1

COS2661 FORMAL LOGIC II

Ambiguity: A feature of natural languages that makes it possible for a single sentence to have
two or more meanings. For example, Max is happy or Claire is happy and Carl is happy, can be
used to claim that either Max is happy or both Claire and Carl are happy, or it can be used to
claim that at least one of Max and Claire is happy and that Carl is happy. Ambiguity can also arise
from words that have two meanings, as in the case of puns. FOL does not allow for ambiguity.
Analytical consequence: A sentence S is an analytical consequence of some premises if S Follows
from the premises in virtue of the meanings of the truth-functional connectives, identity,
quantifiers, and predicate symbols appearing in S and the premises.
Antecedent: The antecedent of a conditional is its first component clause. In P → Q, P is the
antecedent and Q is the consequent.
Argument: The word “argument" is ambiguous in logic.
1. One kind of argument consists of a sequence of statements in which one (the conclusion) is
supposed to follow from or be supported by the others (the premises).
2. Another use of “argument" refers to the term(s) taken by a predicate in an atomic wff. In the
atomic wff LeftOf(x; a), x and a are the arguments of the binary predicate LeftOf.
Arity: The arity of a predicate indicates the number of arguments (in the second sense of the
word) it takes. A predicate with arity of one is called unary. A predicate with an arity of two is
called binary. It's possible for a predicate to have any arity, so we can talk about 6-ary or even
113-ary predicates.
Atomic sentences: Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of FOL, those formed by a
predicate Followed by the right number (see arity) of names (or complex terms, if the language
contains function symbols). Atomic sentences in FOL correspond to the simplest sentences of
English.
Axiom: An axiom is a proposition (or claim) that is accepted as true about some domain and used
to establish other truths about that domain.
Boolean connective (Boolean operator): The logical connectives conjunction, disjunction, and
negation allow us to form complex claims from simpler claims and are known as the Boolean
connectives after the logician George Boole. Conjunction corresponds to the English word and,
disjunction to or, and negation corresponds to the phrase it is not the case that. (See also Truth-
functional connective.)

1
Bound variable: A bound variable is an instance of a variable occurring within the scope of a
quantifier used with the same variable. For example, in xP(x; y) the variable x is bound, but y is
“unbound" or “free."
Claim: Claims are made by people using declarative sentences. Sometimes claims are called
propositions.
Completeness: “Completeness" is an overworked word in logic.
1. A formal system of deduction is said to be complete if, roughly speaking, every valid argument
has a proof in the formal system. This sense is discussed in Section 8.3 and elsewhere in the text.
(Compare with Soundness.)
2. A set of sentences of FOL is said to be formally complete if for every sentence of the language,
either it or its negation can be proven from the set, using the rules of the given formal system.
Completeness, in this sense, is discussed in Section 19.8.
3. A set of truth-functional connectives is said to be truth-functionally complete if every truth-
functional connective can be defined using only connectives in the given set. Truth-functional
completeness is discussed in Section 7.4.
Conclusion: The conclusion of an argument is the statement that is meant to Follow from the
other statements, or premises. In most formal systems, the conclusion comes after the premises,
but in natural language, things are more subtle.
Conditional: The term “conditional" refers to a wide class of constructions in English including if.
. . then. . . , . . . because. . . , . . . unless. . . ., and the like, that express some kind of conditional
relationship between the two parts. Only some of these constructions are truth functional and
can be represented by means of the material conditional of FOL. (See Material conditional.)
Conditional proof: Conditional proof is the method of proof that allows one to prove a conditional
statement P → Q by temporarily assuming P and proving Q under this additional assumption.
Conjunct: One of the component sentences in a conjunction. For example, A and B are the
conjuncts of A  B.
Conjunction: The Boolean connective corresponding to the English word and. A conjunction of
sentences is true if and only if each conjunct is true.
Conjunctive normal form (CNF): A sentence is in conjunctive normal form if it is a conjunction of
one or more disjunctions of one or more literals.
Connective: An operator for making new statements out of simpler statements. Typical examples
are conjunction, negation, and the conditional.
Consequent: The consequent of a conditional is its second component formula. In P → Q, Q is
the consequent and P is the antecedent.
Context sensitivity: A predicate, name, or sentence is context sensitive when its interpretation
depends on our perspective on the world. For example, in Tarski's World, the predicate Larger is
not context sensitive since it is a determinate matter whether one block is larger than another,
regardless of our perspective on the world, whereas the predicate LeftOf depends on our
perspective on the block’s world. In English many words are context sensitive, including words
like I, here, now, friend, home, and so forth.
