Geophysics

Session 22
Geophysics is divided into two types:
Academic geophysics: The study of theoretical Geophysics (the shape and
composition of the subsurface layers).
Applied geophysics: involves the application of physics and mathematics to the
study of the earth, earth materials, earth resources and/or earth processes.
Methods of geophysical exploration:
1. Gravity:
It depends on the measuring of the gravity and density variation through the different
types of rocks (i.e. minute variations in the pull of gravity from rock within the first
few miles of the earth’s surface). It is mainly used for oil exploration and sometimes
in mineral and ground water prospecting. Different types of rocks mainly the
basement rocks (igneous and metamorphic) have different densities and the denser
rocks have the greater gravitational attraction. Also, the pores and spaces between
rocks affects the gravity measurement.
If the higher density formations are arched upward in a structural high, such as an
anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the structure
than along its flanks.
A salt dome which is generally less dense than the rock into which it is intruded, can
be detected from the low value of gravity recorded gravity recorded above it compared
with that measured on either side. For this reason, gravity instruments are designed to
measure variations in the force of gravity from one place to another than the absolute
force itself. Anomalies in gravity which are sought in oil exploration may represent
only one – millionth or even one – ten – millionth of the earth’s total field.
The gravity method is useful wherever the formations of interest have densities which
are appreciably different from those of surrounding formations. Gravity is an effective
means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks have a higher density
than the sediments. Gravity is also suitable for locating and mapping salt bodies
because of the low density of salt compared with that of surrounding formations.
Gravity can be used for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chromite.
2. Magnetic:
Magnetic method deals with variations in the magnetic
field of the earth which are related to changes of
structures or magnetic susceptibility in certain near
surface rocks. Magnetic surveys are designed to map
structure on or inside the basement rocks or to detect
magnetic mineral directly. In mining exploration,
magnetic methods are employed for direct location of
ores containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite.
Intrusive bodies such as dikes can often be distinguished
on the basis of magnetic observations alone.
3. Seismic:
It divides into reflection and refraction seismic detection.
• Seismic reflection method (longer distances deep): This
method is used to map the structure of subsurface
formations by measuring the times required for a
seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface
exploration of dynamite, mechanical impact or
vibration, to return to the surface after reflection from
interface between formations having different physical
properties. The reflections are recorded by detecting interments which are called
geophones responsive to ground motion. Variations in the reflection times from
place to place on the surface indicate structural features in the strata below.
• Seismic refraction method (shorter distances near):
In refraction method, the detecting instruments recorded
the arrival times of the seismic waves when refracted from
the surface of discontinuity. Refraction method makes it
possible to cover a given area in a shorter time and more
economically than with the reflection method.

4. Electric:
It is the most used type of exploration methods in the geophysics. The resistively method
is designed to give information about the electrical conductivity of the earth’s rocks. In
resistivity method the current is driven through the ground using a pair of electrodes and
the resulting distribution of the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair
of electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter. The resistivity method has been used to
map boundaries between layers having different conductivities through the types of layers
and salts. It is employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock.
Examples in methods usage:
• Fossil fuels (Seismic, Gravity)
• Mineral ore deposits (Magnetic, Gravity, Electric, Radioactivity)
• Ground water (Electric)
• Archeology (Gravity, Seismic(refraction))
• Civil Engineering Projects (Electric, Seismic (refraction))
Geophysical surveys:
All geophysical surveys concentrate on the discovery of anomalies in the rocks which
overlie or surround petroleum accumulation.
Geophysical surveys

Active Geophysical
Passive Geophysical surveys
serveys

A signal is injected Involving measurements of

into the earth and we naturally occurring fields or
then measure how the properties of the earth without
earth responds to this any activity from the human (just
signal. measuring).

DC resistivity EM field.

seismic gravitational
methods(refraction, field.
reflection).

magnetic field.

Methods mechanisms:
1. Gravity methods (related to density)
• The gravity method provides a better understanding of the subsurface geology. It is
cheap, non-invasive, non-destructive remote sensing method. It is also passive which
means that there is no energy needed to acquire data and also it is not expensive.
• Many types of rocks have characteristic ranges of densities ( high density such as
basement rock or low density such as sedimentary rock) , which may differ from other
types that are laterally adjacent. These changes may be attributed to changes in rock
type (porosity or grain density), degree of saturation and the varying thickness of
unconsolidated sediments overlying the bedrock.
Measurement of Gravity
• Gravitometer: is the measuring instrument of gravitational
field of the Earth at specific location. The instrument works on the
principle of measuring the constant downward acceleration of
gravity. There are two types of gravimeters: absolute and relative.
Absolute gravimeters measure the local gravity in absolute units
(“Gal” after “Galileo”). Absolute gravimeters are compact
(Autograv CG-5 model) and used in the field. It works by directly
measuring the acceleration of a mass during free fall in a vacuum.
The accelerometer is rigidly attached to the ground.

• It also called gravity meter, sensitive device

for measuring variations in
the Earth’s gravitational field, useful in
prospecting for oil and minerals. In one form,
it consists of a weight suspended from a
spring; variations in gravity cause variations
in the extension of the spring. A number of
different mechanical and optical schemes have been developed to measure this
deflection, which in general is very small. Gravimeters have been developed that can
detect variations in the Earth’s gravitational field as small as one part in 10,000,000.
And then collect data as a map to arrive to data any time.
2. Magnetic methods:
• A magnetic survey is primarily used to explore for oil and minerals.
Magnetic exploration is based on the fact that earth acts as a
magnet.
• Any magnetic material placed in an external field will have
magnetic poles induced upon its surface. The induced
magnetization is in the direction of the applied field.
• The location of an area in relation to the magnetic poles
is measured by the inclination of the earth’s field or
“magnetic inclination (magnetic dip, dip angle, or
magnetic inclination is the angle made with the horizontal
by the Earth's magnetic field lines. This angle varies at
different points on the Earth's surface)
• Magnetometer: Magnetic fields are measured by the
“Magnetometer”, either by a ground based or an aerial method. instrument for
measuring the strength and sometimes the direction of magnetic fields, including those
on or near the Earth and in space.
Magnetometers are also used to calibrate
electromagnets and permanent magnets
and to determine the magnetization of
materials. it used on the Earth surface our
on a plane as shown in two figures.
3. Seismic Methods
1- Reflection: standard in oil exploration (deep)
2- Refraction: for shallow features like depth to bedrock or thickness of the
unconsolidated material.
Seismograph: device that records the arrival times.
P-waves can travel through solids with speed 5000 m/sec, liquids with speed 1450
m/sec and gases whereas S-waves can only travel through solids with speed 3000
m/sec. This means the liquid part of the core blocks the passage of S-waves.

