Energy efficient heating:

an overview
CIBSE Knowledge Series: KS14

Principal authors
Phil Jones (Building Energy Solutions and
London South Bank University)
Tony Day (London South Bank University)

Editor
Ken Butcher

Director of Information
Jacqueline Balian

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

The rights of publication or translation are reserved.

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in any form or by any means without the prior permission of the Institution.

© January 2009 The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers London

Registered charity number 278104

ISBN: 978-1-903287-98-9

This document is based on the best knowledge available at the time of publication.
However no responsibility of any kind for any injury, death, loss, damage or delay however
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Typeset by CIBSE Publications

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 Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1

2 Requirements of legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3

3 Minimising heat loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

4 Energy efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6

5 Condensing boilers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

6 Combined heat and power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14

7 Heat pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18

8 Industrial heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

9 Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22

10 Renewables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

11 Community heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30

12 Heating benchmarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31

13 Gross and net calorific values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33

14 References and further sources of information . . . . . . . . . . . . . .35

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

1 Introduction

In most buildings, heating and hot water account for the largest annual
consumption of delivered energy, and therefore CO2 emissions from heating
systems are often high. Providing space heating and hot water amounts to
almost half the CO2 emissions from non-domestic buildings resulting in some
37 Mt CO2/year being emitted into the atmosphere. Heating and hot water
for a typical 4000 m2 naturally ventilated office will result in 115 tonnes of
CO2 being emitted into the atmosphere.

Space heating loads are generally reducing as a proportion of the total energy
demand in buildings due to improved U-values and reduced air infiltration,
increased boiler efficiencies and improved heating controls. However, fuel
prices have increased and there is a constant need to keep costs and
environmental emissions under control whilst meeting the comfort needs of
the building occupants.

The Mayor of London’s energy hierarchy has three clear stages that provide a
structured approach to reducing energy consumption in buildings, as shown
in Figure 1. This hierarchy can be directly applied to heating by:

(1) using less energy

(2) supplying energy efficiently, and
(3) using renewable energy.

Figure 1:
Supply energy Use renewable
Use less energy
efficiently energy
The energy hierarchy
(’be lean’)
(’be clean’) (’be green’)

Energy efficient heating should:

— incorporate the most efficient primary plant to generate heat/hot water

— ensure that heat/hot water is distributed effectively and efficiently
— include effective controls on primary plant and distribution systems to
ensure that heat/hot water is provided only when and where it is
needed, and at the correct temperature
— be responsive to changes in climate, solar gains, occupancy, activity,
and internal gains
— include metering to allow fuel consumption to be monitored against
energy and CO2 targets.

The technologies available include:

— high efficiency boilers

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 1

 Rules of thumb — condensing boilers
— combined heat and power (CHP)
Reducing room temperature by 1 °C can — heat pumps
reduce fuel use by 10% (more in modern — radiant heating
buildings).
— air heating
Reducing the ‘on’ time by 2 hours per day
can save around 10% in running costs. — renewables
— community heating.

This publication provides an introduction to energy efficient heating systems

for engineers and building professionals that need an overview of the subject.
For further detail on heating issues see CIBSE Guide F(1) chapter 10 and
CIBSE Guide B(2); heating controls are considered in CIBSE Guide H(3).
Domestic heating is covered in the Domestic Building Services Panel’s
Domestic heating design guide(4). Provided that they meet certain minimum
standards, the installation of many energy efficient heating technologies can
gain tax reductions called Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECAs), see the
Government’s ECA website (http://www.eca.gov.uk) for details.

2 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

2 Requirements of legislation

The Building Regulations(5–7) set minimum energy efficiency standards for

heating and hot water systems. This publication should be read in conjunction
with Building Regulations Approved Documents L2A(8) and L2B(9) and their
equivalents for Scotland(10,11) and Northern Ireland(12–14), and the Non-
Domestic Heating, Cooling and Ventilation Compliance Guide(15) (NDHCV) to
ensure compliance with the Building Regulations. The NDHCV is a ‘second
tier’ document referred to in Approved Documents L2A and L2B as a
source of guidance for complying with the minimum requirements of the
Regulations.

The NDHCV Guide(15) outlines the minimum provision for each type of
heating, hot water and air distribution system including:

— minimum provision for efficiency of the plant that generates heat and
hot water
— minimum provisions for the controls to ensure the system is not
generating heat or hot water unnecessarily or excessively
— a set of additional measures which may improve the efficiency of the
plant
Table 1:
— minimum provision for insulation of pipes and ducts serving space
Carbon emission factors
heating and hot water systems Source: Building Regulations Approved
— minimum provisions for acceptable specific fan power ratings serving Document L2A(8)

air distribution systems.

CO2 emissions
Delivered fuel factor
For boilers, the regulations require both a minimum seasonal efficiency and a (kgCO2/kW·h)
minimum effective seasonal efficiency. Where, for example, a boiler falls short Natural gas 0.194
of the effective seasonal boiler efficiency then additional measures (e.g. Liquid petroleum gas 0.234
improved controls) must be added, giving efficiency credits in order to meet (LPG)

the minimum requirement. The installation must also have a minimum Biogas 0.025
Oil 0.265
controls package and pipework /vessel insulation levels.
Coal 0.291
Biomass 0.025
Building Regulations Part L(5) now requires the energy performance of
Grid-supplied 0.422
buildings other than dwellings to be calculated using the National Calculation electricity
Method (NCM), which for new buildings is implemented through a range of Grid-displaced 0.568
accredited software. The NDHCV Guide(15) identifies the input parameters electricity

that are required by the NCM for space heating, hot water and ventilation Waste heat 0.018

systems in order to calculate annual energy performance. Examples of these

minimum requirements are shown in the relevant sections of the present
publication.

The NCM for new buildings is based on overall CO2 emissions from
buildings. Approved Document L2A(8) provides carbon emissions factors that
should be used in calculating emissions from buildings, see Table 1.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 3

 Where heating plant is being upgraded or replaced in existing buildings then
the minimum recommended efficiencies and requirements set out in
Approved Document L2B(9) should be met. Approved Documents L2A(8)
(new buildings) and L2B(9) (existing buildings) also recommend that
appropriate sub-metering be put in place and a building log book should be
introduced or updated where it already exists. CIBSE TM39(16) provides
guidance on metering to meet the requirements of the Building Regulations.

It is also very important to ensure that boiler plant is designed and maintained
for safe operation. HSE Guidance note PM5(17) requires that hot water
boilers should have an automatic control device to cut off fuel to the burners
of gas-fired plant when the boiler flow outlet temperature rises to a
predetermined temperature that might be unsafe. This control system should
keep the system temperature at least 17 °C below the temperature of
saturated steam corresponding to the pressure at the highest point of the
circulation system above the boiler. To comply with this recommendation, the
minimum system pressure should be determined from the maximum design
flow temperature.