Counterexample: A counterexample to an argument is a possible situation in which all the
premises of the argument are true but the conclusion is false. Finding even a single
counterexample is sufficient to show that an argument is not logically valid.
Contradiction (⊥): Something that cannot possibly be true in any set of circumstances, for
example, a statement and its negation. The symbol ⊥ represents contradiction.
Corollary: A corollary is a result which Follows with little effort from an earlier theorem. (See
Theorem)
Deductive system: A deductive system is a collection of rules and a specification of the ways they
can be use to construct formal proofs. The system F defined in the text is an example of a
deductive system, though there
are many others.
Determinate property: A property is determinate if for any object there is a definite fact of the
matter whether or not the object has that property. In First-order logic we assume that we are
working with determinate properties.
Determiner: Determiners are words such as every, some, most, etc., which combine with common
nouns to form quantified noun phrases like every dog, some horses, and most pigs.
Disjunct: One of the component sentences in a disjunction. For example, A and B are the disjuncts
of A  B.
Disjunction: The basic Boolean connective corresponding to the English word or. A disjunction is
true if at least one of the disjuncts is true. (See also Inclusive disjunction and Exclusive
disjunction.)
Disjunctive normal form (DNF): A sentence is in disjunctive normal form if it is a disjunction of
one or more conjunctions of one or more literals.
Domain of discourse: When we use a sentence to make a claim, we always implicitly presuppose
some domain of discourse. In FOL this becomes important in understanding quantification, since
there must be a set of objects under consideration when evaluating claims involving quantifiers.
For example, the truth-value of the claim “Every student received a passing grade" depends on
our domain of discourse. The truth-values may differ depending on whether our domain of
discourse contains all the students in the world, in the university, or just in one particular class.
Domain of quantification: See Domain of discourse.
Empty set: The unique set with no elements, often denoted by ∅.
Equivalence classes: An equivalence class is the set of all things equivalent to a chosen object
with respect to a particular equivalence relation. More specifically, given an equivalence relation
R on a set S, we can define an equivalence class for any x ε D as follows:
 {y ε D / ⟨x; y⟩ ε R}
Equivalence relation: An equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive.
Exclusive disjunction: This is the use of or in English that means exactly one of the two disjuncts
is true, but not both. For example, when a waiter says “You may have soup or you may have
salad," the disjunction is usually meant exclusively. Exclusive disjunctions can be expressed in
FOL, but the basic disjunction of FOL is inclusive, not exclusive.
Existential quantifier (∃): In FOL, the existential quantifier is expressed by the symbol ∃ and is
used to make claims asserting the existence of some object in the domain of discourse. In English,
we express existentially quantified claims with the use of words like something, at least one thing,
a, etc.
First-order consequence: A sentence S is a first-order consequence of some premises if S follows
from the premises simply in virtue of the meanings of the truth-functional connectives, identity,
and the quantifiers.
First-order structure: A First-order structure is a mathematical model of the circumstances that
determine the truth values of the sentences of a given first-order language. It is analogous to a
truth assignment for propositional logic but must also model the domain of quantification and
the objects to which the predicates apply.
First-order validity: A sentence S is a first-order validity if S is a logical truth simply in virtue of
the meanings of the truth-functional connectives, identity, and the quantifiers. This is the analogy,
in first-order logic, of the notion of a tautology in propositional logic.
Formal proof: See Proof.
Free variable: A free variable is an instance of a variable that is not bound. (See Bound variable.)
Generalized quantifier: Generalized quantifiers refer to quantified expressions beyond the simple
uses of 8 (everything) and 9 (something); expressions like Most students, Few teachers, and
Exactly three blocks.
Inclusive disjunction: This is the use of or in which the compound sentence is true as long as at
least one of the disjuncts is true. It is this sense of or that is expressed by FOL's disjunction.
Compare Exclusive disjunction.
Indirect proof: See Proof by contradiction.
Individual constant: Individual constants, or names, are those symbols of FOL that stand for
objects or individuals. In FOL is it assumed that each individual constant of the language names
one and only one object.
Inductive definition: Inductive definitions allow us to define certain types of sets that cannot be
defined explicitly in first-order logic. Examples of inductively defined sets include the set of wffs,
the set of formal proofs, and the set of natural numbers. Inductive definitions consist of a base
clause specifying the basic elements of the defined set, one or more inductive clauses specifying
how additional elements are generated from existing elements, and a final clause, which tells us
that all the elements are either basic or in the set because of (possibly repeated) application of
the inductive clauses.
