Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

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Geomorphology
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w. e l s ev i e r. c o m / l o c a t e / g e o m o r p h

Mud volcanoes along the Chishan fault in Southwestern Taiwan: A release

bend model
Quo-Cheng Sung a,⁎, Hung-Cheng Chang b, Hsing-Chang Liu b, Yen-Chieh Chen c
a
Institute of Geoinformatics and Disaster Reduction Technology, Ching Yun University, No. 229, Chien-Hsin Rd., Jung-Li, Taoyuan, 320, Taiwan, ROC
b
Institute of Geophysics, National Central University, No. 300, Jhongda Rd., Jung-Li, Taoyuan, 320, Taiwan, ROC
c
Department of Tourism Management, Chia-Nan University of Pharmacy and Science, No. 60, Erh-Jen Rd., Sec. 1, Pao-An, Jen-Te, Tainan, 717, Taiwan, ROC

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Both land and offshore mud volcanoes have been investigated thoroughly in southwestern Taiwan in terms
Received 19 May 2008 of morphological expression, spatial distribution, composition, and evasion flux of extruded material. The
Received in revised form 17 December 2009 interactive relationship between mud volcanoes and their associated structures, however, has rarely been
Accepted 24 December 2009
examined. This study proposes a release bend model that explains the spatial distribution and relative
Available online 6 January 2010
activity of mud volcanoes along the Chishan Fault, southwestern Taiwan. The surface movement of the
Keywords:
Chishan Fault and mud volcano activity were monitored by GPS stations and gas flux measurements,
Mud volcanoes respectively. The resistivity sub-structure of strata across the fault was investigated by the magnetotelluric
Release bend (MT) method and resistivity image profiling (RIP). Analytical results support the contention that extensional
Strike–slip fault activity at the release bend provides openings to fissures associated with the Chishan Fault, thereby
GPS velocity field increasing the potential for a mud volcano. The proposed model may facilitate future exploration of mud
Geoelectrical survey volcanoes.
© 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction on their tectonic characteristics (Shih, 1967; Wang et al., 1988).

Composition and gas evasion flux from offshore and terrestrial MVs
Recently mud volcanoes (MVs) have garnered considerable have also been investigated thoroughly in southwestern Taiwan (e.g.,
attention due to their contribution to atmospheric methane degassing Gieskes et al., 1992; Yang et al., 2004; You et al., 2004). Although
from deeply buried sediments (Dimitrov, 2002; Etiope and Klusman, multiple gas sources exist for MVs, the most active MVs in Taiwan
2002; Kopf and Deyhle, 2002; Milkov et al., 2003). Notably, mud release methane-based gases that originate primarily from the deep
volcanoes are generally distributed around subduction zones and crust. The MV fluids are characterized by high chlorine content,
orogenic belts where compressional tectonic settings dominate indicating a marine origin from actively dewatering sedimentary pore
(Yassir, 1987; Milkov, 2000; Kopf and Deyhle, 2002). The occurrence waters along major structures (You et al., 2004). Faults provide
of MVs is strongly associated with sedimentary or tectonic loading pathways for the release of gases and fluids. However, the interactive
due to rapid sedimentation, accretion, or overthrusting. The existence relationship between MVs and their associated structures has rarely
of thick, clayey sediment deep in a sedimentary succession also been studied. For instance, Shih (1967) and Wang et al. (1988) merely
promotes the development of MVs. Taiwan is located at the collision mentioned MVs in southwestern Taiwan distributed along the
zone between the Eurasian Plate and the Luzon Arc (Teng, 1990) and Gutingkeng anticline and the Chishan Fault without discussion of
forms a typical accretionary prism in southwestern and southeastern their spatial occurrence and temporal activities with respect to the
Taiwan (Huang et al., 1997), where many terrestrial and offshore MVs associated structures. The origin of extruded materials was studied by
exist along the tectonic structure and suture zones (Shih, 1967; Liu geochemical approaches, assuming that MVs are structurally con-
et al., 1997; Wang et al., 1988; Chow et al., 2001; Yang et al., 2004; Liu trolled (Yang et al., 2004; You et al., 2004). Specifically how the
et al., 2006). Morphological expression and spatial distribution of structures control the activity of MVs remains uninvestigated. MVs do
terrestrial MVs in Taiwan have been investigated by Shih (1967) and not occur along each of the many faults in the mudstone area in
Wang et al. (1988). Five zones of terrestrial MVs are grouped based southwestern Taiwan. Instead, they appear to occur at some specific
positions along a certain fault.
The MVs distributed along the Chishan Fault are probably the most
spectacular and active MVs in Taiwan. They are clustered at the
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +886 3 4581196 5200; fax: +886 3 2503898.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (Q.-C. Sung), [email protected]
southern sector of the Chishan Fault, which has been recently deemed
(H.-C. Chang), [email protected] (H.-C. Liu), [email protected] an active fault (Chang et al., 2005), playing an important role in the
(Y.-C. Chen). tectonic escape in southwest Taiwan (Ching et al., 2007). To examine

