Smart Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure

Overview
Joshua Chynoweth, Ching-Yen Chung, Charlie Qiu, Peter Chu, Rajit Gadh
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
University of California, Los Angeles
Los Angeles, USA
[email protected], [email protected],
[email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Abstract—WINSmartEVTM is a smart electric vehicle charging Current EV charging systems include charging networks
system that has been built and is currently in operation. It is a such as DBT[1], ChargePoint [3], and ECOtality [4]. These
software and network based EV charging system designed and EV charging networks focus on providing EV chargers with
built around the ideas of intelligent charge scheduling, the ability to identify users and take payments for public
multiplexing (connecting multiple vehicles to each circuit) and charging. Intelligently sharing grid infrastructure resources has
flexibility. This paper gives an overview of this smart charging not been emphasized in these networks. Work has been done
system with an eye toward its unique features and capabilities. in modeling and algorithms for smart EV networks [5]-[7].
Moving beyond modeling, WINSmartEVTM[8][9] is a
Index Terms—EV, PEV, charging, smart grid, multiplexing.
demonstration EV charging network currently in operation. It
is a software and network based EV charging system designed
I. INTRODUCTION
and built around the ideas of intelligent charge scheduling,
The demand for charging infrastructure, including multiplexing (connecting multiple vehicles to each circuit) and
charging stations in parking structures and garages is more flexibility. The system is neutral about the hardware, the
important as the EVs on the road multiply. For long distance control center and network that interconnect it with all the
commuters, an available charging station may be a critical parts of the system. Much of the design for the system has
requirement to ensure the ability to finish the round trip and been described [10]-[13]. However, no summary or
make it home. Even when charging is not critical, many EV commentary of the current embodiment of the system has
drivers may plug in to alleviate range anxiety or to shorten the been published that would provide a convenient reference in
charge discharge cycle and decrease battery wear. A scarcity understanding this system. This paper gives a summary and
of charging stations may make EVs less convenient and commentary of this smart charging system with an eye toward
contribute to range anxiety resulting in less people embracing its unique features and capabilities. This paper begins by
the use of electric vehicles. Furthermore, if charging briefly describing the control system and its basic
infrastructure is available at work, smaller batteries and requirements for the system to function. Then it describes the
therefore less expensive vehicles are required to meet EV chargers, how they operate and how they connect to the
consumer’s needs [1]. Beyond the physical existence of control system. Then, this paper describes the control system
charging stations, several critical needs must be filled to meet in more depth before commenting on its capabilities for
the increasing demand for charging infrastructure, including configuration and extension.
the grid capacity and the electrical circuits that make charging
possible. One solution is charging stations that service II. CONTROL SYSTEM
multiple vehicles at the same time with a given infrastructure. A. Control System Overview
Multiple parts of the infrastructure need to be shared in order
To obtain the full benefits of intelligent EV charge
for a charging station to truly service multiple vehicles
scheduling, decisions need to be made at a central location that
simultaneously. The charging system needs to share the plug
will optimize the overall system. Other decisions may need to
port by safely plugging in multiple vehicles at once, it needs to
be made locally, without a server wait time, such as when
share the circuit by rationing the available power in order to
safety is a concern. A software based system will allow the
not overload the circuit, and it needs to share the grid capacity
intelligence to be upgraded (as needed) and the system
by intelligently scheduling charging in order to avoid peak
integrated with other devices and networks as technology
consumption. To meet this demand, an EV charging system
evolves. This EV charging system is comprised of a network
has been developed that safely multiplies the number of EVs
of devices that work together to provide optimal charging
that can be connected to a circuit by rationing the power
services to EVs. Because it is software based and can
allotted to each EV.
communicate with other entities, it can use external data to

This work has been sponsored in part by grant from the LADWP/DOE fund 20699 & 20686, Smart Grid Regional Demonstration Project). This work
has been sponsored in part by a grant from the LADWP/DOE fund 20699 & 20686, (Smart Grid Regional Demonstration Project). This material is based
upon work supported by the United States Department of Energy under Award Number DE-OE000012 and the Los Angeles Department of Water and
Power. Neither the United States Government nor any agency thereof, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power, nor any of their employees make
any warranty, express or implied, or assumes any legal liability or responsibility for the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of any information, apparatus,
product, or process disclosed, or represents that its use would not infringe privately owned rights.