The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive(18) requires that member

states introduce either a regular inspection of boilers or the provision of
advice to the users that must achieve an overall equivalent impact to that of
inspection. An advice scheme seems more likely in the UK but that still only
applies to smaller boilers with certain fuels. It still requires regular inspection
of boilers fired with non-renewable liquid or solid fuel with an output of
20 to 100 kW, and inspection of boilers of an output greater than 100 kW
irrespective of the fuel used.

4 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

3 Minimising heating loads

The first step in achieving an energy efficient heating system is to minimise

demand for heat. The built form of the building will influence the heating
strategy and can be designed to minimise heating energy consumption as
shown in the ‘sketch design’ sections of CIBSE Guide F(1). Before designing a
heating system it is essential to ask: ‘Have the demands been minimised?’.
Attention to fabric detail at the sketch design stage to minimise the
requirement for space heating is particularly important in reducing energy
consumption.

In order to keep demands to a minimum, designers should:

— minimise uncontrolled air infiltration by designing a tight envelope, i.e.

‘build tight—ventilate right’; recommended air leakage standards are
shown in Approved Document L2A(8), i.e. less than 10 m3·h–1/m2
— keep conductive heat losses to a minimum through high levels of
insulation
— utilise the thermal mass of the building to smooth out heating loads
— optimise internal heat gains as these can be used to offset the space
heating requirement
— minimise hot water demand by incorporating low-flow alternatives
such as showers and spray taps
— adopt renewable solutions rather than energy consuming options by
utilising solar gains through passive design while giving preference to
renewable heat sources.

An energy efficient design aims to provide thermal comfort with the

minimum use of energy. Therefore an energy efficient building should provide
the desired internal conditions by relying on natural or renewable means
where possible. If practicalities prevent this, designers should consider the
next most energy efficient means of providing heating.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 5

 4 Energy efficiency

The ‘keep it simple’ principle is very important in achieving an energy efficient

heating system. Over-complex systems and controls can lead to
commissioning and maintenance problems, which result in poor operation
and efficiency. There are a few useful rules to follow when designing energy
efficient heating systems. Designers should:

— select fuels and tariffs that promote high efficiency, low emissions and
minimise running costs
— segregate hot water services generation wherever possible
— locate plant to minimise distribution system losses
— insulate pipework, valves, storage vessels etc. effectively
— choose efficient primary plant, such as condensing boilers
— consider energy recovery, e.g. from air exhaust streams
— distribute heat effectively by avoiding excessive pipe lengths and
system resistance
— use effective controls through good zoning, effective time control and
variable flow control where possible
— consider de-centralised heating and hot water services generation
plant on large sites to reduce standing losses and improve load
matching
but:

— consider centralised community heating in order to utilise central

combined heat and power (CHP) and /or biofuels plant; carry out a
feasibility study to determine the balance between centralisation and
decentralisation
— avoid over-designing the heating system itself as oversizing can lead to
a significant drop in efficiency
— ensure that the base load is provided by the most efficient plant
— always consider the part load efficiency of the overall system since
much of the year will be spent operating at part load; ensure that large
central systems do not operate to meet relatively small loads — the
NDHCV Guide(15) includes requirements for minimum boiler
efficiencies at part load.

Figure 2 shows a simple heating system that can be used as a basic building
block. Including the following features can often help to reach a simple
energy efficient heating system:

— include a pumped boiler primary circuit

— use a common primary circuit pump set (larger boilers)
— use a reverse return primary circuit
— decouple primary and secondary circuits via a common header

6 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

 Sequencer Figure 2:
1 2 3 4 Basic energy efficient
Compensator
heating system
Flow

Common header
Boiler Boiler Boiler Boiler
No 1 No 2 No 3 No 4

Compensator

Return
Seasonal efficiency

Most boiler manufacturers provide

efficiency data based on laboratory tests
over short periods. Seasonal efficiency is
— ensure correct set points for boiler sequence controller a measure of the heat input and output
over the whole heating season (or year).
— set boiler thermostats higher than the boiler sequence controls and
Most boilers spend the majority of the
ensure that adequate system pressure is available. season /year operating at less than full
output (part load). Seasonal efficiency
takes this into account and therefore
Good sequence control of multiple boilers is essential and can be achieved provides a much more realistic measure
from either the flow or return temperatures, providing the sensor location is of what is actually happening in buildings.
detecting the load correctly, i.e. in a constant flow rate section of the primary
circuit, say near either end of the common header.

Always select the most efficient plant. Typical seasonal efficiencies of boiler
plant are shown in Table 2.

Seasonal Table 2:
Boiler/system
efficiency (%) Typical seasonal
Condensing boilers: efficiencies of boilers
— underfloor or warm water system 90 or greater
— standard size radiators, variable temperature circuit 87
(weather compensation)
— standard fixed temperature emitters (83 /72 °C flow/return) 85

Non-condensing boilers:
— modern high efficiency non-condensing boilers 82
— good modern boiler design closely matched to demand 80
— typical good existing boiler 70
— typical existing oversized boiler (atmospheric cast-iron 45–70
sectional)

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 7

 5 Condensing boilers

Condensing boilers typically use an additional heat exchanger to extract extra

Figure 3:
heat by condensing water vapour from the products of combustion, see
Cross section of a simple
Figure 3. They are generally gas-fired and operate at a minimum efficiency of
condensing boiler
around 85% (based on gross calorific value, see section 13). Even when not
condensing they can achieve efficiencies in the range 85–95% depending
Induced upon the system return water temperature. Efficiency is often higher at part
draught
fan load than at full load and they easily comply with Part L requirements with
86% at full load rising to 91% at 30%. Condensing boilers should normally
be the first choice for ‘lead’ gas boilers in multiple installations. In underfloor
heating systems they can achieve seasonal efficiencies over 90% although the
more common approach is direct weather compensation on standard
Cast
iron systems to achieve seasonal efficiencies of around 88%. Condensing boilers
section
often provide energy savings of 10–20% compared to typical non-condensing
boilers with paybacks on the additional costs of 3–5 years, depending on the
installation and gas price.
Gas
5.1 How does condensing work?

Condensate
drain When low temperature return water enters the condensing heat exchanger it
cools the flue gases. If the water is less than about 55 °C the water vapour in
the flue gases is condensed and latent heat is given up. The lower the return
water temperature, the more condensation produced and the greater the
efficiency, see Figure 4.