0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2010 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.12.018
 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198 189

the interactive relationship between the MVs and the Chishan Fault, sequences of the accreted Luzon Arc–Trench system, and the area to
this research established four continuous GPS recording stations along the west comprises metamorphic and sedimentary sequences of the
the Chishan Fault to monitor its activities. An automated gas gauge deformed Chinese continental margin (Fig. 1). The Central Range in
was also installed to continuously record gas flux of MV no. 19, one of Taiwan is characterized by pre-Tertiary basement and Tertiary
MVs along the Chishan Fault. Both activities of MVs and the Chishan metamorphic rocks, in contrast to the adjacent non-metamorphic
Fault were concurrently monitored by video recording, gas gauges, fold-and-thrust belt in the Western Foothills (Ho, 1986). In the
and GPS, and the MV-related geological structures were investigated foothills, the Neogene and Early Pleistocene shallow-marine to shelf
by a geoelectrical profiling campaign. The occurrence and activities of clastic sediments are affected by west-northwest-vergent folds and
MVs are discussed with respect to the Chishan Fault. A tectonic model low-angle thrust faults. The Coastal Plain of western Taiwan and
is proposed to explain the formation of MVs along the Chishan Fault. offshore areas further west are underlain by flat-lying Cenozoic
The model is then discussed in the context of escape tectonics in sedimentary sequences. The Coastal Plain is composed of Quaternary
southwestern Taiwan. alluvial deposits derived from the Central Range and the Western
Foothills. The sigmoidal Mountain Belt runs northeast–southwest in
2. Regional settings the northern section, turns counterclockwise to northwest–south-
east, then north–south in the central section, and resumes its
The Taiwanese mountain belt resulted from the oblique collision northeast–southwest direction again in southern Taiwan. Two
of the Luzon Island Arc and the Chinese continental margin in the last buried basement highs in western Taiwan, the Peikang High to the
5 Ma. The active Longitudinal Valley Fault separates two main south and Kuanyin High to the north, have been identified by sub-
geological provinces in Taiwan (Ho, 1986; Tsai, 1986). To the east, surface studies. The presence of such crustal highs probably plays an
the Coastal Range comprises primarily volcanic and siliciclastic important role in the development of lateral tectonic escape in

Fig. 1. The GPS velocity field in southwest Taiwan with respect to station S01R in the stable continental margin of Penghu Island in the Taiwan Strait (Ching et al., 2007). The boxed
figure shows a southwestward tectonic escape in southwest Taiwan due to oblique convergence between the Luzon Volcanic Arc of the Philippine Sea Plate and the passive
continental margin of the Eurasian Plate (Suppe, 1984). The velocity field indicates a counterclockwise rotation with station velocities of 44.7–55.3 mm/yr and azimuthal changes of
247–277°. The rectangle denotes the study area. Mud volcano zones in southwestern Taiwan are also shown in symbols.
190 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