Reference herein to any specific commercial product, process, or service by trade name, trademark, manufacturer, or otherwise does not necessarily
constitute or imply its endorsement, recommendation, or favoring by the United States Government or any agency thereof. The views and opinions of authors
expressed herein do not necessarily ©2014
978-1-4799-3653-3/14/$31.00 state or reflect
IEEE those of the United States government or any agency thereof.
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 optimize the charging system and account for external charging, take payment, track power consumption, allocate
interests such as grid stability. At the center of this EV resources, etc. The first piece of data that the control center
charging system is a control server that communicates with requires to begin a charge sequence is user/vehicle
multiple entities and coordinates a network of devices as identification and the charge point that the EV is connected to.
shown in Figure 1. The server may communicate with any Correct mapping of each user/vehicle ID with the ID of the
entity interested in the charging of EVs, including the user, the charge point it is connected to, is critical. This ensures that the
vehicle, the EVSE (Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment), grid proper charge point is energized and provides power to the
devices, and relevant external entities. The data may include customers EV. Correct mapping also facilitates accurate
critical information required for initializing the charging payment transactions, optimal resource allocation, and
process such as the user/vehicle account ID, payment statistics tracking to enhance the system. The current
information, and the port or device where the EV is connected. implementation of the EV charging system requires the user to
Data may also include information that is not critical to charge have signed up for an account. When the user arrives at a
initialization but may be helpful to optimize the charge charge port, the vehicle must be connected to an EVSE port
scheduling, such as the state of charge of the battery, the and the port ID must be noted in order to relay that
power availability, weather and power consumption forecasts, information to the control server. Users log into the EV
condition of the power transformer used by an EV charger, charging system’s control website with an internet enabled
and demand response or price signals from the grid. device such as a smart phone or a computer, identifying
oneself or the vehicle, then choosing from the menus the
The EV charging systems software based controls may be identification of the charging station and the charge port the
in the cloud, or on a specific server with internet access. The vehicle is plugged into. In this way the control server has
system is network neutral, it can communicate with the routers associated the vehicle or user with a given charge port and
that control the EVSEs through Ethernet, WiFi or cell phone charging can be initialized. This method works, but has a few
data network such as 3G. The router communicates with the shortcomings. It requires the user to have an account, and the
relays through Zigbee so that only one router can control user may find the process cumbersome. These issues can be
multiple charge boxes. The J1772 EVSE device overcome by adding features such as accepting credit cards
communicates with the EV through the charge cable. The user and automatic user identification.
and vehicle identification are communicated through an
internet enable device such as a smart-phone. It is also able to SAE J1772 is a North American standard for connecting
connect other devices to the network in order to accomplish EVSEs to EVs. This standard includes the cables, the
tasks such as inputting user/vehicle ID and charge port ID communication interface and the safety system requirements.
through RFID or other type of scan and communication The communication between the EVSE and the EV through
systems. The central controller for the current implementation the J1772 system is limited to the state of cable connection,
of this system is located on a server connected to the internet. whether devices are ready to power up, the electric voltage
Users communicate with the system through internet and current available to the vehicle to charge. No vehicle ID
connected devices such as a smartphone or computer. The or battery charge information is communicated through the
EVSEs also communicate with the server through the internet. J1772 cable. In order to obtain a vehicle ID or battery state of
This deployment has devices connected directly to the internet charge, other communication channels must be implemented.
through Ethernet, WiFi, and 3G. It also has devices that Once the control server has the vehicle/user ID and the ID of
connect to the internet through local communication to other the charge port the vehicle is connected to, the server can put
devices with direct internet connections. The local the vehicle into the charging queue and initiate charging as
communication systems in this deployment include WiFi, appropriate. The charge sequence and queuing will depend on
Zigbee and PLC (Power Line Communication). the algorithms implemented in the server. How the EVSE
reacts to charge instructions depends on the type of EVSE.
