I N S T RU C TO R S O LU T I O N S M A N UA L

Foundations of Astrophysics

Barbara Ryden
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Bradley M. Peterson
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Jessica M. Orwig
OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

Addison-Wesley

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Publisher: Jim Smith
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ii

Preface
This manual provides complete solutions to the end-of-chapter exercises for
Foundations of Astrophysics by Barbara Ryden and Bradley M. Peterson, a
first course in astrophysics intended primarily for second-year majors in the
physical sciences. SI units, augmented when necessary by various units peculiar
to astronomy, are used throughout. In the written solutions, units are given
whenever they may not be obvious.
Although most of the problems in this book have been heavily field-tested
over the years, no doubt some errors, both typographical and conceptual, have
eluded our scrutiny. The authors would be pleased to learn of any errors in the
textbook or this solutions manual.
This solutions manual is intended to be an evolving document since it is
expected to be made available only to instructors via a secure website. It will
therefore be updated regularly by the authors, and the revision history will be
recorded at the end. Also at the end of this manual will be a list of known errors
found in the textbook itself.
We thank Catherine J. Grier for her help in proofreading this manual.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Contents

1 Early Astronomy 1

2 Emergence of Modern Astronomy 7

3 Orbital Mechanics 13

4 The Earth–Moon System 23

5 The Interaction of Radiation and Matter 29

6 Astronomical Detection of Light 37

7 The Sun 43

8 Overview of the Solar System 49

9 Earth and Moon 53

10 The Planets 61

11 Small Bodies in the Solar System 69

12 The Solar System in Perspective 73

13 Properties of Stars 79

14 Stellar Atmospheres 87

15 Stellar Interiors 91

16 The Interstellar Medium 97

17 Formation and Evolution of Stars 103

18 Stellar Remnants 107

19 Our Galaxy 115

iii

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iv CONTENTS

20 Galaxies 123

21 Active Galaxies 129

22 Clusters and Superclusters 135

23 Cosmology 139

24 History of the Universe 143

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Chapter 1

Early Astronomy

1.1. The Polynesian inhabitants of the Pacific reportedly held festivals

whenever the Sun was at the zenith at local noon. How many times
per year was such a festival held? At what time(s) of year was the
festival held on Tahiti? At what time(s) of year was it held on Oahu?
[Hints: any reputable world atlas will give you the latitude of Tahiti
and Oahu. You may also find the information in Figure 1.13 to be
useful.]
The latitude of Tahiti = −17o 37 . The Sun crosses this declination on approx-
imately 2 February and 1 November.
The latitude of Oahu is +21o 28 and the Sun crosses this declination on ap-
proximately May 29 and July 16.
We note in passing that both Tahiti and Oahu extend about 25 of latitude in
the north–south direction.

1.2. For what range of latitudes are all the stars of the Big Dipper
circumpolar? Use the stars in the following table:

Star Right Ascension Declination

Alkaid 13h 48m +49◦ 19
Mizar 13h 24m +54◦ 56
Alioth 12h 54m +55◦ 58
Megrez 12h 15m +57◦ 02
Phecda 11h 54m +53◦ 42
Merak 11h 02m +56◦ 23
Dubhe 11h 04m +61◦ 45

For all the stars to be circumpolar, the southernmost star (Alkaid) must be
above the horizon at lower transit, as shown in Figure 1.1. Thus the elevation
of the North Celestial Pole must be equal to the angle between Alkaid and the

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2 CHAPTER 1. EARLY ASTRONOMY

Figure 1.1: Southernmost latitude from which all the stars of the Big Dipper
will be circumpolar.

NCP; the elevation is  = 90o − δAlkaid = 90o − 49o 19 = 40o 41 . Only for
observers at this latitude or higher will all the Big Dipper stars be circumpolar.
What is the southernmost latitude from which all of the stars of the
Big Dipper can be seen?
For all the stars to be visible, the northernmost star (Dubhe) must be at the
horizon at upper transit, as shown in Figure 1.2. In other words, the NCP is
below the horizon by an angle equal to the separation between the NCP and
Dubhe, i.e., 90o − δDubhe = . Thus  = δDubhe − 90o = 61o 45 − 90o = −28o 15 .
Only observers at or north of latitude −28o 15 can see all the stars of the Big
Dipper.

Figure 1.2: Southernmost latitude from which all the stars of the Big Dipper
can be seen.

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EARLY ASTRONOMY 3

For what range of latitudes are none of the stars of the Big Dipper
ever seen above the horizon?
For all of the stars to be below the horizon, the southernmost star must be on the
horizon at upper transit, as shown in Figure 1.3. In other words, the NCP must
be below the horizon by an angle equal to the distance between the NCP and
Alkaid, i.e., 90o − δAlkaid = − or  = δAlkaid − 90o = 49o 19 − 90o = −40o41 .
Observers south of this latitude cannot observe any of the stars of the Big
Dipper.

Figure 1.3: Northernmost latitude from which none of the stars of the Big
Dipper can be seen.

1.3. Columbus, Ohio, is in the Eastern Time Zone, for which the civil
time is equal to the mean solar time along the 75o W meridian of
longitude.
(a) Ignoring daylight saving time for the moment, are there any days
of the year when civil noon (as shown by a clock) is the same as
apparent local noon (as shown by the Sun) in the city of Columbus?
If so, what day or days are they?
The longitude of Columbus is 82o 59 west. The zone time is set to longitude
75o , so Columbus is behind the zone time by
   
  12h 60m
82 59 − 75 = 7 59
o o o
= 0.53 h
= 31.9m.
180o 1h

Since the amplitude of the Equation of Time is only ∼ 18m, the Sun never
transits the meridian at local noon in Columbus, it always transits ∼ 14m to
50m after noon, zone time.
(b) Daylight savings time advances the clock by one hour from the
second Sunday in March to the first Sunday in November (“Spring
forward, fall back”). When daylight savings time is in effect, are there

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4 CHAPTER 1. EARLY ASTRONOMY

any days of the year when civil noon is the same as apparent local
noon in the city of Columbus? If so, what day or days are they?
Since the zone time is advanced an hour, the problem is made worse by daylight
savings time. During DST, the Sun crosses the meridian more than an hour
after noon, zone time.

1.4. Suppose you’ve been granted access to a large telescope during

the last week in September. One of the two objects you want to
observe is in the constellation Virgo; the other is in the constellation
Pisces. You only have time to observe one object: which should you
choose? Please explain your answer.
The right ascension of Virgo is α ∼ 13h and Pisces is at ∼ 0h . The autumnal
equinox is the third week of September: since the vernal equinox is α = 0h , the
Sun must be at α ∼ 12h at the autumnal equinox. Virgo is thus unobservable,
only an hour from the Sun. Pisces, however, will be crossing the meridian at
midnight.

1.5. In The Old Man and the Sea, Hemingway described the old man
lying in his boat off the coast of Cuba, looking up at the sky just
after sunset: “It was dark now as it becomes dark quickly after the
Sun sets in September. He lay against the worn wood of the bow
and rested all that he could. The first stars were out. He did not
know the name of Rigel but he saw it and knew soon they would
all be out and he would have all his distant friends.” Explain what
is astronomically incorrect about this passage. [Hint: what are the
celestial coordinates of the star Rigel?]
The right ascension of Rigel is α ∼ 6h and its declination is δ ∼ −8o , so it is
not circumpolar seen from Cuba. In September, the Sun is at α ∼ 12h , so at
sunset, α ∼ 18h is on the meridian. Rigel is thus near the nadir at this time.

1.6. (a) Consider two points on the Earth’s surface that are separated
by 1 arcsecond as seen from the center of the (assumed to be trans-
parent) Earth. What is the physical distance between the two points?

   
 rad 103 m
d = θR = 1 × × 6378 km × ∼ 31 m
206265 km

(b) Consider two points on the Earth’s equator that are separated by
one second of time. What is the physical distance between the two
points?
 
1hr 360o π rad
θ = 1 sec × × × = 7.27 × 10−5 rad
3600 sec 24h 180o

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EARLY ASTRONOMY 5

So their physical separation is d = θR = 463.8 m.

1.7. The bright star Mintaka (also known as δ Orionis, the western-
most star of Orion’s belt) is extremely close to the celestial equa-
tor. Amateur astronomers can determine the field of view of their
telescope (that is the angular width of the region that they can see
through the telescope) by timing how long it takes Mintaka to drift
through the field of view when the telescope is held stationary in hour
angle. How long does it take Mintaka to drift through a 1 degree field
of view?
The sky appears to rotate westward at the sidereal rate
360o 15o
ω= = .
24 sidereal hrs sidereal hr
The time it takes to rotate through an angle θ is

θ 1o 60m
t= = o −1 × = 4 sidereal minutes
ω 15 hr 1 hr
In terms of mean solar time,

23h56m solar time

t = 4 sidereal minutes × = 3m 59s solar time
24h sidereal time
1.8. (a) Imagine that technologically advanced, but highly mischie-
vous, space aliens have reduced the tilt of the Earth’s axis from
23o.5 to 0o , while leaving the Earth’s orbit unchanged. Sketch the
analemma in this case.

30

20

10
Declination

−10

−20

−30
−20 −10 0 10 20
Equation of time

Figure 1.4: The part of the Earth’s analemma that is attributable only to the
eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit. The part due to obliquity has been removed.

(b) Now imagine the aliens have restored the axial tilt to its previous
value of 23o.5, but that they have changed the Earth’s orbit so that
it is a perfect circle, with the Earth’s orbital speed being perfectly
constant over the course of a year. Sketch the analemma in this case.

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6 CHAPTER 1. EARLY ASTRONOMY

30

20

10

Declination
0

−10

−20

−30
−20 −10 0 10 20
Equation of time

Figure 1.5: The part of the Earth’s analemma that is attributable only to the
obliquity of the ecliptic. The part due to eccentricity of the Earth’s orbit has
been removed.

30

20

10
Declination

−10

−20

−30
−20 −10 0 10 20
Equation of time

Figure 1.6: The Earth’s complete analemma, shown for reference.

(c) The martian analemma is shown in Figure 1.15. What is the tilt
of the rotation axis of Mars?
Inspection of the amplitude of the analemma shows that the inclination of Mars
must be ∼ 24o relative to its orbital plane.

1.9. How many square degrees are on the complete celestial sphere?
There are 180o per π radians, so there are 1802 square degrees in π 2 steradians.
Thus, the surface area of the sky in steradians is
 2
180◦
A= × 4π steradians = 41, 253 square degrees
π rad

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Chapter 2

Emergence of Modern
Astronomy

2.1. Over the course of the year, which gets more hours of daylight,
the Earth’s north pole or south pole? [Hint: The Earth is at perihe-
lion in January.]
The Earth is at perihelion in January, so its northern hemisphere winter is
shorter, and its southern hemisphere summer is shorter. Consequently, summed
over a year, the north pole gets more light.

2.2. On 2003 August 27, Mars was in opposition as seen from the
Earth. On 2005 July 14 (687 days later), Mars was in western quadra-
ture as seen from the Earth. What was the distance of Mars from
the Sun on these dates, measured in astronomical units (AU)? Is this
greater than or less than the semimajor axis length of the Martian
orbit? You may assume the Earth’s orbit is a perfect circle. [Hint:
The sidereal period of Mars is also 687 days.]
The number of orbits Earth makes in 687 days is

687 days
Norbit = = 1.881 orbits.
365.24 days per orbit

The angle swept out by the Earth in 0.881 orbits is φ = (0.881)(360o) = 317o.14.
As per the left diagram in Figure 2.1, θ is the angle between the Earth and Mars
as seen from the Sun and is θ = 360o − φ = 42o.86. Simple trigonometry (right
diagram in Figure 2.1) gives the distance of Mars from the Sun,

a 1 AU
c= = = 1.36 AU,
cos θ 0.733
which is less than the length of the semimajor axis of the orbit of Mars. This
tells us that the orbit of Mars cannot be circular.

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8 CHAPTER 2. EMERGENCE OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

Figure 2.1: When Earth is at point 1 in the left diagram, Mars is at opposition.
After one orbit, Mars returns to the same position and Earth is now at point
2, where Mars appears to be at western quadrature; during this time, Earth
has swept out an angle 360o + φ, and θ = 360o − φ. The triangle from the left
diagram is expanded on the right, where a is the Earth–Sun distance, c is the
Mars–Sun distance, and b is the Earth–Mars distance when Mars is at western
quadrature.

[Aside: In the next Chapter, we introduce the perihelion distance q = a(1 − e).
In the case of Mars, the perihelion distance is is q = (1 − e)a = 1.524 AU(1 −
0.093) = 1.382 AU, which is less than the distance of Mars from the Sun on the
specified dates. This small error occurs on account of assuming that the Earth’s
orbit is circular, which it is not.]

2.3. In the 1670s, the astronomer Ole Roemer observed eclipses of the
Galilean satellite Io as it plunged through Juptier’s shadow once per
orbit. He noticed that the time between observed eclipses became
shorter as Jupiter came closer to the Earth and longer as Jupiter
moved away. Roemer calculated that the eclipses were observed 17
minutes earlier when Jupiter was in opposition than when it was close
to conjunction. This was attributed by Roemer to the finite speed
of light. From Roemer’s data, compute the speed of light, first in
AU min−1, then in m s−1 .
The difference in Jupiter’s distance from Earth during opposition and conjunc-
tion is simply the diameter of the Earth’s orbit, D = 2 AU. The speed of light
is thus c = 2 AU/17 min = 0.118 AU/min. In SI units, this becomes

0.118 AU 1.49 × 1011 m AU−1

c= × = 2.92 × 108 m s−1 .
min 60 s min−1

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MODERN ASTRONOMY 9

2.4. In addition to aberration of starlight due to the Earth’s orbital

motion around the Sun, there should also be diurnal aberration due
to the Earth’s rotation. Where on the Earth is this effect the largest,
and what is its amplitude?
The diurnal effect is largest at the equator where the Earth’s rotational speed
is greatest,

2πr 2π × 6.378 × 106 m/sidereal day

vrot = = = 465 m s−1 .
P 86, 160 s/sidereal day
The aberration angle will be
  
vrot 465m s−1 206265
θ= = = 0.32 arcsec.
c 3 × 108 m s−1 rad

2.5. A light-year is defined as the distance traveled by light in a vac-

uum during one tropical year. How many light-years are in a parsec?

365.24 days 86, 400 s

d = ct = 2.99799 × 108 m s−1 × × = 9.461 × 1015 m.
year day
Thus,
3.085678 × 1016 m
1 pc = = 3.26 lt-yr.
9.461 × 1015 m lt-yr−1
2.6. The planets all orbit the Sun in the same sense (counterclockwise
as seen from above the Earth’s north pole). Imagine a “wrong-way”
planet orbiting the Sun in the opposite (clockwise) sense, on an orbit
of semimajor axis length a = 1.3 AU. What would the sidereal period
of this planet be? What would its synodic period be as seen from the
Earth? What would its synodic period be as seen from Mars?
From Kepler’s Third Law, the sidereal period of planet is Pp = (1.3)3/2 = 1.48
years. From Figure 2.2, we see that

ωp = ω
E + ω
 s,

or −ωs = −ωp − ωE , which leads to

1 1 1 1 1
= + = + ,
S Pp PE 1.48 1

or S = 0.597 yr.
As seen from Mars (see Figure 2.3), −ωs = −ωp − ωMars . Using the sidereal
period of Mars PMars = (1.54)3/2 = 1.91 years, we solve for the synodic period
of the planet using
1 1 1 1 1
= + = +
S Pp PMars 1.48 1.91
and find that S = 0.833 yr = 305 days.

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10 CHAPTER 2. EMERGENCE OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

Figure 2.2: Angular speeds of Earth (ωE ) and the “wrong-way planet” (ωp ) in
the sidereal reference frame, and the angular speed of the planet in a reference
frame that co-rotates with the Earth–Sun line (ωs ).

Figure 2.3: Angular speeds of Mars (ωM ) and the “wrong-way planet” (ωp ) in
the sidereal reference frame, and the angular speed of the planet in a reference
frame that co-rotates with the Mars–Sun line (ωs ).

2.7. Consider a football thrown directly northward at a latitude 40o

N. The distance of the quarterback from the receiver is 20 yards
(18.5 m), and the speed of the thrown ball is 25 m s−1 . Does the
Coriolis force deflect the ball to the right or to the left? By what
amount (in meters) is the ball deflected? Does the receiver need
to worry about correcting for the deflection, or should he be more
worried about being nailed by the free safety? [Hint: Remember
that the angular velocity ω  of the Earth’s rotation is parallel to the
rotation axis.]
The Coriolis acceleration is given by equation (2.23),
a = 2( v × ω).
The velocity of the football is: | v | = 25 m s−1 and ω is the angular rotation
speed of the Earth,
2π rad 1 day
ω≈ × ≈ 7.27 × 10−5 rad s−1 .
day 86, 400 s

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MODERN ASTRONOMY 11

The ball will be deflected to the right in the northern hemisphere, by an amount
1
Δd ≈ a(Δt)2 ,
2
where Δt is the time of flight, given by Δt = D/v. Thus,
   2
1 D D2 ω sin 
d= (2vω sin ) 2
= .
2 v v

For  = 40o , sin  = 0.64, this becomes

(18.5)2 × 7.27 × 10−5 × 0.64

d= = 6.4 × 10−4 m = 0.64 mm.
25
Look out for the free safety!

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12 CHAPTER 2. EMERGENCE OF MODERN ASTRONOMY

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Chapter 3

Orbital Mechanics

3.1. Comet Hale–Bopp has an orbit about the Sun with eccentric-
ity e=0.9951 and semimajor axis length a = 186.5 AU. What is the
sidereal orbital period of Comet Hale–Bopp? What is Comet Hale–
Bopps’s distance from the Sun at perihelion? What is its distance
from the Sun at aphelion? Comet Hale–Bopp passed through peri-
helion in 1997 April 1; did the previous perihelion passage of Comet
Hale–Bopp occur before or after the birth of Aristotle?
Use Kepler’s Third Law (equation 2.17), which gives the relation between an
object’s orbital period and semimajor axis. Calculate the sidereal orbital period:

P = a3/2 = (186.5)3/2 = 2547 years.

As explained in section 3.1, the distance from Sun at perihelion is q = (1 − e)a.

so Hale–Bopp’s perihelion distance is q = (1 − e)a = (1 − 0.9951)186.5 AU =
0.91 AU. Distance from Sun at aphelion is Q = (1 + e)a = (1.9951)186.5 AU =
372.1 AU.
The comet passed through perihelion in 1997 and its sidereal orbital period is
2547 years, so the previous Hale–Bopp perihelion was in 1997 − 2547 = −550 →
549 BC. This was before the birth of Aristotle in 384 BC.

3.2. The asteroid Eros is seen in opposition from the Earth once every
847 days. What is the sidereal orbital period of Eros? What is the
length a of the semimajor axis of Eros’ orbit? The eccentricity of the
orbit of Eros is e = 0.223; does Eros ever come within 1 AU of the
Sun?
Eros has an orbit larger than that of the Earth so we can use equation (2.10)
to calculate its sidereal orbital period:

1 1 1
= − ,
Pp PE S

13

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14 CHAPTER 3. ORBITAL MECHANICS

where PE is the sidereal period for Earth, Pp is the synodic period for Eros1,
and S is the synodic period of Eros. The sidereal orbital period of Eros is
 −1
1 1
Pp = − days = 642.1 days.
365.2 847
Use Kepler’s third law (equation 2.17) to determine the semimajor axis of the
orbit of Eros,
 2/3
642.1
a = P 2/3 = = (1.76)2/3 = 1.46 AU.
365.24

The distance from the Sun at perihelion is q = (1−e)a = (1−0.223)(1.46) AU =

1.13 AU. Eros does not come within 1 AU of the Sun.

3.3. Consider a satellite in a circular, low-Earth orbit; that is, its

elevation above the Earth’s surface is h  R⊕ . Show that the orbital
period P for such a satellite is approximately
 
3h
P =C 1+ .
2R⊕
What is the numerical value of the constant C, in minutes? When
Puck, in Midsummer Night’s Dream, boasted “I’ll put a girdle round
about the Earth in forty minutes” (Act 2, Scene 1), could he have
done so by traveling on a circular orbit, accelerated by the Earth’s
gravity alone? If so, what would be his elevation h?
Kepler’s Third Law (equation 3.52) gives the relationship between period and
orbital semimajor axis,
4π 2 3
P2 = a ,
GM⊕
where M⊕ is the mass of the Earth. (The satellite mass is negligible.) Thus
P ∝ a3/2 .
For a low-Earth orbit, the height of the satellite above the Earth’s surface h is
small compared to the radius of the Earth, h  R⊕ . Therefore the semimajor
axis of the satellite’s orbit, a = R⊕ + h, can be written as
 
h
a = R⊕ 1 + ,
R⊕
and since the second term is small, we can retain only the first-order term in a
Taylor expansion and write
 3/2  
3/2 h 3/2 3h
a3/2 = R⊕ 1+ ≈ R⊕ 1+ .
R⊕ 2R⊕
1 For an object with an orbital period or orbital semi-major axis less than Earth’s, use

equation (2.8).

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ORBITAL MECHANICS 15

Kepler’s Third Law then gives

 1/2    3 1/2  
4π 2 3/2 3h R⊕ 3h
P = R⊕ 1+ = 2π 1+ .
GM⊕ 2R⊕ GM⊕ 2R⊕
Given  
3h
P =C 1+ ,
2R⊕
we see that
 3 1/2  1/2
R⊕ R⊕
C = 2π = 2π
GM⊕ g
 
6 1/2
6.378 × 10
= 2π = 5069 s
9.8
= 84.5 min.
If Puck were to put a girdle around the Earth in forty minutes, his orbital period
would be P = 40 min. The semimajor axis of such an orbit would be (naı̈vely)
  1/3
2
P
a = GM⊕
2π
 2 1/3
40 min × 60 s min−1 −11
= × (6.67 × 10 ) × (5.98 × 10 ) 24
2π
= 3.817 × 106 m = 3817 km,
which is less than the radius of the Earth, 6378.1 km. You won’t lose money
betting against Puck, unless Puck magically conjures up some non-gravitational
force.

3.4. What is the orbital period of a low-lunar orbit (as was used by
the Apollo command modules)?
This is similar to the previous problem, only replace the mass and radius of the
Earth with, respectively, the mass and radius of the Moon.
 2 3 1/2  
4π RMoon 3h
P = 1+
GMMoon 2RMoon
 1/2  
4π 2 (1.738 × 106 )3 3h
= 1 +
6.67 × 10−11 × 7.16 × 1022 2RMoon
 
3h
= 6600 1 + s.
2RMoon
A typical Apollo orbit was at an altitude h ≈ 100 km, where
 
3(100)
P = 6600 1 + ≈ 7200 s ≈ 2 hr.
2(1738)

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16 CHAPTER 3. ORBITAL MECHANICS

3.5. (a) Io is the innermost Galilean satellite of Jupiter. The orbital

period of Io is P = 1.769 days; the semimajor axis of its orbit is
a = 421, 600 km (slightly larger than the Moon’s orbit about the
Earth). Given this information, find the mass of Jupiter.
Note that 1 day = 86,400 seconds and use Kepler’s Third Law (equation 3.52)
4π 2 3
P2 = a .
GM
Rearranging to solve for the mass yields (equation 3.54)
4π 2 3
M = a
P 2G
4π 2 (4.22 × 108 )3
=
(1.769 × 86, 400)2 6.67 × 10−11
= 1.90 × 1027 kg.

(b) Phobos is the inner moon of Mars. The orbital period of Phobos
is P = 0.32 days; the semimajor axis of its orbit is a = 9370 km. Find
the mass of Mars. [You may assume the masses of Io and Phobos are
negligible compared to those of their parent planets.]
As in part (a),
4π 2 3
M = a
P 2G
4π 2 (9.37 × 106 )3
=
(0.32 × 86400)2 6.67 × 10−11
= 6.37 × 1023 kg.

3.6. Communications and weather satellites are often placed in geo-

synchronous orbits. A geosynchronous orbit is an orbit about the
Earth with orbital period P exactly equal to one sidereal day. What
is the semimajor axis ags of a geosynchronous orbit? What is the
orbital velocity vgs of a satellite on a circular geosynchronous orbit?
Note that 1 sidereal day = 86160 seconds. Again starting with Kepler’s Third
Law and rearranging to solve for the size of the orbit,
 2
3 P
a = GM⊕ .
2π
Thus,
 2 1/3
86160
a = 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024
2π
= 4.14 × 107 m = 4.1 × 104 km.

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ORBITAL MECHANICS 17

In units of Earth radii, this is (4.1 × 104)/(6.378 × 103) = 6.5R⊕ . From equation
(3.74), the orbital speed is

2πa 2π × 4.14 × 104 km

vg = = = 3.0 km s−1 .
P 86160 s
3.7. Starting with the equation for an ellipse in polar coordinates (eq.
3.42), derive the more familiar Cartesian form

x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2

Equation (3.42) is
a(1 − e2 )
r= .
1 + e cos θ
From Figure 3.9 in the text, we obtain the lengths of r and r as

r2 = (x + ae)2 + y 2

r2 = (x − ae)2 + y 2 .
Subtracting the second equation from the first yields

r2 − r2 = [x2 + 2aex + a2 e2 ] − [x2 − 2aex + a2 e2 ] = 4aex

By definition, r = 2a − r and squaring this gives

r2 = 4a2 − 4ar + r2 .

Setting the two equations for r2 equal to each other yields, after simplifying,
r = a − ex. Squaring this gives

r2 = a2 − 2aex + e2 x2 .

Now setting the two equations for r2 equal to each other gives

x2 − 2aex + a2 e2 + y 2 = a2 − 2aex + e2 x2 .

Rearrangment yields

x2 (1 − e2 ) + y 2 = a2 (1 − e2 ).

Dividing through by the right-hand side gives

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 a2 (1 − e2 )

and from equation (3.35), we have that b = a2 (1 − e2 ), so

x2 y2
2
+ 2 = 1.
a b

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18 CHAPTER 3. ORBITAL MECHANICS

3.8. The Hubble Space Telescope (HST) is on a circular, low-Earth

orbit, at an elevation h = 600 km above the Earth’s surface. What is
its orbital period? For an observer who sees HST pass through the
zenith, how long is HST above the horizon during each orbit?
Using the equation from problem 3.3 ,
 
3h
P =C 1+
2R⊕

with C = 84.5 min. The orbital period (in minutes) for HST is thus
 
3(600)
P = 84.5 1 + = 96.3 min.
2(6378)

From Figure 3.1, the length of sector s = (R⊕ + h)θ and

R⊕ 1
cos θ = = .
R⊕ + h 1 + (h/R⊕ )

Figure 3.1: The observer, at the top of the smaller circle that represents the
Earth, sees HST at the zenith at an altitude h. HST travels a segment of its
orbit s from the zenith to when it crosses the observer’s horizon. Caution: orbit
and Earth not to scale.
Expressing this in terms of sine,
  −2 1/2

1/2 h
sin θ = 1 − cos θ 2
= 1− 1+ .
R⊕

For low Earth orbit (h  R⊕ ),

  1/2  1/2
2h 2h
sin θ ≈ 1 − 1 − = ≈ θ.
R⊕ R⊕

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

ORBITAL MECHANICS 19

Inserting this in the equation for the sector s gives

s = (R⊕ + h) (2h/R⊕ )1/2 .