For the mechanism of the seismic survey, we crash with a hammer on a plate of iron,
and fixing geophones in a row in front of them to receive the vibration signals.
In the seismic refraction, the angle of incidence is larger than the critical angle, so that
the vibrations reflect internally returning to the geophones that translate them to a
seismogram. It is used for short distances when the sediment layer is smaller than the
bedrock.
While in the seismic reflection, the vibrations reflect returning to the geophones that
translate them to a seismogram. It is used for long distances when the sediment layer
is larger than the bedrock.
Using the transit time of sound waves generated by explosion to find good structural
conditions (traps) for oil accumulations. High vibration velocity means hard rocks.
And vice versa.
There are two types of geophones used in surveys transform energy to electric voltage
to detect vibrations which are land survey and marine survey.
First, the land survey geophone is consisted of coil and
magnet that spin around each other.
It has two shapes, moving coil geophone and moving
magnet geophone.
Second, the sea survey using hydrophone which is a
pressure geophone has piezoelectric property transform
water pressure to electric voltage. Usually mounted on a
large cable towed to seismic ship at depth 10 to 20m below
sea level.
Energy source used in seismic work:
The energy source is the vibration created either by dynamite or sledge hammer.
1. Dynamite: 60% of seismic work used dynamite which is a mixture of Nitroglycerin
+ Gelatin + Binding material
Advantage: It had sharp peak, decrease surface noise, it has wide range of
frequency.
Disadvantage: It requires drill hole, dangerous, stack of charge.
2. Dropping weight: it is composed of a rectangular steel plate 2-3 tons usually, and
dropped 3 to 4 times at height of 3m.
Advantage: Not dangerous, easily used, cheap, not distort.
Disadvantage: record is weak, low frequency, not used in mountain area.

4. Electrical methods (largest class of geophysical methods):

It is used to determine the electrical resistivity of the earth's subsurface.
There are many applications for electric resistivity methods including:
• Groundwater detection (know if any rocks have water or not by the electric)
• Mineral identification
• Waste exploration
• Oil identification (stratigraphy correlation in oil
field)
• Prospecting to conductive bodies
• Determining the depth of high or low conductive anomalous layers also know the
shape of this place
• Cavity detection by high resistance of this place (there is some layers of limestone
eroded by some factors it leaves a cavity in the layers)
• Identifying the depth of the sand and the gravel deposits (some material is fixed this
deposition such as iron oxide, silica if iron oxide this place will be more conductive
so we can identify this place).
- What are the electric properties if the rocks?
Electrical conduction occurs in rocks by
1- Fluid conduction, electrolytic conduction by ionic transfer in briny pore water (the
amount of the water and the salinity of the water). Increasing the amount of the water
or the salinity increase the conductivity increase and decreasing the resistivity.
2- Metallic and semiconductor (e.g., some sulfide ores) electron conduction. If the
rock has any porosity and contained fluid, the fluid.
3- Distribution of water in the rock.
Note: The presence of clays and conductive minerals also reduce the resistivity of
the rock.
Clay Sand
Small grains and pores Large grains and pores
Many pores Less pores
High porosity Low porosity
Low permeability High permeability
High conductivity Low conductivity
Low resistivity High resistivity
Best aquifer reservoir Fastest drainage
There is a large range of resistivities, not only between varying rocks and minerals
but also within rocks of the same type because they vary in the same type such as
sandstone the size of the sand has five different sizes.
Schematic current flow in soil samples:
The soil particles are insulators but the soil
moisture is conductive. An increase in the number
of ions in soil water (groundwater contamination)
linearly decreases the soil resistivity.
Age of the rock and resistivity:
It is a very important factor because old volcanic rock contains water more than the
young volcanic.

Tertiary sand has cementation that makes it have more resistivity.

Rock types and resistivity:
- Igneous rocks are the highest resistivities.
- Sedimentary rocks tend to be the most conductive due to their high fluid content.
- Metamorphic rocks have intermediate but overlapping resistivities.
Electrode arrays:
They are two commonly used electrode arrays including:
- Wenner array.
- Schlumberger array.
Schlumberger array:
The Schlumberger array is an array where four
electrodes are placed in line around a common
midpoint. The two outer electrodes, A and B, are
current electrodes, and the two inner electrodes, M
and N, are potential electrodes placed close together.
At this point, the potential electrodes M and N are moved outward to a new spacing.
As a rule of the thumb, the reasonable distance between M and N should be equal or
smaller than one-fifth of the distance between A and B at the beginning (AB ≥ 5MN).
The potential electrodes sounding are moved only occasionally.
Wenner array:
The Wenner electrode array is the simplest of arrays; in it,
the four electrodes—A, M, N, and B—are placed in line and
spaced equidistant from each other. The two outer electrodes,
A and B, are current electrodes, and the two inner electrodes,
M and N, are potential electrodes the distance between the
electrodes equals.