There are two types of EVSEs in the deployed charging
system. The first is a level 1 only, trickle charge device that
that turns 120V household outlets on and off while allowing
the 120V EV cable provided with each EV to fulfill all the
J1772 communication protocols and safety requirements
regarding EV charging. The second is a level 1 or 2 box that
uses J1772 cables to connect directly with the EVs. This
EVSE fulfills all the standard J1772 communication and
safety requirements.
III. EVSE DEVICES
A. Trickle Charge EVSE
Figure 1. Network Architecture. The level 1, trickle charge, EVSE does not connect or
communicate with the EV directly. Each EV comes with the
B. Charging System Communication Requirements portable, 120V, trickle-charge cable that plugs into standard
In an intelligently controlled EV charging system, the household 120V plug (NEMA 5-15). The other end of the
controller must obtain basic information to make decisions trickle charge cable has a standard EV charging plug (SAE
and fulfill the required tasks such as track users, queue 1772) plug that connects to the EV. On the cable, in between

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 these two plugs, is a box that contains the electronics required incorporates all of the capabilities of the trickle charger
to communicate with the EV and initiate the charging including the communication router, 4 relays for control
protocol. The electronics in the cable box automatically power and electrical metering. Furthermore, it includes
initializes the charging protocol whenever power is provided systems that communicate with the EV to let the EV know it is
to the 120V plug, and disengages when power is removed. connected and how much power is available, shut power off if
Therefore, the action of this cable can be ignored and when the cable is disconnected and provide ground fault protection
power is provided to the cable, it can be considered provided (GFCI) capabilities that shut power off if a fault is detected. A
directly to the EV. When multiplexing power to EVs picture of a deployed J1772 multiplexing EVSE charging
connected through these cables, if an EV is plugged in to the multiple EVs at once is shown in Figure 2. The J1772
outlet, charging can be started and terminated by simply standard was developed to provide a high level of consumer
providing and removing power from the outlet. safety. The standard requires that no part of the interface
between the charging station and the EV should be electrified
The level 1 multiplexing EVSE for current implementation until the charge cable has been properly connected to the EV –
consists of a box with 4 outlets attached to the outside where a precaution against the possibility of the user getting shocked.
customers can plug in the 120V EV portable trickle-charge The EV can detect the presence of the J1772 connector and
cable. Above each of 4 outlets there is an indicator light that the charging device can detect the presence of the EV. Only
indicates which outlet is provided power. There is a fifth light when a J1772 cable is connected does the charge procedure
that indicates whether or not the charging box has power and begin, and only after the charge procedure has started is the
is in service. Inside the box, there are 4 relays with metering cable electrified. If the cable is disconnected while charging,
capability that both turn the power on and off to each outlet the EV and the EVSE will immediately detect the change in
and measure the current to ensure that the device is truly off. state and disconnect power to the cables at their respective
A router inside the box communicates between relay/meters ends thereby de-energizing the cables and rendering them
and the control server. safe.
The main function of multiplexing is to share the A pilot signal is used to allow communication between the
available power among multiple EVs. Since the level one box EV and EVSE. The pilot signal is in the form of a PWM
does not communicate directly with the EV, the amount of signal created by the EVSE. Both the EV and the EVSE can
power that an EV pulls cannot be controlled. Therefore, to detect changes in the pilot signal. When no EV is connected to
ensure that the circuit does not overload, the control
the EVSE, the EVSE detects no changes to the pilot signal.