100

1500

Condensate produced (g/m3 of gas)

90
Efficiency (%)

Condensing 1000
mode

80

Non-condensing 500
Efficiency mode
Condensate
Figure 4: 70
Operation of condensing
0
boilers 20 30 40 50 60 70
Return water temperature (°C)

There are a range of hydraulic arrangements and controls that can promote
low return temperatures, leading to condensation. The two main methods
are:

8 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

— Low temperature systems: these systems can operate at return water Benefits of condensing boilers
temperatures as low as 30 °C throughout the whole heating season,
making these ideal applications for condensing boilers. For example, • Condensing can give 5–8% over high
condensing boilers in underfloor heating systems can achieve seasonal efficiency boilers.

efficiencies over 90%. It is often possible to ‘design-in’ a particular low • Minimum 85% when not condensing.
• Similar capital cost to high efficiency
temperature circuit (e.g. underfloor heating in atria) in which to locate
but 30–40% over standard boilers.
the secondary heat exchanger to promote condensation. Some • Paybacks can be attractive
systems are also designed with wide temperature differentials (e.g. ΔT (3–5 years).
of 20 °C) to promote longer periods in the condensing mode. • To gain the extra efficiency we need
the right system.
• The lower the return temperature
— Weather compensated systems: the low return water temperatures the better the boiler efficiency.
occurring in ‘standard’ (i.e. 82 °C flow temperature) weather • Even greater efficiencies on low
compensated systems can be used to force condensing boilers into the temperature and wide ΔT systems.
condensing mode during milder weather, as shown in Figure 5. As the • Should consider ‘condensing systems’
rather than ‘condensing boilers’.
external temperature rises, the flow temperature is decreased, saving
energy. Locating the secondary heat exchanger in the variable
temperature part of a three-port valve, weather compensated circuit is
the most common method, as shown in Figure 6. An even simpler
approach is to directly compensate the boilers, as shown in Figure 7.

In a compensated system, the boiler moves

Figure 5:
80 into condensing mode, and higher efficiency,
in the milder parts of the season when return Weather compensation
water temperatures are lower, giving
seasonal efficiencies of around 87–88%. characteristic
60
Temperature (oC)

Flow to heating circuit

40
Return
Non-
20 condensing Condensing

0
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
External temperature (oC)

Condensing boiler
primary heat exchanger
Sequencer
Compensator
Common header

Cond.
NC NC NC
prim.

Figure 6:
Sec
Weather compensation
NC = non-condensing Secondary ‘condensing’ using a 3-port valve
heat exchanger
CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 9
 Figure 7: Condensing boiler
Direct weather primary heat exchangers

compensation Compensator
Sequencer

Cond. Cond.

Common header
prim. prim.
NC NC
Sec. Sec.

NC = non-condensing
Secondary ‘condensing’
heat exchangers

5.2 Mixing and matching condensing and non-condensing boilers

Condensing boilers can be more expensive than some non-condensing

boilers. Other than low temperature systems, combinations of condensing
and non-condensing boilers are normally more cost effective than installing all
condensing boilers. The condensing boiler provides the base load and the less
efficient non-condensing boilers top-up the heat demand. It is common to
find that 50–75% condensing provides the most economic approach. The
most efficient plant should take the base load, so the sequence control should
be configured such that the condensing boilers always operate first. In mixed
boiler systems, the additional hydraulic resistance of condensing boilers must
be considered when designing boiler circuits and suitable regulating valves
used to ensure balanced flows.

5.3 Where to use condensing boilers

The following criteria indicate the situations where condensing boilers may
be used to best effect.

Heating circuit design temperature:

— Ideal: underfloor or warm water systems

— Good: variable temperature circuits
— Poor: fixed temperature circuits (82/71 °C)

Annual heating requirement:

— Ideal: high equivalent hours (> 2500 h)

— Good: medium equivalent hours (1500–2500 h)
— Poor: low equivalent hours (< 1500 h)

10 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

5.4 Installation issues: flues and drains

Dealing with condensate is not usually difficult. The condensate is slightly

acidic (typically 3.5 pH) but less so than vinegar and this is counteracted by
general effluent which is often alkaline. A simple plastic drain can be used, as
shown in Figure 8. Traps are essential to avoid combustion gases escaping
into the plant room. An open tundish allows a visual inspection of condensate
flow, the more volume of condensate, the greater the efficiency.

Figure 8:
Condensate drain
Flue installation

Boiler

U traps
Metal pipe to protect
plastic drain

Open tundish Minimum fall

(1 in 20)

Flues generally need to be stainless steel with good seals to avoid condensate
leakage. Condensate will form inside the flue but should run down to a drain
at the base of the flue or back through the boiler, as shown in Figure 9.
Installation cost reductions can sometimes be realised because the flue
diameter is often smaller than a non-condensing boiler due to the smaller
amounts of combustion products, and fan driven flues. There is less natural
buoyancy due to lower flue temperatures, particularly when condensing and
a plume often occurs when the wet combustion products meet the outside
air. The plume should not present a problem but the flue outlet needs careful
siting to prevent the plume become a nuisance or having an effect on roofing
materials.

Plastic flues can be used providing they are made of the correct material and
an over-temperature limit thermostat is installed to protect the flue in case of
exposure to high discharge temperatures.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 11

 Figure 9:
Plume
Condensate boiler flue
installation Flue terminal
nozzle
Minimum
height above
roof level

Saturated
flue gases

Less natural
buoyancy

Fall >5°
Lower flue gas
temperatures
Appliance
fan
Less volume of
flue gases

Flue drain

5.5 Building Regulations compliance

New buildings

Gas boilers installed in new buildings require seasonal efficiencies greater

than:

— single boiler installations: 84%

— multi-boiler installations: 80% for individual boilers and 84% for the
overall installation.

Both require a minimum controls package. For example, boilers between

100–250 kW require:

— time and temperature demand control on zones

— weather compensation (except for constant temperature systems)
— optimum start/stop controls
— sequence control for multiple boilers
— limited heat loss from ‘off’ boilers in multiple installations.

Existing buildings

Gas boilers installed in existing buildings require seasonal efficiencies as

follows:

12 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

— minimum effective heat generating seasonal efficiency: 84%
— minimum boiler seasonal efficiency: 80%.

Again, a minimum controls package is required and efficiency credits can be

added by including a range of other measures such as improved controls and
monitoring.

Calculating seasonal efficiency

The NDHCV Guide(15) provides an example of how to calculate seasonal

efficiency, see Table 3.

Using an equation from the NDHCV Guide (see NDHCV Guide for full
example), along with the weighting factors and the part load efficiencies
shown, the overall seasonal efficiency may be estimated to ensure compliance
with minimum standards.

Boiler Rating Efficiency at Boiler output (%) at Boiler efficiency (%) Table 3:
no. (kW) stated % of stated % of system as stated % of system Example calculation of
boiler output output output
seasonal efficiency
100% 30% 15% 30% 100% 15% 30% 100%

1 250 86.0 90.0 36.0 72.0 100 89.7 87.6 86.0

2 250 86.0 90.0 0 0 100 90.0 90.0 86.0

3 250 85.0 85.0 0 0 40 89.7 87.6 85.4

System efficiency at part load (%): 89.7 87.6 85.4

Weighting factor: 0.36 0.45 0.19

Overall seasonal boiler efficiency (%): 87.3

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 13

 6 Combined heat and power

Combined heat and power (CHP) involves generating electricity on-site and
utilising the heat that is a by-product of the generation process. For a wide
range of buildings, CHP can offer an economical method of providing heat
and power which is less environmentally harmful than conventional methods.
In these buildings, CHP is often the single biggest measure for reducing
buildings-related CO2 emissions and running costs.