The fraction of the orbit for which HST is above the horizon is
 1/2
t 2s 1 2h
= = .
P 2π(R⊕ + h) π R⊕

For an altitude h = 600 km, the time HST is above the horizon is

t = 96.3 × 0.138 min = 13.3 min.

3.9. One way of lifting a satellite into geosynchronous orbit is to

use the Space Shuttle to lift it into a circular, low-Earth orbit (with
h = 300 km above the Earth’s surface) and then use a booster rocket
to place the satellite on a Hohmann transfer orbit (see Section 3.3)
up to a circular geosynchronous orbit. What is the orbital velocity vss
of the satellite while it is still in low-Earth orbit? What is the orbital
velocity at pericenter, vpe , of the appropriate Hohmann transfer or-
bit? What is the orbital velocity at apocenter, vap , of the Hohmann
transfer orbit? How long does it take the satellite to travel from the
low-Earth orbit to the geosynchronous orbit?
The initial altitude of the satellite is h = 300 km, so the orbital semimajor axis
is a = R⊕ + h = 6378 + 300 = 6678 km. From equation (3.52),
 1/2
4π 2
P = a3/2
GM
 1/2
4π 2
= (6.678 × 106 )3/2
(6.67 × 10−11 )(5.9742 × 1024 )
= 5.429 × 103 s.

Equation (3.74) then yields the orbital speed

2πa 2π(6.678 × 106 )

vss = = = 7729 m s−1 ≈ 7.7 km s−1 .
P 5.429 × 103

We then use equation (3.67) to solve for the perigee velocity of the transfer orbit
 
2 1
v 2 = GM − .
r a

We must first calculate a for the Hohmann transfer orbit by using equation
(3.72),
a1 + a 2
at = ,
2

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20 CHAPTER 3. ORBITAL MECHANICS

where a1 is the initial low-Earth orbit and a2 is the final geosynchronous orbit,
which from problem 3.6 we know is a2 = 41, 440 km. Thus,
6678 + 41440
at = = 2.406 × 104 km = 2.406 × 107 m.
2
At perigee of the transfer orbit, r = 6678 km, so


 1/2
vpe = 6.67 × 10−11 5.9742 × 1024
 1/2
2 1
× −
6.678 × 106 2.406 × 107
= 1.014 × 104 m s−1 = 10.14 km s−1 .

At the apogee (r = 41, 440 km) of the transfer orbit, equation (3.67) yields
  1/2


 2 1
vap = 6.67 × 10−11 5.9742 × 1024 −
4.144 × 10 7 2.406 × 107
= 1.64 × 103 m s−1 = 1.64 km s−1 .

The time required for the transfer is half the orbital period of the transfer orbit
t = PTO /2, where
 1/2  1/2
4π 2 3 4π 2
PTO = a = (2.406 × 107 )3
GM (6.67 × 10−11 )(5.97 × 1024 )
= 3.71 × 104 s.

The transfer time is thus t = (3.71 × 104 /2) s = 1.86 × 104 s ≈ 5.1 hr.

3.10. A small partical of mass m is on a circular orbit of radius R

around a much larger mass M . Suppose that we suddenly increase
the speed at which the mass m is moving, by a factor α (that is,
vfinal = αvinitial , with α > 1). Compute the major axis, minor axis,
pericenter distance, and apocenter distance for the new orbit; express
your answers in terms of R and α alone.
Properties of the initial circular orbit are the orbital speed
 1/2
GM
v0 = ,
R

the orbital angular momentum,

1/2
L0 = mv0 R = GM m2 R ,

the kinetic energy

mv02 GM m
K0 = = ,
2 2R

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ORBITAL MECHANICS 21

and the potential energy

GM m
U0 = − .
R
The total energy of the orbit is
1 GM m GM m GM m
E0 = K0 + U0 = − =− .
2 R R 2R
We now consider what happens when we, essentially instantaneously, change
the orbital speed from v0 to αv0 where α > 1. The new orbital properties are
thus the orbital angular momentum L = mvR = αmv0 R = αL0 and kinetic
energy
mv 2 α2 mv02
K= = = α2 K0 .
2 2
Since the potential energy remains unchanged, the total energy is
α2 GM m GM m GM m 2
E= − = (α − 2) = (2 − α2 )E0 .
2 R R 2R
Equation (3.61) relates total energy and eccentricity,
 1/2
2EL2
e= 1+ ,
G M 2 m3
2

and since the initial eccentricity is e = 0 (for a circular orbit), we have

2E0 L20
= −1.
G2 M 2 m3
Inserting this in the energy equation yields
2EL2 2E0 L20
= (2 − α2 )α2 = α2 (α2 − 2).
G2 M 2 m3 G2 M 2 m3
Going back to the equation for the eccentricity, we have
 1/2  1/2  2 1/2
e = 1 + α2 (α2 − 2) = 1 − 2α2 + α4 = (α − 1)2 = α2 − 1,

where in the last step we note that e ≥ 0 by definition. We now use equation
(3.34),
L2 1
R= .
GM m2 (1 + e cos θ)
At perigee, q = a(1 − e) at cos θ = 1, so we have
L2
a(1 − e) = .
GM m2 (1 + e)
We can combine this with our equation for the angular momentum to obtain
 
L20 GM m2 R
= =R
GM m2 GM m2

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22 CHAPTER 3. ORBITAL MECHANICS

so that
α2 R
a= .
1 − e2
Since e = α2 − 1, e2 = (α2 − 1)2 , and thus

(1 − e2 ) = 1 − (α4 − 2α2 + 1) = 2α2 − α4 = α2 (2 − α2 ),

so we have
α2 R R
a= = .
(2 − α )α
2 2 2 − α2
The semiminor axis of the orbit is b2 = a2 (1 − e2 ) so

R
2 1/2 αR
b = a(1 − e2 )1/2 = α (2 − α2 ) = .
(2 − α )
2 (2 − α2 )1/2

The apogee distance is Q = a(1 + e) = a(1 + α2 − 1) = aα2 = α2 R/(2 − α2 ).

The perigee distance is

(2 − α2 )
q = a(1 − e) = a(1 − α2 + 1) = a(2 − α2 ) = R = R,
2 − α2
√
as expected. A sanity check is to note that as α → 2 (i.e., escape velocity),
Q, a, and b all approach infinity.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 4

The Earth–Moon System

4.1. What is the largest angular distance possible between the center
of the Moon’s disk and the ecliptic? What is the largest distance pos-
sible between the center of the Moon’s disk and the celestial equator?
(Give your answers to the nearest tenth of a degree.)
The Moon’s orbital inclination is 5o.1 to the ecliptic so the maximum distance
from the ecliptic is 5o.1.
The largest distance from the celestial equator is 5o.1 + 23o.5 = 28o.6, where
23o.5 is the axial tilt of the Earth.

4.2. How close to the Sun could the planet Jupiter come without
suffering tidal disruption?
The density of the Sun is

3M 3 × 2 × 1030
ρ = = = 1.41 kg m−3 .
3
4πR 4π(6.96 × 108 )2

The density of Jupiter is

3 × 1.9 × 1027
ρJup = = 1.25 kg m−3 .
4π(7.14 × 107 )3

The Roche limit is given by equation (4.36),

 1/3  1/3
ρ 1.41
rR = 2.44 R = 2.44 R = 2.54R.
ρJup 1.25

4.3. Compute the differential tidal force ΔF exerted on the Earth

by Mars when it’s at opposition. Express your result as a numerical
fraction of the differential tidal force exerted by the Moon,
2GMMoonmR⊕
ΔFMoon = ,
r03

23

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24 CHAPTER 4. THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM

where r0 = 384, 000 km = 0.00257 AU is the Earth–Moon distance

and MMoon = 7.2 × 1022 kg is the mass of the Moon. Repeat to
find the differential tidal force ΔF exerted by Jupiter at opposition,
also expressed as a fraction of ΔFMoon . (Assume that the Moon, the
Earth, Mars, and Jupiter are on circular coplanar orbits.)
Use equation (4.8) for the Earth–Mars system instead of the Earth–Moon sys-
tem:
2GM m
ΔF = R⊕
r03
Express the tidal force from Mars relative to the tidal force from the Moon
(similar to equation 4.10):

ΔFMars MMars  r0 3
= ,
ΔFMoon MMoon d

where the Earth–Moon distance is r0 = 3.84 × 105 km and the distance to Mars
at opposition is 0.52 AU × 1.49 × 108 km AU−1 = 7.78 × 107 km.
  3
ΔFMars 0.107 3.84 × 105
= = 1.1 × 10−6 .
ΔFMoon 0.012 7.78 × 107

Repeat this procedure for Jupiter relative to the Moon. The distance to Jupiter
at opposition is d = 4.2 AU × 1.496 × 108 km AU−1 = 6.28 × 108 km.
  3
ΔFJupiter 318 3.84 × 105
= = 6.0 × 10−6 .
ΔFMoon 0.012 6.28 × 108

4.4. Imagine a test particle, of mass m, at the point on the Earth’s

surface closest to the Moon. Compute the ratio of the differential
 | acting on this particle at spring tide to the differential
tidal force |ΔF
tidal force acting at neap tide.
From equation (4.18), we can calculate the differential force due to the Moon
and Sun (refer to Fig. 4.5) The lunar component is

GMm
ΔF = mR⊕ (ı̂2 cos θ − ĵ sin θ).
ro3

The solar component is

GM
ΔF = mR⊕ (ı̂2 cos θ − ĵ sin θ).
a3⊕

At spring tide θ = 0o for both the Moon and Sun. The differential tidal force
at spring tide is the differential force from the Moon and the Sun,

ΔF spring = ΔF lunar + ΔF solar .

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

EARTH–MOON SYSTEM 25

Equation (4.10) gives the ratio of the differential forces due to the Sun and the
Moon,
ΔF
= 0.44.
ΔFMoon
We can use the Sun–Moon ratio to simplify the calculation to
GMm
ΔFspring = mR⊕ (2 + 2(0.44)) .
r03

At neap tide the Moon is at an angle θ = 0o and the Sun is at θ = 90o , so

GMm
ΔF neap = mR⊕ [2 − 0.44] .
r03

The ratio of the differential tidal force is thus

ΔFspring 1 + 0.44
= = 1.75.
ΔFneap 1 − (0.44)/2

4.5. A satellite orbits a planet; at the same time, the satellite-planet

system orbits a star. Show that if the satellite-planet distance is
less than the Hill radius, the sidereal period of the satellite about the
planet must be shorter than the sidereal period of the satellite-planet
system about the star. (You may assume circular coplanar orbits.)
From equation (4.45), the Hill radius is
 1/3
Mp
rH = ap .
2M∗

Assume that Ms  Mp  M∗ . Use equation (3.52) to compute the sidereal

orbital period for the satellite
 
2 4π 2
Ps = a3s .
GMp

and the planet  

4π 2
Pp2 = a3p .
GM∗
Using the given condition that the satellite–planet distance is less than the Hill
radius, i.e., as < rH , then
    
2 4π 2 3 4π 2 Mp
Ps = as < a3p .
GMp GMp 2M∗

Solving for the planet’s semimajor axis, ap , and substituting it in we get

 
2 4π 2 3 4π 2 Mp GM∗ 2
Ps = a < P ,
GMp s GMp 2M∗ 4π 2 p

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26 CHAPTER 4. THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM

or, cancelling terms and taking the square root,

Pp
Ps < √ .
2
The sidereal period for the satellite is shorter than the sidereal period of the
planet when the distance to its planet is less than the Hill radius.

4.6. Given the amplitudes of lunar librations given in the text, demon-
strate that over time 59% of the lunar surface can be seen from the
Earth.
Total area visible from earth is the sum of (1) the visible hemisphere of area
2πR2 , (2) a lune of angular width θdiurnal on the east and west limbs for diurnal
libration, (3) a lune of angular width θlongitude on the east and west limbs for
libration in longitude, and (4) a lune of angular width θlatitude on the north and
south limbs for libration in latitude.
Using the numbers in the text,
θdiurnal = 1o = 0.0056π rad
θlongitude = 6o = 0.0333π rad
θlatitude = 6o.5 = 0.0361π rad

The surface area of a lune is Σ = 2R2 θ (sanity check: for a full sphere, θ = 2π
so the surface area of a sphere is 4πR2 ). The total area of all the lunes is thus

Σtotal = 2Σdiurnal + 2Σlongitude + 2Σlatitude

= 2 × (0.0056 + 0.0333 + 0.0361)2πR2
= (0.150)2πR2 .

Thus the visible area compared to the total surface area is

visible 2πR2 (1 + 0.150)

= = 0.575,
total 4πR2
i.e., ∼ 58%. Variations in the lunar orbit increase this slightly to 59%.

4.7. In the timeline used by geologists, the Cambrian period began

542 million years ago. What was the length of the apparent solar day
at the beginning of the Cambrian period? Assume that the slowing
of the Earth’s rotation, dProt /dt, has been constant.
The length current solar day is Pnow = 86, 400 s. If the length of the day used
to be Pthen at some time Δt in the past,
 
dP
Pnow = Pthen + Δt
dt
or  
dP
Pthen = Pnow − Δt.
dt

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EARTH–MOON SYSTEM 27

From equation (4.27),

dProt
= 0.0016 s century−1
dt
and since Δt = 5.48 × 108 yr = 5.48 × 106 century, we have


Pthen = 86, 400 s − 1.6 × 10−3 s century−1 × 5.48 × 106 century = 77, 632 s,

which is ∼ 21h 34m .

4.8. The earth will be in synchronous rotation with the Moon once
its rotation period has increased to 47 days.
(a) How far away will the Moon be from the Earth when this happens?

From equation (3.52), the semimajor axis of the Moon’s orbit with a period of
47 days (4.06 × 106 sec) is
 2 1/3
P
a = GM⊕
2π
 2 1/3
4.06 × 106
= × 6.67 × 10−11 × 5.97 × 1024
2π
= 5.50 × 108 m,

which is approximately 1.4 times further than the current distance.

(b) How long will it be until the Earth attains this synchronous ro-
tation, assuming that dProt /dt is approximately constant?
The final orbital period can be computed from the current orbital period plus
the increase in orbital period over time,
dP
Pfinal = Pcurrent + Δt.
dt
The final orbital period is given so use this to compute the time Δt it will take
for the Earth to slow to a rotational period of 47 days,
Pfinal − Pcurrent
Δt =
dP/dt
(47 − 1) days × 86, 400 s day−1
=
0.0016 s century−1
= 2.48 × 109 centuries = 2.48 × 1011 yr.

4.9. Standing at the Kennedy Space Center (latitude 28o N), you
notice the third quarter Moon at your zenith.
a) Approximately what time of day is it?

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28 CHAPTER 4. THE EARTH–MOON SYSTEM

If the third quarter Moon is at the zenith, then it must be around sunrise.
(b) Approximately what time of year is it?
The farthest north the Moon can get is declination δmax = 23o.5 + 5o.1 = 28o.6,
where 23o.5 is the inclination of the Earth’s equator to the ecliptic and 5o.1 is
the Moon’s inclination to the ecliptic. Thus the Moon is close to as far north as
it can get. If the third-quarter Moon is at its northernmost point, it is close to
the summer solstice; the Sun, then, must be near the equator, heading south.
So the time of year is around the autumnal equinox, the end of September.
(c) Half a synodic month later, what will be the altitude of the first
quarter Moon when it makes its upper transit?
If the Moon is at declination δ = +28o , then in two weeks, half an orbit later, it
will be at declination δ = −28o . Its elevation from Kennedy Space Center will
be (see Figure 4.1)
θ = 90o − 2(28o ) = 34o
above the southern horizon.

Figure 4.1: If the Moon passes through the zenith Z, in two weeks, its elevation
above the southern horizon will be θ.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 5

The Interaction of
Radiation and Matter

5.1. Verify that the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (equation 5.40)

has its maximum at a speed
 
2kT 1/2
vp = .
m

Equation (5.40) gives the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution

 m 3/2  
−mv 2
F (v)dv = 4π v 2 exp .
2πkT 2kT
Differentiate F (v) as function of v and set it equal to zero to find the maximum,
 m 3/2  
dF (v) −mv 2
= 4π 2v exp −
dv 2πkT 2kT
 m 3/2    
2 2mv −mv 2
4π v exp = 0.
2πkT 2kT 2kT
Moving the second term to the right-hand side gives
     
−mv 2 2 mv −mv 2
2v exp =v exp ,
2kT kT 2kT
and, cancelling common terms,
mv 2
2v =
kT
and thus  1/2
2kT
v= .
m

29

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30 CHAPTER 5. THE INTERACTION OF RADIATION AND MATTER

5.2. Verify that for the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (eq. 5.40),

the average speed is
 
8kT 1/2
v = .
πm
(Hint:
 ∞ 3 you may find it useful to know that definite integral
2
0 x exp(−x ) dx = 1/2.)
The average speed is  ∞

v = v F (v) dv.
o

Make the substitution x2 = mv 2 /2kT or

 m 1/2
x= v
2kT
and  m 1/2
dx = dv.
2kT
Putting this in equation (5.40) for F (v), we have
 ∞

v = v F (v) dv
0
 ∞  1/2  m 3/2  2kT   1/2
2kT 2 2kT
= x 4π x2 e−x dx
0 m 2πkT m m
 1/2  ∞
4π 2kT 2
= 3/2
x3 e−x dx
π m 0
 1/2  1/2
2 2kT 8kT
= = .
π 1/2 m μm

5.3. Verify that for the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution (eq. 5.46),

the mean kinetic energy per particle is
3
E = kT.
2
(Hint:
 ∞ 3/2you may find it useful
√ to know the definite integral
0
x exp(−x) dx = 3 π/4.)
The average kinetic energy per particle is
E = m
v 2 /2. This requires calcu-
lating the integral  ∞

v  =
2
v 2 F (v) dv.
0
Two different substitutions can be used to solve this integral. The first of these
is  1/2
mv 2 2kT x
x= or v = ,
2kT m

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

RADIATION AND MATTER 31

so dx = mv dv/kT = (2mx/kT )1/2 dv. Thus

 ∞

v 2  = v 2 F (v)dv
0
 ∞   m 3/2  2kT   1/2
2kT −x kT
= x4π xe dx
m 2πkT m 2mx
0  
kT 2 2
= 4π × × 1/2 x3/2 e−x dx
m (2π)3/2 2
   √ 
kT 1 42 3 π 3kT
= √ 2 = .
m π2 4 m
Thus the mean kinetic energy per particle is
 
1 1 3kT 3kT

E = m
v  = m
2
= .
2 2 m 2
Alternatively, we can also use the same substitution as in problems 5.1 and 5.2,
which yields


v 2  = v 2 F (v)dv
    m 3/2  2kT   2kT 1/2
2kT 2
= x 4π x2 dx
m 2πkT m m
   ∞
2kT 4π 2
= 3/2
x4 e−x dx
m π 0
√
8kT 3 π 3kT
= √ = ,
πm 8 m
where we have used  ∞ √
2 3 π
x4 e−x dx = .
0 8
5.4. Molecules have additional degrees of freedom that atoms don’t
possess, namely, rotation and vibration. The energies associated with
molecular rotation and vibration are quantized, and photons can be
emitted or absorbed by molecules making transitions from one rota-
tional or vibrational state to another.
(a) Show that the rotational energy of a system can be written as
Erot = L2 /2I where L is the angular momentum and I is the mo-
ment of inertia.
The rotational energy can be written as
Iω 2
Erot = ,
2
where L is the angular momentum and I is the moment of inertia. The angular
momentum is L = Iω, so ω = L/I. By writing ω in terms of L and I, the

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32 CHAPTER 5. THE INTERACTION OF RADIATION AND MATTER

equation for rotational energy becomes

 2
I L 1 L2
Erot = = .
2 I 2 I

(b) Suppose that angular momentum is quantized according to Bohr’s

hypothesis: L = jh̄, with j being a positive integer. Consider the case
of a diatomic molecule where the two atoms have equal mass M (for
instance, H2 , O2 , or N2 ). Derive an expression for the rotational
energy Erot in terms of j, h̄, M , and r0 , the separation between the
two atomic nuclei in the molecule.
Suppose L = jh̄. For a diatomic molecule, I = m1 r12 + m2 r22 . Assume that
m1 = m2 = M and r1 = r2 = r0 /2, so
 r 2  r 2 M r02
0 0
I=M +M = .
2 2 2
Using this with the result of part (a), we have

1 (jh̄)2 j 2 h̄
Erot = 2 = .
2 (M r0 /2) M r02

(c) In the case of molecular hydrogen (H2 ), which has r0 ≈ 1 Å,

estimate the wavelength of light produced by the j = 2 → 1 rotational
transition. Is this longer or shorter than the wavelength of visible
light?
For Δj = 1,
h̄2  h̄2
ΔE = (j + 1)2
− j 2
= (2j + 1) .
mr02 mr02
For j = 1,

3(1.05 × 10−34 )2
ΔE = ≈ 2 × 10−21 J ≈ 1.2 × 10−2 eV.
(1.67 × 10−27 )(10−10 )2
The wavelength associated with this transition is

1.24 × 104 eVÅ

λ= ≈ 106 Å ≈ 100μm,
1.2 × 10−2 eV
which is in the far infrared.

5.5. (a) A neutral sodium atom has an ionization potential of χ = 5.1

eV. What is the speed of a free electron that has just barely enough
kinetic energy to collisionally ionize a sodium atom in its ground
state? What is the speed of a free proton with just enough kinetic
energy to collisionally ionize this atom?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

RADIATION AND MATTER 33

The ionization potential in joules is χ = 5.1 eV × 1.6 × 10−19 J eV−1 = 8.16 ×

10−19 J. Setting this equal to the kinetic energy of an electron, χ = me v 2 /2,
and solving for the electron velocity,
 1/2  1/2
2χ 2 × 8.16 × 10−19
v = =
me 9.1 × 10−31
= 1.34 × 106 m s−1 = 1.34 × 103 km s−1 .

A proton of the same energy has velocity

 1/2  1/2
2χ 2 × 8.16 × 10−19
v= = = 3.13 × 104 m s−1 .
mp 1.67 × 10−27

(b) What is the temperature T of a gas in which the average particle

kinetic energy is just barely sufficient to ionize a sodium atom in its
ground state?
Set the mean kinetic energy per particle (equation 5.46) to the ionization po-
tential, χ = 3kT /2. Solving for the temperature,

2χ 2 × 8.16 × 10−19
T = = = 3.9 × 104 K.
3k 3 × 1.38 × 10−23

(c) At the temperature T computed in part (b), what is the expected

thermal Doppler broadening, Δλ/λ, of a sodium spectral line? [Hint:
the only stable isotope of sodium has mass number A = 23.]
The atomic mass for sodium (Na) is A = 23, so the mass in kilograms is m =
23 amu × 1.67 × 10−27 kg amu−1 = 3.84 × 10−26 kg. To determine the Doppler
broadening, calculate the root mean square velocity
 1/2  1/2
3kT 3 × 1.38 × 10−23 × 3.9 × 104

v 2 1/2 = =
m 23 × 1.67 × 10−27
= 6.4 × 103 m s−1 .

The Doppler shift associated with this is

Δλ
v 2 1/2
∼ ≈ 2.2 × 10−3 .
λ c
5.6. For the Planck function Iμ (T ) (see equation 5.86), what is the
most probable frequency νp at a given temperature T ? For the Planck
function expressed as a function of wavelength, Iλ (T ) (see equation
5.90), what is the most probable wavelength λp at a given tempera-
ture T ? For what range of temperatures does λp fall in the visible
range of the electromagnetic spectrum?

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

34 CHAPTER 5. THE INTERACTION OF RADIATION AND MATTER

The Planck function is (equation 5.86)

2hν 3 1 2h
Jν (T ) = = 2 ν 3 [exp (hν/kT ) − 1]−1 .
c exp (hν/kT ) − 1
2 c

To find the maximum of this function, differentiate with respect to ν and set it
equal to zero, i.e.,

dJ 2hν 3 −2 h
= (−1) (exp (hν/kT ) − 1) exp (hν/kT )
dν c2 kT
2h −1
+ 2 3ν 2 (exp (hν/kT ) − 1) = 0.
c
Moving the first term to the right-hand side of the equation,

hν 3 exp (hν/kT )
3ν 2 (exp (hν/kT ) − 1)−1 = .
kT (exp (hν/kT ) − 1)2

To simplify this, let x = hν/kT , so this becomes 3(1 − e−x ) = x, which can be
solved numerically, graphically, or by trial-and-error. The solution is xmax =
2.821, so

kT xmax 1.38 × 10−23 × 2.821

νmax = = = 5.88 × 1010 T Hz.
h 6.62 × 10−34

Carrying out the same exercise in wavelength units, we start with equation
(5.90),

2hc2 1 −1
Jλ = = 2hc2 λ−5 (exp (hc/λkT ) − 1) .
λ5 exp (hc/λkT ) − 1

Differentiating this with respect to λ and setting the result equal to zero yields

dJλ 
−1
= 2hc2 −5λ−6 (exp (hc/λkT ) − 1)
dλ  
−5 −2 −hc
−λ (exp (hc/λkT ) − 1) exp (hc/λkT ) = 0.
kT λ−2

Rearranging,

5 1 hc exp (hc/λkT )
= .
λ6 exp (hc/λkT ) − 1 kT λ7 (exp (hc/λkT ) − 1)2

Cancelling common terms leaves

hc 1
5= .
kT λ 1 − exp(hc/kT λ)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

RADIATION AND MATTER 35

−1
Again with a simple substitution, x = hc/kT λ, we have 5 = x (1 − e−x ) . The
solution to this is xmax = 4.965, so

hc 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

λmax =
kT xmax 1.38 × 10−23 T (4.965)
−1
2.9 × 10−3 m × 1010 Å m 2.9 × 107 Å
= ,
T T
the familiar form of Wien’s Law. The range of T for which λmax is in the visible
spectrum (4000–7000 Å) is 4140 K to 7246 K.

5.7. A slab of glass 0.2 meters thick absorbs 50% of the light passing
through it. How thick must a slab of identical glass be in order to
absorb 90% of the light passing through it? How thick must it be to
absorb 99% of the light? How thick to absorb 99.9% of the light?
Start with the equation of radiative transfer, I = I0 e−nσx . Given that I(x)/I0 =
0.5 for x = 0.2 m, we compute nσ from

I
ln = −nσx.
I0

− ln (I/I0 ) − ln(0.5)
nσ = = = 3.466 m−1.
x 0.2
Thus, if 90% of the light is absorbed, I/I0 = 0.10 and

− ln I/I0
x= = 0.664 m.
3.466
For 99% absorption, I/I0 = 0.01 and x = 1.329 m. For 99.9% absorption,
I/I0 = 0.001 and x = 1.993 m.

5.8. If an incandescent light bulb has a luminosity L = 60 W and

a filament temperature of T = 2900 K, what must be the surface
area of its filament? If the filament consists of a cylindrical wire with
diameter d = 4.6 × 10−5 m (as in a standard General Electric 60
Watt, 120 volt bulb), what is the length of the wire?
The luminosity is L = AσT 4 , where the surface area of the filament is A = πdl
where d is its diameter and l is its length. Solving for the length,

L 60
l = =
σT 4 πd (5.67 × 10−8 )(2.9 × 103 )4 π × 4.6 × 10−5
0.1 m ≈ 10 cm.