- Electrode arrays are different arrangements of electrodes used to perform

geophysical resistivity measurements. Electrode arrays were developed in order to
make field measurements more efficient and data interpretation easier.
Geology Session 23

Geology Geophysics
It involves the study of the earth by direct Geophysics is simply the scientific study of the
observations on the surface exposures of the earth using methods of physics and covers the
rocks or from boreholes, and inference of its whole earth from its deepest interior to
structures, composition and historical extreme fringes of its atmosphere.
developments ……etc. Geologists study the It involves the study of the hidden parts of the
materials, processes, products, physical nature, earth from indirect observation by measuring
and history of the Earth. Geomorphologists their physical properties using suitable
study Earth's landforms and landscapes in instruments on the earth surface.
relation to the geologic and climatic processes It depends on some surveys and tests as electric
and human activities, which form them. resistivity, magnet, mechanical waves and
gravity.
Exploration geophysics: Applications
Geophysics
of geophysics to identification of
mineral deposits and hydrocarbons
reservoirs. Applied Geophysics Academic Geophysics

Engineering geophysics:
Applications of geophysics to Involves the application of
The study of theoretical
physics and mathematics to the
Geophysics ( the shape
investigations of subsurface materials study of the earth, earth
materials, earth resources and/or
and composition of the
subsurface layers)
and structures likely to impact man- earth processes.

made structures.
Environmental geophysics: It is making and interpreting
geophysical measurements
Applications of geophysical methods (physical properties of the earth)
to determine subsurface
to investigations of near-surface conditions, usually with
economic objectives, for example
physico-chemical phenomena likely discovery of hydrocarbons and
mineral deposits.
to impact the local environment.
Archeo-geophysics: Applications of geophysics to investigation of archeological
sites.
Hydro-geophysics: Applications of geophysics to ground water investigation.
Advantages of geophysics:
1- Remote sensing technique:
Can infer properties of subsurface from surface measurements. Geological
sampling restricted to surface or expensive boreholes.
2- Rapid and cost-effective:
Costs from $1000 to 1000000, but can cover areas up to 100 of km quickly. Can
detect targets for drilling too expensive or difficult to locate otherwise.
3- Regular, continuous mapping
- 2-D methods measure geophysical properties along a surface line.
- Produce ‘cross-section’ through subsurface.
- 3-D methods measure properties over an area like valleys that filled with water.
- Can generate a volumetric image of a subsurface.
4- Mapping large geological areas in order to increase our knowledge of the Earth's
structure.
5- Locating and recovering resources such as hydrocarbons, minerals and
groundwater.
6- Mapping potential CO2 deposits in the subsurface.
7- Monitoring CO2 injections in the subsurface.
 8- Assessing the risk of geohazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis and landslides.
9- Mapping the consequences of global warming for permafrost regions in the
Arctic.
10- Archeological surveys.

Exploration geophysical methods are Remote Sensing techniques to measure

subsurface physical properties such as:
- Density
- Magnetic susceptibility
- Seismic wave velocity
- Electrical Resistivity, inductance, porosity, etc.
Tools:
- Elastic Waves
- Gravity
- Magnetism
- Electromagnetic Waves

Geophysical survey:
Geophysical survey refers to the collection of information associated with subsurface
features, such as burials on land or shipwrecks underwater. Archeologists often use the
information they collect to detect and map subsurface features without having to do any
destructive or unproductive excavating.
A geophysical survey has a purpose – searching, locating, detecting or delineating
something; it also involves one or more apparatus – the geophysical tools. Geophysical
surveys may use a
great variety of
sensing instruments,
and data may be
collected from above
or below the Earth's
surface or from aerial,
orbital, or marine
platforms.
 Frequently interested in the local variation of a measured parameter relative to
some "normal" background value. This local change is called a geophysical
anomaly.
Salt Dome Salt layers formed in many areas by evaporation of inland sea. Salt has
lower density, magnetic susceptibility, and higher seismic velocity and resistivity
than surrounding sediments. Low density causes salt to rise in a diapir over time,
piercing overlying strata, and forming a dome-like shape.
But how it is formed?
1- The formation of a salt dome begins with the deposition of salt in a restricted basin.
2- The basin loses water through evaporation, resulting in the precipitation and
deposition of salt.
3- Over time, the layer of salt is covered with deposited sediment, becoming buried
under an increasingly large overburden.
4- The compaction of overlying sediment and subsequent decrease in buoyancy led to
salt rising and intruding into the overburden due to its ductility, thereby creating a
salt diapir.
Another anomalies:
- Low relative density --- negative gravity anomaly
- Negative magnetic susceptibility --- small negative magnetic anomaly
- High seismic P wave velocity --- early seismic arrivals through salt
- High electrical resistivity --- distortion of electric field
Notes:
- Usually, the deformities and caves in the land occur in the limestone formed by any
reaction and acid rains.
- Seismic exploration can occur by passive way in measuring the earthquakes and
active way in measuring the dynamite seismic method.
Survey locations: Geophysical surveys are carried out in all environments:
- On land, e.g. electromagnetic for contaminant mapping.
- At sea, e.g. seismic reflection for oil exploration.
- In air, e.g. aeromagnetic for regional geology mapping
Geophysical surveys are carried out at all scales:
- Reconnaissance over 10 to 100 km.
- Focused mapping 1 to 10 km.
- High resolution mapping of fine detail at < 1 km.
 Natural field methods (Passive) Artificial field methods (Active)
Involve measurements of naturally It requires input signal into Earth
occurring fields or physical properties and the measurement of the Earth’s
of the Earth. response to this signal.

They are easier to acquire as there no They allow survey to be

need to provide equipment for source. designed to image the objective
They usually provide greater depth of in the optimal fashion.
investigation, but lower resolution than
artificial source surveys.

Examples: Examples:
gravitational field. DC resistivity
magnetic field. seismic methods (refraction,
EM field. reflection).