Typical efficiency is around 65–85%, which is much greater than typical

power stations. CHP efficiency can sometimes be higher and the best sites
have year-round heat demand. In general, CHP can be economic if it runs for
more than around 5000 hours/year but an independent feasibility study is
essential, based on reliable demand profiles to optimise the size of the plant.
Ideal applications are hospitals, hotels, swimming pools, leisure centres,
colleges and Universities.

The CHP Quality Assurance scheme (CHPQA)(19) sets out what is meant by
‘good quality’ CHP. New installations in buildings must have a quality index
over 105 and a power efficiency over 20%. The Building Regulations now
require all new and replacement CHP plants to meet these quality criteria.

6.1 Environmental improvements

Each kW·h of electricity supplied from the average fossil fuel power station
results in the emission of around half a kilogram of CO2 into the atmosphere.
Typically, gas-fired boilers emit around one fifth of a kilogram of CO2 per unit
of heat generated. CHP has a lower carbon intensity of heat and power
production than these separate sources and this can result in around a 30%
reduction in emissions of CO2, thus helping to reduce the risk of global
warming. The environmental benefits can be clearly seen in Figures 10 and 11
below. CHP produces far less CO2 emissions with a reduced primary energy
input than conventional energy supply systems.

With over 1000 installations within UK buildings CHP is a tried and tested
technology. Government has set a target of installing 10 000 MWe of CHP by
2010, which could provide 20% of the UK’s carbon reduction target under
the Kyoto Protocol. With rising energy prices and, specifically, a widening gap
between gas and electricity prices, CHP is becoming one of the principle
technologies for providing a cost-effective low carbon solution. To be
economic it needs to be used in buildings with a significant base heat demand
and should be sized correctly in relation to this demand.

CHP can be powered by renewable fuels that can reduce carbon emissions
to zero. These include biogas produced from anaerobic digestion or from

14 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

 Figure 10:
Conventional energy
CO2 supply
Power 106 kg
station

67 kg 39 kg

270
kW·h

Delivered
Primary energy
energy
200 kW·h 160 kW heat
input
470 kW·h 100 kW electricity
Boiler

Figure 11:
Energy supply using CHP
CO2
63 kg

Delivered
energy Primary
160 kW heat energy
100 kW electricity input
325 kW·h

CHP unit

waste oils from food processing. Wood chip gasification also presents
opportunities although this is less well tried and tested. Bio-CHP is usually
more economic in larger installations to minimise the cost of fuel handling but
there are examples of small bio-CHP plants.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 15

 Considerations for successful CHP 6.2 CHP technologies

CHP should always be the lead ‘boiler’. There is now a range of technologies that can be used as CHP in buildings:
The best sites have a year-round heat
demand. (a) ‘micro’ CHP (up to 5 kWe)
CHP usually requires 5000 hours/year — Stirling engines
running for economic viability.
— reciprocating engines
CHP heavily depends upon heat and
power demand profiles.
The economics of CHP improve if (b) small scale (up to 1 MWe)
standby generation or boiler replacement
is undertaken.
— spark ignition
CHP should be sized according to the — micro-turbines (30–100 kWe)
base heat load, but the best economic — small scale gas turbines (typically 500 kWe)
case is often obtained by sizing the plant
slightly bigger than this.
Ensure heat is utilised in the building as (c) large scale (above 1 MWe)
savings are reduced if heat is rejected. — gas turbine
Savings depend on the hours run, — large reciprocating engine
therefore run the CHP as much as
possible to maximise savings.
Ensure that correct energy prices are (d) fuel cells.
used for feasibility studies as savings are
heavily dependent on fuel costs and
electricity prices. Most CHP in single buildings are small scale plants, normally based on gas-
Don’t rely on suppliers’ feasibility reports; fired reciprocating engines and in the form of packaged units, often in
commission a detailed independent study. modular boiler arrangements with outputs between 50 kWe and 1 MWe.
These units supply water at 82 °C suitable for space heating and hot water
systems and their part load efficiency is good. Very small non-domestic
buildings can be supplied successfully using micro-CHP whereas larger scale
(>1 MWe) installations are more likely to use gas turbines or reciprocating
engines.

Good Practice Guide 388(20) provides an introduction to CHP in buildings

while CIBSE Applications Manual AM12: Small scale CHP in buildings(21) gives a
more detailed approach.

The energy balance for a typical small gas-fired CHP plant is shown in Figure
12.

16 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

 15% 5% (based on typical gas engine) Figure 12:
flue radiation
loss loss Energy balance for a
Exhaust heat
typical small gas-fired
exchanger CHP plant
100%
primary
fuel

Generator
Gas engine

Engine heat exchanger

50% heat 30% electricity

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 17

 7 Heat pumps

Heat pumps are devices (heat engines) that move heat from one location to
another through the input of work. Normally, a small input of electricity
results in the movement of larger amounts of heating or cooling to the point
of demand. Most often, heat pump technology is applied to moving heat from
a low temperature heat source to a heat sink at a higher temperature. Heat
pumps can produce high coefficients of performance (COPs) when operating
at low temperature differentials and a COP of 4.0 is common when operating
Coefficient of performance (COP) in heating mode. Heat pumps have found wide use in applications where ‘low
grade’ heat is available, e.g. where low grade heat from an industrial process
COP is a measure of efficiency, a COP of is being dumped, or for ventilation extract heat recovery such as in swimming
3.5 being roughly equivalent to an
efficiency of 350%; i.e. inputting one unit pools and supermarkets.
of electricity provides 3.5 units of heat
output.
Heat pumps are available in a number of different forms and exploit different
However, the term ‘efficiency’ is
inaccurate, since the electricity input sources of low grade heat. They may use the ground as a source, or water or
does not make heat, but instead moves air, all of which have different efficiencies and characteristics. Air source heat
existing heat ‘upstream’.
pumps may be used to extract heat either from outside air or from
ventilation exhaust air. When outside air is used as a heat source, the COP
tends to decline as the air temperature drops.

When used to provide heating only, the COP of heat pumps does not usually
compensate for the increased financial and environmental costs of using
electricity. Where the need for cooling has been established, e.g. in retail
outlets, reversible heat pumps can be an effective way of providing both
cooling and heating. Small split-unit heat pumps are common in small shops
and offices, but these require good interlinked controls to ensure that units
providing heating do not conflict with nearby units supplying cooling.

Reversible ground source heat pumps are now becoming a common, energy
efficient, solution to provide heating in winter (COP of, say, 4.0) and cooling
in summer (COP of, say, 3.0) in offices, for example. Ground source heat
pumps are best applied in this reversible way so that the ground is
replenished as a heat source between the seasons. Operating in heating
mode only can gradually reduce the ground temperature which will reduce
the COP.