We note that the filament is usually in the form of a helix so that it fits neatly
inside the bulb.

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36 CHAPTER 5. THE INTERACTION OF RADIATION AND MATTER

5.9. Demonstrate that the Lorentz distribution as given in equation

(5.38) is correctly normalized so that
 ∞
φ (ν) dν = 1.
0

 ∞  ∞
dν
ϕ(ν)dν = c .
0 [(ν − ν0 )2 + (Γ/4π)2 ]
0
Now let x = ν − ν0 , so dx = dν. Consider the limits of the integral: at ν = 0,
x → −∞ and at ν = ∞, x = ∞. To simplify, let Γ/4π = b. Then
 ∞  ∞ π
dx
ϕ(ν)dν = c 2 2
=c = 1.
0 −∞ x + b b
This implies that c = b/π = Γ/4π 2 , so the correct form of the function is
Γ/4π 2
ϕ(ν)dν = .
[(ν − ν0 )2 + (Γ/4π)2 ]
5.10. Show that for an ensemble of particles with temperature T and
particle mass μmp , the line profile from thermal Doppler broadening
will be
  
c μmp μmp c2 (ν − νo )2
φ(ν)dν = exp − dν,
νo 2πkT 2kT νo2
where ν0 is the frequency at the line center.
The line-of-sight velocity disperison is σz2 = kT /μmp , and the line profile for
thermal broadening is a Gaussian, i.e., ϕ(v) ∝ exp(−v 2 /2σz2 ). Using the Doppler
formula,
Δν ν − ν0 v
= = ,
ν0 ν0 c
which implies that v 2 = c2 (ν − ν0 )2 /ν02 . Let x = ν − ν0 as in problem 5.9, so
 ∞  ∞  2 2
−c x
ϕ(ν)dν = C exp dx.
0 −∞ 2ν02 σz2
To simplify, let a2 = 2ν02 σz2 /c2 so that
 ∞  2
−x √
C exp 2
dx = Ca π = 1,
−∞ a
which implies that
 1/2
1 c2 c  μmp 1/2
C= √ = 2 2
= .
πa2 2πν0 σz ν0 2πkT
Thus,  
c  μmp 1/2 −μmp c2 (ν − ν0 )2
ϕ(ν)dν = exp dν.
ν0 2πkT 2kT ν02

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6

Astronomical Detection of
Light

6.1. Assume that your vision is diffraction limited at λ = 5000 Å

and that the diameter of the pupil of your eye is D = 8 mm. What
angular resolution can you achieve with your unaided eye? How does
this compare with the maximum angular size of Venus and Jupiter
seen from the Earth?
Use the Rayleigh criterion, θ(rad) = 1.2λ/D and θ = 206265 θ(rad). Convert
λ and D into meters, λ = 5000 Å = 5 × 10−7 m, D = 8 mm = 8 × 10−3 m. Thus,

(5 × 10−7 )
θ = (206265)(1.2) = 15.5.
8 × 10−3
At inferior conjunction, the distance of Venus is d = 1 − 0.72 AU, so its angular
diameter is
D 2R 2 × 6.05 × 103 km
θ(rad) = = = = 2.88 × 10−4 ,
d d (1 − 0.72) × 1.5 × 108 km

so θ = 206265 θ(rad) = 59.4 ≈ 1 .

At opposition, the distance of Jupiter is d = (5.2 − 1) AU = 6.3 × 108 km
and the diameter of Jupiter is D = 2 × 7.14 × 104 km = 1.43 × 105 km, so
θ(rad) = 2.26 × 10−4 and θ = 46.75.
[Aside: The human eye is not actually diffraction limited. Some people with
excellent vision have reported seeing the crescent Venus with the naked eye, but
this is uncommon.]

6.2. (a) The Hiltner Telescope at the MDM Observatory (on Kitt
Peak, Arizona) has an aperature D = 2.4 m. Its Cassegrain focus has
an f-number f /7. What is the focal length F and plate scale s?
(b) The Mayall Telescope at the Kitt Peak National Observatory (also

37

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38 CHAPTER 6. ASTRONOMICAL DETECTION OF LIGHT

on Kitt Peak) has an aperature D = 4.0 m. Its prime focus has an

f-number f /2.7, its Cassegrain focus has f /8, and its Coudé focus
has f /160. What is the focal length and plate scale for each of these
three foci?
(c) The Keck Telescope (on Mauna Kea, Hawaii) has an aperature
D = 10.0 m. Its Cassegrain focus has f /15. What is the focal length
and plate scale?
Plate scale or focal-plane scale is given by equation (6.5),
206.2
s mm−1 = ,
D(m)f
and the focal length is F (m) = f × D(m).

Aperture (D) f -number focal length scale

2.4 m f /7 16.8 m 12.3/mm
4.0 m f /2.7 10.8 m 19.1/mm
f /8 32 m 6.4/mm
f /160 640 m 0.32/mm
10 m f /15 150 m 1.38/mm

6.3. With the D = 2.4 m telescope at the MDM Observatory, I

can obtain a spectrum of a particular star with signal-to-noise ra-
tio S/N = 100 in t = 20 min when the atmospheric seeing is average
(θ = 1 ). How long would it take me to take the same data with the
Keck Telescope (D = 10.0 m) with excellent seeing (θ = 0.4)?
In the background-limited case,
 2
θ
t∝ .
Fλ D
Thus, since Fλ is the same for each telescope, the time it takes to take the same
data with the Keck Telescope is
2 2
(θ/D)Keck (0.4/10)
tKeck = tMDM = 1200 s = 11 s.
(θ/D)2MDM (1/2.4)2

6.4. A CCD detector is mounted at the focus of an f /7 reflecting

telescope with a D = 50 cm mirror. The CCD chip contains 1024 ×
1024 pixels, with each square pixel being 10μm on a side.
(a) What is the area (in square arcseconds) of the sky that is imaged
on a single pixel?
The plate scale is (equation 6.5)
206.265 206.3
s= = = 58.9 mm−1 .
D(m)f (0.5)(7)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

DETECTION OF LIGHT 39

The pixel scale is thus

10−3 mm
p = 58.9 mm−1 × 10μm pixel−1 × = 0.59 pixel−1 .
μm

(b) What is the area (in square arcminutes) of the sky that is imaged
on the entire chip? Would the image of the full Moon fit into the
chip?
The projected angular size of the CCD is  = 1024 pixels × 0.59 pixel−1 =
602 ≈ 10 . The projected solid angle covered by the detector is thus A = 2 =
100 square arcminutes. The full Moon has an angular diameter of about 30 ,
which is about three times larger than the detector field of view.
(c) How many separate exposures would be required to cover the
entire celestial sphere (4π) steradians)?
The surface area of the celestial sphere is 4π steradians, or
 2
180o
Σ = 4π × = 41, 253 square degrees.
π radians
The area covered by each exposure is
100 sq. arcmin
A= = 2.78 × 10−2 sq. degrees.
(60 arcmin/degree)2
The number of exposures it would take to cover the entire celestial sphere is
thus
4.12 × 104
N= = 1.58 × 106 exposures.
2.78 × 10−2
6.5. Suppose that you want to see stars that are as faint as possible
in the background-limited case. The Astronomy Fairy gives you a
choice: either she can increase the quantum efficiency of your retina
from q = 0.1 to q = 1, or she can double the maximum pupil size
of your eye while guaranteeing diffraction-limited angular resolution.
Which of these choices would produce a lower limiting flux Fλ ? Ex-
plain your choice.
This a background limited case so
 1/2
θ Sλ
Flimit ∝ .
D q
Option
√ 1; Change q ≈ 0.1 to q = 1 decreases the limiting flux by a factor
10 ≈ 3.
Option 2: θ ∼ D−1 in the diffraction limit. So doubling D also decreases θ by
a factor of two, so the ratio θ/D decreases by a factor of 4.
Option 2 is favored, although your enlarged pupils will have the perhaps unfor-
tunate side effect of making you resemble a Japanese anime character.

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40 CHAPTER 6. ASTRONOMICAL DETECTION OF LIGHT

6.6. The Atacama Large Millimeter/Submillimeter Array (ALMA) is

designed to operate over the wavelength range λ = 0.3 → 9.6 mm.
It will consist of 80 independent 12 m telescopes with a maximum
baseline of 18 km.
(a) What is the highest angular resolution achievable with ALMA?
Telescopes are diffraction limited in the radio, so the highest attainable resolu-
tion in radians is θmin ∼ λ/D. For the shortest wavelength (0.3 mm) and largest
baseline (18 km),
0.3 × 10−3 m
θmin ∼ = 1.67 × 10−8 rad.
1.8 × 104 m
In arcseconds, this is
θ = 206265 × θmin = 3.4 × 10−3 arcsec = 3.4 milliarcsecond (mas).
(b) How large would a single-dish antenna have to be to have the
same collecting area as ALMA?
Collecting area is given by multiplying the collecting area of each telescope
DN by the number of telescopes N and then compute the diameter of a single
telescope D1 with the same collecting area. Note that we drop the factor π from
the surface area calculation as it cancels out.
Total collecting area is thus A = N × DN 2
= 80 × (12 m)2 = 1.15 × 104 m2 . The
equivalent single dish has a diameter D1 = (N × DN 2 1/2
) = 107.3 m.

6.7. Prove that equation (6.18) is correct for a Poisson probability

distribution.
Equation (6.18) is
∞


x2  =
x2 P (x, μ) = x2 P (x, μ) = μ2 + μ.
x=0

Explicitly calculate
∞
 x2 μx e−μ

x  =
2

x=0
x!
∞ ∞
 xμx e−μ
x2 μx e−μ
= = .
x=1
x(x − 1)! x=1 (x − 1)!

Let z = x − 1. Then we have

∞
 ∞
 ∞

(z + 1)μz+1 e−μ zμz e−μ μz e−μ

x2  = =μ +μ .
z=0
z! z=0
z! z=0
z!

From equations (6.13) – (6.15), we have

∞
 zμz e−μ
μ= ,
z=0
z!

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DETECTION OF LIGHT 41

and by definition
∞
 μz e−μ
μ = 1.
z=0
z!

Thus
x2  = μ2 + μ.

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42 CHAPTER 6. ASTRONOMICAL DETECTION OF LIGHT

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7

The Sun

7.1. Using data in this chapter, compute the Larmor radius rc for a
typical electron in the K corona.
For the K corona, r ≈ 2.5R and T ≈ 106 K. Using equation (7.2),
 1/2  1/2
3kT T
vrms = ≈ 160 km s−1 .
mp 106 K
1/2
The magnetic field of the Sun is very approximately B(r) ≈ B (R /r) ,
with B ≈ 10−3 T. So the magnetic field strength in the K corona is
 1/2
R 10−3
B(K corona) = B = ≈ 6.3 × 10−4 T.
2.5R (2.5)1/2
The Larmor radius for an electron in this field (equation 7.13) is
mv (9.1 × 10−31 )(1.6 × 105 )
rc = = = 1.4 × 10−3 m ≈ 1.4 mm.
qB (1.6 × 10−19 )(6.3 × 10−4 )
7.2. The thermal energy of a gas is equal to its number density of
particles times the mean kinetic energy of each particle due to random
motions.
(a) What this the thermal energy density at the base of the Sun’s
photosphere?
From Figure 7.6, T ≈ 6000 K and ρ ≈ 200 × 10−6 kg m−1 . Approximate that
the photosphere is 100% ionized hydrogen, so μ = 0.5. The number density of
particles is n = ρ/μm and the energy density is
ρkT (2 × 10−4 )(1.38 × 10−23 )(6000)
ε= = ≈ 2 × 104 J m−3 .
μm (0.5)(1.67 × 10−27 )

(b) What is the thermal energy density of the Earth’s atmosphere at

sea level (n = 2.5 × 1025 m−3 and T = 290 K)?

43

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44 CHAPTER 7. THE SUN

ε = nkT = (2.5 × 1025 )(1.38 × 10−23 )(290) ≈ 105 J m−3 .

7.3. At what rate does the solar wind carry kinetic energy away from
the Sun? Give the result first in watts, then as a fraction of the Sun’s
luminosity in photons, L = 3.8 × 1026 W.
Consider a spherical shell of radius r and thickness Δr through which mass is
flowing. The instantaneous kinetic energy in the shell is given multiplying the
shell’s volume (4πr2 Δr) by the kinetic energy per unit volume,

ρv 2
ΔE = 4πr2 Δr .
2
Dividing through by the time interval Δt gives

ΔE Δr ρv 2
= 4πr2 ,
Δt Δt 2
where we can identify v = Δr/Δt as the rate at which mass flows through
the shell. The rate at which energy flows through the shell is thus ΔE/Δt =
2πr2 ρv 3 . From the text, at r = 1 AU, ρ ≈ 10−21 kg m−3 and v ≈ 400 km s−1 , so
ΔE
Lkinetic = = 2π(1.5 × 1011 )2 (10−21 )(4 × 105 )3 = 9 × 1018 J m−3 .
Δt
In solar units,
Lkinetic 9 × 1018
= = 2.3 × 10−8 .
L 3.8 × 1026
Alternative solution: Use the mass outflow rate from the Sun, Ṁ = 108 kg s−1 ,
and
Ṁ v 2 (108 )(4 × 105 )2
Lkinetic = = ≈ 8 × 1018 J s−1 .
2 2
7.4. How many rotations (and how much time) does it take for the
equatorial regions of the Sun to “lap” the polar regions by one full
rotation?
If the number of rotations is N and the period of the Sun’s rotation is Pequator
and Ppole at the equator and pole, respectively, then we want to solve N ×
Pequator = (N − 1) × Ppole . From section 7.2, we take Ppole ≈ 35 days and
Pequator ≈ 25.4 days. So

Ppole 35
N= = = 3.6.
Ppole − Pequator 35 − 25.4

The time this takes is t = 3.6 × Pequator = 92.6 days.

Alternative solution: Compute the time t it takes for difference in angular ro-
tation rates to accumulate to 2π radians.
 
2π 2π
(ωequator − ωpole ) t = 2π = − ,
Pequator Ppole

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

THE SUN 45

so  −1  −1
1 1 1 1
t= − = − = 92.6 days.
Pequator Ppole 25.4 35
7.5. The normal Zeeman effect splits a spectral line at frequency ν0
into three components: a central line at ν0 and two satellite lines at
ν0 ± eB/(4πme ). By what amount (in angstroms) are the satellite
lines of the hydrogen Balmer α line (λ0 = 6562.81 Å) split from the
central component in a typical sunspot?
First, transform to wavelength units with ν = c/λ, and dν/dλ = −c/λ2 . We
can thus describe a small shift in wavelength as dλ = (λ2 /c) dν. We are given

eB (1.6 × 10−19 )(0.1)

dν = = = 1.4 × 109 Hz,
4πme 4π(9.1 × 10−31 )

where we have taken the typical magnetic field strength to be B ≈ 0.1 T. The
displacement of the satellite line is

λ2 dν (6563 Å)2 (1.4 × 109 Hz)

dλ = = ≈ 0.02 Å.
c 3 × 1018 Å Hz
7.6. A solar flare erupts in a region where the average magnetic field
strength is B = 0.03 T; the flare releases a total energy of E = 2 ×
1024 J.
(a) What was the magnetic energy density in the region prior to the
eruption?

B2 (0.03)2
Pmagnetic = = ≈ 358 J m−3 .
2μ0 2 × 4π × 10−7

(b) What was the minimum volume V required to supply the mag-
netic energy to fuel the flare?

Energy 2 × 1024 J
Volume = = = 5.6 × 1021 m3 .
energy density 358 J m−3

(c) If the volume V is assumed to be spherical, what is its radius?

Is this greater than or less than the typical radius R ≈ 104 km of a
sunspot?
 1/3
3V
r∝ = 1.1 × 107 m = 11, 000 km,
4π
which is a reasonable size for an active region.

7.7. If the entire photosphere of the Sun had B = 0.1T, what would
the Alfvén radius of the Sun be? (Hint: assume the properties of the

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46 CHAPTER 7. THE SUN

solar wind would be unchanged.) What would be the timescale τ for

the loss of the Sun’s angular momentum?
If B = 0.1 T instead of 10−3 ,T, since rA ∝ B (equation 7.24), we have rA ≈
1.4 × 104 R (equation 7.35). The Alfven radius increases by factor of 104 , but
the magnetic field increases by factor of 102 , so τ decreases by 104 /102 ∼ 100.
Thus comparing this to the values at the end of the Chapter, τ ∼ 2 × 107 yr,
i.e. 20 million years.

7.8. Vertical motions of gas in photospheric granules typically have

speeds v ∼ 2 km s−1 .
(a) What angular resolution (in arcseconds) is required to see an
individual granule in the Sun’s photosphere?
A typical granule has a diameter D ≈ 1000 km. At a distance of d = 1 AU, it
subtends an angle

θ(radians) = D/d = 103 km/1.5 × 105 km ≈ 6.7 × 10−6 ,

or in arcseconds, θ = 206265 × θ(radians) ≈ 1.4 .

(b) Neutral sodium has a pair of absorption lines at rest wavelength
λ0 = 5889.973 Å and 5895.940 Å. What is the ratio of Doppler broad-
ening of these lines to the Doppler shift expected from the vertical
motion of the granules?
The thermal Doppler width is (equation 5.51)
 1/2
Δλ T
= 3 × 10−7 .
λ μ

For sodium, μ = 23. In the photosphere, T ≈ 6100 K, so

 1/2
Δλ 6100
= 3 × 10−7 ≈ 4.9 × 10−6 .
λ 23

The Doppler shift due to vertical motions is

Δλ v 2 km s−1
= = = 6.7 × 10−6 .
λ c 3 × 105 km s−1
The Doppler shift is larger than the thermal broadening and is therefore easily
measured.

7.9. Imagine a sphere of gas with uniform number density n of gas par-
ticles; each particle has cross-section σ. Consider the optical depth
τ along a path parallel to a line displaced from the center from some
distance z. Compute τ (z) for such path, then compute dτ /dz. Ex-
plain, given this calculation, why as gaseous sphere can appear to
have a very sharp limb.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

THE SUN 47

Refer to Figure 7.1. The optical depth along the line  is τ = nσ. From the
geometry, we see that /2 = R cos θ and z/R = sin θ. Therefore, τ = nσ2R cos θ
and with 

1/2  z 2 1/2
cos θ = 1 − sin θ
2
= 1− ,
R
we can write  1/2
z2
τ (z) = 2nσR 1 − 2 .
R
Taking the derivative,
  −1/2
dτ 1 z2 2z
= −2nσR 1−
dz 2 R2 R2
 z  z2
−1/2
= −2nσR 1− .
R R2

The important feature to notice is that as z → R, dτ /dz → −∞. Thus the

opacity drops very sharply as z → R, so the sphere appears to have a sharp
edge.

Figure 7.1: A line-of-sight  runs parallel to the centerline through a sphere of

radius R, displaced from it by a distance z.

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48 CHAPTER 7. THE SUN

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 8

Overview of the Solar

System

8.1. What is the mean density ρ̄ of Saturn’s largest satellite, Titan?

What does this suggest about the composition of Titan?
From Table A.4, R = 2575 km and M = 1.35 × 1023 kg. Thus,

3 1.35 × 1023
ρ̄ = = 1890 kg m−3 .
4π (2.57 × 106 )3

This low density implies that Titan is an icy body with some rocky/metallic
content.

8.2. Radioactive decay of elements in the Earth’s interior results in

a mean heat flux through the Earth’s surface of 5 × 10−2 W m−2 .
What is this flux expressed as a fraction of the energy flux due to
thermal reradiation of absorbed solar energy? If radioactive decay
were the only heat source for the Earth, what would the Earth’s
surface temperature be?
The energy flux due to radioactive decay is F = 5 × 10−2 W m−2 . This cor-
2
responds to a luminosity of L = 4πR⊕ F = 4π(6.4 × 106 )2 (5 × 10−2 ). We can
compute an equivalent temperature by setting this flux to σSB T 4 = F . The
equivalant temperature is
 1/4  1/4
F 5 × 10−2
T = = = 30 K.
σSB 5.67 × 10−8

Compare this to the absorbed energy, Teff = 279 K.

 4
Esolar 279
= = 7500.
Eradioactive decay 30

49

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50 CHAPTER 8. OVERVIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

8.3. Mercury has an orbit with semimajor axis a = 0.387 AU and

eccentricity e = 0.206. Mercury is a slowly rotating planet with
no atmosphere. What is the temperature of the subsolar point on
Mercury at aphelion? What is the temperature of the subsolar point
on Mercury at perihelion? [The “subsolar point” is the location on
the planet’s surface where the Sun is at the zenith.]
The perihelion distance of Mercury is q = a(1−e) = 0.387(1−0.206) = 0.307 AU,
and the aphelion distance of Mercury is Q = a(1 + e) = 0.467 AU. Equation
(8.14) gives the subsolar temperature as
 r −1/2
1/4
Tss = 395 K (1 − A) ,
1 AU
and with A = 0.06 (Table 8.2), this becomes
 r −1/2
Tss = 389 K ,
1 AU
The subsolar temperature of Mercury at perihelion is thus Tss = 702 K. The
subsolar blackbody temperature of Mercury at aphelion is Tss = 569 K.

8.4. Pure, solid water ice has an albedo A ≈ 0.35. What is the
minimum distance from the Sun at which a rapidly rotating ice cube
would remain frozen? Between which two planets does this distance
lie?
Using equation (8.10),
 r −1/2
Tp = 279 (1 − A)1/4 ,
1 AU
noting that the sublimation temperature of water in a vacuum is ∼ 200 K, and
solving for r,
  2
279 1/4
r (AU) = (1 − 0.35) = 1.57 AU.
200
This is just beyond the orbit of Mars.

8.5. Suppose that Uranus were moved to the location of Jupiter;

would Uranus then retain its hydrogen-rich atmosphere?
To determine which constituents could be retained, use equation (8.24),
  −1  
Tex M R
μ > 7.1 .
1000 K M⊕ R⊕
For Uranus, M = 14.4 M⊕, R = 4 R⊕ , and A = 0.66. The equilibrium tem-
perature (equation 8.10) at the location of Jupiter (r = 5.2 AU from the Sun)
is
 r −1/2 (279) (1 − 0.66)1/4
1/4
Tp = 279 (1 − A) K= = 93 K.
1 AU (5.2)1/2

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THE SOLAR SYSTEM 51

Thus,  
93 −1
μ > 7.1 (14.4) (4) = 0.026.
1000
Retaining hydrogen (μ = 1) is not a problem,

8.6. Because Venus has a very feeble magnetic field, the solar wind
collides with its atmosphere, instead of being deflected by magnetic
forces. Suppose that if a solar wind particle strikes the atmosphere
of Venus, all its kinetic energy will be absorbed.
(a) What is the rate, in watts, at which Venus absorbs energy from
the solar wind? Assume that the energy density of the solar wind is

ρv 2 /2 = 2 × 10−9 J m−3 ,

and that the solar wind speed is v = 400 km s−1 .

The rate that kinetic energy is transfered to Venus via the solar wind is
   m
dE  ρv 2 J
= × v πR2 (m2 )
dt wind 2 m3 s
= 2 × 10−9 (4 × 105 )π(0.95 × 6.378 × 106 )2
= 9.29 × 1010 J s−1 .

(b) What is the rate, in watts, at which Venus absorbs energy from
sunlight? Is the solar wind a significant heat source for Venus?
The rate that kinetic energy is transfered to Venus via radiation is

dE  L
 = πR2 (1 − A)
dt radiation 4πr2
3.8 × 1026 (0.95 × 6.378 × 106 )2 (1 − 0.76)
=
4(0.72 × 1.5 × 1011 )2
= = 7.18 × 1016 J s−1 .

The ratio of kinetic energy via solar wind to radiation is thus

dE/dt|wind 9.29 × 1010

= = 1.3 × 10−6 .
dE/dt|radiation 7.18 × 106

Thus the solar wind is not a significant heat source for Venus.

8.7. Jupiter’s moon Callisto is slowly rotating and has a low albedo
(A ≈ 0.2). What is the temperature of Callisto’s subsolar point?
Would you expect Callisto to retain an atmosphere of N2 ? What
about an atmosphere of He? (Hint: you may assume that the exobase
lies at the surface of Callisto.)

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52 CHAPTER 8. OVERVIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM

Using equation (8.14) to determine the temperature of Callisto,

395(1 − A)1/4 (395)(1 − 0.2)1/4

Tp = K = 164 K.
r (AU)1/2 (5.2)1/2

Using equation (8.24) as a retention condition,

  −1  
Tex M R
μ > 7.1 .
1000 K M⊕ R⊕

For Callisto, R = 2403 km = 0.337 R⊕ and M = 1.08 × 1023 kg = 0.018M⊕.

Equation (8.24) becomes
 
164
μ > 7.1 (0.018)−1 (0.377) = 24.4.
1000

Diatomic nitrogen (μ = 2 × 14 = 28) would be retained. Helium (μ = 4) would

not.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 9

Earth and Moon

9.1. At what elevation does the Earth’s atmospheric pressure fall to

50% of its sea-level value? At what elevation is it 10% of its sea-level
value?
Equation (9.17) gives the scale height of the Earth’s atmosphere as H ≈ 8 km.
Atmospheric pressure decreases exponentially with height h,
 
−h
P (h) = P⊕ exp .
H
Solving for the height h above the atmosphere for various P/P⊕ , ln (P (h)/P⊕ ) =
−h/H, so  
P (h)
h = −H ln .
P⊕
For P (h)/P⊕ = 0.5, h = −(8 km)(ln(0.5)) = 5.5 km.
For P (h)/P⊕ = 0.1, h = −(8 km)(ln(0.1)) = 18.4 km.

9.2. What is the Larmor radius rc for electrons in the inner van Allen
belt?
The inner van Allen belt is at R < 2R⊕ . Electrons in this belt typically have
energies of ∼ 30 MeV, which is much larger than the electron rest energy of
0.51 MeV, so v ≈ c. The Earth’s magnetic field at the equator is roughly a
dipole (equation 9.20), so
 3
R⊕
B(r) = B⊕ ,
r

with B⊕ = 3.1 × 10−5 T. Thus

 3
mv mc r (9.1 × 10−31 )(3 × 108 ) 3
rc = = = (2)
qB qB⊕ R⊕ (1.6 × 10−19 )(3.1 × 10−5 )
= 5.4 × 102 m = 0.54 km.

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54 CHAPTER 9. EARTH AND MOON

9.3. At what rate, in watts, is the Earth losing rotational kinetic

energy due to tidal braking?
The rotational energy of the Earth is E = Iω 2 /2. The rate that the Earth is
losing its rotational energy is thus
dE dω
= Iω ,
dt dt
where I is the Earth’s moment of inertia and ω is the Earth’s rotational velocity.
We can approximate the moment of inertia to be that of a uniform density
sphere, I = 2M R2 /5. We can write the angular rotation speed in terms of the
rotational period as usual, ω = 2π/P, so that
dω −2π dP
= .
dt P 2 dt
Thus the rate at which the Earth loses rotational energy is
   
dE 2M R2 2π −2π dP
=
dt 5 P P 2 dt
    3
M R2 2π dP
= −
5π P dt
   3
5.97 × 1024
2 2π

= − 6.4 × 106 5 × 10−13
5π 8.62 × 10 4

= −3 × 1012 W.