Geophysical survey methods:

1. Gravity – measurement of the magnitude of the Earth’s gravitational field. (e.g. for
location of salt domes or buried mine working)
2. Magnetic - measurement of the magnitude and direction of the Earth’s magnetic
field. (e.g. for mapping for buried metals)
3. Seismic
Reflection, measurement of lateral variation in arrival time and amplitude of seismic
waves reflected from the subsurface after transmission of a seismic source (e.g. for
locating perspective hydrocarbon reservoirs).
- Refraction, measurement of travel times of seismic waves at various distance from
a seismic source (e.g. for estimation of depth to bedrock).
4. Electric
Conductance, measurement of effect of current flow in the Earth induced by a surface
source (e.g. for mapping salt water contamination)
Resistance, measurement of differences in electrical potential at Earth’s surface in
response to injection of electric current (e.g. for exploration for conductive ore
bodies).
First: Gravity surveys
• The gravity method is a nondestructive geophysical technique that measures
differences in the earth ‘s gravitational field at specific locations. (nondestructive)
 • It has found numerous applications in engineering and environmental studies
including locating voids and karst features (karst terrain is created from the
dissolution of soluble rocks, principally limestone and dolomite. Karst areas are
characterized by distinctive landforms (like springs, caves, sinkholes) and a unique
hydrogeology that results in aquifers that are highly productive but extremely
vulnerable to contamination), buried stream valleys, water table levels and the
determination of soil layer thickness. (help us to know the location of voids,
karst features, water table levels and soil layers thickness)

• The success of the gravity method depends on the

different earth materials having different bulk densities
(mass) that produce variations in the measured
gravitational field. (the deference of the Earth’s
materials helps to calculate the gravitational field
such as Igneous and metamorphic rocks are usually
denser than sedimentary Most rocks will have a
range of densities, and density is often related to
porosity)

• These variations can then be interpreted by a variety of analytical and computers

methods to determine the depth, geometry and density that cause the gravity field
variations. The most commonly used processed data are known as Bouguer gravity
anomalies, measured in mGal.

Finally, we can say that the gravity method can be a relatively easy geophysical
technique to perform and interpret.
Densities of Sedimentary Rocks Sedimentary rocks exhibit the greatest range of density
variation due to factors so any types of the rock and also same type deferent from anther
in these factors (the densities of the rocks depend on some factors such as):
1. Mineral composition
2. Cementation
3. porosity
4. Pore fluid type
 • Density is increased by depth of burial
• Sandstones and Limestones density is increased by infilling of the pore space
by the iron oxide, not by volume change. It is a solid layer but it always contain
oil because it always contains a fractures that saved this oil.
• Shales: density increased by compaction, and ultimately recrystallisation into
minerals with higher densities. (when there is a compression on the clay
makes it solid)
Gravity Method application:

Pros & cons of gravity technique:

▪ The technique has good depth penetration when compared to ground
penetrating radar, high frequency electromagnetics and DC-resistivity
techniques and is not affected by the high conductivity values of near-
surface clay rich soils. ( the connection with the conductivity and the gravity
methods that the pores on the rocks that makes it high resistivity and low
conductivity)
▪ The main drawback is the ambiguity of the interpretation of the anomalies.
▪ This means that a given gravity anomaly can be caused by numerous source
bodies.
▪ An accurate determination of the source usually requires outside geophysical
or geological information.
Newton’s law of gravitation
• Geophysical interpretations from gravity surveys are based on the mutual
attraction experienced between two masses.
• The force of attraction between two-point masses is expressed by Newton’s
Law:
• The force is proportional to the product of the point masses
 • The force is proportional to the inverse
square of the distance separating the
masses
• The constant of proportionality is G the
Universal Gravitational Constant.
The earth’s gravity field
▪ The Earth has mass and therefore generates a gravitational attraction.
▪ We specify the strength of the Earth’s gravity field in terms of the acceleration due
to gravity (commonly referred to as “g ”).
▪ Another name for ‘g” is the gravitational field intensity (This is the force acting on
a unit mass. )
▪ In gravity surveying, we will measure variations in the acceleration due to the
earth's gravity.
▪ Variations in this acceleration can be caused by variations in subsurface geology.
▪ Acceleration variations due to geology, however, tend to be much smaller than 9.8
meters per second squared.
▪ Thus, a meter per second squared is an inconvenient system of units to use when
discussing gravity surveys.

Units of gravitational acceleration variations:

• The units typically used in describing the gravitational acceleration variations
observed in exploration gravity surveys are specified in milliGals. It is equal
meters per second squared or Newton

Factors Affecting Gravitational Acceleration

▪ Because the Earth is not a perfect homogeneous sphere, the gravitational
acceleration is not constant over the whole Earth’s surface. But this factor
effect in a small number only part per million but it helps us to know the
difference between the places.
Factors can be subdivided into two categories:
▪ Those that give rise to temporal variations. (different time)
▪ Those that give rise to spatial variations in the gravitational acceleration.
(different place)
 1. Temporal Based Variations - These are changes in the observed acceleration that
are time dependent. In other words, these factors cause variations in acceleration
that would be observed even if we didn't move our gravimeter.
▪ Instrument Drift - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by changes in the
response of the gravimeter over time. (such as measure the gravity of the place
in January and then measure it in October the gravity will change)
▪ Tidal Affects - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by the gravitational
attraction of the sun and moon.

2. Spatial Based Variations - These are changes in the observed acceleration that
are space dependent. That is, these change the gravitational acceleration from
place to place, just like the geologic affects.
▪ Latitude Variations - Changes in the observed
acceleration caused by the ellipsoidal shape and the
rotation of the earth.

▪ Elevation Variations - Changes in the observed

acceleration caused by differences in the elevations
of the observation points. Example the gravity depends on the radius of the earth
so the elevation must change the gravity.
▪ Bouguer Effects - Changes in the observed acceleration caused by the extra mass
underlying observation points at higher elevations. (In gravity surveying,
elevation corrections include the Bouguer and free-air corrections. Seismic data
undergo a static correction to reduce the effects of topography and low-velocity
zones near the Earth's surface)
▪ Topographic Effects - Changes in the observed acceleration related to
topography near the observation point. The mountains near the place that we take
the reading from or this place between to mountains or two hills.
 Bouguer anomaly Free air anomaly

The reading change by the weathering factors

so the readings appear different from the anther to the same areas.