The NDHCV Guide(15) sets minimum standards for compliance with Building
Regulations(5–7) as follows:

— heat pumps (except absorption and gas engine): COP > 2.0
— absorption heat pumps: COP > 0.5
— gas-engine heat pumps: COP > 1.0

18 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

However, for typical heat pumps in the heating cycle, good practice suggests Table 4:
that the COP should not generally be less than that shown in Table 4(1), and Minimum coefficients of
should aim to be typically around 4.0. The NDHCV Guide also recommends performance for heat
a minimum controls package and a series of good practice issues for heat pumps in heating cycle(1)
pumps.
Heating capacity COP

Up to 20 2.2
21 to 60 2.4
61 to 120 2.5
Over 120 2.6

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 19

 8 Industrial heating

Most industrial and warehousing space is heated by either warm air or radiant
systems, both of which can be reasonably efficient, if well controlled.

8.1 Warm air systems

Warm air systems:

— have a quick response to control but can promote temperature

stratification, e.g. possible overheating at roof level
— often require significant lengths of ductwork and, therefore, fan power
can add to overall energy consumption
— are generally more difficult to control in zones, requiring air dampers
and room thermostats.

The three main types of warm air systems are:

— direct gas-fired units

— indirect gas- or oil-fired units
— indirect units fitted with water or steam coils.

Operation can be with either air recirculation to maintain space temperature,

or with a full fresh air supply to provide the minimum fresh air requirement.
Direct gas-fired unit heaters have additional fresh air requirements for
combustion.

Direct gas-fired unit heaters should preferably have modulating burners

controlled in relation to the discharge temperature and room temperature.
Also available are highly efficient gas-fired condensing unit heaters that
operate in the condensing mode constantly.

The NDHCV Guide(15) sets minimum standards for compliance with Building
Regulations as follows:

— gas-fired forced convection without fan, or incorporating a fan to assist

combustion air/combustion products: > 80% thermal efficiency
— oil-fired forced convection: > 80% thermal efficiency
— direct gas-fired forced convection: > 90% thermal efficiency

See the NDHVC Guide(15) for details and for the minimum controls package.

20 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

8.2 Radiant systems

Radiant systems:

— are more efficient because they only heat the occupants and building
fabric and do not generally raise the temperature of the internal air to
full comfort levels
— generally provide a rapid response, requiring less heat-up time at the
beginning of the day.

Significant energy savings are therefore possible, compared with convective

air systems. Types of radiant heater include gas-fired tube heaters, plaque
heaters and electric quartz-halogen units.

The radiant effect is only maintained when heater surfaces are above a
certain temperature. Hence two-stage switching, which operates above and
below the critical temperature, gives closer control than simple on /off
switching.

Temperature control is required for each heater, or group of heaters, and

time control for the overall system. Black-bulb radiant heat sensors should be
used to achieve good temperature control of radiant heating systems. The
sensors must be located in positions that are representative of the radiant
effect of the panels being controlled.

The NDHCV Guide(15) sets minimum standards for compliance with Building
Regulations as follows:

— luminous radiant heater (unflued): > 85.5% thermal efficiency

— non-luminous radiant heater (unflued): > 85.5% thermal efficiency
— non-luminous radiant heater (flued): > 73.8% thermal efficiency
— multi-burner radiant heaters: > 80% thermal efficiency.

See the NDHVC Guide(15) for details and for the minimum controls package.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 21

 9 Controls

Good control of primary heating/hot water plant and distribution systems is a

vital part in achieving low energy consumption. The key requirement is to
provide heat /hot water only when and where it is needed, and at the right
temperature, whilst minimising boiler cycling.

The NDHCV Guide(15) sets out minimum standards of controls for different
heat generators in order to comply with Building Regulations(5–7). Chapter 5
of CIBSE Guide F(1) covers overall control strategies; more detailed guidance
is available in chapter 10 of CIBSE Guide F and in CIBSE Guide H(3).

Controls should be appropriate to the user, e.g. building management

systems (BMS) can be very effective in large buildings or estates with resident
engineers, whereas less complex controls may be more appropriate in
smaller buildings. Good controls can:

— increase comfort
— prevent systems running and cycling unnecessarily
— ensure the right level of service
— minimise maintenance requirements
— reduce energy consumption.

Good control is essential in achieving low energy consumption. This means

that the system should provide heat only:

— when required
— where required
— to the temperature required,

and the boiler fires only when there is a demand for heat.

Even a well designed system can perform badly if the controls are poor.
Equally, good controls will not rescue a poorly designed heating system.
Systems should revert to safe and energy-efficient ‘off’ or ‘standby’ levels
after use, rather than default to ‘on’.

9.1 Boiler sequence control

Controlling multiple boilers in sequence:

— matches the number of boilers firing to suit the load

— minimises the number of boilers firing, thus, maximising overall
efficiency

22 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

 — avoids short cycling of burner operation and, therefore, enhances
energy efficient and stable operation
— is normally carried out with respect to boiler circuit return
temperature, although flow temperature can be used.

In general, sequence control will not operate correctly where the flow rate
varies as a result of individual boiler pumps or automatic isolation valves.
Systems should have:

— a single primary pump (mainly larger boilers — smaller boilers may

have circulating pumps included but should still be sequenced)
— a common header or buffer vessel to ‘decouple’ primary and
secondary circuits
— a margin between the boiler thermostats and the sequence control
setting to prevent interaction; this is normally 8 °C to allow for the
boiler thermostat switching differential and the dilution effect of flow
through off-line boilers.

Individual boiler thermostats must be set in accordance with HSE Guidance

Note PM5(17). Therefore, systems must have an adequate head of water or
be pressurised to permit boiler thermostat settings higher than 82 °C.

9.2 Optimum start/stop controls

Optimum start controls are weather dependent time-switches that vary the
start-up time in the morning to achieve the building temperature by the start
of occupancy. Heat-up times are reduced during milder weather, thus saving
around 5–10% of heating energy. Optimum stop controls turn the heating
system off early without compromising comfort in milder weather. Figure 13
shows the operation of optimum start controls and the potential energy
savings compared with a time-switch. Optimum start/stop controls can be
relatively simple using a single internal sensor and a linear delay of start-up.

24
Potential energy savings
Figure 13:
Timeswitch Operation of optimum
20 set for 6 am
Internal temperature (°C)

start control
Typical settings
16
•Maximum heat-up
period:
12 6 am to 9 am

Optimised •Normal occupancy

8 start period:
9 am to 5 pm

4
04:00 05:00 06:00 07:00 08:00 09:00 10:00 11:00 12:00
Time of day
CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 23
 However, sophisticated self-learning units with an external sensor are now
common, providing closer control and greater savings. The greatest energy
savings from optimum start controls are likely to be gained in buildings of
lightweight construction and with heating systems of low thermal capacity.

9.3 Weather compensation controls

Weather compensation controls reduce the flow temperature in variable

temperature circuits as the external temperature increases, see Figure 14.
This provides basic control of space temperature and reduces distribution
system losses. The compensator characteristic is normally linear, often with a
maximum and minimum flow temperature. In milder weather, the system
operates at lower temperatures thus saving energy. Compensators with non-
linear slopes are also available to match heat output more closely to ambient
temperature.