southwestern Taiwan, where GPS velocity vectors are directed Gutingkeng mudstone and the Erchungshi Formation (Fig. 2). The
toward the southwest (Fig. 1; Lacombe et al., 2001; Hu et al., 2007). Chishan Fault is home to 22 active MVs and two inactive MVs, which
The Chaochou Fault bounds the eastern side of the southwest Taiwan are characterized by calm, relatively weak, continuous bubbling
block and moved as a reverse fault with a sinistral motion during gases flowing out of semi-liquid mud. The morphological expres-
the interseismic period (Hu et al., 2007). The northeast–southwest sions of MVs can be classified in the following shapes: mud cones,
Chishan Fault was understood as a reverse fault with a dextral com- mud shields, mud maars, mud basins, and mudholes (Shih, 1967;
ponent (Lacombe et al., 2001). Wang et al., 1988). An MV extruding viscous flow typically builds a
A thick Plio-Pleistocene mudstone formation exists in southern mud cone. The mud cone has a crater in the crest where the feeder
part of the Western Foothills. This formation was deposited in the crops out. The slope of the flanks is usually greater than 20°. The
rapidly subsided foreland basin caused by tectonic loading of the heights of the mud cones vary from several tens of centimeters to a
mountain belt (Lin and Watts, 2002). Several reverse faults devel- few meters. The most spectacular one is located at Wushanding and
oped, which reflect shortening in the fold-and-thrust belt in the 7 m in height (Fig. 3). The mud shields and mud maars, equivalent
southwestern foothills due to the convergence (Fig. 1). to the mud pies used by Kopf and Deyhle (2002), have a cone shape
Most terrestrial MVs in Taiwan exist along the tectonic structures with gentle flanks, which give them larger diameters and lower
in this region (Shih, 1967; Wang et al., 1988). These MVs are heights. The mud basins are usually confined to a limited size at
grouped based on location: the Chukou Fault Zone, the Gutingkeng topographical depressions when extruded materials are relatively
Anticline Zone, the Chishan Fault Zone, and the Coastal Plain Zone. less viscous or watery. A mudhole typically appears on a steep slope
The Chishan Fault is a reverse fault running northeast–southwest where extruded materials easily drain out. The opening of the
that thrusts Late Miocene Wushan sandstone over Pleistocene feeders is less than 1 m in diameter.

Fig. 2. The geological map and distribution of MVs in the study area. The MVs are denoted by numbers. Morphological shape of MVs is expressed by the following symbols: ▲ denotes
mud cones; ● denotes a mud marr; ◆ denotes a mud basin; + denotes a mud shield; ★ denotes a mud hole; and ■ denotes an inactive mud volcano. The Chishan Fault is a thrust
fault with the Plio-Pleistocene series overlain by the Late Miocene series. The Lungchuan Fault is a reverse fault in Gutingkeng mudstone. The open triangles denoted by CHLM, 8P5K,
CHTV, DEWT, and YENC are close-to-fault GPS station networks. The open squares are part of the CGS's GPS network.
 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198 191

Fig. 3. Two mud volcano cones are located at Wushanding along the Chishan Fault. The front (MV no. 11) is raised approximately 7 m above ground and the rear (MV no. 13) is
approximately 3 m in height.

The morphological expressions and spatial occurrence of MVs Fault. These MVs are mud shields, mud maars, mud basins and mud
were carefully examined in connection with the Chishan Fault. The holes, and one mud cone. Seven mud cones emerge out of the
MVs are notably distributed in a narrow zone along the fault trace remaining 13 MVs located on the down-thrown block. About two
(Fig. 2). Eleven MVs emerge on the up-thrown block of the Chishan thirds of MVs occur where the Chishan Fault curves. Away from the

Fig. 4. Site map of the geoelectrical surveys. The Chishan Fault is located in the middle. The number of MVs refers to Fig. 2.
192 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

curved section, the size of the MVs decreases to nothing towards 2001) to acquire precise station coordinates. The precise ephemerides
the south. provided by the International GNSS Service (IGS) were fixed during
processing. Four global IGS fiducial stations surrounding Taiwan
(TSKB, GUAM, WUHN, and USUD) on the international terrestrial
3. Methods
reference frame (Altamimi et al., 2002) were used to determine the
positions of the GPS network along the Chishan Fault. In the
To examine the interactive relationship between the MVs and the
meantime, the Chishan Fault was also monitored by one of sub-
Chishan Fault, the following methods were used in this research:
networks deployed in southwest Taiwan by the Central Geological
Survey (CGS) since 1995 (Lacombe et al., 2001; Hu et al., 2007; Ching,
(1) The close-to-fault GPS network
et al., 2007). This GPS array worked with ∼ 5 km spacing between
This research successfully acquired data from a GPS network campaign-mode stations. To compare data of the close-to-fault GPS
during period of April 2nd, 2004 to March 31st, 2005, which was set network to that of the CGS's GPS network, this study reconciled the
up along the Chishan Fault to monitor the fault activities. This close- GPS station coordinates with those of a stable continental margin
to-fault GPS network consists of five continuously recording stations, station (S01R), which is a permanent station located on Penghu
namely CHLM, CHTV, 8P5K, DEWT, and YENC (operated by the Island. The GPS velocity field was estimated using daily coordinates
Academia Sinica; Fig. 2). The CHLM station and the CHTV station are during the recording period.
located on the up-thrown side, while the 8P5K station, the DEWT
station, and the YENC station are located on the down-thrown side of
(2) The gas flux measurement of MVs
the Chishan Fault. A Trimble 5700 GPS receiver was used at each
station to continuously record data in 30-s intervals. Data were Due to difficulties encountered in measuring messy mud flows, MV
processed using Bernese software version 4.2 (Hugentobler et al., activity is measured based on the flux of gases released and MV size.