What is Gravimeter?
▪ It’s simply a very precise weighing machine used to find the weight of a certain
lump of metal or other material at a series of stations distributed over the area
being surveyed.
▪ Since the weight of an object is its response to the Earth's gravitational attraction,
this weight will be slightly affected by the nature of subsurface materials at the
place of measurement.
▪ It will be slightly larger, for example, at stations where the subsurface material is
of higher density or where dense material comes closer to the surface.
▪ The changes in weight are so small that the weighing machine must be capable of
detecting changes of the order of one part in ten million.
▪ Differences in density of materials (rocks) in Earth’s interior produces small
differences in local gravity field (anomalies).
▪ It can be measured with a gravimeter (attraction of spring to mass).
▪ This method is used to find buried, dense things (abandoned gas station tanks) and
empty spaces.
▪ The spring change its shape by the martials under the
earth’s surface.
▪ (a) dense material attracts and extends spring
▪ (b) mass is uniform and spring is neutral
▪ (c) void (cave) has no mass to attract spring
There are two main land gravimeters:
1. Absolute Gravimeter: measure the local and instantaneous gravity.
2. Relative Gravimeter: measuring local variations of gravity in time
or gravity differences between observation sites (only measure differences in
gravity from station to station). Bigger or smaller than some thing
Rock Density
▪ There are many factors that affect on the rock density .The next main factor,
mainly when dealing with sedimentary rocks is :
1. the porosity.
2. kind of media filling the pores.
▪ Increasing porosity decreases the density, since air (or any other media filling the
pores (water, gas, oil, etc.) has lower density than any of minerals. The other
factors are weathering of rocks, fractures and joints, etc.
▪ One of widely used methods for density estimation is the Nettleton’s method
(Nettleton 1939). This method is based on the fact that the Bouguer anomaly
depends on the density of rocks as well as on the topography.
▪ Topography: is the study of the shape and features of the surface of the Earth
and other observable astronomical objects including planets , moons ,
and asteroids . The topography of an area could refer to the surface shapes and
features themselves, or a description (especially their depiction‫ تصوير‬in maps).
Magnetic surveys:
▪ Magnetic surveys measure the magnitude and orientation (direction) of the Earth’s
magnetic field. (measure magnitude and direction)
▪ The basic task of magnetic methods in prospection geophysics is to differentiate
subsurface according to its magnetic properties.
▪ The original use of magnetometry was in the field of iron-ore prospection. The
very iron rich ores in Sweden (it contains the best types of the iron) contained a
considerable proportion of magnetite deviating the direction of Earth’s magnetic
field.
▪ The exploration was carried out with a regular compass – places, where it pointed
to the Earth’s magnetic north were places with:
1. increased amount of magnetite
2. the position of ore veins (a vein is a distinct sheet like body of
crystallized minerals within a rock. Veins form when mineral constituents carried
by an aqueous solution.)
Magnetic field at Earth’s surface depends on:
1. field generated in Earth’s core (because the earth inner and outer core
formed by solid and liquid iron move around each other)
2. magnetic mineral content of surface materials. Some materials contain large
amount of iron such as hematite and magnetite
3. remnant magnetization of surface rocks another types of rocks contain small
amount of iron
 The difference between gravitational surveys and magnetic surveys:

Magnetic susceptibility K:
▪ It is the physical parameter of magnetics surveying (equivalent
to density in gravity). The applicability of a magnetic survey.
▪ Rocks with significant concentrations of ferri/ferromagnetic
minerals have highest susceptibilities:
1. Ultramafic rocks highest 95,000 - 200,000
2. Mafic rocks high 550 - 122,000 (as basalt)
3. Felsic rocks low 40-52.000
4. Metamorphic low 0-73,000
5. Sedimentary very low 0-360

Igneous:
1- Ultramafic
2- Mafic
3- Intermediate
4- Felsic (acid)
 ▪ The essential differences between magnetic and gravity method are:
1. Magnetic is more complicated because the magnetic dipoles are a vector with an
associated sense of direction.
2. Orientation of the dipoles which determine magnetization may be in any direction
(requires magnitude and direction rather than magnitude as in the case of gravity.
3. Also, gravity measure all effects caused by sources which may vary in depth from
the grass roots down.
4. The sedimentary rocks are so much less magnetic than the underlying basement
rocks (igneous and metamorphic), i.e. magnetic effects are almost the same as if
the sedimentary rocks were no present.
5. This is true with airborne magnetic, that eliminate the effects of small, near
surface inclusions of magnetic materials of cultural objects (buildings, pipelines.
etc.).
6. The magnetic field of the Earth is also less stable than the gravity field and could
change quickly. In contrast to gravity maps the magnetic maps are dominated
mainly by local anomalies.
7. the magnetic measurements are very easy to carry out and the measurements are
very quick.
8. large areas could be easily covered making this method (magnetic method)
ideal for a general-purpose geological mapping.
Earth’s magnetic field
Magnetic Field (surrounds the Earth)
▪ It Has north and south magnetic poles.
▪ It is detected by compasses.
▪ It is recorded in rocks and minerals as they cool.
▪ It is generated in the Earth’s liquid outer core as it spins and
produces electrical currents
▪ Near rotational poles, 11.5˚ inclination.
▪ Intensity varies with time.
▪ Igneous rocks record direction + intensity at time of formation. At sequence of
lava flows – find N-S reversals
▪ It reverses over time (north and south poles flip) --
magnetic field lines reverse—:
1- “normal” polarity: north is north and south is south
2- “reversed” polarity: north is south and south is north
▪ The position of the poles changes as well as its intensity.
The period of these changes is long every 750000 year.
▪ Changes of the position of the poles are thought to be
caused by changes in the convection currents within the
Earth’s core.
▪ During the reversals, the dipole field ceases stopped and only the higher-pole
fields are present, hence the overall geomagnetic field is much smaller and there is
no magnetic north and south.

How do rocks and minerals acquire magnetism?