The most common version requires a three-port motorised valve to control

water temperature, although direct boiler compensation is also common, see
Figure 6. Weather compensation can provide low return water temperatures
in milder weather causing condensing boilers to operate at higher efficiencies.

Figure 14:
Weather compensation 80

60
Temperature (oC)

Flow to heating circuit

40

At design external condition, the system

produces the maximum flow temperature.
20 As outside temperature increases, the
weather compensator decreases the flow
temperature.

0
–2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
External temperature (oC)

9.4 Zone controls

Heating is often required at different times and temperatures in different

areas of a building. A successful control system will satisfy these different
requirements on a zone by zone basis. A zone may be regarded as a part of
the building where the heating system is capable of independent control, in
terms of time, temperature, or both.

In most cases, zone control is required by the current Building

Regulations(5–7) for each part of the system designed to be separately

24 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

controlled by thermostats, TRVs, etc. Individual emitters should have
separate control wherever possible for energy efficient operation.

The building should be zoned on the basis of occupancy pattern, temperature

requirements, nature of different tenancies, floor-by-floor, orientation etc., to
meet the requirements of different areas. This can be achieved using a
combination of motorised valves and thermostats with TRVs to trim.

Zone control can be implemented by the following:

— Thermostatic radiator valves (TRVs): provide a low cost method of local

temperature control on individual emitters, particularly where there
are high incidental gains.
— Motorised valves and room thermostats: can be used to provide
temperature and/or time control of a zone. Probably best used in
areas with a small group of emitters, say totalling over 5 kW. Sensing
locations (i.e. room thermostats) are better than TRVs and a wider
range of emitters can be controlled. Further energy savings can be
achieved by installing time controls on these zone valves. Larger zones
should also be weather compensated and have optimum start/stop
controls.

9.5 Variable speed drives

Most heating systems have a constant flow rate and use the same amount of
energy for pumping power throughout the year regardless of the load on the
system. Variable speed pumps can respond to the reduced demand by
decreasing the flow of the pumps so that they match the load on the system.
Considerable savings in pumping energy and improved space temperature
control can be achieved by controlling the speed of distribution system
pumps to respond to system demand. Variable speed drive controls are now
relatively cheap, giving a rapid economic payback. They also have in-built sub-
metering and can often aid commissioning/system balancing.

As shown in Figure 15, typically only 20% of full volume energy is required to
move air and water at 50% of maximum volume. Further guidance can be
found in CIBSE Guide H(3).

Typically between 25 and 50% of annual pumping energy consumption can be

saved by using variable flow heating systems. This is commonly achieved
using two-port control valves and a differential pressure controller on a by-
pass. The pump speed is then controlled using a variable speed drive to
maintain a constant differential pressure.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 25

 Figure 15: Hour 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Average
Flow rate (%) 100 90 70 55 40 30 30 32 38 45 53·0
Typical savings from a
Energy consumption (%) 110·0 82·9 42·3 23·6 13·4 9·7 9·7 10·3 12·5 16·1 33·1
variable speed drive Energy saving (%) –10·0 17·1 57·7 76·4 86·6 90·3 90·3 89·7 87·5 83·9 66·9
pump 120

Flow rate and energy consumption (%)

Flow rate (%)
100
Energy consumption (%)
80

60

40

20

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Hour

26 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

10 Renewables

The use of renewable energy resources is becoming more common in

buildings. Changes to planning guidance are leading to most large new
developments requiring 10% or more of their energy requirement to be
supplied from renewable sources. Building Regulations Approved Document
L2A(8) for new buildings also recommends a 10% renewable content for new
buildings.

There are a number of renewables that can be used to produce heat.

Biomass (solids) can be burnt in boiler plant, biofuels (gases and oils) can
supply CHP engines or boilers. Standalone renewable systems like solar
water heating can also be used to supply domestic hot water. CIBSE TM38:
Renewables energy sources for buildings(22) helps designers decide which
renewable technologies are most applicable in the built environment.

Fuels that could be used include:

— wood:
• forestry, highways, railways, tree surgeons, farms
• processing waste (sawdust)
— energy crops:
• short rotation coppice (SRC)
• miscanthus, grass and hay
— agricultural waste:
• straw, chaff, chicken litter, slurry /dung
— food processing waste:
• sugar beet waste, nutshells
• spoilt batches, condemned food, process effluent
— landfill gas
— biogas from anerobic digestion
— bio-oils:
• ethanol from sugar cane
• biodiesel from waste vegetable oil.

The calorific value of some renewable sources are shown in Table 4(23).

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 27

 Table 5: Renewable source Calorific value
Calorific values of (GJ per tonne)

renewable energy sources Domestic wood (50% moisture content) 10.0

Source: Digest of UK Energy
Industrial wood 11.9*
Statistics(23)
Straw 15.0
Poultry litter 8.8
Meat and bone 17.3
General industrial waste 16.0
Hospital waste 14.0
Municipal solid waste 9.5*
Refuse derived waste 18.6*
Short rotation coppice:
— as received 10.6
— dry 18.6
Tyres 32.0

* average

10.1 Anaerobic digestion

Anaerobic digestion (AD) can be used to process some of these organic

wastes using a biological process in a digester. As well as consuming the
waste, the bacteria give off a methane-rich biogas that can be used as a fuel.
AD has a long pedigree in the sewage treatment industry where sewage gas
is produced from digestion of sewage sludge. Animal slurries and food
processing waste can all be used in AD. Using CHP, some of the heat
produced can be used to drive the digestion process, see Figure 16.

Figure 16:
Biogas to
Anerobic digester Gas holder
CHP engine
producing biogas in
combination with CHP Slurry
Heat from
CHP engine
Digester

Effluent
(to land)

Screening, etc Pasteuriser

10.2 Solar water heating

Solar water heating converts solar radiation into heat that can be used
directly in hot water systems. They are widely used around the world to
provide domestic hot water, particularly where sunshine is plentiful and fuel is

28 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

relatively expensive, although they have not generally provided a good return
on investment in the UK.

These systems generally consist of solar collectors, a preheat tank (optional),

a pump, a control unit, connecting pipes feeding the normal hot water tank,
and a conventional heat source to supplement the supply. The collectors are
usually mounted on the roof and provide heat to a fluid circulated between
the collectors and a water tank. BS 5918(24) gives a method for sizing solar
hot water systems for individual houses, taking account of climate, panel
orientation and collector performance. CIBSE Guide B(2), General
Information Report GIR 58(25) and the Solar Heating Design Guide(26) provide
further details.

The current commercial price of a typical hot water system for a house
varies from £2000 to £6000. Typically, solar collectors cost £300 to £750
per m2 to install (depending on the technology) and would produce
approximately 300 kW·h/m2 of hot water in the UK. There are some
indications that the cost of systems is falling, increasing the economic
attractiveness of systems and the range of viable applications. A collector area
of 4–5 m2 can save approximately 0.5 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year.