Fig. 5. Relative activity of MVs based on size and gas flux. The Chienchiuliao group is most active; the Wushanding group is moderately active; activity of the Nanshihu group is rather
weak; and the Shensheui group is currently inactive. The size of a mud cone (▲) is measured by height; others (●) are measured by diameter.
 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198 193

(3) Geoelectric surveys

Although MVs were previously determined to be associated with
the Chishan Fault, their relationship has never been analyzed based on
sub-surface structures. The magnetotelluric (MT) method and
resistivity image profiling (RIP) are both used to investigate resistivity
structures of strata across the Chishan Fault and Wushanding MVs
(Fig. 4). In an MT sounding, a pair of electric field and magnetic field
receivers is set perpendicular to each other on the ground to acquire
data. The electric and magnetic (EM) fields measured on the ground
are caused by EM induction on the earth when EM waves penetrate
and travel through the ground. In this study, data are acquired in two
frequency bands using a Stratagem (Geometrics, Inc., USA). A high
band of 1–69.5 kHz was used. Typically, two EM-field couplets, Ex and
By, and Ey and Bx, are measured simultaneously in a layout that
records two directional apparent resistivities. At each site, two vector
measurements with a 45° rotation from the origin were used and
provided four phase-accompanied directional apparent resistivities.
The sounding data at separate sites were interpreted using one-
dimensional analysis. Those along a profile were interpreted by two-
dimensional analysis and a three-dimensional analysis was per-
formed by integrating data from all sites.
Fig. 6. The gas flux of MVs (●) on the up-thrown side of the Chishan Fault increases The RIP is a technique developed for surveying complex sub-
with horizontal distance between mud volcanoes and the Chishan Fault. The MVs (▲) surface structures. High-definition pseudosections are rapidly ac-
on the down-thrown side do not have a linear trend.
quired by a dense sampling of resistivity variation at shallow depths.
This approach facilitates detailed direct and inverse interpretation of
The bubbling action of an MV is recorded on video and used in the lab two-dimensional sub-surface resistivity distributions. The Wenner-
to count the frequency and size of bubbles to estimate the gas flux. The Schlumberger method is used to examine the buried Chishan Fault at
gas flux of MV no. 19 was continuously gauged using a bell-shaped the Wushanding MV area. The length of the survey line is only 220 m
hood to collect gases for roughly 4 months, i.e., from November 16th, with an electrode interval of 10 m due to the limitations posed by
2004 to June 29th, 2005. The size of an MV is measured by the rugged terrain. The sounding profile was perpendicular to the Chishan
diameters of observed mud shield, mud maar, mud basin, and Fault. The finite-element inversion result for the observed apparent
mudholes, as well as by mud cone height. resistivity pseudosection is obtained.

Fig. 7. The vertical resistivity structure along the MT profile. The Chishan Fault (CFS) marks the boundary between strata with contrasting resistivity. The number denotes the MT site.
194 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

Table 1
The velocity of the GPS station along the Chishan Fault relative to the Paisha station
(S01R).

Stations VE (mm/yr) VN (mm/yr) VH (mm/yr) Azimuth (°)

8P5K − 55.26 ± 2.01 − 17.18 ± 1.67 − 7.95 ± 4.32 252.73

CHTV − 44.46 ± 1.44 − 5.09 ± 1.05 − 6.14 ± 3.01 263.47
CHLM − 43.56 ± 1.51 − 12.29 ± 1.23 9.20 ± 3.50 254.24
DEWT − 51.64 ± 1.75 − 14.3 ± 1.07 16.55 ± 3.65 254.52
YENC − 55.1 ± 1.47 − 11.32 ± 1.02 1.89 ± 3.42 258.39

VE is the velocity of the east–west component.