9.4. The continent of Europe (on the Eurasian plate) and the conti-
nent of North America (on the North American plate) are moving
apart from each other at v ∼ 3 cm yr−1 . Estimate how long it has
taken them to attain their current separation of d ∼ 4500 km.
Make the simple assumption that t = d/v, with v = 3 cm yr−1 and d = 4500 km.
This yields
4500 km
5 
t= 10 cm km−1 = 1.5 × 108 yr.
3 cm yr−1
It has taken 150 million years for Europe and North America to attain their
current separation distance.

9.5. Show explicitly that the half-life τ0 and the decay constant λ of
a radioactively unstable isotope are related by τ0 =ln 2/λ.
The number of isotopes remaining after time t is N (t) = N0 e−λt , where N0 is
the initial number. At the isotope’s half-life τ0 , N (τ0 ) = N0 /2, so
1
N0 = N0 e−λτ0 .
2
Cancelling common terms and rearranging, eλτ0 = 2, and taking the natural log
of both sides gives λτ0 = ln 2, or τ0 = ln 2/λ.

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EARTH AND MOON 55

9.6. At some point along the line between the Earth’s center and the
Moon’s center, the gravitational force exerted by the Earth on a test
mass exactly cancels the gravitational force exerted by the Moon.
How far is this point from the center of the Earth?

Figure 9.1: The centers of the Earth and Moon are separated by a distance r0 .
The center of mass of ths system is between the Earth and Moon, a distance h
from the Earth’s center.

Let r0 be the Earth–Moon separation as shown in Figure 9.1. Let h be the

distance from the Earth where FMoon = FEarth . The forces on a test mass m at
h are such that
GMMoon m GM⊕ m
= .
(r0 − h)2 h2
Rearranging this, we have
MMoon
r02 − 2r0 h + h2 = h2 ,
M⊕
which we recognize as a simple quadratic equation. Again rearranging,
 
MMoon
h2 1 − − 2r0 h + r02 = 0.
M⊕
If we write the quadratic formula in the form ay 2 + by + c = 0, the roots are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
y= .
2a
Therefore, 
2r0 ±
4r02 − 4 [1 − (MMoon /M⊕ )] r02
h= .
2 [1 − (MMoon /M⊕ )]
The term under the square root simplifies to
 1/2  1/2
2 MMoon MMoon
4r0 − 4r0 + 4r0
2 2
= 2r0 ,
M⊕ M⊕

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56 CHAPTER 9. EARTH AND MOON

so
2r0 ± 2r0 (MMoon /M⊕ )1/2
h= .
2(1 − (MMoon /M⊕ ))
Cancelling terms and inserting numerical values,
  1/2  
MMoon MMoon
h = r0 1 ± 1+
M⊕ M⊕
  1/2  
1 1
= r0 1 ± 1+
81 81
= r0 (1 ± 0.112).

The distance between the test mass and the Moon will be less than the distance
between the test mass and the Earth, since the Earth is more massive. So
h < r0 , and therefore h = r0 (1 − 0.112) = 0.888r0. Since r0 = 3.84 × 105 km,
h = 3.4 × 105 km.

9.7. (a) Show that if a particle is moving upward with a speed v at the
Earth’s exobase, it will reach a maximum height h = v 2 /(2g) above
the exobase, where g = GM⊕ /R2ex is the gravitational acceleration
at the exobase.
The general equation for the height of the particle at time t is h = h0 +vt−gt2 /2,
where h0 is the initial altitude and v is the initial vertical velocity. To find the
maximum height, take the derivative and set it equal to zero,

dh
= v − gt = 0,
dt
from which we conclude that the maximum height is reached after a time t =
v/g. To determine the maximum altitude reached by the particle,
 2
v2 1 v v2 v2
hmax = h0 + − g = h0 + −
g 2 g g 2g

In this case, h0 = 0 so hmax = v 2 /2g.

(b) Show that the typical height reached by a molecule of mass m at a
temperature T will be h ∼ kT /(mg). In the Earth’s exosphere, what
is the typical height for N2 , O2 , and H2 ? (Assume Tex ≈ 1000 K). Do
you expect the oxygen-to-nitrogen ratio to increase or decrease with
height in the exosphere?
From equation (5.47),
3kT 3kT

v 2  = = ,
m μmp

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EARTH AND MOON 57

so
3kT 3 × 1.38 × 10−23 (103 )
hmax = =
2μmp g 2μ(1.67 × 10−27 )(9.8)
1.26 × 106 m 1.26 × 103
= = km.
μ μ

The typical maximum height for each compound is as follows: for N2 (μ = 28),
hmax = 45 km. For O2 (μ = 32), hmax = 39 km. For H2 (μ = 2), hmax = 632 km.
The ratio of nitrogen to oxygen will increase with height, and the ratio of oxygen
to nitrogen will decrease with height.

9.8. We can approximate the Earth as consisting of a dense core 3500

km in radius, containing 31% of the Earth’s mass, and a lower-density
mantle, 2900 km thick, containing 69% of the Earth’s mass. With this
approximation, what is the moment of inertia of the Earth?
The moment of inertia for a constant density sphere is Iave = 2M R2 /5, where
M = 4πR3 ρave /3. Therefore

8π
Iave = ρave R5 .
15
The core extends to a distance x = Rcore /R⊕ = 3500 km/6400 km = 0.547. The
moment of inertia for the core is thus
8π 5
Icore = ρcore (xR⊕ ) .
15
The moment of inertia for the mantle is
8π
Imantle = 5
ρmantle R⊕ (1 − x5 ).
15
The total moment of inertia is the sum of these, Itot = Icore + Imantle . The mass
of the core is M = 0.31M⊕ = 4πρcore (xR⊕ )3 /3, so the core density is

0.31 3M⊕ 0.31

ρcore = 3 3 = 3 ρave .
x 4πR⊕ x
3
Similarly, the mass of the mantle M = 0.69M⊕ = 4πρmantle R⊕ (1 − x3 )/3, so
the density of the mantle is

0.69 3M⊕ 0.69

ρmantle = 3 = 1 − x3 ρave .
1 − x3 4πR⊕

The moment of inertia of the core is thus

 
8π 0.31
Icore = ρave x5 R⊕ = 0.31x2 Iave ,
15 x3

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58 CHAPTER 9. EARTH AND MOON

and the moment of inertia of the mantle

   
8π 0.61 0.69(1 − x5 )
Imantle = ρave (1 − x )R⊕ =
5 5
Iave .
15 1 − x3 1 − x3

The total moment of inertia is thus

0.69(1 − x5 )
Itot = 0.31x2 Iave + Iave .
(1 − x3 )

Using x = 0.547, we find that Itot = Iave [0.0927 + 0.7846] = 0.877Iave .

9.9. If we make the approximation that the Earth’s atmosphere is

isothermal, with T = 290 K, what is the mass of the Earth’s atmo-
sphere? What is the ratio of the mass of the Earth’s atmosphere to
the total mass of the Earth?
If the atmosphere is isothermal, the pressure (equation 9.14) and density profiles
are the same,  
(r − R⊕ )
ρ(r) = ρ⊕ exp − dr.
H

Imagine the atmosphere as a series of thin shells of radius r and thickness dr.
The mass of a shell is thus dM = 4πr2 ρ⊕ dr and the total mass of the atmosphere
is  ∞
M = 4πρ⊕ re−r/H dr.
R⊕

To solve this, make the substitution x = (r − R)/H so dr = Hdx. Since

r = Hx + R, the mass becomes
 ∞
M = 4πρ⊕ (Hx + R)2 e−x Hdx
0
  ∞  ∞  ∞ 
3 2 −x 2 −x 2 −x
= 4πρ⊕ H x e dx + 2H R xe dx + HR e dx .
0 0 0

Consider each of the integrals separately, in reverse order (easiest first):

The last integral is  ∞
∞
e−x dx = e−x 0 = 1.
0
The middle integral is
 ∞ ∞
xe−x = e−x (−x − 1)0 = 1,
0

and the first is

 ∞  ∞
∞
2 −x x2 e−x 
x e dx = +2 xe−x dx = 2.
0 −1 0 0

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EARTH AND MOON 59

The equation for the mass is thus

M = 4πρ⊕ [2H 3 + 2H 2 R + HR2 ] ≈ 4πρ⊕ HR2 ,

since H  R. The equation of state for an ideal gas is P = ρkT /(μm) so

ρ = P μm/(kT ). Given that P0 = 1.01 × 105 N m−2 , μ = 29, and T = 290 K, we
have the mass density at H = 0,

(1.01 × 105 )(29)(1.67 × 10−27 )

ρ⊕ = = 1.2 kg m−3 ,
1.38 × 10−23 × 290
and the mass of the atmosphere is

M = 4π(1.2)(8 × 103 )(6.378 × 106 )2 = 5 × 1018 kg = 8 × 10−7 M⊕ .

A simpler and perhaps more elegant solution is to note that given that the force
of the entire atmosphere on the Earth’s surface is F = P0 × A = M g, where
A is the surface area of the Earth and g is the gravitational acceleration at the
surface of the Earth. Thus
4πR2 P0 4π(6.4 × 106 )2 (1.01 × 105 )
M= = ≈ 5 × 1018 kg,
g 9.8
in agreement with the other method.

9.10. Imagine an impacting body, traveling at v = 72 km−1 , striking

the Earth. How large would such an impactor have to be to physically
destroy the Earth, that is, to gravitationally unbind it? Consider only
the energy requirements.
The gravitational binding energy of the Earth is U ∼ GM 2 /R. The kinetic
energy of the impactor is K = mv 2 /2. The impact can unbind the Earth if
the kinetic energy of the impactor exceeds the binding energy of the Earth, i.e.,
K > U , or

2GM 2 2(6.67 × 10−11 )(5.97 × 1024 )2

m > =
Rv 2 (6.4 × 106 )(7.2 × 104 )2
= 1.4 × 1023 kg ≈ 0.024 M⊕.

The impactor would have to have a mass of 1023 kg which is roughly twice the
size of the Moon. Note that the speed chosen is the “local speed limit,” i.e., it
assumes a head-on collision between the Earth moving at 30 km s−1 in its orbit
with a body moving at solar escape velocity at 1 AU, vesc = 42 km s−1 .

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60 CHAPTER 9. EARTH AND MOON

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 10

The Planets

10.1. The Hill radius (discussed in section 4.3.2) is the maximum

orbital size for a satellite orbiting a planet.
(a) What is the Hill radius of the planet Mercury?
The Hill radius (equation 4.45) is
 1/3
Mplanet
rH = aplanet .
2M
For Mercury, Mplanet = 5.53 × 1022 kg and aplanet = 0.387 AU. Thus the Hill
radius for Mercury is
 1/3
5.5 × 1022
rH = 0.387 AU = 9.287 × 10−4 AU.
2 × 1.99 × 1030
This corresponds to 1.39 × 105 km or 57RMerc .
(b) What is the Hill radius of the planet Jupiter?
For Jupiter, Mplanet = 3.17 × 1026 kg and aplanet = 5.20 AU. The Hill radius for
Jupiter is
 1/3
3.17 × 1026
rH = 5.20 AU
2 × 1.99 × 1030
= 0.224 AU = 3.356 × 107 km = 469RJup.
10.2. The mean mass density of Mercury is 3.9 times that of the Sun.
What is the Roche limit for the Mercury–Sun system, expressed as a
multiple of the Sun’s photospheric radius? What is the Roche limit
for the Mercury–Sun system, expressed as a fraction of the semimajor
axis of Mercury’s orbit?
Given that ρMerc = 3.9ρ , the Roche limit of the Mercury–Sun system in terms
of the Sun’s radius is
 1/3  1/3
ρ 1
rR = 2.44 R = 2.44 R = 1.551 R,
ρMerc 3.9

61

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62 CHAPTER 10. THE PLANETS

which is 1.1 × 106 km or 0.0186aMerc.

10.3. At what frequency νmax would you expect to detect the strongest
cyclotron radiation from the Sun’s K corona?
Equation (10.33) gives the peak frequency for cyclotron radiation, νmax ≈
28.0B GHz. From section 7.1, we know that the K corona extends a distance
r ≈ 2.5 R away from the Sun’s center. Use equation (7.29) for the radial de-
pendence of the Sun’s magnetic field B(r) ≈ B (R /r)2 , where B ≈ 10−3 T.
The magnetic field at the K corona is thus
 1/2
R
B(2.5 R ) = B = 6.3 × 10−4 T.
2.5 R
The maximum frequency is thus νmax = 0.0177 GHz = 17.7 MHz.

10.4. Compute the ratio of the differential tidal force on Io due to

Jupiter to the differential tidal force on the Moon due to the Earth.
From Chapter 4, the differential tidal force on the Moon due to the Earth is
proportional to M⊕ RMoon /(DMoon )3 , where RMoon is the radius of the Moon
and DMoon is the Earth–Moon distance. The differential tidal force on Io due
to Jupiter is proportional to MJupiterRIo /(DIo )3 , where RIo is the radius of Io
and DIo is the distance betwee Jupiter and Io.
The ratio of these is thus
   3
Io MJupiter RIo DIo
=
Moon M⊕ RMoon DMoon
  3
1822 4.216 × 105
= (318)
1737 3.844 × 105
= (318)(1.05)(1.32) = 440.

The differential tidal force on Io due to Jupiter is 440 times larger than the
differential tidal force that the Earth exerts on the Moon.

10.5. How often does an observer at the Sun’s location see the rings
of Saturn exactly edge-on?
An observer at the location of the Sun passes the plane of Saturn’s rings twice
during Saturn’s orbital period. Since Saturn’s orbital period is P = 29.4 years,
Δt = (29.4)/(2) = 14.7 years. The observer will see Saturn’s rings edge-on every
14.7 years.

10.6. Saturn’s moon Titan has a mass M = 1.3 × 1023 kg and a radius
R = 2580 km. The temperature at the surface of Titan is T = 94 K.
(a) What is the gravitational acceleration g at the surface of Titan?

GM 6.67 × 10−11 × 1.3 × 1023

g= = = 1.30 m s−2 .
R2 (2.58 × 106 )2

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THE PLANETS 63

(b) Would Titan be able to retain H2 in its atmosphere? Would Titan

be able to retain CO2 in its atmosphere?
Condition for the retention of a constitutent of molecular weight μ is given by
equation (8.24),
  −1  
Tex M Rex
μ > 7.1 .
1000 K M⊕ R⊕
so substituting in the numerical values given we have
  −1  
94 K 1.3 × 1023 2580
μ > 7.1 = 12.42.
1000 K 5.98 × 1024 6378

The molecular weight for H2 is μ = 2; this is too light for Titan to retain. The
molecular weight for CO2 is μ = 44, which can be retained by Titan.
(c) If you approximate the atmosphere of Titan as consisting entirely
of molecular nitrogen, what is the scale height of Titan’s atmosphere?

Equation (9.17) gives the scale height as H = kT /(gμmp ). For molecular nitro-
gen (N2 ), μ = 28 so the scale height of Titan’s atmosphere is

(1.38 × 10−23 )(94)

H= = 2.13 × 104 m = 21.3 km.
(1.3)(28)(1.67 × 10−27 )

10.7. The Earth has an orbit with a⊕ = 1.0AU and e = 0.017. Mars
has an orbit with aMars = 1.524 AU and eMars = 0.093.
(a) If we assume that the orbits of the Earth and Mars are coplanar,
what is the minimum possible distance between the Earth and Mars?
The minimum possible distance between Earth and Mars is when Mars is si-
multaneously at perihelion and opposition as seen from Earth at aphelion. The
perihelion distance of Mars is qMars = aMars (1 − eMars ) = 1.524(1 − 0.093) =
1.382 AU. The aphelion distance of Earth is Q⊕ = a⊕ (1 + e) = 1.017 AU. The
opposition distance of Mars is thus Δ = qM − Q⊕ = 0.365 AU.
(b) The Moon orbits the Earth on an orbit with a = 384, 000 km
and e = 0.055. What is the maximum possible angular separation
between the Earth and Moon as seen from Mars?
The Moon is furthest from the Earth at apogee. The maximum separation
between the Earth and Moon is d = 384, 000(1 + 0.055) km or d = 4.05 × 105 km.
The maximum angular separation seen from Mars is θ(rad) = d/Δ so

206265(4.05 × 105 km)

θ = 206265 θ(rad) =
(0.365 AU)(1.5 × 108 km AU−1 )
o
= 1.53 × 103 arcsec = 25.4 = 0 .42.

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64 CHAPTER 10. THE PLANETS

(c) Suppose that the angular resolution of your eyes is θ = 1 . When

you are vacationing on Mars, will you be able to see the Earth and
the Moon as separate points with your unaided eyes?
If you were on Mars, this separation could easily be distinguished by your naked
eye as it is nearly as large as the diameter of the full Moon.

10.8. Infrared observations of the planet Saturn indicate that it emits

radiation at the rate LSat = 1.98 × 1017 W. However, it absorbs
sunlight at the rate WSat = 1.11 × 1017 W. If the excess radiated
power comes from Saturn’s gravitational potential energy, at what
rate dR/dt is Saturn shrinking in radius? [You may make the approx-
imation that Saturn is of uniform density.] At this rate of shrinkage,
how long would it take for Saturn’s radius to decrease by 1%?
Equation (10.26) gives the contraction rate of a planet that is required to pro-
duce energy at the rate dU/dt as
dR 5 dU R2
= .
dt 3 dt GM 2
The rate at which potential energy is converted to radiant energy is
dU
= (1.98 − 1.11) × 1017 = 8.7 × 1016 W.
dt
The required rate of contraction is
dR 5 8.7 × 1016 (9.45 × 6.378 × 106 )2
= = 2.45 × 10−11 m s−1 .
dt 3 6.67 × 10−11 (95 × 5.98 × 1024 )2
The fractional change in Saturn’s size is related to the speed of contraction by
ΔR (dR/dt)
= Δt,
R R
so we can compute the time to contract by 1% (ΔR/R = 0.01) as
R 0.01 × 9.45 × 6.378 × 106
Δt = 0.01 =
dR/dt 2.45 × 10−11
= 2.46 × 1016 s = 7.9 × 108 years ≈ 800 Myr.
10.9. Using the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium, compute the ap-
proximate central pressure of all four Jovian planets.
Equation (10.17) gives the approximate central pressure for a planet of radius
R and mean density
ρ
2π 2
Pc =
ρ GR2 .
3
Expressed as a fraction of the Earth’s density and radius gives
 2  2
ρ R
Pc = 1.7 × 10 11
.
ρ⊕ R⊕

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THE PLANETS 65

Planet M/M⊕ R/R⊕

ρ = 3M/(4πR3 ) Pc
(kg m−3 ) (N m−2 )
Jupiter 318 11.2 1.25 × 103 1.11 × 1012
Saturn 95.2 9.45 6.21 × 102 1.96 × 1011
Uranus 14.5 4.01 1.24 × 103 1.40 × 1011
Neptune 17.1 3.88 1.61 × 103 2.22 × 1011

The table gives the results for all four Jovian planets.

10.10. The rotation speed of Venus was first measured with ground-
based radar.
(a) A radar signal with initial frequency ν0 is bounced off a target
that is receding at speed v. Show that the returned signal is shifted
to a frequency  
2v
ν = ν0 1 −
c
for v  c.
An observer on Venus will measure an incident frequency ν  where

ν − ν −v
=
ν c
or  v
ν = ν 1 − .
c
An observer on Earth will measure the reflected frequency νobs where, similarly,

νobs − ν  −v

= ,
ν c
so
 v  v v
νobs = ν 1 − νobs = ν 1 − 1−
c c c
 v 2
= v 1− .
c
Using a Taylor expansion, we have, retaining only the lowest-order term,
 
2v
νobs ≈ ν 1 − .
c

(b) Suppose that you are in the equatorial plane of Venus and you
bounce a ν0 = 1 GHz radar signal off the entire planet. What is the
spread in frequencies of the returned signal? (Neglect any Doppler
shift due to the motion of the planet as a whole.)

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66 CHAPTER 10. THE PLANETS

The rotation speed of Venus at the equator is

2πR (2π × 6051.8 km) × 103 m km−1

v= = = 1.81 m s−1 .
P 243 days × 86, 400 s day−1
The Doppler shift from the receding limb of Venus is −2v/c, and the Doppler
shift from the approaching limb is 2v/c, so the spread in frequency is
Δν 4v 4 × 1.81
= = = 2.42 × 10−8 .
ν c 3 × 108
The width of the returning signal is thus Δν = (2.42 × 10−8 )ν = (2.42 ×
10−8 )109 Hz = 24.2 Hz.

10.11. The orbital planes of Phobos and Deimos are very close to
the equatorial plane of Mars. Thus, when you are standing near the
equator on Mars, you can see Phobos and Deimos pass through the
zenith.
(a) You see Phobos at the zenith. How long will it take Phobos to
reach the horizon? At what point on the horizon will Phobos set?
Table A.4 gives the orbital period of Phobos as PPhobos = 0.3189 days and its
orbital semimajor axis is r = 9378 km. The rotational period of Mars, from
Table A.3, is PMars = 1.026 days, and its radius is R = 3393 km.

Mars

orbit of Phobos

Figure 10.1: Illustrated are the angular rotation rate of Mars (ωMars ), the orbital
angular speed of Phobos (ωPhobos ) and the angular orbital speed of Phobos in
a reference frame that corotates with Mars. Caution: the size of Mars and the
orbit of Phobos are not to scale.

Referring to Figure 10.1, ωPhobos = ωMars + ωsyn where ωPhobos is the orbital
angular velocity of Phobos, ωMars is the angular rotation speed, and ωsyn is the
orbital angular speed of Phobos in a reference frame that co-rotates with Mars.
 −1  −1
1 1 1 1
Psyn = − = − = 0.4627 days.
PPhobos PMars 0.3189 1.026

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THE PLANETS 67

To compute the time from zenith to horizon, refer to Figure 10.2, where we see
that the altitude of the satellite is h = r − R. The segment s is the part of
the satellite’s orbit where it travels from the zenith to the horizon. The angle
θ is defined by θ = cos−1 R/r. Since s = Rθ, the fraction of the synodic orbital
period that the satellite takes to go from the zenith to the horizon is
Δt s Rθ θ
= = = ,
Psyn 2πR 2πR 2π
so
Psyn
Δt = cos−1 (R/r) .
2π

Figure 10.2: Phobos travels a segment s of its orbit traveling from the zenith to
the horizon. Caution: the size of Mars and the orbit of Phobos are not to scale.
As noted above, for Phobos, r = 9378 km and Psyn = 0.4627 days. Therefore
R/r = 3393/9378 = 0.36, so cos−1 R/r = 0.3821π radians and therefore Δt =
0.088 days, or a bit more than 2 hours. Because PPhobos < PMars , Phobos rises
in the west and sets in the east, like low-Earth orbit satellites.
(b) You see Deimos at the zenith. How long will it take Deimos to
reach the horizon? At what point on the horizon will Deimos set?
Table A.4 gives the orbital period PDeimos = 1.026 days: this is a typographical
error in the text, the correct orbital period of Deimos is PDeimos = 1.262 days.
The semimajor axis of its orbit is 23,460 km.
Referring to Figure 10.3, ωDeimos = ωMars − ωsyn , where ωDeimos is the orbital
angular velocity of Deimos and the other quantities are as defined above. Thus
 −1  −1
1 1 1 1
Psyn = − = − = 5.49 days.
PMars PDeimos 1.026 1.262
Referring to the result in part (a),
 
5.49 days 3393 km
Δt = cos−1 = 1.25 days.
2π 23, 460 km

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68 CHAPTER 10. THE PLANETS

fixed
stars

Figure 10.3: Illustrated are the angular rotation rate of Mars (ωMars ), the orbital
angular speed of Deimos (ωDeimos ) and the apparent angular orbital speed of
Deimos in a reference frame that corotates with Mars. Caution: the size of
Mars and the orbit of Deimos are not to scale.

Because PDeimos > PMars , Phobos rises in the east and sets in the west, like our
own Moon.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 11

Small Bodies in the Solar

System

11.1. The asteroid Eugenia has a small natural satellite orbiting it.
The orbital period of the satellite is P = 4.76 days. The semimajor
axis of its orbit is a = 1180 km. What is the mass of Eugenia? (Hint:
it is safe to assume that the mass of the satellite is tiny compared to
the mass of Eugenia.)
The mass of Eugenia can be calculated using Kepler’s Third Law,
4π 2 a3 4π 2 (1.18 × 106 )3
M = =
2
GP 2 (6.67 × 10−11 ) 4.76 days × 86, 400 s day−1
= 5.75 × 1018 kg.

11.2. A cometary nucleus rotates rapidly and has an albedo A = 0.05.

When its surface temperature reaches T ≈ 150 K, the ice of which
it’s mostly made starts to sublime, and forms a gaseous coma. How
far is the cometary nucleus from the Sun when the coma starts to
form?
Using equation (8.10),
1/4
(1 − A)
Tp ≈ 279 K .
(r [AU])1/2
Rearranging to solve for the distance
 2
279
r [AU] = (1 − 0.05)1/2 = (3.46)(0.975) = 3.37.
150
11.3. The Oort cloud is thought to contain as many as 1012 come-
tary bodies. Estimate the total mass of the Oort cloud and compare
it to the mass of the Earth. State the assumptions made in your
calculation.

69

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70 CHAPTER 11. SMALL BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

We assume that a typical cometary body is spherical with a radius r ≈ 1 km

and a mass density ρ ≈ 103 kg m−3 . The mass of such a body is thus M =
4πρR3 /3 = 4π × (103 )(103 )3 /3 = 4.2 × 1012 kg. The mass of the Oort cloud is
then Mcloud = 1012 × (4.2 × 1012 ) = 4.2 × 1024 kg, a bit smaller than the mass
of the Earth.

11.4. Imagine a regulation bowling ball (mass m = 7.2 kg, diameter

d = 21.6 cm) orbiting the Sun at a = 1 AU. How long will it take the
Poynting–Robertson effect to cause the bowling ball to sprial into the
Sun?
The radius of the bowling ball is R = d/2 = 0.108 m. The density of the bowling
ball is ρ = 3M/4πR3 = (3 × 7.2)/(4π[0.108]3) = 1.36 × 103 kg m−3 .
The Poynting–Robertson timescale is given by equation (11.22),
 
2 ρ
tpr ≈ 0.7 (a[AU]) (R [m]) Gyr
1000 kg m−3
 
1.364 × 103
= 0.7(1)(1.364)2 (0.108)
103
= 0.105 Gyr = 105 Myr.

It will take the bowling ball 105 million years to spiral into the Sun from 1 AU
as a result of the Poynting–Robertson effect.

11.5. In Section 4.3.2, we computed the Hill radius of the Earth, that
is, the maximum stable radius of a satellite around the Earth, given
the differential tidal force provided by the Sun. What is the maximum
stable radius of a comet around the Sun, given the differential tidal
force provided by the Alpha Centauri system, which has M ≈ 2M ?
In view of this calculation, what do you expect the approximate radius
of the Oort cloud to be?
The Hill radius is given by equation (4.45),
 1/3  1/3
Mcompanion 1 M
rH = Dperturber = DαCen = 0.63DαCen.
2Mperturber 4 M

The distance to α Centauri is DαCen = 1.3 pc×206265AU pc−1 = 2.68×105 AU.