Inductive proof: Inductive proofs are used to establish claims about inductively defined sets. Given
such a set, to prove that some property holds of every element of that set we need a basis step,
which shows that the property holds of the basic elements, and an inductive step, which shows
that if the property holds of some elements, then it holds of any elements generated from them
by the inductive clauses. See Inductive definition.
Infix notation: In infix notation, the predicate or function symbol appears between its two
arguments. For example, a < b and a = b use infix notation. Compare with Prefix notation.
Informal proof: See Proof.
Intersection (∩): The operation on sets a and b that returns the set a ∩ b whose members are
those objects common to both a and b.
Lemma: A lemma is a claim that is proven, like a theorem, but whose primary importance is for
proving other claims. Lemmas are of less intrinsic interest than theorems. (See Theorem.)
Literal: A literal is a sentence that is either an atomic sentence or the negation of an atomic
sentence.
Logical consequence: A sentence S is a logical consequence of a set of premises if it is impossible
for the premises all to be true while the conclusion S is false.
Logical equivalence: Two sentences are logically equivalent if they have the same truth values in
all possible circumstances.
Logical necessity: See Logical truth.
Logical possibility: We say that a sentence or claim is logically possible if there is no logical
reason it cannot be true, i.e., if there is a possible circumstance in which it is true.
Logical truth: A logical truth is a sentence that is a logical consequence of any set of premises.
That is, no matter what the premises may be, it is impossible for the conclusion to be false. This
is also called a logical necessity
Logical validity: An argument is logically valid if the conclusion is a logical consequence of the
premises.
Material conditional: A truth-functional version of the conditional if. . . then. . . . The material
conditional P → Q is false if P is true and Q is false, but otherwise is true. (See Conditional.)
Modus ponens: The Latin name for the rule that allows us to infer Q from P and P → Q. Also
known as → Elimination.
Names: See Individual constants.
Necessary condition: A necessary condition for a statement S is a condition that must hold in
order for S to obtain. For example, if you must pass the final to pass the course, then your passing
the final is a necessary condition for your passing the course. Compare with Sufficient condition.
Negation normal form (NNF): A sentence of FOL is in negation normal form if all occurrences of
negation apply directly to atomic sentences. For example, (¬A  ¬B) is in NNF whereas :(A  B)
is not in NNF.
Numerical quantifier: Numerical quantifiers are those quantifiers used to express numerical claims,
for example, at least two, exactly one, no more than five, etc.
Predicate: Predicates are used to express properties of objects or relations between objects.
Larger and Cube are examples of predicates in the blocks language.
Prefix notation: In prefix notation, the predicate or relation symbol precedes the terms denoting
objects in the relation. Larger(a; b) is in prefix notation. Compare with Infix notation.
Premise: A premise of an argument is one of the statements meant to support (lead us to accept)
the conclusion of the argument.
Prenex normal form: A wff of FOL is in prenex normal form if it contains no quantifiers, or all the
quantifiers are “out in front."
Proof: A proof is a step-by-step demonstration that one statement (the conclusion) Follows
logically from some others (the premises). A formal proof is a proof given in a formal system of
deduction; an informal proof is generally given in English, without the benefit of a formal system.
Proof by cases: A proof by cases consists in proving some statement S from a disjunction by
proving S from each disjunct.
Proof by contradiction: To prove :S by contradiction, we assume S and prove a contradiction. In
other words, we assume the negation of what we wish to prove and show that this assumption
leads to a contradiction.
Proof by induction: See Inductive proof.
Proof of non-consequence: In a proof of non-consequence, we show that an argument is invalid
by finding a counterexample. That is, to show that a sentence S is not a consequence of some
given premises, we have to show that it is possible for the premises to be true in some
circumstance where S is false.
Proposition: Something that is either true or false. Also called a claim.
Quantifier: In English, a quantified expression is a noun phrase using a determiner such as every,
some, three, etc. Quantifiers are the elements of FOL that allow us to express quantified
expressions like every cube. There are only two quantifiers in FOL, the universal quantifier ()
and the existential quantifier (∃). From these two, we can, however, express more complex
quantified expressions.
Reductio ad absurdum: See Proof by contradiction.
Satisfaction: An object named a satisfies an atomic wff S(x) if and only if S(a) is true, where S(a)
is the result of replacing all free occurrences of x in S(x) with the name a. Satisfaction for wffs
with more than one free variable is defined similarly, using the notion of a variable assignment.