VN is the velocity of the north–south component.
VH is the velocity of the vertical component.
(−) indicates velocity vector toward the west, south, and down in VE, VN, and VH.

the geoelectric method to detect the sub-surface under MVs in the

Nirano area, also found the shallow reservoir and explained that is the
last phase of mud accumulation before final emission.
The results of the GPS velocity field of the study area are based on
regression fitting of GPS observatory data that span less than one year,
the linear trend of the crustal deformation is extremely distinct and
the estimated velocity field is compatible with those of the GPS
network deployed by the CGS (Hu et al., 2007; Ching et al., 2007). The
Fig. 8. The level-slicing of planar resistivity at depths of 6 m, 110 m, and 290 m horizontal velocity field of the GPS stations along the Chishan Fault
composed by 12 MT sounding sites. CSF denotes the Chishan Fault.
varies at 44.7–55.3 mm/yr and directs the azimuth between 252.7 and
263.4° relative to the fixed Paisha station on Penghu (S01R; Table 1).
4. Results When compared with the adjacent GPS stations across the fault, the
velocity field is decomposed both in the along-strike (N50°E) and
The activity of MVs varies spatially along the Chishan Fault (Fig. 5). cross-strike components in the study area (Fig. 10). The along-strike
Four clusters of MVs exhibit different rates of evading gases, ranging component of the footwall is faster than that of the hangingwall,
from 0.10 to 10 m3/min. The most active MVs exist on the up-thrown indicating a sinistral movement of 16 mm/yr. The cross-strike
side of the curved section of the Chishan Fault. The MV activity component demonstrates that the block bounded by the Chishan
decreases southward and northward from the curved section. The Fault is shortened by 2.32 mm/yr.
MVs become inactive at the southern end of this linear trend. The gas flux of MV no. 19 was recorded continuously by an
Moreover, MV activity increases with horizontal distance from the automated gas gauge from November 16th, 2004 to June 29th, 2005.
fault trace (Fig. 6), indicating gases and mudflows originate in the On average, the flux of natural gases released from the MV was 0.7–
deep crust, and the Chishan Fault, with a local inclination of roughly 2.9 l/min or 1057.4–4203.3 l/day, and can occasionally exceed 3 l/min.
60° to the east, provides a conduit for MVs. The geoelectrical surveys Since 96% of the gas released from the Wushangding MV is CH4, the
of the Chishan Fault further illustrates this interpretation. The estimated total yield is roughly 202.9–878.2 ton/yr. This yield is
resistivity structure along the MT profile shows a resistivity contrast dramatically higher that the total yield of ca. 29 ton/yr estimated by
stratum residing on either side of the Chishan Fault (Fig. 7). The Yang et al. (2004). Despite this marked difference, the flux varies
Gutingkeng mudstone, of marine origin, has a low-resistivity of periodically. The fact that maximum flux rate was recorded during a
b20 Ω-m in contrast to the high resistivity of the Wushan sandstone. new moon suggests a possible earth–tide-related phenomenon. A
The level-slicing of planar resistivity at depths of 6 m, 110 m, and similar trend exists in the vertical displacement of the DEWT GPS
290 m was made by composing data from 12 MT sounding sites. The station and gas flux of the MV no. 19 with a lag of 3–6 days (Fig. 11).
roughly north–south low-resistivity zone coincides with the Chishan Cross-correlation analysis indicates that the cross-fault distance
Fault Zone and decreases its intensity at depth (Fig. 8). This analytical between the CHTV and DEWT and gas flux of the MV no. 19 are
finding may indicate that the MV reservoirs are probably shallower weakly and positively correlated with a 1–4 day and 25–28 day lag,
than 290 m. The resistivity section by RIP demonstrates that an indicating MV activity may be induced by fault dilatation (Fig. 12;
inclined low-resistivity zone (b6 Ω-m) dipping eastward is the Chang et al., 2005).
Chishan Fault Zone (Fig. 9). The Wushan sandstone cropping out at
the hangingwall of the Chishan Fault is characterized by a relatively 5. Discussion
high resistivity, whereas the Gutingkeng mudstone exposed to the
footwall is characterized by low-resistivity. A shallow, basin-like low- The release bend model is proposed to accommodate the
resistivity zone may be the reservoir of the Wushanding MV, which clustering phenomenon of MVs along the Chishan Fault. The release
connects with the Chishan Fault Zone. Accaino et al. (2007), who used bend model necessitates a sinistral movement of the Chishan Fault,