10.3 Energy from waste

Household, commercial and industrial wastes can be viewed as a renewable

source and can represent an asset in energy terms. Many UK projects use
waste to produce electricity, heat or both. However, waste generally has a
calorific value about two thirds that of coal and produces around 50% more
ash. There are an increasing number of heat-from-waste installations, usually
large scale plants involving community heating schemes.

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 29

 11 Community heating

Where possible, buildings should be linked together through heat networks

to form more significant energy demands that benefit from larger CHP or
biomass boilers, e.g. community heating, see Figure 17.

Adding together the heat loads of a range of buildings usually provides a

significant overall base heat demand, which is beneficial for central CHP.
Good Practice Guide GPG 234: Guide to community heating and CHP (27)
provides more details. If this is not possible, then consider supplying individual
buildings using CHP or biomass boilers. A brief option appraisal should always
be carried out when replacing major plant or designing new systems to
determine whether community heating might be viable. If it begins to look
like the leading option then a full feasibility study will need to be carried out.
Many community energy systems are funded and implemented by energy
services companies (ESCOs) through a long term energy supply contract. For
a good introduction to CHP see Good Practice Guide GPG 388(20); for
detailed information see CIBSE Applications Manual AM12(21).

Figure 17: Central Industrial buildings

Community heating CHP plant
scheme
Shops and
retail premises

Civic
buildings
Houses
and flats

Community
centre

30 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

12 Heating benchmarks Table 6:
Boiler plant oversizing
It is essential to benchmark heating systems, both in design and operation.
limits
BSRIA Guidance Note 12/97(28) covers the oversizing of heating plant and
Boiler plant
indicates that heating plant capacities larger than those shown in Table 6 are
yardstick
Building type
likely to be highly oversized, particularly for new buildings meeting current (heating load)
(W·m– 2)
Building Regulations.
Offices and industrial 90
buildings
‘Typical’ and ‘good practice’ performance indicators for space heating energy
Retail, healthcare and 110
consumption in existing offices are shown in Table 7(29). The energy use educational buildings
indicator (EUI) is the product of:

(a) the design heat loss in W·m –2 of treated floor area

(b) the annual running hours
Table 7:
(c) the average percentage utilisation of the plant including allowances for
Space heating
boiler efficiency.
benchmarks for offices(29)

Benchmark Type 1: Naturally Type 2: Naturally Type 3: Air Type 4: Air

ventilated cellular ventilated open conditioned conditioned
office plan office standard office prestige office
Good Typical Good Typical Good Typical Good Typical
practice practice practice practice

Design heat loss (W·m–2) 80 125 80 125 90 140 90 140

Hours per year (h) 2000 2500 2000 2500 2500 3000 3000 3750

Utilisation (%) (including boiler

45 45 45 45 40 40 35 35
efficiency allowance)

Space heating EUI (kW·h /m2 per year) 72 141 72 141 90 168 95 181

Note: factors for converting treated floor area to net and gross are shown in Appendix A3

For new offices, good practice EUIs can be treated as the upper limit, the
aim would be that no office of any age should have an EUI greater than the
typical values. Space heating and hot water benchmarks for a range of other
buildings, e.g. hotels, mixed-use buildings, banks and agencies, are available in
chapter 20 of CIBSE Guide F(1). Where buildings provide 24-hour occupation
or have significant special end-uses such as swimming pools then EUIs will be
significantly higher than those in Table 6. Buildings with electric space heating
should be compared on the basis of CO2 emissions.

Degree-days

Degree-days are a measure of outside air temperature in relation to heating

demand and can be used to adjust heating energy consumption figures to

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 31

 take account of weather fluctuations. Correlating energy consumption with
degree-days can also help to determine the base load consumption for, say,
hot water. CIBSE TM41: Degree-days — theory and application(30) provides a
methodology for:

— predicting the energy consumption of new buildings

— analysing the energy consumption of existing buildings
— determining the true base temperature of an existing building.

This provides a method of predicting/analysing energy consumption based on

local weather data.

32 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

13 Gross and net calorific values

For product comparisons and sizing boilers, ensure that all the information is
based on either gross calorific value or net calorific value — don’t mix the
two. Heat output shown on manufacturers’ literature might be based on
either gross or net and this can make a significant difference when specifying Table 8:
equipment. Calorific values for some fuels are given in Table 8. Calorific values of fuels
Source: CIBSE Guide F(1)

In simple terms, the calorific value (CV) is the amount of heat released when Fuel Calorific value
a specific amount (weight or volume) of fuel is completely burnt in oxygen. (MJ/kg)
Most commonly used fuels (oil and gas) contain hydrogen and when burnt
this hydrogen is converted to water vapour that, when fully cooled, is Gross Net
converted to liquid water. During the process of converting water vapour to Class D fuel oil* 45.0 42.2
its liquid state a certain amount of heat is released. This is known as the Natural gas† 38.6 34.7
latent heat of condensation. The possibility exists for the measurement of LPG:
— butane 49.5 46.0
calorific value to include or to exclude the latent heat of condensation/evap- — propane 50.0 46.5
oration, thus there are two values of calorific value for a fuel. The higher Solid fuels (washed
value, including the latent heat, is the ‘gross’ CV and the lower value is the smalls):
— anthracite 29.65 28.95
‘net’ CV, see Figure 18. — dry steam coal 30.60 29.65
— coking coals 30.80 29.75
(medium volatile)
The gross CV of the fuel assumes that all the water vapour produced during
combustion has been converted to water. The efficiency of any product * to BS 2869
based on the gross CV cannot be greater than 100%. The net (lower) CV is † at 15 °C, 101.3 kPa
measured and calculated assuming that all the water vapour produced during
combustion remains as vapour. By designing an appliance which condenses
some of the water vapour (e.g. a condensing boiler), it is possible to measure
efficiencies greater than 100% using the net CV as the basis for calculation. In
the case of a natural gas appliance the efficiency based on gross CV will be
approximately 9% lower than the efficiency based on net CV.

Gross Nett Figure 18:

100% 109% Gross versus net calorific
Condensate Condensate
heat 8% heat 9% value
Other 3% 100%
Others 3%
Flue loss 5% Flue loss 4%
Latent heat

Gross Net
100 units
calorific calorific 91 units
Heat to of heat Heat to
value value of heat
water water
84% 93%

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 33

 In the past, the UK has used gross CV for calculation purposes, whereas
other European countries tended to use net CV. The introduction of
European Directives and European Standards (which use net CV) has
resulted in it becoming more usual for net CV to be used in the UK. It is
therefore important to know, when comparisons are made, that the inputs
and efficiencies of the products being compared have been calculated on the
same basis, either net CV or gross CV. Most manufacturers will make it clear
in their literature which is quoted. If it is not clear then ask the question.

