4 Linked List 5s 4, Make link among rest of the nodes (excluding the node to be deleted): a. If the nade to be deleted is the first node of the list: list = tptr—-next; list—back = NULL; [if there is only one made in the list then list = NULL] b. If the node to be deleted is mot the last node: tptr—back—next = tptr—next; tptr—snext—rback = tpt—rback; c. If the node to be deleted is the last node: tptr—-back—next = NULL; $. Delete the target node: ; delete (tptr); 6, Output: Updated doubly linked list. 4.3 XOR linked list An XOR linked list is a linked list that uses the bitwise exclusive disjunction fo decrease memory requirements. XOR linked lists were quite common in the early days of computers, when the available memory was quite sparse. Principle The principle used by XOR linked list is quite interesting. XOR linked lists are doubly-tinked lists, but unlike traditional linked list, their nodes use only one pointer to obtain the predecessor and the successor. In order to do this, each node contains a pointer that stores the bitwise XOR of the previous and “next field. Traversing the list from the beginning to the end is casy. For a given item A (n), XORing the address of A (n-1) and the address of A (n) will give you the address of A (n+1). The same procedure can be applied for the other direction. Starting the process of traversing the list is done using the address of two consecutive nodes, by XORing the addresses they store in order to obtain the one of the starting point. An ordinary doubly-linked list stores addresses of the previous and next list items in each list node, requiring two address fields:Data Structures Fundamentals 56 -A BB © pe > next > next —> next > < prev <- prev < prey <_ An XOR linked list compresses the same information into one address field by Storing the bitwise XOR of the address for previous and the address for next in one field: ar B Cc D Es <> A®C <>BeD ‘When you traverse the list from left to right: Supposing you are at C, you can take the address of the previous item, B, and XOR it with the value in the link field (B&D). You will then have the address for D and yeu can continue tmiversing the list. The same pattem applies in the other direction. ‘To start traversing the list in either direction from some point, you need the address of two consecutive items, not just one. If the addresses of the two consecutive items are reversed, you will end Up traversing the list in the opposite direction, Features Given only one fist item, one cannot immediately obtain the addresses of the other elements of the list. Two XOR operations suffice w do the traversal from one item to the next, the same instructions sufficing in both cases, Consider a list with items {...B C D...} and with RI and R2 being registers containing, respectively, the address of the current (say C) list item and a work register containing the XOR of the current address with the previous address (say C®D), Cast as System/360 instructions: X R2Link R2< CeDe Bep (i.e. Bec, "Link" being the link field in the current record, containing B&D) ARRLR2 RI<-CeBeC (ie, B, thenext record) p.-4 Linked List a7 End of list is signified by imagining a list item at address zero placed adjacent to an end point, as in (0A B C...}. The link field at A would be 08B. An additional instruction is needed in the above sequence after the two XOR operations to detect a zero result in developing the address of the current item, A list end point can be made reflective by making the link pointer be zero, A zero pointer is a mirror. (The XOR of the left and right neighbor addresses, being the same, is zero.) does it work? fhe key is the first operation, and the properties of XOR: *Xex—0 * X@0=X * XeY=vex * (X8Y)eZ=Ke(vezZ) he R2 register always contains the XOR of the address of current item C With the address of the predecessor item P: CeP. The Link fields in the records contain the XOR of the left and right successor addresses, say LOR. XOR of R2 (C*P) with the current link field (L®R) yields CePOLeR. * If the predecessor was L, the P(=L) and L cancel out leaving CeR, ** Ifthe predecessor had been R, the P(=R) and R cancel, leaving CeL. In each case, the result is the XOR of the current address with the next ss. XOR of this with the current address in RI leaves the next address. is left with the requisite XOR pair of the (now) current address and the edecessor. Although XOR linked lists were heavily used a few decades ago, their usage how discouraged unless it is absolutely necessary. It is generally used only for embedded devices and microcontrollers, because they da have a number of disadvantages:Data Smuctures Fundamentals i = Most debuggers cannot follow the structure of such a list, making Programs very hard to debug. The code required to use XOR lists is quite complex, too, * Many high level languages do'not support the XORing of pointers dizectly or at all. * The pointers are not available if the list is not actually traversed * Conservative garbage collection schemics cannot be used), ince they need literal pointers to work. Implementing a special garbage collector is not practical on low-memory devices. * Modem computer architectures have na use for such. lists, since they do have enough memory. Unrolling is generally a better choice for programmers looking to decrease the overhead, * Cireular linked list A circular linked list is a list where each node has two parts; one is data part to hold the data and another is link er pointer part that points the next node and the !ast node's pointer points the first node of the list, Like other linked list there is an extemal pointer to the list to point the first node, Figure-4.9. List Le es Pe es eT) Figure-4.10: A circular linked list (linear diagram) ictorial view of a circular linked list (3 circular diagram) 59 Chap.