The expected size of the Oort cloud is thus rH = 169, 000 AU.

11.6. An asteroid is 3 AU away from the Sun when it is observed from

the Earth at opposition. How large does the asteroid have to be in
order to occult a Sun-like star at a distance d = 10 pc?
The diameter of the star is D = 2 × R = 1.39 × 106 km. Its distance is
d = 10 pc × 206265 AU pc−1 × (1.49 × 108 km AU−1 ) = 3.09 × 1014 km.
The angular size of the star is θ(rad) = D/d = (1.39 × 106 )/(3.09 × 1014 ) =
4.5 × 10−9 rad. For the asteroid, d ≈ 3 AU, so to completely occult this star
D > θd = (4.5 × 10−9 )(3 × 1.49 × 108 km) = 2 km.

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SMALL BODIES 71

11.7. Comet Halley has a perihelion distance q = 0.586 AU and orbital

eccentricity e = 0.967.
(a) What is the semimajor axis of its orbit?

q 0.586
a= = = 17.7 AU.
1−e 1 − 0.967
(b) What is its orbital speed at perihelion?
First compute the orbital period, P (years) = a(AU)3/2 = (17.7)3/2 years ≈
75 years. Then use equation (3.68), which gives the orbital speed as a function
of a, P , and r,
 1/2
2πa 2a
v(r) = −1 .
P r
At perihelion,
 1/2
2π(17.7 AU × 1.49 × 108 km AU−1 ) 2(17.7)
v(q) = −1
75 yrs × (π × 107 s yr−1 ) 0.568
= 54.6 km s−1 .

(c) What is its aphelion distance?

The aphelion distance is Q = a(1 + e) = 17.7(1.967) = 34.8 AU.
(d) What is its orbital speed at aphelion?
At aphelion, r = Q, and as in part (b) we can compute
 1/2
2π(17.7 AU × 1.49 × 108 km AU−1 ) 2(17.7)
v(Q) = −1
75 yrs × (π × 107 s yr−1 ) 34.8
= 0.93 km s−1 .
11.8. The Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, which we encoun-
ter again in Chapter 24, is a satellite located near the L2 point of the
Sun-Earth system, 1.5 million km “down-Sun” of the Earth (see Fig-
ure 11.3). It is protected from solar radiation by a circular sunshield
with diameter d = 4.5 m.
(a) Calculate the radiation force exerted on the sunshield. (For sim-
plicity, assume that the shield is perpendicular to the Sun’s rays,
that it absorbs every photon that strikes it, and that it’s outside the
Earth’s penumbra.)
The location of the satellite r is the semi-major axis of the Earth’s orbit, plus the
additional 1.5 million km “down-Sun”, so r = a⊕ +1.5×108 km = 1.51×108 km.
Radiation pressure is given by equation (11.7),
L 3.9 × 1026
Prad = = = 4.54 × 10−6 N m−2 .
2
4πr c 4π(1.51 × 1011 )2 × (3 × 108 )
The area of the shield is taken to be A = πd2 /4 = 15.9 m2 . The total force
exerted is F = Prad A = 7.22 × 10−5 N.

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72 CHAPTER 11. SMALL BODIES IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM

(b) The satellite and sunshield together have a mass m = 830 kg.
What is their acceleration as a result of the radiation force?
From Newton’s Second Law F = ma, the acceleration is

7.22 × 10−5
a= = 8.7 × 10−8 m s−2 .
830

(c) Estimate the force exerted by the solar wind on the sunshield. Is
this greater than or less than the radiation force?
We take properties of the solar wind from section 7.1, specifically ρ = 10−21 kg
m−3 and v = 400 km s−1 . The force exerted by the solar wind is the rate at
which momentum is transferred to the sunshield.
This is a problem similar to problem 7.3. Consider a spherical shell of radius r
and thickness Δr. The instantanous “momentum density” in the shell is ρv so
the total instantaneous momentum in the shell is the momentum density times
the volume of the shell 4πr2 Δr, so Δp = 4πr2 ρv. Dividing through by the time
Δt that it takes a particle to cross this shell,
Δp Δr
= 4πr2 ρv = 4πr2 ρv 2 ,
Δt Δt
since Δr/Δt = v. This is the momentum in the whole shell, but we need concern
ourselves only with the mass that will hit the sunshield. We therefore substitute
for 4π the solid angle subtended by the sunshield, Ω = A/r2 , where A is the
area of the sunshield as in part (a). Since F = dp/dt, the force exerted by the
solar wind is  
dp 2 2 A
Fsw = = Ωr ρv = r2 ρv 2 = Aρv 2 .
dt r2
Inserting numerical values gives

Fsw = (15.9)(10−21 )(4 × 105 )2 = 2.54 × 10−9 N,

only about 3% of the radiation pressure.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 12

The Solar System in

Perspective

12.1. What would be the minimum Earth–Moon distance at which

the center of mass of the Earth–Moon system would lie outside the
Earth’s surface?

Figure 12.1: The centers of the Earth and Moon are separated by a distance
r0 . The center of mass (CM) of ths system is between the Earth and Moon, a
distance x from the Earth’s center.

Referring to Figure 12.1, the center of mass for the Earth–Moon system is
M⊕ x = m(r0 − x). Solving for r0 , we have
   
M⊕ + m M⊕
r0 = x=x 1+ .
m m

Setting x = R⊕ , we have r0 = R⊕ (1 + 81) = 82R⊕ .

73

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74 CHAPTER 12. THE SOLAR SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE

12.2. The star 51 Pegasi has a mass MA = 1.06 M . Its radial velocity
varies sinusoidally with a period P = 4.23 days and an amplitude
vA sin i = 56 m s−1 . What is MB sin i of the exoplanet causing these
velocity variations?
From equation (12.21),
 1/3
MA
MB sin i = 11 M⊕ (P [years])1/3 vA sin i
M
 1/3
4.23
= 11(1.06)1/3 (56) = 142 M⊕.
365.24

12.3. What fractional decrease in flux, δF/F , would be caused by an

Earth-like planet transiting a Sun-like star? If a transit of the Earth
across the Sun were viewed by a very distant observer in the Earth’s
orbital plane, how long would the transit last?
2 2
The projected area of the Earth is πR⊕ and projected area of the Sun is πR .
The change in flux will be proportional to the ratio of these areas,

2  2  2
δF πR⊕ R⊕ 6378 km
= 2 = = = 8.4 × 10−5 .
F πR R 6.96 × 105 km

The time it would take for the transit is t = D/vorb , where the orbital velocity
of the Earth is vorb = 30 km s−1 and the diameter of the Sun is D = 2 × 6.96 ×
105 km. Thus t = (2 × 6.96 × 105 )/30 = 4.64 × 104 s = 12.9 hours.

12.4. Compute the ratio of Jupiter’s luminosity to the Sun’s luminos-

ity, Lν,Jup/Lν, , at a wavelength λ = 20 μm.
The equilibrium surface temperature is given by equation (8.10), so the temper-
ature of Jupiter is

(1 − A)1/4 279(0.49)1/4
TJup ≈ 279 K 1/2
= = 100 K.
r[AU] (5.2)1/2

Consider now the emission from the Sun and Jupiter at λ = 20 μm (2 × 10−5 m).
The energy of a photon at λ = 20 μm is

hc 6.62 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

hν = = = 9.93 × 10−21 J.
λ 2 × 10−5

In this case, hν  kT , so we can use the Rayleigh–Jeans approximation (equa-

tion 5.87),

2kT 2 2kT 2(8 × 10−20 )

Iν, = ν = = = 4.0 × 10−10 .
c2 λ2 (2 × 10−5 )1/2

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SOLAR SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE 75

For Jupiter, T = 100 K, so kT = 1.38 × 10−23 (100) = 1.38 × 10−21 J. In this

case, hν kT , so we use the Wien approximation (equation 5.88),
2hν 3 −hν/kT 2hν
Iν,Jup = e = 2 e−hν/kT
c2 λ  
2(9.93 × 10−21 ) −9.93 × 10−21
= exp = 3.7 × 10−14 .
(2 × 10−5 )2 1.38 × 10−21
The ratio of their luminosities is thus
Lν,Jup Iν,Jup RJ2
= 2
Lν, Iν, R
  2
3.7 × 10−14 11.2 × 6378 km
=
4.0 × 10−10 6.96 × 105 km

−5


= 9.31 × 10 1.05 × 10−2
= 9.8 × 10−7 .
12.5. What is the rotational angular momentum of Jupiter? What is
the sum of the orbital angular momenta of the four Galilean satellites?
Explain how the analogy of a “solar system in miniature” breaks down
here.
Approximating Jupiter as a uniform density sphere,
 
2 2π
Lrot = Iω = M R2
5 Prot
 
2

2 2π
= 1.9 × 1027 7.14 × 107
5 9.83 × 3600 s hr−1
= 6.88 × 1038 kg m2 s−1 .
Orbital angular momentum is
2πmr2
Lorb = mvr =
P  
m r2
= 2π × 1.9 × 1027
MJup P (days) × 86, 400 s day−1
 
m r2
= 1.38 × 10 23
kg m2 s−1 .
MJup P (days)
The table below gives Lorb for each of the Galilean satellites.
The total orbital angular momentum of Jupiter’s four largest moons is

Ltot = Lorb = 4.50 × 1036 kg m2 s−1 .

The ratio of the total orbital angular momentum of the Galilean satellites Ltot
to Jupiter’s rotational angular momentum is
Ltot 4.5 × 1036
= = 6.53 × 10−3 .
Lrot 6.88 × 1038

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76 CHAPTER 12. THE SOLAR SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE

Satellite r P m/MJup Lorb

(m) (days) (kg m2 s−1 )
Io 4.22 × 108 1.77 4.7 × 10−5 6.53 × 1035
Europa 6.71 × 109 3.55 2.6 × 10−5 4.55 × 1035
Ganymede 1.07 × 109 7.16 7.8 × 10−5 1.72 × 1036
Callisto 1.88 × 109 16.69 5.7 × 10−5 1.67 × 1036

Jupiter contains most of the angular momentum of the Jupiter system. The
“solar system in miniature” analogy breaks down because the Sun’s rotational
angular momentum is small compared to the orbital angular momentum of the
planets. Whereas the Sun loses its angular momentum to the solar wind, there
is no equivalent process for Jupiter to lose its rotational angular momentum.

12.6. While doing a transit study, you find an exoplanet around a

nearby Sun-like star. The time between transits is P = 32 days.
During a transit, the time from first to second contact is t2 − t1 =
30 minutes and the time from first to third contact is t3 −t1 = 5 hours.
The depth of the transit is δF/F = 0.01. Doing follow-up radial ve-
loctiy measurement of the star, you find that its peak radial velocity
is vr = 65 m s−1 .
(a) What is the radius of the planet?
The time from first to second contact is Δt12 = 30 minutes. This means that
the planet has traveled a distance equal to its diameter in 30 minutes, so Rp =
vp Δt12 /2.
The velocity of the planet can be calculated knowing its orbital period and the
size of the orbit. We are given the mass of the star (M∗ = 1M ), so we use
Kepler’s Third Law a3 = GM∗ P 2 /(4π 2 ) to obtain
 1/3
2πa 2πGM∗
vp = =
P P
 1/3
2π(6.67 × 10−11 )(1.99 × 1030 )
=
32 days × 86, 400 s day−1
= 6.71 × 104 m s−1 = 67.1 km s−1 .

The radius of the star is thus

1
Rp = (67.1 km)(30 min × 60 s min−1 ) = 6.04 × 104 km = 0.86 RJupiter.
2

(b) What is the mass of the planet?

Using equation (12.21),
 2/3
MA 1/3
MB sin i = 11 M⊕ (P [yr]) (va sin i) ,
M

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SOLAR SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE 77

we solve for the mass of the planet. Since the system is eclipsing, we can also
assume that sin i ≈ 1, so we have
 2/3
M∗ 1/3
Mp = 11 M⊕ (P [yr]) (v∗ )
M
 1/3
32
= 11 (1) (65) M⊕
365.24
= 318 M⊕ ≈ 1 MJupiter.

(c) What is the semimajor axis of the planet’s orbit?

Since we already know M∗ = 1M , we can use the simple form of Kepler’s
Third Law,
 2/3
2/3 32 days
a = 1 (P, [yr]) AU = = 0.20 AU.
365.24 days yr−1

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78 CHAPTER 12. THE SOLAR SYSTEM IN PERSPECTIVE

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Chapter 13

Properties of Stars

13.1. What is the apparent magnitude of the Sun as seen from Mer-
cury at perihelion? What is the apparent magnitude of the Sun as
seen from Eris at aphelion?
Adapt equation (13.25) to calculate apparent magnitude,

mMerc − mEarth = 5 log (d/1 AU) ,

where mMerc is the apparent magnitude of the Sun as seen from Mercury, mEarth
is the apparent magnitude of the Sun as seen from Earth (mEarth = −26.75, from
section 13.2), and d is the distance between Mercruy and the Sun at perihelion.
From section 3.1, q = a(1 − e) = (1 − 0.206)0.387 = 0.307 AU. The apparent
magnitude from Mercury at perihelion is thus

mMerc = −26.75 + 5 log (0.307) = −29.31.

Carrying out a similar exercise for Eris at aphelion, d = Q = a(1 + e) =

67.9 AU(1 + 0.4362) = 97.5 AU,

mEris = mEarth + 5 log(d/1 AU) = −26.75 + 5 log(97.5) = −16.80 mag,

which is only four magnitudes brighter than the full Moon as seen from Earth.

13.2. Considering absolute magnitude M , apparent magnitude m,

and distance d or parallax π , compute the unknown for each of
these stars:
(a) m = −1.6 mag, d = 4.3 pc. What is M ?
Each following problem is a variation on equations (13.3), d = 1/π  , and (13.22),
m − M = 5 log d − 5. In this case, M = −1.6 + 5 − 5 log(4.3) = 0.23 mag.
(b) M = 14.3 mag, m = 10.9 mag. What is d?
   
m−M +5 10.9 − 14.3 + 5
d = dex = dex = 2.1 pc.
5 5

79

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80 CHAPTER 13. PROPERTIES OF STARS

(c) m = 5.6 mag, d = 88 pc. What is M ?

M = 5.6 + 5 − 5 log(88) = 0.88 mag.
(d) M = −0.9 mag, d = 220 pc. What is m?
m = −0.9 + 5 log(220) − 5 = 5.81 mag.
(e) m = 0.2 mag, M = −9.0 mag. What is d?
 
0.2 + 9.0 + 5
d = dex = 692 pc.
5

(f ) m = 7.4 mag, π  = 0.0043. what is M ?

M = m + 5 + 5 log(π  ) = 7.4 + 5 + 5 log(0.0043) = 0.57 mag.

13.3. What are the angular diameters of the following, as seen from
the Earth?
(a) The Sun, with radius R = 7 × 105 km.
Angular diameters are computed using
 
 D
θ = 206265θ(rad) = 206265 ,
d
where D is the diameter of the object and d is the distance to the object.
   o 
2 × 7 × 105 km  1
θ = 206265 = 1925 × = 0.53o .
1.5 × 10 km
8 3600

(b) Betelgeuse, with MV = −5.5 mag, mV = 0.8 mag, and R =

650 R .
First find the distance,
   
m−M +5 0.8 + 5.5 + 5
d = dex = dex = 182 pc
5 5
= 182 pc × 3.1 × 1013 km pc−1 = 5.64 × 1015 km.

The diameter of Betelgeuse is 2 × 650 R = 1300(6.96 × 105 km) = 9.1 × 108 km.
The angular diameter is
 
9.1 × 108
θ = 206265 = 0.033.
5.64 × 1015

(c) The galaxy M31, with R ≈ 30 kpc at a distance D ≈ 0.7 Mpc.

 
 60 kpc
θ = 206265 = 1.77 × 104 arcsec.
700 kpc

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PROPERTIES OF STARS 81

This measurement in degrees is

1o
θ = 1.77 × 104 arcsec × = 4.9o .
3600

(d) The Coma cluster of galaxies, with R ≈ 3 Mpc at a distance

D ≈ 100 Mpc.
 
6 Mpc
θ(arcsec) = 206265 = 1.24 × 104 arcsec = 3o.4.
100 Mpc
13.4. The Luyten 762-8 star system contains two stars, one with ap-
parent magnitude m = 12.5 and the other with m = 12.9. What is
the combined apparent magnitude of the two stars?
Fluxes (energy per second per unit area) are additive, not magnitudes. There-
fore you must first calculate the flux of the two stars using equation (13.16),
m = C − 2.5 log F . Since we will convert magnitudes to fluxes and then go
back to magnitudes, the constant C is arbitrary and we can set it equal to zero.
Converting the magnitudes to fluxes and adding, the combined flux from the
two stars is
Ftotal = 10−0.4(12.5) + 10−0.4(12.9)
and the combined apparent magnitude is then
 
m = −2.5 log 10−0.4(12.5) + 10−0.4(12.9) = 11.9 mag.

13.4. A cluster of stars contains 100 stars with absolute magnitude

M = 0.0, 1000 stars with M = 3.0, and 10,000 stars with M = 6.0.
What is the absolute magnitude of the cluster taken as a whole?
This is similar to the calculation in the last problem. Again, we add fluxes, with
the additional wrinkle of multiplying the flux from one star by the number of
stars with the same magnitude. Thus

m = −2.5 log N1 × 10−0.4m1 + N2 × 10−0.4m2 + N3 × 10−0.4m3
 
= −2.5 log 100 × 10−0.4(0.0) + 1000 × 10−0.4(3.0) + 104 × 10−0.4(6.0)
= −2.5 log [100 + 63.1 + 39.8] = −5.77 mag.

13.6. A visual binary has a parallax π  = 0.4 arcsec, a maximum

separation a = 6.0 arcsec, and an orbital period P = 80 yr. What is
the total mass of the binary system? Assume a circular orbit.
Equation (13.53) gives the total mass of a two-body system orbiting their mutual
center of mass,
4π 2 a3
MA + MB = .
G P2

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82 CHAPTER 13. PROPERTIES OF STARS

At any inclination, the maximum separation projects to the major axis, so

a = a d = a /π  = 6.0/0.4 = 15 AU. The total mass of the system is

4π 2 3
M = a
GP 2
 2   3
2π 1 a
=
P G π 
 2
2π
=
80 yr × (π × 107 ) s yr−1
 3
15 AU × 1.5 × 1011 m AU−1
×
6.67 × 10−11
= 1.07 × 10 kg,
30

or M = 0.53M.

13.7. The stars β Aurigae A and β Aurigae B constitute a double-lined

spectroscopic binary with an orbital period P = 3.96 days. The radial
velocity curves of the two stars have amplitudes vA sin i = 108 km s−1
and vB sin i = 111 km s−1 . If i = 90o , what are the masses of the two
stars?
Equation (13.67) allows us to compute the total mass of a two-body system
from their radial velocities, (MA + MB ) sin3 i = (vA sin i + vB sin i)3 P/(2πG).
We have the simplification that sin 90o = 1, so we can write
 
3.96 days × 86400 s day−1
3
MA + MB = −11
2.19 × 105 m s−1
2π × (6.67 × 10 )
8.57 × 1030 kg
= = 4.288 M.
2 × 1030 kg M −1
Use equation (13.62) to calculate the individual masses,
MB vA 108
= = = 0.973,
MA vB 111
so MB = 0.973 MA. Since MA + MB = 4.288 M,
4.288 M
MA = = 2.173 M.
(1 + 0.973)
Since MA = 1.028MB, we have MB = 2.115 M.

13.8. The star Procyon A has an effective temperature TA = 6530K

and a radius RA = 2.06R . Its companion Procyon B has a radius
RB = 0.0096R and an absolute bolometric magnitude Mbol,B =
12.9.
(a) What is the ratio of the two object’s luminosities?

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PROPERTIES OF STARS 83

We can use equation (13.81), L = 4πR2 σsb T 4 , to calculate the luminosity of

Procyon A,

LA = 4π(2.06 × 6.96 × 108 )2 (5.67 × 10−8 )(6530)4

2.66 × 1027 W
= = 6.93 L.
3.84 × 1026 W L−1


Since we are given the absolute bolometric magnitude for Procyon B, we use
equation (13.29) to calculate the luminosity,

L/L = 100.4(4.74−Mbol ) = 5.44 × 10−4 .

The ratio of the luminosities is LA /LB = 6.93/(5.44 × 10−4 ) = 1.28 × 104 .

(b) What is the ratio of their surface temperatures?
From equation (13.54),
 1/2  2
RB LB TA
= .
RA LA TB
Rearranging this to solve for the temperature ratio,
 1/4  1/2
TA LA RB
=
TB LB RA
 1/2
0.0096 R
= (1.27 × 10 ) 4 1/4
= 0.725
2.06 R
The surface temperature of Procyon B is thus
TA 6530
TB = = = 9000 K.
0.725 0.725
13.9. Astronomers often use the approximation that a 1% change
in brightness of a star corresponds to a change of 0.01 magnitudes.
Justify this approximation.
Start with equation (13.16) for two stars, m1 = C − 2.5 log F1 , and m2 =
C − 2.5 log(F1 + ΔF ). The magnitude of the second star can be written
  
ΔF
m2 = C − 2.5 log(F1 + ΔF ) = C − 2.5 log F1 1 +
F1
 
ΔF
= C − 2.5 log F1 − 2.5 log 1 +
F1
 
ΔF
= m1 − 2.5(log e) ln 1 + .
F1
For the final term above, we can use the expansion
x2 x3 x4
ln(1 + x) = x − + − + ....
2 3 4

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84 CHAPTER 13. PROPERTIES OF STARS

If x  1, i.e., ΔF  F1 , then we can retain the first term only, ln(1 + x) ≈ x,

so that the difference in magnitudes between the two stars is
 
ΔF ΔF
Δm = m2 − m1 = −2.5(0.4343) ln = −1.086 .
F1 F1

Since a difference in flux of 1% means ΔF/F1 = 0.01, Δm = (−1.089)(0.01) ≈

0.011 mag.

13.10. At visible wavelengths, what is the ratio of the flux of the full
Earth as seen from the Moon to the flux of the full Moon as seen
from the Earth? (Hint: the albedos of the Earth and the Moon are
given in Section 8.2.)
Since F ∝ A × R2 where A is the albedo and R is the radius, the ratio of the
fluxes is
2
FEarth AEarth R⊕
= 2
FMoon AMoon RMoon
  2
0.4 6378 km
= = (5.71)(13.5) = 77.
0.07 1737 km

Seen from the Moon, the full Earth is 77 times as bright as the full Moon as
seen from the Earth.

13.11. Prove that in an eclipsing binary system, the primary (deeper)

eclipse always occurs when the hotter (not necessarily the larger or
more luminous) star is eclipsed.
The flux from each star is proportional to R2 T 4 . Let us assume that R2 < R1 .
Then an eclipse of star 1 by star 2 decreases the total flux by the area of star
1 that is blocked by star 2, i.e., R2 T14 . Similarly an eclipse of star 2 by star
1 results in the loss of all the light from star 2, i.e., R2 T24 . The depth of each
eclipse is proportional to this decrease, so
 2  4  4
depth of eclipse of star 1 R2 T1 T1
∝ ∝ .
depth of eclipse of star 2 R2 T2 T2

If T1 > T2 then the eclipse of star 1 is primary. If T1 < T2 then the eclipse of
star 2 is primary. The hotter star is always the primary eclipse.

13.12. Show that for a blackbody at low temperatures, the relation

between the effective temperature and the B − V color is
7090 K
Teff ≈ .
(B − V ) + 0.71

(Hint: Use the Wien approximation, and assume λeff ,B = 4450 Å and

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PROPERTIES OF STARS 85

λeff ,V = 5500 Å.) This relation is a really lousy approximation at high

temperatures. Why?
Equation (13.84) gives the absolute V magnitude of a blackbody,
 
MV = CV − 2.5 log Lλ Sλ (V ) dλ .

Make the assumptions that (a) Sλ (V ) = δ(λ − λeff ) and (b) we can use the
Wien Law, Lλ ∝ exp (−hc/kT ) /λ5 . Using these two approximations we can
write equation (13.84) as

MV = CV − 2.5 log [exp (−XV (T ))] ,

where we have defined

hc 26, 160
XV (T ) = = .
kT λeff,V T

Thus  
26, 160
MV = CV + 1.0857 ,
T
where we have collected constant terms into the constant CV . Using the same
approach in the B band for which λeff,B = 4500 Å, we have
 
 32, 700
MB = CB + 1.0875 ,
T

where now
hc
XB (T ) = .
kT λeff,B
The color is thus

 1.0857 7100
B − V = CB − CV + [32, 700 − 26, 160] = C  + .
T T
By definition, at a temperature T = 10, 000 K, B − V = 0, which requires
C  = −0.71, thus yielding
7100
T = .
(B − V ) + 0.71

This is a poor approximation at high temperatures because Wien’s Law is now

longer an appropriate assumption at these wavelengths.

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86 CHAPTER 13. PROPERTIES OF STARS

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 14

Stellar Atmospheres

14.1. The star 9 Sagittarii is a main sequence star with spectral type
O5. Its apparent magnitude is mV = 6.0. What is the distance to 9
Sagittarii (ignoring any extinction by dust)?
Solve for the distance using equation (13.22), d = dex [0.2 (m − M + 5)]. Table
A.5 gives MV = −5.7 mag for the absolute magnitude of such a star, so d =
dex [0.2 (6.0 + 5.7 + 5)] = 2190 pc.

14.2. At the center of the Sun, the mass density is ρ = 1.52 × 105 kg
m−3 and the mean opacity is κ = 0.12 m2 kg−1 . What is the mean
free path for a photon at the Sun’s center?
Using equation (15.23),

1 1

 = = m = 5.6 × 10−5 m = 56 μm.
κρ (0.12)(1.5 × 105 )

14.3. Use the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium and the assumption

of constant density to compute approximate central pressures for each
of the following:
(a) a K0 V star (M = 0.8M, R = 0.85R )
(b) a K0 III star (M = 4M , R = 16R )
(c) a K0 I star (M = 13M , R = 200R )
Equation (10.17) gives the central pressure of an object as
2π 2
Pc = ρ GR2 ,
3
where ρ is the mean mass density of the object. Expressed in terms of mass,
ρ = 3M/(4πR3 ) so the the central pressure equation can be written as
 2  2
2πG 3M 3 M
Pc = = G .
3 4πR2 8π R2

87

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88 CHAPTER 14. STELLAR ATMOSPHERES

We can put this in solar units as well,

 2  −4  
−1 2
3 × 6.67 × 10−11 M R 1.99 × 1030 kg M
Pc = −1 2
8π M R (6.96 × 108 m R )
 2  −4
M R
= 1.34 × 1014 .
M R
Use this equation to solve for the three stars listed above.
(a) Pc = 1.34 × 1014 (0.8)2 (0.85)−4 = 1.65 × 1014 N m−2 .
(b) Pc = 1.34 × 1011 (4)2 (16)−4 = 3.28 × 1010 N m−2 .
(c) Pc = 1.34 × 1011 (13)2 (200)−4 = 1.42 × 107 N m−2 .