Rocks and minerals at high temperatures (e.g. molten) must cool through their
Curie temperatures (the temperature at which rocks lost their magnetic
properties).
the orange: the iron lost its magnetism by arrive ti curie temperature
the green color: there is
another type of materials with
the iron so it has different
direction
the purple color: the same
direction because all materials are iron.
Magnetic anomaly:
▪ magnetic anomalies occur in local field from magnetic rock below surface (similar
to gravity anomalies).
▪ There are 2 types of it:
1. Positive anomaly (more iron than surrounding)
2. Negative anomaly (less iron than surrounding)
(1) positive anomaly:
▪ magnetic rocks Include iron ore,gabbro, granite.
▪ magnetic material below “adds” magnetism and
creates positive anomaly
2) Negative anomaly:
▪ removal of magnetic material from near surface
causes negative anomaly (example is normal
faulting)
Induced and Remnant Magnetization:
Induced Magnetization by use devices (active):
▪ Induced Magnetization produced within a in response to an applied external
magnetic field.
Remnant Magnetization by natural things(passive):
▪ Magnetic field may exist within rock even in absence of external field due to
permanently magnetic particles. This is remnant or permanent magnetization. The
environment appears that without uses any device.
There are three types of magnetism depending on the percent of the iron
1- Ferromagnetism
2- Para magnetism
3- Diamagnetism
Diamagnetism and Para magnetism:
▪ All atoms have a magnetic moment due to orbit of electrons around nucleus and
spin of elections moment (i.e. behave like a small bar magnet).
1- Diamagnetism:
▪ In a diamagnetic material such as Calcite, halite, all electron shells are complete
and no unpaired electrons exist such as NaCl it is near to noble gases.
▪ In an external magnetic field. electrons orbit to produce a weak magnetic field that
opposes applied field. Magnetic susceptibility is weak and negative near to zero.
 2- Para magnetism:
▪ In minerals such as olivine, unpaired electrons in incomplete electron shells
produce unbalanced magnetic moments.
▪ In an external field, magnetic moments align themselves in same direction.
producing a weak magnetic field aligned
with external.
▪ Magnetic susceptibility is weak and
positive.

3- Ferromagnetism
▪ In metals such as cobalt, nickel and iron, unpaired electrons are coupled
magnetically due to strong interaction between adjacent atoms and overlap of
electron orbits.
▪ Magnetic domains can be oriented to produce a spontaneous magnetic field in
absence of external field.
▪ . Magnetic susceptibility is large. but depends on temperature and strength of
applied field. All domains oriented in same direction.
▪ It disappears if the material is heated to curie temperature and behaves as
paramagnetic above cure temperature.
The curie temperature above the
melting point.
Magnetic Domain

Curie Temperature
▪ Cure temperature is temperature at which mineral loses its ferromagnetic
behavior. and any permanent magnetization is lost.
▪ Cure temperature varies with mineral:
1. Titanomagnetite 100-200" C
2. Titanomagnetite 150-450°C
 Important:
3. Magnetite 550-580° C
4. Hematite 650-680" C
▪ Curie temperature is below melting point of rock.
▪ In rock such as granite, there will be multiple Curie temperatures for the different
minerals present because it contains more than one types of rocks (feldspar,
quartzite and mica)
Field instruments for magnetic measurements
Mariner’s compass:
▪ The earliest devices for magnetic prospection were
different modifications of mariner’s compass to
measure inclination and declination ‫ انحراااااف‬.

(a) In airborne magnetic:

▪ (A) In airborne magnetic surveying the
magnetometer may be mounted rigidly on
the airplane at the end of a boom or towed in
an aerodynamic housing behind the plan the
distance must be 30m between two them .
▪ (b) In marine studies the magnetometer
must be towed some distance behind
the ship to escape its magnetic field.
▪ (c) A pair of sensitive magnetometers in
the same vertical plane act as a magnetic
gradiometer.
 Geology Session 26
Seismic surveys (active)
1-Surface wave:
▪ A surface wave is a seismic wave that is trapped near the surface of the
earth, it is the most destructive wave amongst them.
2-Body waves: are divided into
▪ P-waves can travel through solids, liquids and gases
▪ S-waves can only travel through solids. This means the liquid part of the
core blocks the passage of S-waves.
Seismic methods:
Seismic methods may be classified into two major, divisions depending on the
energy source of the seismic waves;
1. One in which the natural shock waves from earthquakes are interior, is
called earthquake seismology. (natural)
2. The other, in which the seismic waves are generated by artificial explosions
at selected sites to obtain information about regional or local structures, is
called exploration seismology (artificial)
(there are two types of seismic methods the first one by human which use
artificial explosions and it called exploration seismology, the second one by
the earth quakes which called earthquakes seismology)

Seismic prospecting:
▪ It is the timing of artificially generated pulses of elastic wave energy that
propagates through the ground, and they are detected by using
electromagnetic transducers (electromagnetic transducer is a device that
generates a voltage signal (called electromagnetic voltage or emf) as a result
of the disturbance of the magnetic field of an electromagnetic element it
contains electric field perpendicular on magnetic field and amplifier it)
called geophones.
 Wave propagation:
Ray- paths:
▪ Lines that show the direction that the direction
that the seismic wave is propagating and are
perpendicular to the wave front. It deal as a
circle which have radius called ray-paths.
Wave- front:
▪ It is a surface of constant wave, the leading edge
of a wave disturbance.
Elastic constants:

Elastic constants are the parameters used to understand an elastic body's behavior.
Elastic constants are the dimensional constants that establish the relation between
strain and stress in a body. When an elastic body is subjected to a deforming force,
in such a case, deformation of the body can be found by using elastic constants.
1- Bulk modulus (an elastic constant equal to the change in applied pressure (∂P)
divided by the ratio of the change in volume to the original volume of a body
(∂V/V) )

• It is a measure of how much force is needed to change the volume of the

material without change in shape material. If we compressed on a ball the
volume of the ball change but the shape still ball we can calculate the bulk
modulus by this force.

• is the Stress (the force)/strain ratio (the shape of the material) under simple
compression measures the capacity of the material to be compressed or the
incompressibility of the material.
2- Shear or rigidity modulus (the modulus of rigidity is the elastic coefficient when
a shear force is applied resulting in lateral deformation)

• It is the ratio of shear stress to the shear strain

• Shear modulus is usually measured in GPa (Gigapascals)
• If a material has a large shear modulus, it will take a large force applied to
deform it
• Gases and fluids cannot support shear forces, they have shear modulus of
zero because it deal with hard solid material only.
• This valuable property tells us in advance how resistant a material is to
shearing deformation. If a material is very resistant to attempted shearing,
then it will transmit the shear energy very quickly.