algorithms dictate that only one EV (at a time) can charge per When the J1772 cable is plugged into the EV, a circuit in the
circuit. A redundant system first turns off the power to any EV creates a resistance between the pilot signal and ground
charging EV, and then checks the current flowing through that changes the amplitude of the square wave. This change in
each relay to ensure that no current is flowing before amplitude signals to the EVSE that an EV is present. In order
proceeding to engage power to the next EV in the queue. This to begin charging, the EVSE energizes the charge cable and
redundant system ensures that the circuit is never overloaded. changes the duty cycle of the PWM signal to indicate to the
Because software controls the turning off and on the charging, EV the amount of power available. Only once the EV receives
many different algorithms can be explored for scheduling the this information, does it activate its charging equipment to
EV charging. These algorithms can take into account time of begin charging.
arrival, state of charge, end charge time, grid stability, price
and any other factor relevant to EV charge scheduling. The J1772 charger must shut down if a ground fault is
detected. A ground fault is any stray current that is not passing
through one of the power conductors. This current needs to
ground somewhere; and potentially passing through a person
poses a severe danger. Any difference in current through the
two power conductors is a danger that is prevented by the
ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI). The GFCI detects a
difference in the two conductors and quickly shuts off the
power. This is accomplished in the J1772 box with a current
transformer that outputs a small voltage in proportion to the
current difference in the two hot wires. The voltage is then
amplified and used to shut down the coil voltage to the power
relay, shutting off power the EV [14].

C. EV Charge Device Configurations

Figure 2. Level 2 J1772 EVSE.
With the average commute of 12.6 miles [15], and a
B. J1772 EVSE Nissan Leaf getting 29kWh/100mi [16], the energy required to
recharge the EV after the average commute is 3.7kWh. A
The multiplexing J1772 EVSE must incorporate all dedicated, 30A (40A peak), 240V circuit supplying a level 2
the J1772 standards, cables, and protocols. In addition, it must charger can supply 7.2kW of power, which will translate into
connect multiple EVs at once and safely provide optimal 6.6kW going into the battery after inefficiency losses. In this
charging. To accomplish this, the J1772 charging device

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 scenario, the average commuter’s EV can be recharged in a capabilities of the software, the computing hardware and the
little over ½ an hour. With 4 EVs sharing the circuit, it only network that support it. The system can be set up to aggregate
takes 2 hours to recharge all the EVs. If the average commuter demand and participate in the energy market, it can be set up
will stay at work for 8 hours, the circuit will provide much to respond to DR (demand response) signals, or it can focus
more power than what will be require to satisfy the customer. solely on meeting the customers demand. It also can be
Not all situations have the same criteria; therefore, in order to configured to work seamlessly with any microgrid controllers.
optimally serve the customer’s requirements within the limits
of the grid resources, both EVSEs can be configured to work There are no constraints on how different local EV charger
with different constraints depending on the available grid controllers communicate with each other. The network
resources and charge requirements. A few scenarios will topology between charging systems can be optimized to match
demonstrate the flexibility with which this system can be the given circumstance. These topologies may range from one
configured to suit a given situation. central controller directly controlling all EVSEs, to local
networks connected to a more centralized controllers that
Installations at malls or other public places where the branch together making a tree like topology. The optimal
commute may be longer than average and the EVs may be topology depends on the goals of the system and how to best
parked for shorter periods of time; sharing a 30A circuit may interact with the larger grid. There are some opposing
not fulfill the customer’s requirements. If the level 2 EVSE motivations. A centralized controller may give the network
has a 120A circuit, all 4 EVs can charge at full 30A each. If more influence over the larger grid, making it a bigger asset in
many chargers with this setup are connected to a single terms of DR and grid control. A centralized controller may not
transformer, than the transformer could be a bottle neck. If be as robust as more localized controllers. Furthermore, a
each EV charges at 7.2kW, than a 100kVA transformer can localized controller that directly communicates with the local
handle a maximum of 13 of these. In this scenario, a group of grid may better respond to the local needs of the grid in terms
4 or more EVSEs, with 16 or more charge points can charge of power quality and response to local shortages and outages.
the first 13 EVs that arrive at maximum charging speed. The The current setup uses one central server connected to a
control system can run algorithms that limit the power network and controls all the EVSEs on the network, regardless
consumed by the EVSEs as a group by putting the 14th EV of where the EVSE is located. New, locally controlled
into a queue or lower the power allotment for the other EVs to networks will be setup to control independent charge systems.
provide power to the 14th. In the future, these independent networks could be connected
with another central controller that allows the larger network
If splitting1.5kW (120V, 12.5A) 4 ways with the level 1 that can influence the grid and respond to DR signals on mass.