14.4. Show explicitly that if the Sun’s photosphere were not ionized,
its mean molecular mass would be μ ≈ 1.25.
In section 14.1, we calculated the number density of hydrogen, helium, and
metals in their fully ionized state within the Sun’s photosphere, Employing the
same logic here and assuming that they are all neutral, we have:
For hydrogen, n = ρ/mp . For helium, n = ρ/4mp . For metals, n = ρ/Amp . The
molecular weight for neutral particles is thus
 −1  −1
ρ nmp Y Z
μneutral = = = X+ +
nmp ρ 4 A

The value for A (A > 4) is large compared to the value for Z (0.016) so we can
simplify this equation to
 −1
Y
μneutral ≈ X + .
4
From section 14.1, X ≈ 0.734, and Y ≈ 0.25, so the mean molecular weight of
the Sun’s photosphere if it weren’t ionized would be
 −1
0.25
μneutral ≈ 0.734 + = (0.796)−1 ≈ 1.25.
4
14.5. When a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram is constructed from ob-
served data (as in Figure 14.2b), part of the width of the main se-
quence is due to errors in distance measurements. If a typical un-
certainty in parallax is 10%, in which direction and by how much (in
magnitudes) will stars typically be displaced from their true positions
on the H–R diagram?
Starting with L = 4πF r2 , we can write dL = 8πrF dr. Given that the typical
uncertainty in distance is 10%, the fractional error in distance is dr/r = 0.1,
and this translates to a fractional uncertainty in luminosity
dL 8πrF dr 2dr
= = = 2(0.1) = 0.20.
L 4πr2 F r

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STELLAR ATMOSPHERES 89

This is a random displacement in the vertical direction. From problem 13.9,

this translates to an uncertainty in absolute magnitude of ΔM ≈ 1.089dL/L ≈
0.22 mag. We expect that the main sequence will have a width of ∼ 0.2 magni-
tudes due to distance uncertainties alone.

14.6. How does surface gravity vary as a function of luminosity along

the main sequence?
The equation for the surface gravity of an object is g = GM/R2 . Using equation
(13.77) for the mass–radius relation,
R/R = 1.06(M/M)0.945 for M < 1.66M,
and
R/R = 1.33(M/M)0.555 for M > 1.66M.
We can also write the equation for surface gravity in solar units
 
GM M/M 6.67 × 10−11 × 1.99 × 1030 M/M
g = =
2
R (R/R ) 2 (6.96 × 10 )
8 2 (R/R )2
−2
= 274 (M/M ) (R/R ) m s−2 .
For the lower-mass range,
(M/M )(−2)(0.945)
g = 274(M/M) = 244(M/M )−0.89 m s−2 ,
1.062
and for the higher-mass range
(M/M )(−2)(0.555)
g = 274(M/M) = 155(M/M )−0.11 m s−2 .
1.332
14.7. Consider the two stars whose properties are described below:

Star V B−V MV Teff Spectral BC

(K) class
Betelgeuse 0.45 1.50 −0.60 3370 M2 Ib −1.62
Gliese 887 7.35 1.48 9.76 3520 M2 V −1.89
How much larger in radius is Betelgeuse than Gliese 887?
We are given enough information to calculate the bolometric magnitude of the
star using equation (13.37). For Betelgeuse, Mbol = MV + BC = −0.60 − 1.62 =
−2.22. Then using equation (13.28), we find the luminosity of Betelgeuse in solar
units, Mbol = 4.74 − 2.5 log(LB /L ). Thus
LB
= dex [−0.4(−2.22 − 4.74)] = 608.
L
Similarly, for Gliese 881, Mbol = 9.76 − 1.89 = 7.87, so
LG
= dex [−0.4(7.87 − 4.74)] = 0.056.
L

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90 CHAPTER 14. STELLAR ATMOSPHERES

Now using equation (13.54), the ratio of their radii is

 1/2  −2
LB LB Teff, B
=
LG LG Teff, G
 1/2  −2
608 3370
= = (104)(1.091)
0.056 3520
= 114.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 15

Stellar Interiors

15.1. What is the rate (in kilograms per second) at which the Sun is
currently converting hydrogen into helium?
The luminosity is the rate at which energy is produced, L = ηc2 (dm/dt), where
η = 0.007 is the efficiency. Thus

dm L 3.9 × 1026 W
= 2 = = 6 × 1011 kg s−1 .
dt ηc 0.007(3 × 108 )2

15.2. How much energy, in MeV, is produced per proton in the PP

chain?
The mass deficit for the reaction (equation 15.70)

4p →4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 2γ

is 4.58 × 10−29 kg. The energy produced is

4.58 × 10−29 × (3 × 108 )2 J

ΔE = Δmc2 = = 2.58 × 107 eV = 25.8 MeV.
1.6 × 10−19 J eV−1
Since it takes four protons to make this happen, the energy per proton is ΔEp =
ΔE/4 = 6.4 MeV. As a check, the fraction of the rest mass lost per proton is
6.4 MeV/938 MeV = 0.007, which is the value of the efficiency η used in problem
15.1.

15.3. Approximately half the original hydrogen in the Sun’s core has
now been converted to helium. Compute the mean molecular mass
μ (a) at the surface of the Sun, given standard abundances (X =
0.734, Y = 0.250, Z = 0.016), and (b) at the center of the Sun.
Equation (14.9) gives the mean molecular weight μ for a completely ionized gas,
 −1
3 1
μ(ionized) = 2X + Y + Z .
4 2

91

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92 CHAPTER 15. STELLAR INTERIORS

(a) For the given parameters at the surface of the Sun,

μ = [2(0.734) + 0.75(0.250) + 0.50(0.016)]−1 = 0.601.

(b) At the center of the Sun, X = X /2 = 0.367, Z = 0.016, and therefore

Y = 1 − X − Z = 0.617, so
−1
μ = [2(0.367) + 0.75(0.617) + 0.50(0.016)] = 0.830.

15.4. If a star has M = 100 M and L = 106 L , how long can it

shine at that luminosity if it started as pure hydrogen and is able to
convert all its H to He? If a star has M = 0.5 M and L = 0.1 L ,
how long can it shine under the same conditions?
We can calculate the energy that is available as E = ηmc2 = (0.007) × (100) ×
(1.99 × 1030 ) × (3 × 108 )2 = 1.25 × 1047 J, where η is the efficiency of the
process. The luminosity of the star in watts is L = 106 L = 106 (3.84 × 1026) =
3.84 × 1032 W. The amount of time that the star will shine is then simply

E 1.25 × 1047 J 3.26 × 1014 s

t= = = = 1.0 × 107 years = 10 Myr.
L 3.84 × 1032 J s−1 π × 107 s yr−1

For the second star, this calculation gives E = 0.007 × 0.5 × 1.99 × 1030 × (3 ×
108 )2 = 6.27 × 1044 J, and L = 0.1 × 3.84 × 1026 = 3.84 × 1025 W. Therefore

6.27 × 1044 1.63 × 1019 s

t= s = = 5.2 × 1011 yr = 520 Gyr.
3.84 × 1025 π × 107 s yr−1

15.5. Consider the Sun to be a sphere of uniform density that derives

its luminosity from steady contraction. What fractional decrease in
the Sun’s luminosity, δR/R, would be required over historical times
(say, the last 6000 years) to account for the Sun’s constant luminosity
over that period of time?
The energy that can be derived from steady contraction is the Sun’s gravita-
tional potential energy, which is given by equation (15.48)

GM2
q(6.67 × 10−11 )(1.99 × 1030 )2
U = −q = = q(3.80 × 1041 ) J.
R 6.96 × 108

For a sphere of uniform density q = 3/5, though for the actual Sun q ≈ 1.5.
The change in gravitational potential energy per unit time is thus

dU 1 dR −U dR
= qGM 2 = .
dt R dt R dt
Assuming the energy is converted to radiation,

−1 dU U dR
L= = ,
2 dt 2R dt

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STELLAR INTERIORS 93

which can be rearranged to

dR 2L 2(3.84 × 1026 )
= dt = dt.
R U q 3.80 × 1041

If we take q = 3/5 and dt = 6000 yr = 1.86 × 1011 s,

dR
= 6.3 × 10−4 ,
R
corrresponding to a decrease in the Sun’s radius dR = 6.3×10−4 R ≈ 440 km.

15.6. Suppose that the Sun is 100% carbon (coal, for instance) and
that burning this can extract 3 eV per carbon nucleus. How long, as-
suming an inexhaustible supply of oxygen from outside, could burning
carbon maintain the Sun’s current luminosity?
The mass of a carbon atom is mC = 12 × (1.67 × 10−27 ) = 2.0 × 10−26 kg. The
number of carbon atoms it would take to make one solar mass is
2 × 1030 kg
Nc = = 1056 nuclei.
2 × 10−26 kg/nucleus

Now if 3 eV is extracted from each nucleus, the total amount of available energy
is

E = 3eV/nucleus × 1056 nuclei × 1.6 × 10−19 J eV−1 = 4.8 × 1037 J.

The length of time the Sun could maintain its current luminosity by burning
carbon would be
E 4.8 × 1036 J 1.25 × 1011 s
t= = −1 = = 3980 yr.
L 3.84 × 10 J s
26 π × 107 s yr−1
15.7. On a clear day, Mount Fuji can be seen from central Tokyo,
100 km away. Under these conditions, what is the maximum possible
opacity κ of that atmosphere, in m2 kg−1 ? (Assume that the density
of air along the line of sight is ρ ≈ 1 kg m−3 .)
Use equation (15.23),
 = 1/κρ, where the mass density of air is ρ = 1 kg m−3
and the distance is  = 100 km or 105 m. If we can see at least 100 km, then
κ < 1/(
ρ) = 1/105 = 10−5 m2 kg−1 .

15.8. Under ideal conditions, scuba divers in clear tropical waters can
see objects as far as 50 m away. What is the opacity of the water?
This is nearly identical to the previous problem, though in this case we have

 ≈ 50 m, so κ = 1/(
ρ) = 1/(50 × 1000) = 2 × 10−5 m2 kg−1 .
By comparing this result with that of problem 15.7, it is seen that, per unit
mass, clear water is around twice as opaque as clear air.

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94 CHAPTER 15. STELLAR INTERIORS

15.9. In low-mass sequence stars, the opacity is due primarily to pho-

toionization of heavy elements. For this case, the opacity can be
approximated by Kramer’s law, which is written as

κ ∝ ρT −3.5.

Use the equations of stellar structure to show that this implies

L ∝ M 5.5 R−0.5 .

Using Kramer’s law in the radiative transport equation tells us

T 4R T 4R T 15/2 R
L∝ ∝ −7/2
= .
κρ ρ (T ) ρ ρ2

The equation for hydrostatic equilibrium and the equation of state (P ∝ ρT )

tell us
Mρ
P ∝ ∝ ρT,
R
so T ∝ M/R. Using this result in the first equation gives
 15/2
T 15/2 R M R M 11/2
L ∝= ∝ .
ρ2 R (M/R3 )2 R1/2
15.10. Suppose the mass density of a star as a function of radius is
  2 
r
ρ(r) = ρ0 1 − ,
R

where R is the radius of the star.

(a) Find the mass M of the star in terms of ρ0 and R.
We calculate the mass of the star by integrating its mass density over the volume
of the star. The mass enclosed out to a radius r is
 r  r 
r2
M (r) = ρ(r)4πr2 dr = 4πρ0 1 − 2 r2 dr
0 0 R
 r  r 
1
= 4πρ0 r2 dr − 2 r4 dr
0 R 0
 3 
r r5
= 4πρ0 − .
3 5R2
Integrating out to the star’s radius r = R, we have
 
3 5−3 8π
M = 4πρ0 R = ρ0 R 3 .
15 15

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STELLAR INTERIORS 95

(b) Find the mean density of the star in terms of ρ0 .

Using the result of part (a), the equation for mean density is
 
3M 3 8π 2

ρ = πR3 = 3
ρ 0 R 3
= ρ0 .
4 4πR 15 5

(c) Show that the central pressure of the star is

15 GM 2
Pc = .
16π R4

Use equation (15.74), the equation of hydrostatic equilibrium

−GM (r)ρ(r)
dP = dr,
r2
and integrate over the star. Thus,
 0  R  3   
r r5 r2 dr
dP = −Pc = −G 4πρ0 − ρ 0 1 −
Pc 0 3 5R2 R2 r 2
    
R
r R3 r2
= −4πGρ0 2
− 1 − 2 dr
0 3 5R2 R
  
1 R 1 R
= −4πGρ20 rdr − 2
r3 dr
3 0 5R 0
 R  R 
1 1
− 2 3
r dr + 5
r dr
3R 0 5R4 0
  2  4
2 1 R 1 R
= −4πGρ0 −
3 2 5R2 4
 4  6 
1 R 1 R
− 2 + 4
3R 4 5R 6
 
1 1 1 1
= −4πGρ0 R
2 2
− − +
6 20 12 30
1
= −4πGρ20 R2 .
15
So the central pressure is
 2
4π 2 2 4π 15 M 15 GM 2
Pc = Gρ0 R = GR2 = .
15 15 8π R3 16π R4

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96 CHAPTER 15. STELLAR INTERIORS

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 16

The Interstellar Medium

16.1. Compute R = AV /E(B − V ), the ratio of total to selective ab-

sorption, for the case of Rayleigh scattering, τ ∝ λ−4 . (This would
be appropriate if interstellar dust particles were very small compared
to the wavelength of visible light, like aerosols in the Earth’s atmo-
sphere.)
We can use equation (16.7) to calculate the color excess in terms of optical
depth,
 
τB
E(B − V ) = AB − AV = 1.086(τB − τV ) = AV −1 ,
τV
and we can then write
AV 1
R= = .
E(B − V ) (τB /τV ) − 1
For the particular case of Rayleigh scattering , we have τ ∝ λ−4 , which allows
us to express the optical depth in terms of the effective wavelengths for blue
(4450 Å) and visible (5500 Å) light. Thus
 4
τB 5500
∝ = 2.33,
τV 4450
and inserting this in the equation above gives R = 0.75 for the ratio of total to
selective absorption.

16.2. The Sun emits 5 × 1023 photons per second with hν > 13.6 eV.
If the density of hydrogen atoms in interplanetary space is n = 109
m−3 , what is the size of the Sun’s Strömgren sphere? Assume a
recombination coefficient α = 2.6 × 10−19 m3 s−1 .
We can use equation (16.19) to calculate the Sun’s Strömgren radius,
 1/3  1/3
3 Q∗ 3 5 × 1023
RS = = = 7.7 × 107 m.
4π α(Te ) n2e 4π 2.6 × 10−19 (109 )2

97

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98 CHAPTER 16. THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM

This is less than the radius of the Sun; the student should recognize this and
realize that the point-source approximation for the Sun is incorrect.

16.3. An A0 V star is observed to have mV = 14.0 and B − V = 1.5.

What is the distance to the star?
Since this is an A0 V star we automatically know that the intrinsic (B − V )0
color is equal to zero. The color excess is thus E(B − V ) = 1.5. Using R = 3.1
(section 16.1), equation (16.8) gives AV ≈ 3.1E(B − V ) = 3.1(1.5) = 4.65. We
can rearrange equation (16.5) to solve for the distance,

d = dex [0.2(m − M + 5 − A)]

= dex [0.2(14.0 − 0.65 + 5 − 4.65)]
= 550 pc

16.4. Dust grains made of graphite will sublime (that is, turn from
solid to gas) at a temperature T ≈ 1500 K. The albedo of graphite is
A ≈ 0.04.
(a) How close to an O5 V star (Teff = 42, 000 K, R = 12 R ) can
graphite grains survive?
We can apply equation (8.13) for the subsolar temperature to this problem,
 1/2
R∗
Tg = (1 − A)1/4 T∗ .
r

Solving for the distance gives

   2
r T∗
= (1 − A)1/2 .
R∗ Tg

For this particular case,

 2
r 42000
= (0.96)1/2 = 0.98(784) = 768,
12R 1500

and
r = 12R × 768 = 9216 R.

(b) How close to an M2 III star (Teff = 3540 K, R = 0.5 R ) can

graphite grains survive?
Applying new parameters to the same equation gives
 2
r 3540
= 0.980 = 0.98(5.57) = 5.46,
0.5R 1500

and thus r = 2.73 R .

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THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM 99

16.5. Demonstrate that equation (16.28) follows from equations (16.26)

and (16.27).
Equation (16.26) is
 ∞   ∞ −1

hν = kT∗ e−x dx e−x x−1 dx .
x0 x0

The integral in the numerator equals exp(−x0 ). The integral in the denominator
is the first exponential integral (equation 16.27) and for x0 1, we can expand
and keep the first two terms only so
 ∞ −x  
e e−x0 1
E1 (x0 ) = dx ≈ 1− .
x0 x x0 x0

Equation (16.26) becomes

kT∗ e−x0 x0

hν ≈
e−x0(1 − (1/x0 ))
≈ kT∗ x0 [1 + (1/x0 )]
= kT∗ [x0 + 1]
 
hν0
= kT∗ +1
kT∗
= hν0 + kT∗ ,

which is equation (16.28).

16.6. Suppose that two cold (T = 100 K) interstellar clouds of 1 M

each collide with a relative velocity v = 10 km s−1 , with all the
kinetic energy of the collision being converted into heat. What is the
temperature of the merged cloud after the collision? You may assume
the clouds consist of 100% hydrogen.
First we need to calculate the amount of kinetic energy that is released in the
collision. In the center of mass frame, the velocity of each cloud is 5 km s−1 .
The available kinetic energy from both clouds is

1 1
K = (Mtotal ) v 2 = (2M )(5km s−1 )
2 2
1

2
= 2 × 1.99 × 1030 5 × 103
2
= 4.98 × 1037 J.

The total number of hydrogen atoms within the two clouds is

2 M 2 × 1.99 × 1030 kg
= = 2.38 × 1057 .
mp 1.67 × 10−27 kg/atom

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100 CHAPTER 16. THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM

The kinetic energy available per atom is thus

4.98 × 1037
= = 2.09 × 10−20 J.
2.38 × 1057
The thermal energy per particle before the collision is 3kTbefore/2 ≈ 1.5 × 1.38 ×
10−23 (100) = 2.07 × 10−21 J. The thermal energy per particle after the collision
is the sum of the last two quantities,
3 3
kTafter = kTbefore +  = (2.07 × 10−21 ) + (2.09 × 10−20 ) = 2.3 × 10−20 J.
2 2
The final temperature of the 2 M hydrogen cloud is

2 × 2.3 × 10−20
Tafter = ≈ 1100 K.
3 × 1.38 × 10−23
16.6. In general, an F0 main sequence star has absolute magnitude
Mv = 2.7 and intrinsic color (B − V )0 = 0.30. A specific F0 main
sequence star is observed to have mV = 12.00 and mB = 12.56.
(a) What is the color excess E(B − V ) for this star?
We can find the color excess from equation (16.6),

E(B − V ) = (B − V ) − (B − V )0
= (12.56 − 12.00) − 0.30 = 0.26

(b) What is the extinction AV for this star? (Assume R = 3.1).

AV ≈ 3.1E(B − V ) = 3.1(0.26) = 0.81 mag.
(c) What is the distance to this star?

d = dex [0.2(m − M + 5 − A)]

= dex [0.2(12 − 2.7 + 5 − 0.81]
= 500 pc.

(d) What distance would you have computed if you had ignored ex-
tinction?
If we had ignored extinction, then our distance equation would have been

d = dex[0.2(m − M + 5)] = dex[0.2(12 − 2.7 + 5)] = 724 pc.

16.8. Consider the H II region surrounding an O6 V star, as described

at the end of section 16.3.1.
(a) What is the recombination time in this H II region?
Equation (16.13) gives the recombination time for an electron to recombine with
a proton,
1
trec = ,
np σrec ve

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THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM 101

where σrec ve = α(Te ) ≈ 2.6 × 10−19 m3 s−1 . The electron density is ne =

107 m−3 , so

1 5 × 1011 s
τrec = = = 1.6 × 104 yrs.
2× 10−19 × 107 π × 107 s yr−1

(b) What is the light travel time across the H II region?

The radius of the Strömgren sphere is RS = 10 pc, so the light-travel time across
it is
2RS 20 pc × 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1
tlt = = = 67 years.
c 3 × 108 m s−1 × π × 107 s yr−1

16.9. We observe an interstellar cloud, with temperature T = 80 K

and neutral hydrogen density nH = 108 m−3 , at a distance d = 100 pc.
Suppose that the cloud is spherical and that the column density of
neutral hydrogen atoms through its middle is NH = 1.5 × 1024 m−2 .
(a) What is the diameter of the cloud?
The column density N is the integral of the particles over the path, N =
n dx = nd, assuming a constant density. Thus

N 1.5 × 1024
d= = = 1.5 × 1016 m = 0.48 pc.
n 108

(b) How many neutral hydrogen atoms are in the cloud?

The volume of the cloud is
 3
4π d π
V = = d3 = 1.8 × 1048 m3 .
3 2 6

The number of atoms is nV = 108 × 1.8 × 1048 = 1.8 × 1056 atoms.

(c) What is the mass of the cloud (in units of M )?

M = 1.8 × 1056 atoms × 1.67 × 10−27 kg/atom = 2.9 × 1029 kg = 0.15 M.

(d) If 75% of the atoms are in the higher-energy parallel state, how
many 21 cm photons are emitted per second by the cloud?
The number of photons emitted per second is Nγ = Natoms × g2 A21 , where
g2 = 3 (since we are given that 75% are in the upper state and the remaining
25% must be in the lower state so that g1 = 1) and A21 = 2.87 × 10−15 s−1 .
Thus,

Nγ = (1.8 × 1056 )(3)(2.87 × 10−15 ) = 1.55 × 1042 photons s−1 .

(e) What is the luminosity of the cloud in 21 cm photons (in units of

L )?

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102 CHAPTER 16. THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM

hc 6.625 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

L = Nγ hν = Nγ = 1.55 × 1042 ×
λ 0.21
1.47 × 1018 W −9
= = 3.8 × 10 L .
3.84 × 1026 W L −1

(f ) What is the flux in 21 cm photons as seen from Earth?

L 1.47 × 1018
F = = = 1.2 × 10−20 W m−2 .
4πr 2 4π(3.1 × 1018 )2

16.10. When observing a star behind the interstellar cloud described

in problem (16.9), we detect absorption in the Na I λ = 5889.973 Å
line. What is the thermal broadening, Δλ/λ0 , of this absorption
line? What is the thermal broadening of the same line in the solar
spectrum?
For sodium, μ = 23. From equation (5.51),
 1/2  1/2
Δλ T 80
= 3 × 10−7 = 3 × 10 −7
= 5.6 × 10−7 .
λ μ 23

So for λ = 5890 Å, Δλ = 3.3 × 10−3 Å. In the Sun, T = 5800 K, so Δλ/λ =
4.7 × 10−6 , and Δλ = 0.028 Å.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 17

Formation and Evolution of

Stars

17.1. A protostellar cloud starts as a sphere of radius R = 4000 AU

and temperature T = 15 K. If it emits blackbody radiation, what is
its total luminosity? What is the wavelength λp at which it emits the
most radiation?
Total luminosity is given by
L = 4πR2 σTeff
4

2

5.67 × 10−8 (15)
4
= 4π 4000 × 1.5 × 1011
= 1.3 × 1028 W ≈ 3 L .
Wien’s Law (equation 8.4) gives the wavelength of peak emission,
2900 μm 2900μm
λp = = = 193 μm.
T 15
17.2. A Cepheid star in the Large Magellanic Cloud is observed
to have an average apparent magnitude m̄V = 11.80 and a period
P = 95 days. Compute the distance to the Large Magellanic Cloud,
ignoring any effects due to dust.
Compute the absolute magnitude of a Cepheid with a period of 95 days from
equation (17.25),
 
P (days)

MV  = −2.76 log − 4.16
10
 
95
= −2.76 log − 4.16 = −6.86.
10
The distance is now easily computed,
d = dex [0.2(
m −
M  + 5)]

103

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104 CHAPTER 17. FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF STARS

= dex [0.2[11.80 + 6.86 + 5]

= 5.4 × 104 pc
= 54 kpc.

17.3. Consider two clouds in the interstellar medium. A molecular

(H2 ) cloud has T = 10 K and n = 1012 m−3 ; a neutral atomic (H)
cloud has T = 120 K and n = 107 m−3
(a) What is the Jeans mass for each of the two clouds?
(b) What is the minimum radius each cloud must have to collapse?
(c) What is the timescale for the gravitational collapse of each cloud?

Equation (17.12) gives the Jeans length,

 1/2
3πγkT
rJ =
32Gρ0 μmp
 1/2  1/2
3πk γT
=
32GMp μρ0
 1/2
γT
= 6 × 106 m,
μρ0

and the corresponding Jeans mass is

 1/2
4π 3 γT −1/2
MJ = ρr = 9 × 1020 ρ0 kg.
3 J μ

Equation (17.7) gives the free-fall timescale

 1/2
3π 6.6 × 104 s
tff = = 1/2
.
32Gρ0 ρ0

In the case of the molecular cloud H2 , γ = 7/5, μ = 2, and T = 10 K, and the

mass density is

ρ0 = μmp n
= 2 × 1.67 × 10−27 × 1012
= 3.3 × 10−15 kg m−3 .

The Jeans length, Jeans mass, and freefall time are, respectively,

rJ = 2.8 × 1014 m ≈ 2000 AU.

MJ = 2.9 × 1029 kg ≈ 0.15 M.

teff = 1.1 × 1012 s ≈ 3.7 × 104 yr.

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FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF STARS 105

For the atomic hydrogen cloud, γ = 5/3, μ = 1, and T = 120 K, so the mass
density is ρ0 = μmp n = 1.67 × 10−20 kg m−3 . The Jeans length, Jeans mass,
and freefall time are, respectively,

rJ = 6.5 × 1017 m ≈ 22 pc.

MJ = 2 × 1034 kg ≈ 104 M .
teff = 5.1 × 1014 s ≈ 1.6 × 107 yr.
17.4. In this problem, you will estimate the duration of the horizontal
branch phase in a 1 M star.
(a) Compute the energy released in the net triple alpha reaction 34 He
→12 C. The masses of 4 He and 12 C are 4.0026 amu and 12.0000 amu,
respectively, where 1 amu (atomic mass unit) = 1.6606 × 10−27 kg.
The energy per reaction is

E = Δmc2 = [(3 × 4.0026) − 12] mp c2

7.8 × 10−3 mp c2
= = 7.3 MeV
938 MeV

(b) Assume that at the beginning of the horizontal branch phase, 10%
of the original mass of the star is in the form of 4 He in the stellar
core. Estimate the total energy released by fusing this amount of
helium into carbon via the triple alpha process.
If 10% of mass available as He, M = 0.1 M . The number of He nuclei is thus

0.1 M 0.1 × 1.99 × 1030

NHe = = = 3 × 1055 nuclei.
4mp 4 × 1.67 × 10−27

The number of reactions is the number of nuclei divided by three nuclei per
triple-alpha reaction, i.e., 1055 . At 7.3 MeV per reaction, the total energy
available is
106 eV
E = 7.3 MeV × 1055 × 1.6 × 10−19 J eV−1 = 1.2 × 1043 J.
MeV

(c) Assume that during the horizontal branch phase, L = 100 L . If

all this luminosity is provided by fusion of helium to carbon in the
core, how long will the horizontal branch phase last?