34 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

14 References and further sources
of information

14.1 References

1 Energy efficiency in buildings CIBSE Guide F (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers) (2004)
2 Heating, ventilating, air conditioning and refrigeration CIBSE Guide B (London: Chartered Institution
of Building Services Engineers) (2001–2002)
3 Building control systems CIBSE Guide H (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers) (2009)
4 Domestic heating design guide (London: Domestic Building Services Panel) (2008)
5 The Building Regulations 2000 Statutory Instruments 2000 No 2531 as amended by The Building
(Amendment) Regulations 2001 Statutory Instruments 2001 No. 3335 and The Building and
Approved Inspectors (Amendment) Regulations 2006 Statutory Instruments 2006 No. 652)
(London: The Stationery Office) (dates as indicated) (London: The Stationery Office) (2007)
(available at http://www.opsi.gov.uk/stat.htm)
6 The Building (Scotland) Regulations 2004 Scottish Statutory Instruments 2004 No. 406 (London:
The Stationery Office) (2004)
7 Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000 Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland 2000 No. 389
(London: The Stationery Office) (2000)
8 Conservation of fuel and power in new buildings other than dwellings Building Regulations 2000
Approved Document L2A (London: The Stationery Office) (2006) (available at http://www.
planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115314231806.html) (accessed August 2008)
9 Conservation of fuel and power in existing buildings other than dwellings Building Regulations 2000
Approved Document L2B (London: The Stationery Office) (2006) (available at http://www.
planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115314231813.html) (accessed August 2008)
10 Technical Handbook: Domestic (Edinburgh: Scottish Building Standards Agency) (2008) (available at
http://www.sbsa.gov.uk/tech_handbooks/tbooks2008.htm) (accessed October 2008)
11 Technical Handbook: Non-domestic (Edinburgh: Scottish Building Standards Agency) (2008) (available
at http://www.sbsa.gov.uk/tech_handbooks/tbooks2008.htm) (accessed October 2008)
12 Conservation of fuel and power The Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 1994 Technical booklet F
(London: The Stationery Office) (1998) (available at http://www.dfpni.gov.uk/index/law-and-
regulation/building-regulations/br-technical-booklets.htm) (accessed August 2008)
13 Conservation of fuel and power in dwellings The Building Regulations (Northern Ireland) 2000 Technical
booklet F1 (London: The Stationery Office) (2006) (available at http://www.dfpni.gov.uk/
index/law-and-regulation/building-regulations/br-technical-booklets.htm) (accessed August 2008)
14 Conservation of fuel and power in buildings other than dwellings The Building Regulations (Northern
Ireland) 2000: Technical booklet F2 (London: The Stationery Office) (2006) (available at http://www.
opsi.gov.uk/legislation/northernireland/ni-srni.htm) (accessed August 2008)
15 Non-Domestic Heating, Cooling and Ventilation Compliance Guide (London: NBS/Department of
Communities and Local Government) (2006) (available at http://www.planningportal.gov.uk/
uploads/br/BR_PDF_PTL_NONDOMHEAT.pdf) (accessed August 2008)
16 Building energy metering CIBSE TM39 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)
(2006)
17 Automatically controlled steam and hot water boilers Guidance Note PM5 (London: HSE Books)
(2000)
18 Directive 2002/91/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2002 on the
energy performance of buildings (‘The Energy Performance of Buildings Directive’) Official J. of the
European Communities L1/65 (4.1.2003) (Brussels: Commission for the European Communities)
(2003) (available at http://ec.europa.eu/energy/demand/legislation/buildings_en.htm)
19 CHPQA: Quality assurance for combined heat and power (website) (London: Department for the
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) (2007) (http//:www.chpqa.com) (accessed October 2008)
20 Combined heat and power for buildings Good Practice Guide GPG 388 (Carbon Trust) (2004)
(available at http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications) (accessed October 2008)

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 35

 21 Small-scale combined heat and power CIBSE AM12 (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers) (1999)
22 Renewable energy sources for buildings CIBSE TM38 (London: Chartered Institution of Building
Services Engineers) (2006)
23 Digest of UK Energy Statistics (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office) (2001)
24 BS 5918: 1989: Code of practice for solar heating systems for domestic hot water (London: British
Standards Institution) (1989)
25 Solar air collectors for buildings — domestic and non-domestic General Information Report GIR058
(Carbon Trust) (2000) (available at http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications) (accessed October
2008)
26 Solar heating — Design and installation guide (London: Domestic Building Services Panel) (2007)
27 Guide to community heating and CHP — commercial; public and domestic applications Good Practice
Guide GPG234 (Carbon Trust) (2002)
28 Brittain JRJ Oversized heating plant BSRIA GN 12/97 (Bracknell: Building Services Research and
Information Association) (1997)
29 Bordass W (private communication)
30 Degree-days: theory and application CIBSE TM41 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services
Engineers) (2006)

14.2 Further reading

Non-domestic hot water heating systems CIBSE Applications Manual AM14 (London: Chartered
Institution of Building Services Engineers) (2009)
Council Directive 92/42/EEC of 21 May 1992 on efficiency requirements for new hot-water boilers fired
with liquid or gaseous fuels (‘The Boiler Directive’) Official J. of the European Communities L167 17–28
(22.06.1992)
The Boiler (Efficiency) Regulations 1993 Statutory Instruments 1993 No. 3083 (London: Her Majesty’s
Stationery Office) (1993)
Groundwater cooling systems CIBSE TM45 (London: Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers)
(2008)
BS 5422: 2001: Methods for specifying thermal insulating materials on pipes, ductwork and equipment (in
the temperature range –40°C to +700°C) (London: British Standards Institution) (2001)
Brown R and Crawford Z Radiant heating BSRIA AG 3/96 (Bracknell: Building Services Research and
Information Association) (1996)
Energy use in offices Energy Consumption Guide ECG019 (Carbon Trust) (2003) (available at
http://www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications) (accessed October 2008)

14.3 Useful Web sites

Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers (CIBSE): http//:www.cibse.org

Carbon Trust: http://www.carbontrust.co.uk
Energy Saving Trust: http://www.est.org.uk
Energy Institute: http://www.energyinst.org.uk
Energy Saving Trade Association (ESTA): http://www.esta.org.uk
Heating and Ventilating Contractors Association (HVCA): http://www.hvca.org.uk
Building Regulations (England and Wales): http://www.planningportal.gov.uk
Scottish Building Standards Agency: http://www.sbsa.gov.uk
Department of Finance and Personnel (Northern Ireland Building Regulations):
http://www.dfpni.gov.uk/index/law-and-regulation/building-regulations.htm
Enhanced capital allowances scheme: http://www.eca.gov.uk
CHP Quality Assurance scheme: http://www.chpqa.com

36 CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating

HM Revenue and Customs (Climate Change Levy): http://www.hmrc.gov.uk
ICOM Energy Association: httop://www.icomenergyassociation.org.uk
Confederation for Registered Gas Installers (CORGI): http://www.trustcorgi.com
Building Services Research and Information Association (BSRIA): http://www.bsria.co.uk
Federation of Environmental Trade Associations (FETA): http://www.feta.co.uk
Society of British Gas Industries (SBGI): http://www.sbgi.org.uk
Oil Firing Technical Association (OFTEC): http://www.oftec.co.uk/

CIBSE Knowledge Series — Energy efficient heating 37