Fig. 9. The resistivity section by RIP survey. The solid inclined line denotes the Chishan Fault.
 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198 195

Fig. 10. The velocity field shows a block between the Chishan Fault (CSF) and the Lungchuan Fault (LCF) moving faster than the adjacent block. The Chishan Fault has sinistral
displacement, while the Lungchun Fault has dextral displacement. The extensional stress (bold arrows) is exerted at the release bend of the Chishan Fault. The GPS stations denoted
by ▲ were established by this study and stations denoted by ● were set up by the CGS (Hu et al., 2007). MV no. 19 is located at ★.

Fig. 11. The moving average of vertical displacement of the GPS station (DEWT) and the flux rate of mud volcano no. 19 (★ refers to Fig. 10). These data show a 30-day periodicity for
both mud volcano activity and displacement of the GPS station. The mud volcano activity has a 3–6 day lag compared with that of the GPS station.
196 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

Fig. 12. The cross-correlation coefficient chart demonstrates that the distance between the close-to-fault GPS stations (DEWT and CHTV) and gas flux of mud volcano no. 19 were
positively correlated. Several correlation coefficients with lag numbers of –1, -4, -48, -49, -50, 24, 25, and 28 in days pass the 95% confidence limit. The lag numbers of -1 and -4 signify
days the distance between DEWT and CHTV leads the exhaling gas of MV no. 19. The other lag numbers in days may be correlated to the earth–tide cycle.

which contradicts the general contention that the Chishan Fault has a of the Chishan Fault and has dextral movement according to GPS data
dextral sense of movement. The following discussions elaborate this (Fig. 10). A release bend cannot occur along its fault line.
interpretation.
(2) Sense of motion of the Chishan Fault
(1) The release bend model
The Chishan Fault has been known as one of major thrust faults in
The MVs in southwestern Taiwan are controlled by the following southwestern Taiwan. Whether it has a strike–slip component
factors: (1) the high pore-fluid pressure created by tectonic forces of becomes an important concern in the release bend model. The
compression, which are a characteristic feature of ongoing collision Chishan Fault separates two topographical provinces (Fig. 13). The
and the fold–thrust belt in the Western Foothills of Taiwan (Suppe, homoclinal landforms of Late Miocene sedimentary sequences are
1984); (2) a 5-km-thick mudstone in the Gutingkeng Formation, predominant on the eastern side, and badlands of Pleistocene
which is a foreland basin of rapid accumulating deposits responding mudstone series prevail on the western side. The fault trace is
to Plio-Pleistocene rapid mountain building and lithospheric flexure constructed of a series of distinct landforms. The steep slope of the
due to tectonic loading of Taiwan's mountain belt (Lin and Watts, hangingwall, controlled by the lithology of the Wushang sandstone, is
2002); and (3) a deep-seated thrust fault that provides for the passage in contrast to the gentle slope of the footwall, which is primarily
of gases and fluids. Many potential sites for MVs exist in the composed of mudstone. The fault trace generally follows the slope
Gutingkeng mudstone in southwestern Taiwan. The MVs along the break (Fig. 14). Some geomorphological expressions confirmed that
Chishan Fault are common examples. However, the Lungchuan Fault, the Chishan Fault moves laterally. These expressions comprise linear
which is adjacent to and similar to the Chishan Fault, has no MVs valleys, shutter ridges, deflected drainages, and offset streams
along its fault. This study used a novel release bend model to explain (Fig. 13). In sector C (Fig. 13), the linear valley, which follows the
the clustered occurrence and relative activity of MVs along the fault trace for approximately 1 km and is accompanied by a few
Chishan Fault. The release bend refers to the sinuous section of a deflected stream valleys, is one of the most distinct landforms
strike–slip fault in which extensional stress is exerted or pull-apart marking the strike–slip faulting of the Chishan Fault. Although
occurs due to lateral fault movement. The Chishan Fault is considered numerous deflected drainages and offset streams cross the Chishan
a detachment with a depth of 4–5 km (Huang et al., 2005). The surface Fault in the study area, fault movement cannot be determined from
motion indicates that a shortening of the Chishan Fault creates a the deflected or offset drainage directions. Several shutter ridges exist
compressive tectonic environment. Both gases and fluids extruded on the down-thrown side of the Chishan Fault that blocks drainages
from MVs along the Chishan Fault originate deep in the crust (You from the up-thrown side. Discontinuous drainages have developed in
et al., 2004; Yang et al., 2004). A shallow basin-type reservoir exists the northern sector of the Chishan Fault, where lithological contrast
beneath the MV and is connected to the Chishan Fault Zone. The predominates on either side of the fault.
occurrence and degree of activity of MVs are controlled by extension Moreover, Tsan and Keng (1968) considered the Chishan Fault a
exerted by a sinistral displacement along the release bend of the reverse fault with a left-lateral offset of the Miocene sequence and
Chishan Fault (Fig. 5). The MV activity induced by fault dilatation is fold axes at its northern section. The slickenside analysis of Chen
further verified by cross-correlation analysis of the distance between (2005) indicated that the Chishan Fault is a thrust fault with sinistral
adjacent GPS stations across the fault and activity of MV no. 19. The motion. According to the close-to-fault GPS station networks and
Lungchuan Fault is also a thrust fault cropping out less than 1 km west slickenside analysis, this study adopts the kinematics of the Chishan
 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198 197