E 1.2 × 1043 J 1
Δt = = −1 × = 9.7 × 106 yrs.
L 100 × 3.84 × 10 J s
26 π × 107 s yr−1
17.5. Make an order-of-magnitude estimate of the length of the
protostar phase for the Sun.

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106 CHAPTER 17. FORMATION AND EVOLUTION OF STARS

U GM 2
t ∼ ∼
L RL
6.67 × 10−11 (2 × 1030 )2
∼
(7 × 108 )(4 × 1026 )
9.5 × 1014 s
∼
π × 107 s yr−1
∼ 3 × 107 yr ∼ 30 Myr.

17.6. What is the thermal energy density, in joules per cubic me-
ter, of a typical giant molecular cloud? What is the thermal energy
density of the Earth’s atmosphere at sea level?
The kinetic energy per particle is K = 3kT /2. From the text, typical properties
of giant molecular clouds are T ∼ 10 K and n ∼ 109 m−3 . The thermal energy
density  of the cloud is thus
   
particles 3 J
ε = n × kT
m3 2 particle
= 109 × (1.5) × 1.38 × 1023 (10)
= 2 × 10−13 J m−3

For comparison, Earth’s atmosphere at sea level (using parameters from section
17.1) has n ∼ 1025 particles m−3 and T ≈ 290 K so the thermal energy density
is ε = 1025 × (1.5)1.38 × 1023 (290) ∼ 6 × 104 J m−3 . You should compare this
to the result problem 7.2, in which the energy density at the base of the Sun’s
photosphere is calculated.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 18

Stellar Remnants

18.1. What would be the rotation period of the Sun if it collapsed to

a radius R = 6000 km without losing angular momentum?
Rotational angular momentum L = Iω is conserved. We’ll take the moment of
inertia to be that of a constant density sphere,
2
I= M R2 .
5
The Sun’s rotational angular momentum currently and after contraction to a
radius rfinal is
2 2 2π 2 2 2π
L = M R = M rfinal .
5 P 5 Pfinal
Solving for the rotational period after contraction,
 2
rfinal
Pfinal = P
R
 2
6000
= 30 days × 86, 400 s day−1
6.96 × 105
= (7.43 × 10−5 ) 2.6 × 106 sec
= 193 s.

18.2. What is the radius of a 1.5 M neutron star, expressed as a

fraction of its Schwarzschild radius?
Using equation (18.41) for the radius of a neutron star,
 −1/3
1.5
RNS ≈ ≈ 10.7 km,
1.4
and equation (18.54) for the Schwarzschild radius,
 
M
Rsch = 3 km = 4.5 km.
M

107

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108 CHAPTER 18. STELLAR REMNANTS

Thus RNS = 2.39Rsch.

18.3. A star reaches “break-up” speed when it rotates so rapidly that

the centrifugal acceleration at its equator equals the surface gravity
g. Estimate the rotation period of a white dwarf rotating at break-up
speed. (You may ignore any deformations of the white dwarf from a
spherical shape.)
The equatorial rotation speed of the star is
2πR
v= .
P
The condition for stability is that v 2 < GM/R, so

4π 2 R2 GM
v2 = < .
P2 R
Rearranging to put a limit on the rotational period and writing the mass in
terms of the density M = 4πρR3 /3,

4π 2 R3
P2 >
GM
4π 2 3 R3 3π
= = .
G 4π ρR3 Gρ
Thus the stability condition is
 1/2
3π
P >
Gρ
 1/2
3π
=
6.67 × 10−11 × 2 × 109
= 8.4 s,

where we have used the density from equation (18.1), ρ = 2 × 109 kg m−3 .

18.4. What is the mean density of a 1.5 M neutron star? A carbon

nucleus has a radius r ≈ 3 × 10−15 m; what is its density? What is
the ratio of the two densities?
Equation (18.41) gives the radius of a neutron star,
 −1/3
MNS
RNS = 11 km ,
1.4M
and the density is
3M 3 × 1.5 × 1.99 × 1030
ρ = =
4πR 3 4π(1.07 × 104 )3
= 5.8 × 1017 kg m−3 .

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

STELLAR REMNANTS 109

The mass of a 12 C nucleus is M = 12 × 1.67 × 10−27 = 2 × 10−26 kg and its

radius is given as r = 3 × 1015 m. The density of the nucleus is thus

3 × 2 × 10−26
ρC = = 1.18 × 1017 kg m−3 ,
4π(3 × 10−15 )3

so the ratio of the two is

ρNS
= 4.9.
ρC
18.5. Suppose that a supernova explosion results in the outer 4M of
the dying star being ejected at a speed v = 5000 km s−1 .
(a) What is the kinetic energy of the expanding ejecta?
The kinetic energy is

1
K = M v2
2
1
 m 2
= × 4 × 1.99 × 1030 kg 5 × 106
2 s
= 1044 J.

(b) The ejecta are slowed by sweeping up the local interstellar gas.
Assuming the density of the interstellar gas is ρ = 2 × 10−19 kg m−3 ,
how large a volume will be swept up by the time the outflow velocity
has decreased to 10 km s−1 ? (Hint: you may assume that the kinetic
energy of expansion is conserved.)
If we assume that all of this kinetic energy is transferred to the surrounding gas,
then
1 2
ρv × V = K,
2
where V is the volume. If we assume that the volume is spherical (V = 4πR3 /3),
then the radius of the volume is
 1/3  1/3
3 2K 3 2 × 1044 J 1.3 × 1018 m
R= = = = 43 pc.
4π ρv 2 4π 2 × 10−19 (104 )2 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1

18.6. Photons leaving the surface of a compact stellar remnant are

gravitationally redshifted by an amount

Δν rSch
≈− ,
ν0 2r

where rSch is the Schwarzschild radius of the remnant and r is its

actual radius. Calculate the gravitational redshift, in angstroms, for
the Hβλ4861 line of hydrogen from a 1M white dwarf. How can we
distinguish this gravitational redshift from a possible Doppler shift
due to the motion of the white dwarf ?

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110 CHAPTER 18. STELLAR REMNANTS

Equation (18.17) gives the mass–radius relationship for white dwarfs,

 −1/3
M
RWD = 0.01R .
0.7M
For M = 1M , this gives RWD = 8.88 × 10−3 R . The Schwarzschild radius is
given by equation (18.54), Rsch = 3 km. The ratio of these radii is
Rsch 3 km
= = 4.85 × 10−4 .
RWD 8.88 × 10−3 × 6.96 × 105 km
The gravitational redshift is therefore
Δλ Δν Rsch
≈ = = 4.85 × 10−4 ,
λ ν R
or, for the Hβ line, Δλ = 2.36 Å. A gravitational redshift can be easily distin-
guised from radial velocity if the white dwarf is in a binary system.

18.7. On a plot of log T versus log ρ, where T is temperature and

ρ is mass density, plot the line along which the thermal pressure
of an ideal gas is equal to the pressure provided by nonrelativistic
degenerate electrons. (You may assume that all factors of order unity,
including the mean molecular mass μ, are exactly equal to one.) Label
the “degenerate” and “nondegenerate” regimes. Which regime does
the center of the planet Jupiter (ρ ≈ 3000 kg m−3 , T ≈ 40, 000 K) fall
into?
The equation of state for non-relativistically degenerate material is given by
equation (18.11),
h̄2 5/3 h̄2 ρ5/3
Pdegen = ne = .
me me (μmp )5/3
The equation of state for non-degenerate gas is the ideal gas law, equation
(18.10),
ρ
Pthermal = kT.
μmp
The dividing line between degenerate and non-degenerate gas can be estimated
by equating these two to obtain
ρkT h̄2 ρ5/3
= .
μmp me (μmp )5/3
Rearranging this to solve for T (ρ),
h̄2 ρ2/3
T =
me k (μmp )2/3
(1.055 × 10−34 )2 ρ2/3
=
9.1 × 10−31× 1.38 × 10−23 (1.67 × 10−27 )2/3
 2/3
ρ
= 6.297 × 102 ,
μ

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STELLAR REMNANTS 111

or in a convenient form for plotting,

2 ρ
log T = 2.8 + log .
3 μ
For Jupiter, log ρ = 3.48, so this equation predicts log T = 5.12. In fact, the
core of Jupiter is actually at log T = 4.60, so the core of Jupiter is degenerate,
but only slightly so.

non−degenerate
10
log T

degenerate
5
Jupiter

5 10 15
log ρ

Figure 18.1: The line shows where the equation of state for an ideal gas equals
that of a degenerate gas. The position of Jupiter’s core is also shown.

18.8. The speed of sound can generally be written as

 
P 1/2
cs = γ ,
ρ
where P is the pressure, ρ is the mass density, and γ is the adiabatic
index (a number of order unity). Show that within a white dwarf,
the typical sound speed is
 1/2  
G2 me m3p M 2/3
cs ∼
h̄2 mp

and the sound crossing time is

 1/2
R h̄3 me 1
t∼ ∼ .
cs G2 m2e m2p mp M

What is the shortest possible sound crossing time for a white dwarf ?
How does this timescale compare to the shortest known pulsar peri-
ods?

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112 CHAPTER 18. STELLAR REMNANTS

1/2
Since γ ≈ 1, the speed of sound is cs ∼ (P/ρ) . Using equation (18.35),
2 5/3
h̄ ρ
P ∼ ,
me m5/3
p

we can write  1/2

P h̄ ρ1/3
∼ 1/2 5/6
.
ρ me mp
Now using equation (18.17)
 −1/3
h̄2 M
RWD ∼ ,
GMe m2p mp
we can combine this with ρ1/3 ∼ M 1/3 R−1 to obtain
   1/3  1/3
2
h̄ 1/3
GM e m p M mp
cs = M
1/2 5/6
me mp h̄2 mp mp
1/2 3/2  2/3
me mp G M
=
h̄ mp
 1/2  2/3
G2 me m3p M
= ,
h̄2 mp
as was to be shown. Numerically this is

2

3 1/2  2/3
6.67 × 10−11 9.1 × 10−31 1.67 × 10−27 M
cs =
(1.05 × 10−34 )2 mp
 
6.67 × 10−11
1/2
3/2
= −34
9.1 × 10−31 1.67 × 10−27
1.05 × 10
 2/3  2/3
1.99 × 1030 M
×
1.67 × 10−27 M
 2/3  2/3
M M
= 4.65 × 10 6 −1
m s = 4.65 × 10 3
km s−1 .
M M
To solve for the sound-crossing time,
R
tsound ∼
cs
 −1/3  −2/3
h̄2 M h̄ M
∼
Gme m2p mp 1/2 3/2
Gme mp mp
 3   
h̄ mp 1
∼ 2 1/2 3/2
G me m2p me mp M
 1/2
h̄3 me 1
∼ .
G2 m2e m2p mp M

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STELLAR REMNANTS 113

Numerically, this is

3
1.05 × 10−34
t = 2
[(6.67 × 10−31 ) (9.1 × 10−31 ) (1.67 × 10−27 )]
 1/2  −1
9.1 × 10−31 1 M
×
1.67 × 10−27 1.99 × 1030 M
 −1
M
= 1.33 s.
M

This is still larger than the rotational period of any known pulsar.

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114 CHAPTER 18. STELLAR REMNANTS

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 19

Our Galaxy

19.1 A star at rest with respect to the LSR is 60o away from the solar
apex. The star’s parallax is π  = 15 milliarcseconds (mas). What are
its radial velocity and proper motion? In what direction is the proper
motion, relative to the solar apex?

Figure 19.1: If a star is stationary relative to the LSR, then its space velocity is
the opposite of the Sun’s peculiar velocity relative to the LSR. In the diagram,
−V is the space velocity of the star, vr is its radial velocity, and vt is its
tangential velocity. The star is located at an angle λ from the solar apex.

Since the star is at rest with respect to the LSR, its motion is just the reverse
of the Sun’s motion, i.e., its space velocity is the opposite of the Sun’s peculiar
velocity, V = −V  and |V | = 19.5 km s−1 . From Figure 19.1, the tangential
velocity is vt = V sin λ = 16.9 km s−1 and the radial velocity is vr = V cos λ =

115

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116 CHAPTER 19. OUR GALAXY

−9.8 km s−1 . The proper motion is thus

vt π  (16.9)(0.15)
μ= = = 0.53 yr−1 .
4.74 4.74
The radial velocity vr is negative, i.e., towards the observer, and the proper
motion μ is directed away from the solar apex.

19.2 Suppose the Milky Way consisted of 2.7 × 1011 stars, each of
solar luminosity, MB = 4.7. What would be the absolute magnitude
of the whole Galaxy?
We can use equation (13.16) and ignore the zero-point since we’ll convert back
to magnitudes immediately. Thus LB = 2.7 × 1011 × dex[−0.4(4.7)] and Mtot =
−2.5 log LB = −23.9 mag.
We note that actually MB = 5.47 mag for the Sun. The value given in the
question is closer to the bolometric magnitude Mbol, = 4.74 mag. Using the
correct value MB = 5.47 mag, we find LB = 2.7 × 1011 × dex[−0.4(5.47)] and
Mtot = −2.5 log LB = −22.8 mag.

19.3. Show that in the case of Keplerian orbits with a centrally con-
centrated mass (that is, M (r) = constant),
A−B
=2.
A+B
Does this agree with the observationally determined values of A and
B for the Galaxy?
We start with the definitions of the Oort constants,
−R0 dω 
A= 
2 dR R=R0
and
B = A − ω0 .
For Keplerian rotation, the orbital speed is
 1/2
GM
Θ= ,
R
so the angular speed is
1/2
Θ (GM )
ω= = .
R R3/2
Differentiating this with respect to R gives
 
dω 3 −5/2
= (GM ) 1/2
− R
dR 2
3 (GM )1/2 3ω0
= − 3/2
=− .
2R R 2R0

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OUR GALAXY 117

Referring back to the definitions of the Oort constants,

A+B A + (A − ω0 )
=
A−B A − A + ω0
2A − ω0 2A
= = − 1,
ω0 ω0
and  
−R0 3 ω0 3
A= − = ω0 ,
2 2 R0 4
so  
2A 2 3 3
= ω0 = .
ω0 ω0 4 2
Therefore
A+B 3 1
= −1= ,
A−B 2 2
or
A−B
= 2.
A+B
The observed values A = 14.8 km s−1 kpc−1 and B = −12.4 km s−1 kpc−1 give
A−B 14.8 + 12.4
= ≈ 11,
A+B 14.8 − 12.4
in substantial disagreement with the prediction. We conclude that Keplerian
approximation is poor at the location of the Sun in the Galaxy.

19.4. Derive equation (19.49), starting from equation (19.42).

Equation (19.42) is vt = (ω − ω0 )R0 cos  − ωd. For ω ≈ ω0 , we can approximate
to first order
dω dω
ω − ω0 ≈ (R − R0 ) ≈ − d cos ,
dR dR
where in the second step we have used the approximation R − R0 ≈ −d cos ,
which is valid for d  R0 . Equation (19.42) thus becomes
 
dω
vt = −R0 d cos2  − ωd.
dR

Since cos2  = (1 + cos 2)/2, we can write this as

 
dω d
vt = −R0 (1 + cos 2l) − ω0 d
dR 2
     
R0 dω R0 dω
= d − − ω0 + − d cos 2
2 R 2 dR
= d (A cos 2l + B) ,

where we let B = A − ω0 , giving us equation (19.49).

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118 CHAPTER 19. OUR GALAXY

19.5. Determine the proper motion relative to the LSR for a star in
a circular orbit about the Galactic center, at a distance d = 5 kpc
from the Sun and at galactic longitude  = 45o . [Hint: the Galaxy’s
rotation curve is given in Figure 19.19.]
Referring to Figure 19.15 in the text, the law of cosines gives us R2 = R02 + d2 −
2R0 d cos , where R0 = 8.5 kpc, d = 5 kpc, and  = 45o . Therefore
 1/2
R = (8.5)2 + (5)2 − 2(8.5)(5) cos 45o kpc = 6.1 kpc.

From Figure 19.19, we see that Θ = 225 km s−1 at R ≈ 6 kpc. Again using the
law of cosines and Figure 19.15,

R02 = R2 + d2 − 2Rd cos(90o + α)

= R2 + d2 − 2Rd sin α.

Therefore,
R02 − R2 − d2 (8.5)2 − (6.1)2 − (5)2
sin α = = = 0.17,
2Rd 2(6.1)(5)
or α = 9o.6. Now using equation (19.38),

vt = Θ(R) sin α − Θ cos 

= 225(0.17) − 220 cos(45o ) = −117 km s−1 .

The proper motion is thus

vt −117
μ= = = 4.9 mas yr−1 .
4.74d (4.74)(5 × 103 )

19.6. The star Rigel has a radial velocity vr = 20.7 km s−1 , parallax
π  = 4.22 mas, and proper motion components μα = 1.67 mas yr−1
in right ascension and μδ = 0.56 mas yr−1 in declination. What are
its total proper motion, tangential velocity, and space motion?
The magnitude of the proper motion of Rigel is μ = (μ2α + μ2δ )1/2 = (1.672 +
0.562 )1/2 = 1.76 mas yr−1 . Its tangential velocity is
μ 4.74(1.76 × 10−3 )
−1
vt = 4.74 km s = = 2.0 km s−1 .
π  4.22 × 10−3
The space velocity of Rigel is

1/2  1/2
V = vr2 + vt2 = (20.7)2 + (2.0)2 km s−1 = 20.8 km s−1 .

19.7. Derive the relation

A+B dΘ  Θ
=− ,
A−B dR R

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OUR GALAXY 119

starting with the definitions of the Oort constant A and B.

 
−R0 dω 
A= 
2 dR R=R
Differentiate the equation ω = Θ/R to obtain
 
dω d Θ 1 dΘ Θ
= = −
dR dR R 2 dR R2 .
The first equation can then be written as
   
−R0 1 dΘ Θ0 1 Θ0 dΘ
A= − 2 = − .
2 R0 dR R0 2 R0 dR0
Turning to the definition of the other Oort constant,
   
1 Θ0 dΘ 2Θ0 1 dΘ0 Θ0
B = A − ω0 = − − =− + .
2 R0 dR0 R0 2 dR R0
The sum of the two Oort constants is thus
 
1 Θ0 dΘ0 dΘ0 Θ0 dΘ
A+B = − − − =− ,
2 R0 dR0 dR R0 dR
and the difference between them is
 
1 Θ0 dΘ dΘ0 Θ0 Θ
A−B = − + + = .
2 R0 dR0 dR0 R0 R
The ratio of the sums to the differences is therefore
A+B dΘ  Θ
=− .
A−B dR R
19.8. Assume that a galaxy is spherical. What radial dependence of
the mass density ρ(R) gives a flat rotation curve (that is, Θ(R) =
constant)? In this case, how does the enclosed mass M (R) vary with
radius R?
The rotation curve v(R) depends on the enclosed mass M (R) as
 1/2
GM (R)
v(R) = ,
R
and the enclosed mass is given by
 R
M (R) = 4π ρ(r)r2 dr.
0

Assume that the density function is a power law of the form ρ = Cr−α . Then
 R
4πC 3−α
M (R) = 4πC r2−α dr = R ,
0 3−α

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120 CHAPTER 19. OUR GALAXY

except for the case α = 3. If v(R) is a constant, then M (R)/R must be a

constant, so
R3−α
= R2−α
R
requires that α = 2 or ρ ∝ R−2 . Thus M (R) ∝ R gives a flat rotation curve.

19.9. The Perseus spiral arm of the Galaxy can be traced from R =
4 kpc from the Galactic center to R = 12 kpc. Using the rotation
curve in Figure 19.19 determine how long it takes for the stars at the
inner end of the Perseus arm to gain one full orbit on stars at the
outer end.
This is analgous to computing a synodic period,
 −1
1 1
S= − ,
P4 kpc P12 kpc

where P = 2πR/Θ. Inspection of Figure 19.19 shows that at R = 4 kpc, Θ =

210 km s−1 . At R = 12 kpc, Θ = 225 km s−1 . Therefore

4 × 103 pc × 3.1 × 1013 km pc−1

P4 kpc = 2π ×
210 km s−1 × π × 107 s yr−1
= 1.18 × 108 yr = 118 Myr

Similarly,

2π × 12 × 103 pc × 3.1 × 1013 km pc−1

P12 kpc =
225 km s−1 × π × 107 s yr−1
= 3.31 × 108 yr = 331 Myr.

The time it takes the inner arm to gain one full rotation on the outer arm is
thus  −1
1 1
S= − Myr = 183 Myr.
118 331
19.10. The star S0-2, of spectral class B1 V, orbits the central black
hole at the Galactic center on an orbit with semimajor axis a =
920 AU and eccentricity e = 0.867.
(a) What is the star’s distance from the black hole at pericenter?
The closest approach to to the black hole is q = a(1 − e) = 920(1 − 0.867) AU =
122 AU.
(b) How close does the star get to the Roche limit?
Use equation (4.32),
 1/3
2M
rR ∼ Δr,
M

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OUR GALAXY 121

where in this context M is the black hole mass, m is the mass of the star S0-
2, and Δr is the radius of S0-2. From Table A.5, we roughly estimate that
M ≈ 15M and R ≈ 7R for a B1 main sequence star, so that
 1/3
2 × 3.7 × 106 M

rR = 7 × 6.96 × 105 km
15M
= (79) 4.87 × 106 km
3.85 × 108 km
= = 2.6 AU.
1.5 × 108 km AU−1
This is comfortably away far from the black hole, since
q 122 AU
= ≈ 48.
rR 2.6 AU

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Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 20

Galaxies

20.1. At what distance (and at what redshift) does an object 1 kpc

across subtend an angle of 1 arcsecond?
An object of diameter D at distance d subtends an angle
D θ(arcsec)
θ(rad) = = ,
d 206265
so
D 206265 1 kpc × 206265 × 10−3 Mpc kpc−1
d= = = 206 Mpc.
θ(arcsec) 1
Using the Hubble law,
cz 3 × 105 km s−1 (z)
d= = = 4.29 × 103 (z)Mpc.
H 70 km s−1 Mpc−1
Solving for the redshift, we have
206
z= = 0.048.
4.29 × 103
20.2. The Ca II ‘H’ and ‘K’ lines have rest wavelengths of λ0 =
3968.5 Å and 3933.6 Å respectively. In the spectrum of a galaxy in the
cluster Abell 2065 (a.k.a. the Corona Borealis Cluster), the observed
wavelengths of the two lines are λ = 4255.0 Å and 4217.6 Å.
(a) What is the redshift z of the galaxy?
The redshift is z = (λ − λ0 )/λ0 , or z = (λ/λ0 ) − 1, where λ is the observed
wavelength and λ0 is the laboratory, or rest, wavelength. We compute the
redshift from both lines. For Ca ii λ3933 ( the ‘K’ line),
λ 4255.0
= = 1.0722,
λ0 3968.5
so z = 0.0722. For Ca ii λ3968 ( the ‘H’ line),
λ 4217.6
= = 1.0722,
λ0 3933.6

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124 CHAPTER 20. GALAXIES

and, as expected, z = 0.0722.

(b) What is the distance to the galaxy?
The distance can be computed using the Hubble law,

cz 3 × 105 km s−1 × 0.0722

d= = = 309 Mpc.
H 70 km s−1 Mpc−1

(c) What is the distance modulus of the galaxy?

Ignoring reddening, the distance modulus is

m−M = 5 log d − 5

= 5 log 3.09 × 108 − 5
= 37.45

20.3. Rewrite the relation for the distance modulus (equation 13.25)
in terms of the redshift z rather than the distance d.
Starting with the equation (13.25), m − M = 5 log(d/10pc), we use the Hubble
law to find the distance
cz
d =
H
3 × 105 z 106 pc
= Mpc ×
70 Mpc
= 4.29 × 10 z pc.
9

The equation for distance modulus thus becomes

 
4.29 × 109 z
m − M = 5 log
10
= 43.16 + 5 log z.

20.4. A spiral galaxy, when seen face-on, appears circular; the flux you
observe per square arcsecond of the galaxy is given by the relation

Σ(r) = Σ0 e−r/r0 ,

where r is the distance, in arcseconds, from the center of the galaxy.

Show that the total flux you observe from the spiral galaxy is F =
2πΣ0 r02 .
The total flux is obtained by integrating the surface brightness profile over all
radii,
 ∞
F = Σ(r)2πr dr
r=0
 ∞
= 2πΣ0 e−r/r0 r dr = 2πΣ0 r02 .
0

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GALAXIES 125

20.5. You observe an E0 elliptical galaxy; the flux you observe per
square arcsecond of the galaxy is given by the relation
 
Σ(r) = Σ0 exp −(r/r0 )1/4 ,

where r is the distance, in arcseconds, from the center of the galaxy.

Show that the total flux you observe from the elliptical galaxy is
F = 8!πΣ0 r02 .
The approach to be taken is essentially that of the previous problem with with
a somewhat more complicated radial dependence. To simplify the intgral, let
x = (r/r0 )1/4 , so r = r0 x4 and dr = 4r0 x3 dr. This gives
 ∞
1/4
F = 2πΣ0 e−(r/r0 ) r dr
0 ∞
= 2πΣ0 e−x r0 x4 4r0 x3 dx
0
 ∞
= 8πΣ0 r02 x7 e−x dx
0
= 8!πΣ0 r02 ,

where in the last step we have made use of the fact that
 ∞
x7 e−x dx = 7!.
0

20.6. Consider a black hole of mass M = 108 M . What is the maxi-

mum distance at which its radius of influence could be resolved using
the Hubble Space Telescope at a wavelength λ ≈ 1 μm?
The black hole radius of influence is given by equation (20.24),
  −2
MBH σ∗
rBH = 11 pc .
108 M 200 km s−1

From Figure 20.10, for MBH = 108 M , log σ ≈ 2.2, or σ ≈ 160 km s−1 . There-
fore
 8  −2
10 M 160 km s−1
rBH = 11 pc = 17.2 pc.
108 M 200 km s−1
Hubble Space Telescope is diffraction limited at λ = 1μm = 10−6 m, so the
smallest resolvable angle is given by the Rayleigh criterion (equation 6.7), θ =
1.2(λ/D), where the diameter of the Hubble Space Telescope primary mirror is
D = 2.4 m. Thus,

10−6 m
θ(rad) = 1.2 × = 5 × 10−7 rad.
2.4 m

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126 CHAPTER 20. GALAXIES

To resolve the black hole radius of influence, we require that

rBH
θ(rad) > ,
d
where d is the distance to the galaxy, or equivalently,
rBH 17.2 pc
d< = = 3.4 × 107 pc ≈ 34 Mpc.
θ(rad) 5 × 10−7 rad
20.7. Figure 20.9 shows the rotation curve for the galaxy M87, which
is at a distance d = 16 Mpc. Just outside 0.1 arcsec from the center,
the rotation curve is approximately Keplerian. Estimate the mass
inside this region.
From Figure 20.9, we see that at 0.1, vred = 1750 km s−1 and vblue = 650 km
s−1 . The average of these, vaverage = 1200 km s−1 , is the recession velocity of
the galaxy. The stars at 0.1 from the center are thus displaced by ±550 km s−1
from the average. The angle θ = 0.1 corresponds to a physical distance
θ(arcsec)d
r =
206265
0.1 × 1.6 × 107 pc × 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1
=
206265
= 2.4 × 1017 m.