3- Young's modulus (e) or modulus of elasticity (Young's modulus is a measure

of the ability of a material to withstand changes in length when under lengthwise
tension or compression. Sometimes referred to as the modulus of elasticity,
Young's modulus is equal to the longitudinal stress divided by the strain)

• It is a measure of the stiffness of a given material. It is mean that the

martial not solid or not liquid but it is near to solid
• It is defined as the ratio of the uniaxial stress over the uniaxial strain
• The Young's modulus allows engineers and other scientists to calculate the
behavior of a material under load by compression or tension. If we load on
a piece of plastic by tension force it is size will be extended it is called
elasticity
• It can be used to predict the amount a wire will extend under tension, or to
predict the load at which a thin column will buckle under compression. it
also the mechanical property of a material to withstand the compression or
the elongation with respect to its length

4- Poisson ‘s ratio (Poisson’s ratio measures the deformation in the material in a

direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied force. Essentially
Poisson's ratio is one measure of a rock's strength that is another critical rock
property related to closure stress. Poisson's ratio is dimensionless and ranges
between 0.1 and 0.45)
 • When a sample of material is stretched in one direction, it tends to get
thinner in the other two directions. Poisson's ratio is a measure of this
tendency‫اتجاه‬.
• It is defined as the ratio of the strain in the direction of the applied load to
the strain normal to the load.
• For a perfectly incompressible material, the Poisson's ratio would be
exactly 0.5.

1. Seismic Methods
1- Reflection: standard in oil exploration (deep)
2- Refraction: for shallow features like depth to bedrock or thickness of the
unconsolidated material.
Seismograph: device that records the arrival times.
P-waves can travel through solids with speed 5000 m/sec, liquids with speed 1450
m/sec and gases whereas S-waves can only travel through solids with speed 3000
m/sec. This means the liquid part of the core blocks the passage of S-waves.

The seismic reflection:

To deep distance in the Earth’s layers. The source
of energy sends waves and the detectors
(geophones) on the Earth’s surface receive it.
Between them unconsolidated material called
overburden this layer which cover the minerals.
The seismic refraction:
The difference here that the energy source put with a calculated critical angle to
make the waves move on the surface of the layer and then refracted to receive by
the detectors.
• The first layer, unsaturated soil which makes
infiltration to water and percolation to
saturated layer under it.
• The second layer, saturated soil above it
there is water table. The water table near the
rivers is far from the surface by 15 or 20 m
but in the desert, it is far from the surface by
500 or 400m.
• The third layer, bedrock.

The velocity changed from layer to another because the density changed.

Field procedures:
▪ Seismic energy Source: apparatus for delivering seismic energy into the
ground.
▪ Geophones: devices capable of measuring ground motion generated by the
seismic source.
▪ Seismograph: stores the ground motion detected by a number of geophones.
Applications of seismic refraction
1. Depth and thickness of geologic strata
2. Ground water exploration applications as aquifer thickness, buried valleys,
mapping water table elevation
3. Engineering geology applications as depth to bedrock, Waste disposal site
evaluation
4. Providing velocities for seismic reflection interpretation
5. Detection of subsurface fracture system. To select the place to build on it.

Seismic Refraction; Advantages

▪ Determination of depth and soil/rock velocity by the difference in the
density
▪ Infer soil competency, weathering, fractures it help us to know the soil that
good to algaculture.
▪ Acquisition and processing less expensive than reflection
Seismic Refraction; Limitations
▪ Resolution less than reflection surveys
▪ Large impact source may be required
▪ Increased rock velocity with depth required
▪ “Hidden layers” may be detected, but possibly not interpreted

Foreshocks
▪ Foreshocks are relatively smaller earthquakes that precede the largest
earthquake (mainshock) in a series.
▪ Not all main shock shave foreshocks. There are million of earthquakes that
are not felt
 Earthquakes intensity scale and magnitude scale
▪ Intensity: is based on the observed effects of ground shaking on people, buildings,
and natural features. It varies from place to place within the disturbed region
depending on the location of the observer with respect to the earthquake epicenter.
The intensity scale consists of a series of certain key responses such as people
awakening, movement of furniture, damage to chimneys, and finally total
destruction. This scale, composed of 12 increasing levels of intensity that range
from imperceptible shaking to catastrophic destruction, is designated by Roman
numerals. It does not have a mathematical basis; instead it is an arbitrary‫اعتباطيا‬
ranking based on observed effects. (it is by observation only we do not need to
devices. It is the effective of the earthquakes on the earth. this scale consists of a
series of certain key responses, which contains 12 level by roman numerals also
it does not have mathematics basis)

▪ Magnitude is related to the amount of seismic energy released at the hypocenter of

the earthquake. It is based on the amplitude of the earthquake waves recorded on
instruments which have a common calibration. The magnitude of an earthquake is
thus represented by a single, instrumentally determined value. (it is by using devices
to calculated)

Several scales have been defined, but the most commonly used are:
1. local magnitude commonly referred to as “Richter magnitude”.
2. surface-wave magnitude (Ms).
3. Body wave magnitude (Mb).
4. moment magnitude (Mw) it related to local magnitude.
▪ All magnitude scales should yield approximately the same value for any
given earthquake.
Richter magnitude scale:
▪ The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter of
the California Institute of Technology as a mathematical device to compare
the size of earthquakes
 ▪ The magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the logarithm of the
amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Note: the difference between
one Richter and five Richter calculated by 5-1 equal four but four zeros
behind one so it is equal 10000.
▪ Adjustments are included for the variation in the distance between the
various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquakes.
▪ Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in
magnitude represents at tenfold increase in measured amplitude.
▪ Recently, another scale called the moment magnitude scale has been devised
for more precise study of great earthquakes.
ISOSEISMIC LINES
▪ It is a contour or line on a map bounding
points of equal of intensity for a
particular earthquake.
 Geology session 27
Electric surveys:
Geologic resistivity:
• The Electrical Resistivity (ER) methods are used for locating and mapping
groundwater sources, natural groundwater flow paths, groundwater contamination, and
archeological remnants.
• These methods measure voltages associated with electric currents flowing in the
ground. These currents may be currents introduced into the earth through electrodes or
they may be natural currents due to earth processes. This type of testing is useful in
detecting changes in apparent resistivity or apparent conductivity both laterally and
vertically.
• Resistivity = 1/Conductivity (So, they are inversely proportional).
• To get water to circulate through the system, you must provide a push to the top of the
roof to distribute it on the whole building. Electricity acts a similar way by pushing
electrons from a point to another point which called a potential difference or Voltage
abbreviated with V and measured with volts, while the flow of these electrons is called
current Intensity abbreviated with I and measured with amperes.