Scope: The scope of a quantifier in a wff is that part of the wff that falls under the “influence" of
the quantifier. Parentheses play an important role in determining the scope of quantifiers. For
example, in x(P(x) → Q(x)) → S(x) the scope of the quantifier extends only over P(x) → Q(x). If
we were to add another set of parentheses, e.g., x((P(x) → Q(x)) → S(x)) the scope of the
quantifier would extend over the entire sentence.
Sentence: In propositional logic, atomic sentences are formed by combining names and
predicates. Compound sentences are formed by combining atomic sentences by means of the
truth functional connectives. In FOL, the definition is a bit more complicated. A sentence of FOL
is a wff with no free variables.
Soundness: “Sound" is used in two different senses in logic.
1. An argument is sound if it is both valid and all of its premises are true.
2. A formal system is sound if it allows one to construct only proofs of valid arguments, that is,
if no invalid arguments are provable within the system. (Compare with Completeness.)
Sufficient condition: A sufficient condition for a statement S is a condition that guarantees that S
will obtain. For example, if all you need to do to pass the course is pass the final, then your
passing the final is a sufficient condition for your passing the course. Compare with Necessary
condition.
Tautological consequence: A sentence S is a tautological consequence of some premises if S
Follows from the premises simply in virtue of the meanings of the truth-functional connectives.
We can check for tautological consequence by means of truth tables, since S is a tautological
consequence of the premises if and only if every row of their joint truth table that assigns true to
each of premise also assigns true to S. All tautological consequences are logical consequences,
but not all logical consequences are tautological consequences.
Tautological equivalence: Two sentences are tautologically equivalent if they are equivalent simply
in virtue of the meanings of the truth-functional connectives. We can check for tautological
equivalence by means of truth tables since two sentences Q and S are tautologically equivalent
if and only if every row of their joint truth table assigns the same value to the main connectives
of Q and S.
Tautology: A tautology is a sentence that is logically true in virtue of its truth-functional structure.
This can be checked using truth tables since S is a tautology if and only if every row of the truth
table for S assigns true to the main connective.
Term: Variables and individual constants are terms of a first-order language, as are the results of
combining an n-ary function symbol f with n terms to form a new term.
Theorem: In formal systems, a theorem of is any statement that has been proven from some given
set of axioms. Informally, the term “theorem" is usually reserved for conclusions that the author
finds particularly interesting or important. (Compare Corollary and Lemma.)
Truth assignment: A function assigning true or false to each atomic sentence of a first-order
language. Used to model the informal notion of a world or set of circumstances.
Truth-functional connective: A sentence connective with the property that the truth value of the
newly formed sentence is determined solely by the truth value(s) of the constituent sentence(s),
nothing more. Examples are the Boolean connectives (¬,  , ) and the material conditional and
biconditional (→, ↔).
Truth table: Truth tables show the way in which the truth value of a sentence built up using truth-
functional connectives depends on the truth values of the sentence's components.
Truth value: The truth value of a statement in some circumstances is true if the statement is true
in those circumstances, otherwise its truth value is false. This is an informal notion but also has
rigorous counterparts in propositional logic, where circumstances are modelled by truth
assignments, and in first-order logic where circumstances are modelled by first-order structures.
Universal quantifier (): The universal quantifier is used to express universal claims. Its
corresponds, roughly, to English expressions such as everything, all things, each thing, etc. (See
also Quantifiers.)
Union (U): The operation on sets a and b that returns the set a U b whose members are those
objects in either a or b or both.
Validity: “Validity" is used in two ways in logic:
1. Validity as a property of arguments: An argument is valid if the conclusion must be true in any
circumstance in which the premises are true. (See also Logical validity and Logical consequence.)
2. Validity as a property of sentences: A first-order sentence is said to be valid if it is logically
true simply in virtue of the meanings of its connectives, quantifiers, and identity. (See First-order
validity.)
Variable: Variables are expressions of FOL that function somewhat like pronouns in English. They
are like individual constants in that they may be the arguments of predicates, but unlike constants,
they can be bound by quantifiers. Generally, letters from the end of the alphabet, x, y, z, etc., are
used for variables.
Variable assignment: A function assigning objects to some or all of the variables of a first-order
language. This notion is used in defining truth of sentences in a first-order structure.
Well-formed formula (wff): Wffs are the “grammatical" expressions of FOL. They are defined
inductively. First, an atomic wff is any n-ary predicate Followed by n terms. Complex wffs are
constructed using connectives and quantifiers. The rules for constructing complex wffs are found
on page 233. Wffs may have free variables. Sentences of FOL are wffs with no free variables.