Fig. 13. Left: Shaded relief map shows a highly dissected topography on the western side and homoclinal topography on eastern side of the Chishan Fault. Line XX' shows where the
topographical profile (Fig. 14) is located. Right: Drainages (in black) were developed discontinuously across the Chishan Fault at sector (A); the deflected streams (in black polygons with white
outline), offset drainages (in white polygons with black outline), and shutter ridges (in white polygons) associated with blocked streams are the prominent features in sectors (B) and (C).

Fault, which is a thrust fault with left-lateral motion. This postulation, (3) Implications for escape tectonics
however, conflicts with the general belief that the Chishan Fault is a
thrust fault with dextral movement and acts as one boundary fault of Ching et al. (2007) developed a revised kinematic tectonic model
the lateral extrusion of the southwestern block of Taiwan (Lacombe of crustal deformation in southwest Taiwan, which considers the
et al., 2001). A significant right-lateral component with a surface Chishan Fault as a major boundary fault separating southwest Taiwan
motion of 24–30 mm/yr was identified from the interseismic GPS into two structural domains: the internally deforming Western
gradient across the Chishan Fault (Hu et al., 2007). It can be argued Foothills with right-lateral transpression in a clockwise rotation to
that Hu et al. (2007) used GPS velocity data collected by the CGS the west and the relatively rigid Pingtung Plain with a counterclock-
network, which does not have stations between the Chishan and wise rotation to the east. The thick Gutingkeng mudstone formation is
Lungchuan faults (Fig. 10). The Lungchuan Fault then has dextral weak mechanically and thrusted by several sub-parallel reverse faults
movement based on a comparison of GPS data in this study and that (e.g., the Pingchi Fault, Lungchun Fault, and Gutingkeng Fault; Fig. 1).
obtained by Hu et al. (2007); Fig. 10). Consequently, the block The Chishan Fault is a reverse fault that has lateral components to
between the Chishan Fault and Lungchuan Fault is moving south- accommodate transpression in a clockwise rotation. That is, the
westerly faster than adjacent blocks. The Chishan Fault does have a Chishan Fault may not act as the primary boundary; instead, the
sinistral sense of motion. boundary is obscured by several sub-parallel faults.

Fig. 14. Topographical profile shows the slope break where the Chishan Fault is located.
198 Q.-C. Sung et al. / Geomorphology 118 (2010) 188–198

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This research was supported by the Taiwan Earthquake Research flexure of a rifted continental margin. Journal Geophysical Research 107, 2185.
Center (TEC) funded through the National Science Council (NSC) with doi:10.1029/2001JB000669.
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gas hydrates. Marine Geology 167, 29–42.
collection and processing during study periods, as well as Professor J.H. Milkov, A.V., Sassen, R., Apanasovich, T.V., Dadashev, F.G., 2003. Global gas flux from
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