The amount of voltage to push a given current is directly proportional with

Resistance which is abbreviated with R measured by Ohm (Ω).
Ohm’s law: Resistance = Voltage / Current (R = V/I).
When measuring the current, the ammeter is connected in series to the circuit while
measuring the voltage, the voltmeter is connected in parallel to the circuit.
Note: Resistance is not the same as Resistivity as they are very different and the
Resistivity is measured by (ρ).
Resistivity of Geologic materials depends on:
- The presence of certain metallic ores especially metallic ores such as
magnetite, as the more we find metallic ores inside the layers, the more it will
be less resistivity and more conductivity.
- The temperature of the subsurface which is the geothermal energy. The more
we increase the temperature, the molecules and atoms go far from each other
leading to the increase of resistivity but slightly and vice versa.
- The presence of archaeological features, as the more the space in the layers is
filled with liquids or metals, it will be more conductivity and less resistivity,
but if it is filled with gases, it will be less conductivity and more resistivity.
- Amount of groundwater present in which:
• Amount of dissolved salts it led to increase conductivity.
• Presence of contaminates.
• Porosity and permeability.
In the atomic charge, the more we increase the charge of the atom, the more we
increase the charged electrons that circle the nucleus in a cloud pattern leading to
increase the electric current conductivity and the resistivity decreases. The atomic
charge means the number of electrons to make an electron cloud which make a
magnetic field which increase the conductivity and decrease the resistivity so, the
compounds have negative charge more conductive than the compounds have
positive charge.
Types of conduction:
There are three types of electric conduction which are:
• Electrolytic/Ionic: show movement of ions in fluid inside rocks.
• Electronic: Metals allow electrons to flow freely.
• Di-electric: Electrons shift slightly during induction.
 Very important number:

General rules of thumb for resistivity:

The general rule for resistivity as types of
rocks is that the sedimentary rocks have
the lowest resistivity as they have more
pores that fill with fluids and conduct
electricity and vice versa that igneous
rocks have the highest resistivity as they
seem to have no pores. While the
metamorphic rocks are overlapping
between the both as they have small pores.
Important exception: as the igneous rocks include hematite, magnetite and some
magnetic rocks that have very high conductivity and by the way low resistivity, it is
exception for these only that their resistivity are low unlike the most of igneous rocks.
The general law for resistivity as the age
of the rocks is that the older rocks have
higher resistivity as they have more time
to fill in fractures and pore spaces with
sediments and over layers while the
younger rocks are abundant in fractures
and spaces that is filled by liquids that
have high conductivity and low resistivity.
Subsurface current paths:
As the resistance and resistivity
are inversely proportional, so the
more we increased the thickness
of the layer, the more it has more
pores, the higher conductivity it
has, so it has the less resistivity
and higher resistance by the way.

Resistivity meter:

A resistivity meter is an electronic device

used to measure the flow of electric current
through the ground from probes inserted at
regular intervals. It consists of ammeter and
voltmeter inside it. It includes four main
electrodes, two of them are current electrode
connected to the ammeter while the other two
electrodes are potential electrodes connected
to the voltmeter. In addition, there is a something called contact resistance that
connects the wires with each other to increase the accuracy of measurement and
ensure precision.
Electrode arrays:
- Electrode arrays are different arrangements of electrodes used to perform
geophysical resistivity measurements. Electrode arrays were developed in order to
make field measurements more efficient and data interpretation easier.
They are two commonly used electrode arrays including:
- Wenner array.
- Schlumberger array.
Schlumberger array:
The Schlumberger array is an array where four electrodes are placed in line around a
common midpoint. The two outer electrodes,
A and B, are current electrodes, and the two
inner electrodes, M and N, are potential
electrodes placed close together. At this point,
the potential electrodes M and N are moved
outward to a new spacing. As a rule of the
thumb, the reasonable distance between M and N should be equal or smaller than one-
fifth of the distance between A and B at the beginning (AB ≥ 5MN). The potential
electrodes sounding are moved only occasionally.

Wenner array:
The Wenner electrode array is the simplest of
arrays; in it, the four electrodes—A, M, N, and B—
are placed in line and spaced equidistant from each
other. The two outer electrodes, A and B, are
current electrodes, and the two inner electrodes, M
and N, are potential electrodes the distance between
the electrodes equals. So, if the distance between
the potential electrodes 1 so the distance between
the current electrodes 3.

There are two essential differences between these

two
types of electrode arrays:
▪In the Schlumberger array: the distance between the potential electrodes MN is small and is always
kept equal to, or smaller than, one-fifth the distance between the current electrodes AB; that is,
AB≥5MN.
▪The potential electrodes sounding are moved only occasionally.
▪In the Wenner array: on the other hand, AB is always equal to 3MN.
▪sounding, however, they and the four electrodes are moved after each measurement.
 Generally
▪The Schlumberger and Wenner arrays are the most
common arrays used for different engineering, environmental, and groundwater applications.
▪Dipole – Dipole array. (B---A----3----M---N). so, the distance between the potential electrode three
times the distance between A and B so the distance between the current electrode equal five times
the distance between M and N or B and A
▪Pole – Pole array: (----N-----(V)-----M A-----(I)-----B----) (the deepest one)
best suited for archeological investigations --- the ascending order of their depth of investigation.

From high to low depth that the electrodes arrive

Wenner
Schlumberger
Dipole-dipole
Pole-pole