The mass enclosed out to this radius is

ΔV 2 r (5.5 × 105 )2 (2.4 × 1017 )
M = =
G 6.67 × 10−11
1.1 × 10 kg
39
−1 = 5.5 × 10 M .
8
=
1.99 × 1030 kg M

20.8. At what redshift (and at what distance) do peculiar velocities of

galaxies contribute less than 1% error to the distance measurement?

It is noted in section 20.5 that typical peculiar velocities of galaxies relative to

the “Hubble flow” are vpec ≈ 300 km s−1 . The question essentially asks for the
values of vrecession for which
vpec
< 0.01,
vrecession
or, equivalently,
vpec
vrecession > = 3 × 104 km s−1 ,
0.01
or expressed in terms of redshift,

vrecession 3 × 104 km s−1

z> = = 0.1.
c 3 × 105 km s−1

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GALAXIES 127

Using the Hubble law, this becomes

cz 3 × 104 km s−1
d= > = 430 Mpc.
H 70 km s−1 Mpc−1

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128 CHAPTER 20. GALAXIES

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 21

Active Galaxies

21.1. The quasar PDS 456 has a redshift z = 0.184 and an apparent
magnitude mV = 14.0.
(a) What is the distance to this quasar?
The distance can be computed from the Hubble law,

cz 3 × 105
d= = (0.184) Mpc = 789 Mpc.
H 70

(b) What is its absolute magnitude, MV ?

The distance modulus is m − M = 5 log d (pc) − 5, so the absolute magnitude is

M = m + 5 − 5 log d (pc)
= 14.0 + 5 − 5 log(7.89 × 108 ) (pc)
= −25.5 mag.

21.2. At what redshift will the Lyα line (λ0 = 1215 Å) be centered
in the Johnson–Cousins U band? (Quasars will be particularly easy
to discover at this redshift.)
From Figure 13.2, the center of the U band is ∼ 3600 Å, so 1215(1 + z) = 3600
and z = (3600/1215) − 1 = 1.96.

21.3. The Eddington limit applies to stars as well as to accreting

black holes, and places an upper limit on their mass. Using the
mass–luminosity relation for high-mass stars (see Section 13.6, deter-
mine the maximum mass of a star that is stable against disruption
by radiation pressure.
Using equation (13.78),
 3.92
L M
= 1.02 ,
L M

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130 CHAPTER 21. ACTIVE GALAXIES

and the Eddington limit from equation (21.13),

 
MBH
LE < 3.3 × 10 L
12
108 M
 
L M
< 3.3 × 104 ,
L M
we have
 3.92  
M M
1.02 < 3.3 × 104
M M
 2.92
M
< 3.2 × 104
M
M < 35M.

21.4. Stellar-mass black holes in close binary systems can have hot
accretion disks. These systems, sometimes called “microquasars”, are
bright X-ray sources. Explain quantitatively why microquasars are
so luminous in X-rays. [Hint: equation (21.25) gives the temperature
of an accretion disk.]
For a stellar-mass black hole, take M ≈ 10M and equation (21.25) becomes

−1/4  −3/4
10 r
T ≈ 3.5 × 105 ṁ1/4 K
108 rSch
 −3/4
r
≈ 2 × 10 ṁ
7
K.
rSch

Assuming ṁ ≈ 1 and r ≈ rSch , we can use Wien’s Law to see where this
spectrum peaks,

2900 μm K
λmax = = 1.5 × 10−4 μm × 104 Å μm−1 ≈ 1.5 Å.
2 × 107 K
This wavelength corresponds to a photon energy

hc 1.24 × 104 eV Å
E = =
λ 1.5 Å
= 8.2 × 103 eV = 8.3 keV,

which is in the X-ray part of the spectrum.

21.5. Starting from equation (21.27), demonstrate that the angular

diameter of an AGN’s broad-line region is proportional to the square
root of the AGN’s bolometric flux. The apparently brightest AGN
is NGC 4151, with bolometric flux Fbol = 1.2 × 10−12 W m−2 and

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ACTIVE GALAXIES 131

redshift z = 0.00332; what is the angular size of the broad line region
of NGC 4151, measured in arcseconds?
Equation (21.27) gives
 1/2
RBLR Lbol
≈ 0.26 .
1015 m 1037 W
The angular size of the BLR at a distance d is
1/2  1/2
RBLR L Lbol 1/2
θBLR (rad) ∼ ∝ bol ∝ ∝ Fbol ,
d d d2
where Fbol is the bolometric continuum flux from the AGN.
In the case of NGC 4151 where z = 0.00332 and d = (cz/H) = 14.2 Mpc,

Lbol = Fbol 4πd2

= 1.2 × 10−12 W m−2 × 4π × (1.42 × 107 pc × 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1 )2
= 2.9 × 1036 W.

The radius of the broad-line region in this AGN is

 1/2
2.9 × 1036
RBLR = 2.6 × 10 m 14
1037
= 1.4 × 1014 m.

The angular size of this region is

RBLR 1.4 × 1014 m arcsec
θ= = (rad) × 206265
d 1.4 × 107 pc × 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1 rad
−5
= 6.7 × 10 arcsec ≈ 7 μas.

21.6. If the widths of the broad emission lines in AGN spectra were
due to thermal broadening, how hot would the gas have to be? On
what grounds can we exclude the possibility of pure thermal broad-
ening?
Doppler broadening by thermal motions is given by equation (5.51),
 1/2
Δλ T Δv
∼ 3 × 10−7 ∼ .
λ μ c
A line width of Δv = 5000 km s−1 corresponds to a temperature
 2
Δv/c
T ≈ μ K
3 × 10−7
 2
5000/(3 × 105 )
≈
3 × 10−7
≈ 3 × 109 K.

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132 CHAPTER 21. ACTIVE GALAXIES

We reject this as a possibility for the line-broadening mechanism, since at these

temperatures the gas would be hyper-ionized.
21.7. Suppose that you have an spectrum of the quasar 3C 273, as
shown in Figure 21.4. You measure the width of the Hβ emission line
to be 3500 km s−1 and the optical flux to be Fopt = 10−13 W m−2 .
From these data, estimate:
a) the bolometric luminosity of the quasar, assuming Lbol ≈ 9Lopt ,
b) the size of the Hβ-emitting region,
c) the mass of the central black hole,
d) the Eddington luminosity, and
e) the Eddington ratio.
The bolometric luminosity is Lopt = Fopt 4πd2 where d = (cz/H) and z = 0.158,
so d = 3 × 105 (0.158)/70 = 677 Mpc. Thus

Lopt = 10−13 × 4π × (6.77 × 108 pc × 3.1 × 1016 m pc−1 )2

= 5.5 × 1038 W.

The bolometric luminosity is therefore Lbol = 9Lopt = 5.0 × 1039 W.

The size of the Hβ-emitting region is given by equation (21.27),
 1/2
RBLR Lbol
= 0.26 ,
1015 m 1037 W
so
 1/2
5.0 × 1039
RBLR = 2.6 × 1014 m
1037
= 5.8 × 1015 m.

The mass of the central source, where Δv is the Doppler line width and R is
the size of the broad-line region, is
Δv 2 R (3.5 × 106 m sec−1 )2 (5.8 × 1015 )
M∼ = −1
G 6.67 × 10−11 × 1.99 × 1030 kg M
= 5.4 × 108 M .

The Eddington luminosity is given by equation (21.13),

 
MBH
LE = 1.3 × 1039 W = 6.96 × 1039 W.
108 M
The Eddington rate is

Ṁ L 5.0 × 1039
ṁ = = = ≈ 0.72.
ṀE LE 6.96 × 1039
21.8. For a quasar jet, show that the maximum value of βT (θ) occurs
when the radio source in the jet is moving at an angle θ max = cos−1 β

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ACTIVE GALAXIES 133

relative to the line of sight; then prove that equation (21.35) is correct.

We start with equation (21.34),

vT β sin θ
βT = = ,
c 1 − β cos θ
and determine the value of θ for which βT is maximized by taking the derivative
with respect to θ and setting it equal to zero. Thus,
dβT β cos θ (β sin θ)(β sin θ)
= − = 0.
dθ 1 − β cos θ (1 − β cos θ)2
Rearranging,

β cos θ(1 − β cos θ) = β 2 sin2 θ

β cos θ − β 2 cos2 θ = β 2 − β 2 cos2 θ
cos θ = β,

or, finally, θmax = cos−1 β. Using trigonometric identities,

sin θmax = sin(cos−1 β) = (1 − β 2 )1/2 ,

we obtain
β sin θmax
βT (max) =
1 − β cos θmax
β(1 − β 2 )1−2
=
1 − β2
β
= = βγ.
(1 − β 2 )1/2
21.9. Most quasars do not show damped Lyman alpha lines in their
“Lyman alpha forest”. However, by observing many quasars, we can
estimate that the mean free path λ between damped Lyman alpha ab-
sorbers is ∼ 70,000 Mpc. Assuming that these systems are associated
with luminous galaxies, which have a space density n ≈ 0.01 Mpc−3 ,
what does this say about the size of the atomic hydrogen disks of
typical luminous galaxies?
The mean free path λ is related to the number density n and cross section of
the absorbers σ by λ = 1/(nσ), which implies σ = (nλ)−1 , where we are given
n = 0.01 Mpc−3 and λ = 7 × 104 Mpc. Thus,
1
σ = Mpc2
10−2 × 7 × 104
 2
kpc
= 1.4 × 10−3 Mpc3 103
Mpc
= 1.4 × 103 kpc2 .

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134 CHAPTER 21. ACTIVE GALAXIES

If the radius of a galaxy is R, its cross-section is σ = πR2 , so

 1/2
1.4 × 103
R= = 21 kpc.
π

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 22

Clusters and Superclusters

22.1. Suppose you are an astronomer orbiting a star somewhere near

the middle of the Virgo Cluster, and are observing the Local Group.
(a) What would be the angular size of the Local Group?

From Figure 22.2, the distance to the Virgo cluster is d = 16 Mpc, and the
diameter of the Local Group is D ∼ 2 Mpc. The angular size of the Local
Group as seen from the Virgo cluster is therefore
2 Mpc 180o
θ≈ ≈ 0.13 rad × ≈ 7o .
16 Mpc π
(b) What would be the angular size of the Milky Way Galaxy?

The diameter of the Milky Way is D ≈ 30 kpc, so its angular diameter is

0.030 Mpc 180o
θ≈ ≈ 1.9 × 10−3 rad × ≈ 0.1o ≈ 6 .
16 Mpc π
(c) What would be the apparent B magnitude of the Milky Way
Galaxy?
The absolute B magnitude of the Sun is MB, = MB + (B − V ) = 4.83 + 0.64 =
5.47. The luminosity of the Milky Way in the B-band is LB ≈ 2.3 × 1010 L
(section 19.1), so its absolute magnitude is
LB
Mgal = MB, − 2.5 log = −20.43 mag,
L
and its apparent B magnitude from the Virgo Cluster would be
 
d

mgal = Mgal + 5 log = −20.43 + 5 log 1.6 × 106 = 10.59.
10 pc
22.2. Compute the mean apparent V magnitude of a P = 100 day
Cepheid star in the Coma Cluster (d = 100 Mpc).

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136 CHAPTER 22. CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS

The Cepheid P –L relationship is given by equation (17.25),

 
P

MV  = 2.76 log − 4.16.
10 days

For P = 100 d, MV = −6.92. Thus,

m = M + 5 log d − 5
= −6.92 + 5 log(108 ) − 5
= 28.08 mag.

22.3. How would the “finger of God” effect change if the dominant
motion of clusters was rotation?
“Fingers” would not point at the observer, but would be tilted, with the ap-
proaching (blueshifted) side of the cluster appearing to be closer.
22.4. Using data from this chapter, estimate the time it takes a
galaxy in the Coma Cluster to cross from one side of the cluster to
the other. Does this result tell you anything about whether or not
the cluster is gravitationally bound?
Typical speed of galaxies in Coma is ∼ 1500 km s−1 (equation 22.20). The half-
light radius of the Coma cluster is ∼ 1.5 Mpc ∼ 4.6 × 1022 m (equation 22.7).
The cluster crossing time is
 
2R 2 × 4.6 × 1022 m 1
t = =
v 1.5 × 106 m s−1 π × 10 sec yr−1
7

= 2 × 109 yrs = 2 Gyr.

This is much less than the age of the universe (13 Gyr), so the cluster must be
gravitationally bound.

22.5. In a few billion years, as we note in this chapter, our galaxy and
the Andromeda Galaxy will merge. Compute the expected number
of collisions between stars when this occurs. [Assume that the typical
star in each galaxy is an M dwarf, and that their average space density
is equal to that of the solar neighborhood.]
In the solar neighborhood, the typical distance between stars is n ∼ 1 pc−3 .
The size of a typical M dwarf is R ∼ 0.5R , so the collisional cross section for
a star is

σ = πR2
 2
π (0.5)(6.96 × 108 m)
=
(3.1 × 1016 m/pc)2
= 4 × 10−16 pc2 .

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CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS 137

To determine the effective path through our galaxy, assume that there are 2 ×
1011 stars so the volume this represents is V = N/n ∼ 2 × 1011 pc3 . A one-
dimensional path length through it is thus  ∼ V 1/3 ∼ 6 kpc. The probability
of a collision of any particular star would be

nσ = (1 pc−3 )(4 × 10−16 pc2 )(6 × 103 pc)

= 2 × 10−12 .

So with N = 2 × 1011 stars, the expected number of collisions is

P (N = 2 × 1011 stars) = (2 × 1011 )(2 × 10−10 ) ≈ 0.4

Even a single collision of two stars is unlikely.

22.6. The number of galaxies brighter than mB = 12 mag is about

0.014 per square degree of the celestial sphere. Suppose that you
wanted to observe every galaxy brighter than mB = 16 mag in one
quarter of the sky. How many galaxies would you expect in such a
sample?
Assuming a constant density of galaxies, the cumulative number of galaxies
brighter than magnitude m is given by equation (19.3)

log N = 0.6m + C,

where C is a constant. At m = 12, N (m = 12) = 0.014deg−2 , or

log N (m = 12) = −1.854 = 0.6(12) + C = 7.200 + C,

so we find C = −9.054. At m = 16,

log N (m = 16) = 0.6(16) − 9.054 = 0.546,

or N (m = 16) = 3.517 sq deg−2 .

The area of the sky (from problem 1.9) is
 2
180◦
4π(steradians) = 41, 253 sq deg,
π rad

so one-quarter of the sky is 10, 313 sq deg. Thus the total number of galaxies in
the sample area and to the sample limiting magnitude is

N (galaxies) = N (m = 16) × 10, 313 = 36, 270 galaxies.

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138 CHAPTER 22. CLUSTERS AND SUPERCLUSTERS

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 23

Cosmology

23.1. Suppose that we smooth the Earth so that it’s a perfect sphere of
radius R⊕ = 6371 km. If we then draw on its surface an equilateral
triangle with sides of length L = 1 km, what will the sum of the
interior angles be?

Figure 23.1: An √
√ equilateral triangle with sides of length L has a height h =
3L/2 and area 3L2 /4.

The sum of the interior angles is given by equation (23.40),

A
α+β+γ =π+ ,
rc2
where A is the area of the triangle. If the legs of an equilateral triangle are of
length L, the height of the triangle is (referring to Figure 23.1),
 1/2 √
 1 3
h = L − (L/2) = L 1 −
2 2 = L.
4 2
The area of the triangle is
√ 2
1 3L
A= hL = ,
2 4

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140 CHAPTER 23. COSMOLOGY

and therefore
√ 2
A 3 (1 km)
=
rc2 4(6378 km)2
= 1.06 × 10−8 rad
= 2.2 × 10−3 arcsec = 2.2 mas.

23.2. Imagine a universe full of regulation basketballs, each with mass

mbb = 0.62 kg and radius rbb = 0.12 m.
(a) What number density of basketballs, nbb , is required to make the
mass density equal to the current critical density, ρc,0 = 3H02 /(8πG)?

The critical density is given by equation (23.34), ρc = 9.2 × 10−27 kg m−3 . For
objects of mass m and number density n, the critical number density is

ρ 9.2 × 10−27
n(m−3 ) = =
m 0.62
= 1.5 × 10−26 m−3 .

(b) Given this density of basketballs, how far, on average, would you
be able to see in any direction before your line of sight intersected a
basketball?
The mean free path for sight lines that terminate on basketballs is  = (nσ)−1 .
2
The cross-section per basketball is σ = πR2 = π (0.12 m) = 0.045 m2. Thus
1 1
 = =
nσ 0.045 m × 1.5 × 10−26 m−3
2

1.5 × 1027 m
= = 4.8 × 1010 pc
3.1 × 1016 m pc−1
= 48 Gpc.

(c) In fact, we can see galaxies at a distance d ≈ c/H0 ≈ 4300 Mpc;

does the transparency of the universe on this length scale place useful
limits on the number density of intergalactic basketballs?
If the path to each galaxy is typically  = 4.3 Gpc, then we would expect some
detectable extinction for an optical depth as small as τ ≈ 1, or a sample size of
∼ 10 galaxies.
23.3. Just as the universe has a cosmic microwave background dating
back to the time when the universe was opaque to photons, it has a
cosmic neutrino background dating back to the earlier time when the
universe was opaque to neutrinos. The calculated number density of
cosmic neutrinos is nν = 3.36 × 108 m−3 .
(a) How many cosmic neutrinos are inside your body right now?
Assuming that the human body has approximately the density of water and
that the typical mass of a human being is ∼ 70 kg, the volume of the human

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

COSMOLOGY 141

body is
70 kg
V ≈ = 0.070 m3.
1000 kg m−3
The number density of neutrinos is nν = 3.36 × 108 m−3 , so the number in a
human body is
Nν = nν V = 3.36 × 108 × 0.070 = 2.35 × 107 ,
or about 23 million.
(b) What average neutrino mass, mν , would be required to make the
mass density of cosmic neutrinos equal to the critical density ρc,0 ?
The critical density is given by equation (23.34), ρc = 9.2 × 10−27 kg m−3 , so
the neutrino mass required to close the universe is
9.2 × 10−27 kg m−3
mν =
3.36 × 108 m−3
 
0.511 MeV
= 2.71 × 10−35 kg ×
9.1 × 10−31 kg
= 1.52 × 10−5 MeV
= 15 eV,
where in the second step we used the electron rest energy to convert from kilo-
grams to MeV.
23.4. Suppose you are in a Newtonian universe whose density is
equal to the critical density ρc,0 . The scale factor a(t) is implicitly
given by the relation
ȧ2 8πGρ0 1
2
= .
a 3 a3
(a) What is the functional form of a(t), given the boundary condition
a = 1 at t = t0 ?
Since H0 = 8πGρ0 /3, we can write
ȧ −H0
=
a a3/2
1/2
a ȧ = H0
1/2 da
a = H0
 dt 
1/2
a da = H0 dt
2 3/2
a = H0 t
3
3
a3/2 = H0 t
2
 2/3
3
a(t) = H0 t .
2

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142 CHAPTER 23. COSMOLOGY

(b) What is t0 in terms of the Hubble constant, H0 ?

At a = 1, t = t0 , so
 2/3
3H0 t0
1= ,
2
so t0 = 2H0−1 /3.
(c) In our universe, H0 = 70 km s−1 Mpc−1 and the oldest stars have
an age t = 13 Gyr; are these two observations consistent with a
Newtonian universe that has ρ0 = ρc,0 ?
From equation (20.34), H0−1 = 14 Gyr so t0 = 2(14 Gyr)/3 = 9.3 Gyr. This is
significantly smaller than ages of the oldest stars.

23.5. Prove that a redshifted blackbody is still a blackbody, but at a

temperature T /(1 + z).
Blackbody intensity is given by

2hν03 1
Iν = .
c2 e(hν0 /kT0 ) − 1
If the blackbody is redshifted, each frequency is lowered to
ν0
ν1 = ,
1+z
so we have
2hν03 1
Iν = −1
c2 (1+ z)3 e(hν0 /kT0 (1+z))
which is still a blackbody, but at temperature T1 = T0 /(1 + z).

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 24

History of the Universe

24.1. (a) Given that the current scale factor is a(t0 ) = 1, at what
scale factor did the temperature of the cosmic background radiation
equal the temperature of the Sun’s photosphere?
Since T ∼ 1/a, and T0 = 2.7 K, and T = 5800 K.

2.7
a= = 4.66 × 10−4 .
5800
(b) At what scale factor did it equal the temperature of the Sun’s
center?
Using equation (15.10), Tcent = 1.47 × 107 K, so

2.7
a= = 1.84 × 10−7 .
1.47 × 107
(c) If the current mass density of the universe is equal to 0.3ρc,0,
what was the mass density of the universe when the temperature was
equal to that of the Sun’s center? Compare this mass density to the
average density of the Sun.
At the current epoch ρ0 = 0.3ρcrit , where ρcrit = 9.2 × 10−27 kg m−3 (equation
23.34).

ρ0 0.3(9.2 × 10−27 )
ρpast = =
a3 (1.84 × 10−7 )3
= 4.5 × 10−7 kg m−3 .

This is much smaller than average density of the Sun, ρ ≈ 1400 kg m−3 .

24.2. Explicitly calculate the redshifts at which:

(a) the universe goes from radiation-dominated to matter-dominated;

143

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144 CHAPTER 24. HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE

The transition from radiation-dominated to matter-dominated occurs when

Ωrad Ωmat
= ,
a4 a3
so that
Ωrad 8.4 × 10−5
a= = ≈ 2.8 × 10−4 .
Ωmat 0.30
The corresponds to a = (1 + z)−1 , or z = 3570.
(b) the universe goes from matter-dominated to dark-energy-domi-
nated.
The transition from matter-dominated to Λ-dominated occurs when
Ωmat
= ΩΛ ,
a3
so that  1/3  1/3
Ωmat 0.3
a= = = 0.754.
ΩΛ 0.7
Since a = 0.754, z = 0.33.

24.3. At the time this problem was written, the highest-redshift qua-
sar known was CFHQS J2329–0301, which has a redshift z = 6.43.
(a) What was the scale factor a of the universe at the time the quasar
light we are observing now left the quasar?
The scale factor is related to the redshift by

a = (1 + z)−1 = (1 + 6.43)−1 = 0.13.

(b) How old was the universe at the time the light left the quasar?
From Figure 24.3, log a = log(0.13) = −0.87 corresponds to log H0 t = −2.
Using equation (20.34), we have H0 t = 0.01, so
0.01
t= = 0.01(14 Gyr) = 140 Myr.
H0
Thus,  
t 0.14 Gyr
= = 0.01.
tuniverse 13.5 Gyr
(c) What is the distance modulus of the quasar?
From Figure 24.5, m − M = 49 mag.
24.4. Suppose that star formation stops today, everywhere in the
universe.
(a) At what time tdie will the last stars die out?
(a) The main sequence lifetime of stars is τ ∝ M −1.62 for M < 0.7M (equation
13.79) and τ ∝ M −2.92 for M > 0.7M (equation 13.80). We normalize this

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HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE 145

to the main sequence lifetime of the Sun, 1M corresponds to t = 10 Gyr.

(equation 15.55). The lifetime of a 0.7M star is
 2.92
τ0.7M 1.0
= 10 Gyr
τ1M 0.7
= 28.3

We can now use this to normalize the lower main sequence relationship. For
τ < 0.7M ,
 1.62
τM 0.7
= 28.3 Gyr .
τ0.7M M
The lowest stellar mass is ∼ 0.05M, and its main sequence lifetime is
 1.62
0.7
τ = 28.3 Gyr
0.05
≈ 200 Gyr = 2 trillion years.

(b) What will be the scale factor a(tdie ) at that time?

From equation (24.27) and (24.28), t0 = right now,
 
tdie − t0
a = exp
16.7 Gyr
 
2000
= exp
16.7
= e120 ∼ 1052 .

24.5. Estimate how high the temperature of the universe must be for
proton–proton pair production to occur. What was the approximate
age of the universe when it had cooled enough for proton–proton pair
production to cease?
For γ + γ → p+ + p− to be important,

Eγ ≈ mp c2 = 938 MeV.

For convenience, change units on the Boltzmann constant from Joules to MeV,
J 1 eV
k = 1.38 × 10−23
K 1.6 × 10−19 J
eV 10−6 MeV
= 8.63 × 10−5 ×
K eV
−11 −1
= 8.63 × 10 MeV K .

Then
mp c 2 938 MeV
T = = = 1.1 × 1013 K.
k 8.63 × 10−11 MeV K−1

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146 CHAPTER 24. HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE

From equation (23.26) and the discussion following, a ∼ T −1 , so

 −1  −1
a T 1.1 × 1013
= = = 2.45 × 10−13 .
a0 T0 2.7

Equation (24.20) is
 1/2
1/2
a = 2Ωr,0 H0 t .

Solving for the age of the Universe,

a2 −1
t = 1/2
(H0 )
2 Ωr,0
(2.45 × 10−13 )2

= 4.4 × 1017
2(8.4 × 10−5 )1/2
= 1.4 × 10−6 s.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

Appendices

Table A: Physical Constants

Name Symbol Value Units
Gravitational constant G 6.673 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2
Permittivity of the vacuum o 8.854 × 10−12 C2 N−1 m−2
Permeability of the vacuum μo 4π × 10−7 Wm
Elementary charge e 1.602 × 10−19 C
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.998 × 108 m s−1
Planck constant h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
Reduced Planck constant h̄ ≡ h/2π 1.055 × 10−34 Js
Boltzmann constant k 1.381 × 10−23 m2 kg s−2 K−1
Stefan-Boltzmann constant σsb 5.670 × 10−8 W m−2 K−4
Thomson cross-section σe 6.652 × 10−29 m2
Proton mass mp 1.673 × 10−27 kg
Electron mass me 9.109 × 10−31 kg

147

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148 CHAPTER 24. HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSE

Table B: Astronomical Constants

Name Symbol Value Units
Mass of Earth M⊕ 5.974 × 1024 kg
Mass of Sun M 1.989 × 1030 kg
Mass of Moon 7.36 × 1022 kg
Equatorial radius of Earth R⊕ 6378 km
Equatorial radius of Sun R 6.955 × 105 km
Equatorial radius of Moon 1737 km
Mean density of Earth 5515 kg m−3
Mean density of Sun 1408 kg m−3
Mean density of Moon 3346 kg m−3
Luminosity of Sun L 3.839 × 1026 W
Effective temperature of Sun 5778 K
Hubble constant Ho 70 ± 5 km s−1 Mpc−1
Light-year 9.461 × 1012 km
Astronomical unit AU 1.496 × 108 km
Parsec pc 3.086 × 1013 km

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APPENDICES 149

Known Errors in the Exercises

10.11.(b). A typographical error in Table A.4 makes this exercise unsolvable.
The orbital period of Deimos should be 1.262 days, not 1.026 days (the latter
is in fact the rotational period of Mars).
19.2. The B-band absolute magnitude of the Sun is 5.47 mag, not 4.7 mag.

Revision History
2009 March 23: First complete version.

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