EVSE does not satisfy the given set of power requirements,
then the EVSE can be configured to split 2 120V circuits E. Scheduling Algorithms
between the 4 charge points. This leaves each circuit to be The basic functions of the control system is to map a EV
shared by only 2 plug points averaging 0.75kW each. If a (whether it is identified by the driver or the vehicle) to a
1.5kW level 1 circuit is too much power for 4 EVs, such as at charging station, then schedule and control the EV charging.
airport parking lots where EVs may stay for long periods of Once a mapping is implemented, each charge schedule may be
time, multiple EVSEs may be safely connected to one circuit. customized by the requirements of the consumer, the
The average charge required will determine the optimal requirements of the EV charge device, the local circuit or the
number of EV plug points to circuit. A 1.5kW circuit can grid requirements. The level of sophistication required for the
deliver 36kWh/day and 252kWh/wk. Since a Nissan Leaf’s controller depends on the level of sophistication in which
batter capacity is 24kWh, a 1.5kW circuit can charge 21 half these duties are required to be executed. If all the EVSEs are
discharged Leafs in a week. If the average parking time is a the same, no multiplexing is implemented, and no users or
week, connecting 20 charge points per circuit would be usage is tracked, then the control system can be quite simple.
appropriate. This would allow a very large number of EV This control system would only require a database of similar
charge points to be installed without major infrastructure chargers mapped to temporary user IDs, all charging
upgrades, just a system configuration. The current following a single algorithm. If each charge point has its own
implementation includes many level 1 trickle chargers with 4 power capacity and rules of use, a more complex system is
charge points connected to one circuit. It also includes a required. These rules of use may depend on what type of
number of J1772 chargers, some sharing 1 circuit between 4 multiplexing is being implemented or the limits on the local
EVs, others sharing 2 circuits between 4 EVs. grid. When accounts are used for frequent customers, a
D. System Network Topology database for account holders is required. If consumption
statistics are needed, a database for consumption statistics
In order to provide the above mentioned flexibility, the must be implemented. If higher level of charge scheduling is
central control system needs to be highly configurable. needed, then more intelligent systems can be implemented.
Because this EV charging system is network and hardware These intelligent systems may include forecasting and
neutral, its controls can be any collection of processing and sophisticated algorithms that balance both the grid and user
memory capability whether it is a server, a network of requirements.
computing assets or cloud based. How intelligently the control
system manages the EV charging with respect to fairness to Beyond the critical requirements to keep the power usage
the users[17], the stabilizing effects it has on the wider grid within the safety requirements dictated by the local circuits,
and amount of money it can save by optimally and this EV charging system is neutral concerning the actual
dynamically scheduling EV charging is only limited by the charge scheduling. Any relevant information can be used to

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 influence any relevant type of algorithm to schedule the the internet for data gathering and information exchange.
charging. Charge scheduling could be influence by user Because of this flexibility, the system can grow and change as
demands, power prices, and grid requirements in the form of technology changes.
price or DR signals, consumption or the availability of
alternative energy resources. Highly developed algorithms REFERENCES
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EV charging infrastructure, a software based EV charging press
system has been built. It has the ability to optimally schedule
charging in order to safely maximize the use available grid
resources for charging EVs and thereby maximizing the
number of EVs that can be connected to the grid while
enhancing grid stability. The charging system consists of a
controller connected through the internet to purpose built
EVSEs that multiplex electrical circuits. The EVSEs allows
multiple EVs to share a single circuit and available grid
capacity. The control system is both network and hardware
neutral and can connect to other devices and systems through

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