~# Linked List 4.4.1 Create a circular linked list Creation process of a circular linked list is similar to the creation process of a linear link list, which had been discussed in section 4.1.4. Here we have to do addition thing, that is make link between the last node and the first node which will create a circle (linked list as a circle). pa = ry S Ee] ou tur * ar inked bt @Anempry tie (i Anewande —* (iii) Making ink eae Figure-4.11: Linking process of the first node of a circular linked list zi fa (i) Anew nade mane S Roewaik itt (id) Making link between list node de sGrouiar bt with ON ea new node, sew nade & firs node fo) Updates! creutar linked ist after (6 Update il Figure-4.12: Creation of a circular linked list with more than one node r Algorithm 4,11: Algorithm to create a circular linked list 1. Declare node and pointers (list, tptr, nptr) 2. Create an empty inked list list = NULL;Data Structures Fundamentals as eee es il 3. Create a new node with nptr= new (node); nptr—+data = item; nptr—snext = NULL; 4. Make link between new nade and the link list: if (list = NULL) { list = nptr; aptr—snext = list; /for circular linking tptr= nptr; } else t ‘tpt—next = nptr; nptr—next = list for circular linking tptr= nptr, } 5. Output a circular linked list, y Note: To create a circular linked list with several nodes we have to repeat step Jand step 4. 4.5 Difference between array and linked list 1. An array is a finite set of same type of data items (elements). In other words, it is a collection of homogencous data items. The elements of an armay are stored in successive memory locations. Any element of an array is referred by array name and index number (subscript), Whereas, linked list is a list or collection of data items stored in scattered Memory locations. Each data item has two pars. One is data part and another is link (pointer) part. Each data item of a linked list is called node. Data part holds actual data (information) and the link Part points to the next node of the list. To locate the list or the 1 node of the list, an external pointer is used. The link part of the last node ‘will not point any node. That means it will be null, ‘Aray implementation depends on size and it results in wastage of memory space. On the other hand, linked list does not depend on size. ‘Types of array are one dimensional, two dimensional etc. and types of linked list are linear, doubly, circular etc. ame, ‘ ‘An clement of an array can be accessed directly and access time is fix : 4s well as efficient. On the other hand, a node of linked list can not be accessed directly and access time is linear and not so efficient. , Ary is a static data structure and a linked list is a dynamic data Comparison of operations using array and linked list. are fast. Element search is slow: Linked list can be defined as a collection of data items thatcan be orted in scattered memory ‘locations. Here, the data items must be linked ' Seek ne Des sepals Recht a ee eel create linked lists, search a node of a linked list, insert a mode into a list aes list is a list where there is only one me fink een nodes. A doubly linked list is a list where there are links in both a an extemal pointer to point the first node of the list. aca , ‘There are some differences between an array and a linked list sue aay implementation depends on size but linked list tapes : independent of size. Array is 0 static data structure whereas linked list is ‘dynamic data structure etc.Data Structures Fundamentals 62 he 8 ‘Questions: ‘ 1. What is linear linked list? Explain with example(s). Describe the creation process of a linked list, How a node can be inserted into a linked list? Explain with example, Write an algorithm io create a linear lined list ‘Write an algorithm to insert a node at the begi of a linked list. Write an algorithm to insert a node into a linked list. The node will not be first not or the last node. 7. Write an algorithm to delete a node from a linear linked list 8. Write the algorithm to implement a sorted linked list into which elements can only be inserted into their proper positions, 9. Write a function, which will destroy a linked list. 10. “Insertion and deletion in linked list is easier than array”, Explain, Il. What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of fixed length storage structure and linked-list storage structure ? 12. When is linked-list more convenient than array ? 13. Define doubly linked list with ‘example. 14, Write an algorithm to delete an item from a two-way list, 15. Write down an slgorithm to insert and delete an element into a doubly sorted linked list. 16. Write a function to swap two nodes for a doubly linked list. 17. Write an algorithm to find (locate) a node of a doubly linked list, 18. When will you use adoubly linked list ? Why ? 19. What is circular linked list? Give example. 20. Write an algorithm to delete a node from a circular linked list, 21. Write an algorithm to insert a node into a circular linked list. Deke Eroblems for Practical (Lab) Class Linked list related problems oblem 4-1: Write a program to create a linked list of five nodes where ich node of the list will contain an integer. Display the data of the list on screen, roblem 4-2: Convert your program of the problem 4-1 as follows: 5 frite a function for node creation, another for linkage and another function display the data, Call them to show the result of execution. i oblem 4-3: Write a program to insert-a node in between two existing odes of a linked list. Display the data of the existing (old) linked list and the Mlated linked list. oblem 4-4: Write a program for the followings: i) Add a node before the first node of the list. , ii) Inset a node in between two existing nodes of the list. iii) Add a node at the end of the list. ition and after addition or insertion of a node. for nodecreation, a function for addition and function to display the data. \ 4-5: Write a program to delete a node from ‘in-between two aed ‘of a linked list. Display the data before deletion and after on operation. pblem 4-6: Write a program for the fallowings: i) Delete the first node of the linked list. Delete the node from in-between two existing nodes. iii) Delete the last node of the list. the data before and after the deletion, ditions: write a function for creation, a function for deletion and ef function to display the data, foblem 4-7: Given a linked list with data arranged in random order. Write Ogram to modify the linked list so that it contains data in ascending , Display the data before and after the modification,